Research 1A

Methods of Research

Scope of the Course

The course includes the following modules:
Module I. The Research Process and Identifying a Research Problem
Module II. Theory of Review of Related Literature and Studies;
Sampling Techniques
Module III. Methods of Research
Module IV. Interpretation of Data and Statistical Techniques
Module V. Writing the Research Report

Overview of the Course

The course deals with the spectrum of research, its definition, kinds, and
the criterion measures of a good research. What are important in a research
paper are its goals and objectives expressed in the statement of the problem. In
the selection of a problem, availability of the data, funds, time constraints,
attitudes and interests as well as the capabilities of the researcher are
considered.
The course focuses on the major research methods, namely: historical,
descriptive, and experimental, including case studies and feasibility projects
which would be of interest especially to the business students.
The module also discusses the various parts of a research report,
constituting the following chapters on 1) the problem, 2) the review of related
literature, 3) research design and procedures, 4) interpretation of data, and the 5)
summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations.
The last portion of the research report deals with the mechanics of writing
the report, like footnoting, bibliography, appendices, and the use of quotations.

Objectives of the Course

After studying this course on methods of research, you will be able to:
1. define research and differentiate the types of research;
2. select a problem based on different factors;
3. distinguish the uses of the different research methods;
4. identify the parts of a research report; and
5. prepare a research report.

Suggested Readings
Books
Outhwaite, William and Turner, Stephen P. The SAGE Handbook of Social
Science Methodology. London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2007.
Sanchez, Custodiosa A., Ph. D. Methods and Techniques of Research. Manila,
Philippines: Rex Bookstore, 1998

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Other Sources
Resnik, David B., J. D., Ph. D., et al. Responsible Conduct of Research, 2nd Ed.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, http://www.niehs.nih.gov.
http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au, 2009

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 Module I
The Research Process and Identifying a Research Problem

Scope of the Module

This module consists of two lessons:
Lesson 1. The Meaning of Research
Lesson 2. Identifying a Research Problem

Overview of the Module

The module discusses the meaning of research, nature, kinds and the
description of a good research. The most important part of the research report
ids the problem posted in the statement of the problem, since the focus of the
research report will be on it. Consequently the problem for the research should
be well selected. Factors considered in the selection of the problem are
availability of data, time, funds, interests and attitudes, as well as the capabilities
of the write and the impositions that may be made by the sponsors of the
student.
The need for a theoretical framework especially for dissertations and the
implications it will have both on the findings and the conclusions of the research
report will be pointed out.
Hypotheses and assumptions are differentiated in terms of terminology
and uses and their significance on the research report.
The importance of the scope, the limitations and significance of the study
are enumerated with regard to the management of the company in which the
writer is employed, to the respondent themselves, to the writer and its impact on
the writer’s field of specialization.
The core of the research report is Chapter IV, on the presentations,
analysis and interpretation of the data. Chapter V is the chapter which consists of
the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations as they follow from
the findings of the study and for future research.

Objectives of the Module

After studying this module on the research process, you will be able to:
1. define research;
2. identify the objectives of research;
3. determine the characteristics of research;
4. formulate problems for the study;
5. select problems knowing the factors in the selection of problems;
6. distinguish a hypothesis from an assumption;
7. recognize the need for knowing the scope and delimitations of the
study and the significance of such study; and
8. identify the terms within the context of the study.

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Research 1A
Module I
Lesson 1. THE MEANING OF RESEARCH

Lesson Objectives:
After studying this lesson on the meaning of research, you will be able to:
1. define research;
2. determine the different characteristics of research;
3. identify the different types of research;
4. recognize the objectives of research; and
5. explain the major steps in the research process.

Introduction
Students in both undergraduate and graduate levels are required to do
research. On the undergraduate level, the student is usually required to write a
term paper as part of the requirements of some basic and major courses as in
literature, the humanities, business, the social and natural sciences. In most
instances, he does not actually gather empirical data for his data but just bases
his study on various sources in the library and then comes up with a synthesis
and reflection on his readings. As he proceeds to the upper years, however, in
professional courses, he is expected to undertake an empirical inquiry into a
problem of his choice in order to test his beliefs against a reality-referent. For
instance, a senior nursing student, individually or as member of a team, conducts
a community survey to a certain the effectiveness of a health program or to find
out the attitudes of rural folks towards the use of contraceptives as a means of
birth control. A student pursuing a degree in economics conducts a study on the
effects of inflation. A student taking business administration looks into the
effectiveness of management practices in a corporation. These studies
necessarily take him out to gather information from different sectors and offices.

On the graduate level, a graduate student is required to do a more

intensive and sophisticated study in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a
master’s or doctoral degree.

What is Research all about?

Definitions of Research

The word “research” is a combination of “re” and “search” which literally

means to “search again”, that is, one looks for previous findings on a problem
and gathers his own data on the same problem to confirm, reject, modify or add
new findings. The following are some definitions with commonalities and slight
differences in the phraseology,

“Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical

investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations

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 among natural phenomenon” (Kerlinger). This is the most commonly
accepted definition.

Research is the ‘careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique

and method according to the nature and conditions of the problem
identified, directed toward the clarifications or resolutions (or both) of a
problem” (Good).

Research “in the broadest sense, is an attempt to gain solutions to

problems. More precisely, it is the collection of data in a rigorously
controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation” (Treece
and Treece)

Research is “the more formal, systematic and intensive process of

carrying on a scientific method of analysis for the purpose of discovery
and the development of an organized body of knowledge” (Notter)

In simple terms, research is “the process of gathering data or information

to solve a particular or specific problem in a specific manner” (Manuel and
Medel) or the “systematic study or investigation of something for the
purpose of answering questions posed by the researcher” (Parel).

Research is “a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing

specialized tools, instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more
adequate solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary
means” (Crawford).

Research is “the continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown.” It

entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery of new ideas,
new methods, or improvements. Research is always an attempt to widen
one’s outlook in life. It always proceeds from the known to the unknown.
(Sanchez).

It would be noted that the aforementioned definitions have commonalities

which point to the following characteristics of the research process.

1. Research is systematic, that is, it is a carefully planned activity which is

done in an orderly manner. In other words, it is a specific structured
process.
2. Research is empirical – the research must subject his beliefs or
speculations regarding reality to an investigation and test them against
a reality-referent.
3. Research is logical – it observes a system of scientific thinking. Logical
examination of the procedures applied in an experiment with reference
to the requirements of internal validity enables the researcher to check

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 for validity of the conclusions drawn as well as to check generalizations
in the context of external validity.
4. Research is replicable and transmittable – other researchers may build
upon the results of a study; the results may be used as spring board
for other studies.
5. Research is cyclical – that is, it starts with a problem and ends with a
problem.
6. Research is reductive – the researcher translates from reality to the
abstract or conceptual state to understand the relationships might
operate in other contexts.
7. Research is critical – research should bring a higher level of
confidence and certainty to one’s understanding than what is possible
by belief, faith or simplistic reasoning alone; the researcher assumes a
skeptical doubting or questioning attitude.

Importance of Research
Research is a vehicle for mobility. It is because of research that society
does not remain stagnant. It is a major contributor towards the attainment of
national development goals. The attempt of emerging nations to use research
for their development and modernization is an expression of their faith in
research. Research then assumes the role of shaping the nation’s future. Then,
too, research has brought about progress and a better life for all.
At present, no college student can escape from conducting research. A
research paper is not simply a compilation of the ideas of writers read but an
organization of their views in one’s own way to show the relation of the different
ideas and, if possible, to draw conclusions based on one’s readings.

Types of Research

A researcher is a person who has an intrusive mind, one who is not

satisfied until he or she has achieved his or her goal. A researcher’s primary
goal whether distant or immediate is to explore and gain an understanding of
human behavior and social life, and thereby gain greater control over them.

Research may be classified as follows:

1. Basic research (also called pure or fundamental research) aims at

formulation or affirmation of a theory/principle. Its goal is to add to
scientific knowledge and not to produce results of immediate practical
solution of a problem.
2. Applied or field research seeks to answer narrower practical questions;
it is concerned with testing theories in as field setting. Its goal is to
solve a specified practical problem. This type of research seeks to
improve the human condition by discovering something that can be put
to practical use.

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 3. Action research or on-the-spot research aims at the solution of an
immediate specific problem. For example, a plant supervisor may
conduct an action research on the causes of absenteeism of his
employees.

Purpose of Research
According to Sanchez, in Psychology, one learns that one of the prime
movers of man is his need to satisfy his curiosity. If we should think of the
natural motive which prompts a scientist to pursue his professional labors, we
would perhaps conclude that he engages in research because of his love for
exploration. The research scientist loves to struggle with anything difficult to
perceive. He spends long hours at work, foregoing all other activities and
pleasures with little thought of monetary returns. The history of science identifies
many who pursued research at considerable personal sacrifice.
In other fields, a researcher or investigator conducts research for a
specific purpose, to answer a specific question, to solve a particular controversy
or issue.

Objectives of Research

The objectives of research are as follows:

a) to seek new knowledge; and
b) to provide useful information in the form of verifiable data.

The research process consists of the following steps:

1. Identification of the problem
2. Reading for concepts, theories, and previous findings
3. Formulation of the theoretical background
4. Formulation of hypotheses
5. Identification and definitions of variables
6. Identification of threats to validity of data
7. Construction of the research design
8. Construction and validation of instruments
9. Data collection and analysis
10. Findings
11. Conclusions
12. Recommendations
13. Another problem

ETHICAL ASPECTS OF RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Resnik (2009) explains that when most people think of ethics (or morals),
they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the
Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of
professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a
religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."), or a wise
aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of

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defining "ethics": norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and
unacceptable behavior.
Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in church, or in other
social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong
during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human beings
pass through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical norms are so
omnipresent that one might be tempted to regard them as simple commonsense.
On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than commonsense, then why
are there so many ethical disputes and issues in our society?
One credible explanation of these disagreements is that all people
recognize some common ethical norms but different individuals interpret, apply,
and balance these norms in different ways in light of their own values and life
experiences.
Most societies also have legal rules that govern behavior, but ethical
norms tend to be broader and more informal than laws. Although most societies
use laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal rules
use similar concepts, it is important to remember that ethics and law are not the
same. An action may be legal but unethical or illegal but ethical. We can also use
ethical concepts and principles to criticize, evaluate, propose, or interpret laws.
Indeed, in the last century, many social reformers urged citizens to disobey laws
in order to protest what they regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful civil
disobedience is an ethical way of expressing political viewpoints.
Another way of defining ethics focuses on the disciplines that study
standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or
sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is someone who studies ethical
standards in medicine. One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or
perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and
issues. For instance, in considering a complex issue like global warming, one
may take an economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the
problem. While an economist might examine the cost and benefits of various
policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could examine the
ethical values and principles at stake.
Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have norms for
behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These norms also help
members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to establish
the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical norms govern conduct in
medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or
goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other
scholarly or creative activities. There is even a specialized discipline, research
ethics, which studies these norms.
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms
in research. First, norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge,
truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating,
falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error.
Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and

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coordination among many different people in different disciplines and institutions,
ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work,
such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many
ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and
patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review,
are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging
collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and
do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely. Third, many of
the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to
the public. For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of
interest, the human subjects protections, and animal care and use are necessary
in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be
held accountable to the public. Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to
build public support for research. People more likely to fund research project if
they can trust the quality and integrity of research. Finally, many of the norms of
research promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as
social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and
health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and
animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who
fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher
who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological
safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and
students.

The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals

that various codes address:
Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data,
results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify,
or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the
public.

Objectivity
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony,
and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or
minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may
affect research.
Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for
consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your
own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities,
such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or
journals.

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Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new
ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not
use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where
credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to
research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted
for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just
your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and
allow them to make their own decisions.
Respect for colleagues
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms
through research, public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex,
race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence
and integrity.
Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in
science as a whole.
Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research.
Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks
and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take
special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the
benefits and burdens of research fairly.

Thesis Proposal

A thesis proposal is a skeletal framework that will aid the student or

researcher in thesis making. It deals with and defines the problem, identifies the
data or the materials to be used in resolving the problem, and describes methods

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by which either the materials will be utilized or the data will be processed and
interpreted.
The thesis proposal is meant to present clearly and explicitly the problem
to be researched and to discuss the research efforts of others who have worked
on collateral or related problems.
The aims of the thesis proposal is to convince your school that:
• there is a need for the research; it is significant and important;
• you are contributing something original to the field;
• the topic is feasible in terms of availability of funding, equipment,
supervisors, and data;
• the research can be completed in the expected time period as set by
the school/college/university.
• ethical issues have been considered and approval for the research has
been given by the school/college/university’s ethics committee;
• the topic matches your interests and capabilities.
What is the difference between an Undergraduate (Bachelor’s
Degree)/Masters (Thesis) and a Doctorate (Dissertation) proposal?

Thesis and Dissertation

Sanchez (1998) states that a formal and lengthy research paper,

especially one written in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an
undergraduate (bachelor’s degree) or master’s degree is called a thesis. A
dissertation is a more sophisticated research paper written in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for a doctorate degree. Both must be prepared in conformity
with the best standards.

Who is my audience?

The proposal will be presented as a written report and is usually presented

in a seminar as well. It can be presented to a Graduate/Postgraduate Committee
or to staff more directly involved in your candidature, such as your supervisor, co-
supervisor and your school`s graduate or postgraduate coordinator.

Originality

Your work will make a worthwhile contribution to the field if it fulfills one or
more of the following:

• it provides evidence to support or disprove a concept, theory, or model;

• it contributes new data or information, a new improved solution,
analysis procedure or research methodology.
• it results in a new or improved concept, theory or model.

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Your goal

The thesis proposal helps you focus your research aims, clarify its
importance and the need, describe the methods, predict problems and outcomes,
and plan alternatives and interventions.

Sanchez (1998) illustrates that a thesis proposal may have the following
format:

Thesis Proposal Requirements

1. Title of the Study

2. Introduction (background and need)
a. Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
b. Statement of the Problem
c. Basic Assumptions
d. Hypotheses
e. Significance of the Study
f. Scope and Delimitation of the Study
g. Definition of Terms
3. Review of Related Literature and Studies
a. Local Literature
b. Foreign Literature
c. Local Studies
d. Foreign Studies
4. Research Methodology
a. Research Design
b. Description of the Sources of Data and Sample
c. Description of Instruments to be Used
d. Data-Gathering Procedure
e. Statistical Treatment to be Applied
5. Project Timetable
- the duration of the research.
6. Statement of Expenses (Budget Estimates)
a. Transportation
b. Supplies and Materials
c. Sundries
7. Bibliography

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 Knowing the nature of research, you are now ready to take the Self-
progress Check test and check your answers later with those found at the back
of the module.

(SEE NO. 3 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

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Research 1A
Module I
Lesson 1

SELF – PROGRESS CHECK TEST

Test I. Identification: Identify the following. On the blank before each

number, write the word or term that best describes the given statement.

_______________1. It is the continuous discovery and exploration of the

unknown. It entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery of new
ideas, new methods, or improvements.
_______________2. A person who has an intrusive mind, one who is not
satisfied until he or she has achieved his or her goal.
_______________3. This type of research aims at adding to scientific
knowledge.
_______________4. This type of research applies theories in a field setting.
_______________5. Other term for basic research..
_______________6. It is the first step in the research process.
_______________7. It leads to the formulation of the theoretical background.
_______________8. Refers to a skeletal framework that will aid the student or
researcher in thesis making.
_______________9. It is a formal and lengthy research paper, especially one
written in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an undergraduate or master’s
degree.
_______________10. It is a more sophisticated research paper written in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for a doctorate degree.

(SEE NO. 4 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUIDENT”)

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Research 1A
Module I
Lesson 2. IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

Lesson Objectives:

After studying this lesson on identifying a research problem, you will be

able to:

1. identify the different sources of a research problem;

2. determine the factors in the selection of a research problem,;
3. select a research problem;
4. enumerate the characteristics of a good research problem;
5. formulate the statement of the research problem or the objectives of
the study;
6. distinguish between a research hypothesis and an assumption;
7. recognize the need for having assumptions;
8. determine the importance of scope and delimitations as well as the
limitations of the study;
9. state the significance or importance of the study to the different
sectors; and
10. define words that are used within the context of the study.

Introduction

The difficulty confronting most students is finding a problem for his study.
It takes them a long time to select a topic to write on. In the end, a student
usually feels frustrated because he has no “problem” He is not aware that there
are so many problems worth writing about, if he only knew the different sources.

Sources of Problems

Among the various sources of problems for a research report or a thesis

are the following:

1. Researcher’s own field of interest and professional experience – A

researcher should begin his research for a problem in his idea of
interest. For instance, in his workplace, be it in school, office or
organization, he probably has encountered problems, such as
human relations problems, problems with the administration or with
management.
2. Undergraduate or graduate programs/courses – Classroom
lectures and class discussions may give rise to problematic
situations and questions which have no answers and therefore
need to be looked into. Consultations with faculty, especially those

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 doing research, may also give the researcher insights into possible
topics he can work on.
3. Survey and critical reading of literature – Books, professional
journals, and abstract of theses and dissertations constitute a
valuable source of problems, usually recommended for further
research. Reviews of research in specific fields almost always list
specific areas for further study.
4. Social, political, cultural and economic issues of society – media
brings to public attention problems in the community and the nation
which need solutions, such as human rights violations, population
problem, health care, etcetera.
5. Attendance at professional lectures, research colloquia and
seminars – Speakers at these for a focus on crucial problems or
issues of the times, such as the impact of technological and
scientific advancement, curricular changes and development,
national concerns.
6. Association with professional researchers and organizations – A
researchers can get leads to unsolved problems from those actively
engaged in research project and from research centers/agencies.

Criteria for Selection of a Research Problem

Having found problems seemingly worth writing about, a researcher

should next determine the feasibility of carrying out said topics. Among the
various factors to be considered in selecting his problem are the following:

1. Availability of subjects and relevant data – A researcher must make

sure that he can get the subjects for his study and that he will have
access to the needed data. He may have an interesting and significant
topic in mind, but the data collection may be difficult due to lack of
cooperation from authorities and subjects involved as well as
confidentiality of certain records. It is advisable for him to have
absolute control over the sources of data; otherwise, time, money and
effort would be wasted.
2. Time constraints – A researcher should choose a topic which can be
completed according to schedule. A graduating student must finish his
research report within the semester so he can graduate; a graduate
student on scholarship has to finish his thesis within the period of his
study leave.
3. Constraints of funds or resources – A researcher cannot vary out his
planned study without logistics. He has to spend a considerable
amount for materials and supplies, statistical consultancy, data
collection, thesis production and other expenses. It is imperative
therefore that he should prepare a fair budget estimate beforehand to
cover basic expenses and provide for contingencies.

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 4. Capabilities of the researcher – A researcher should also consider his
competence and technical expertise in conducting his study. He should
not select a topic beyond his comprehension or ability; otherwise, he
would be unable to undertake the study successfully. For instance, he
should not select a topic that is very technical or that requires
sophisticated statistical treatment which he has limited knowledge of.
5. Interest and attitudes of the researcher – Another consideration in the
selection of a research problem is a researcher’s interest and attitudes.
The topic must be within his career interest and background so that he
will be very much motivated to do the work.
6. Interest of the administrator or superior of the researcher or his
sponsoring agency. This factor applies to researchers who are on
scholarship or whose research is funded. In this case, the researcher
has to abide by the expressed directions given to him.

Characteristics of a Good Problem

Besides the foregoing factors and constraints in the selection of a problem

or problem area, there are criterion measures that describe a good problem.

1. It is of interest to the researcher. One of the first considerations in the

choice of a topic is that the topic should be of great interest to the
researcher. This factor is considered important because if the student
is really interested in the problem, it will easy for him to surmount any
problem that he may meet. It usually follows that when a student is
interested in a topic, he has had a preliminary knowledge of what it is
about. This is usually within his area of specialization. There are few
instances, however, that a student embarks on a topic that is alien to
him. In this case, if he is really that determined to pursue the topic,
then by all means he should continue on it. His intense desire to finish
his degree will enable him to go on. This interest will furnish the
motivation and the enthusiasm in doing the difficult job.
2. It is useful and significant in one’s field of specialization. Another
characteristic of a good problem is that it is useful and significant in his
field of specialization. The findings may have significant contribution to
the researcher’s field of specialization and in all totality will make the
research report worthwhile.
3. It is novel. A further characteristic of a good problem is that it is novel.
Experts assert that there is nothing new topics for research in the
same that all fields have had some forms of research already.
Although there are topics which are over studied, others have not been
penetrated thoroughly yet.
4. It invites a more complex research design. A good problem is that
which invites more complex designing. For example if a researcher
wishes to determine the empirical support of J. McCarthy’s marketing
mix, descriptive analysis of data may include other variables, such as

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 size of the organization, sales volume and type of organization. The
variance of empirical data generated by the theory, may necessitate
complicated statistical methods. Furthermore, the introduction of other
variables assures the researcher of more findings, more insights and
more expanded knowledge about the topic.
5. The research can be completed in the allotted time desired. Some
students finish everything in one year’s time, which seems to be ideal.
Most take two years from the inception to the oral examination. By and
large, gathering of data should entail one semester although some
researchers have done it in two or three months. Studies that last for
many years will not draw graduate students regardless of how
interesting the topic may seem.
6. The variables in the problem are separable and isolated. A problem is
good if the variables considered in the study are specific, definite and
separated from the others. Furthermore, the variable are quantitative
and can be subjected to statistical testing. Hence, the importance of
well-constructed questionnaires to generate quantitative data should
not be overlooked.
7. The problem does not carry ethical of moral impediments. Finally a
good problem is one which does not carry ethical or moral
impediments. If in a paper, the respondents, or the venue should lead
to embarrassment, the study should be stopped and changed into a
less controversial one. In a study where the poor is put or brought into
an embarrassing position, such study should not be allowed to
continue. The readers may not take the results well.

The list of activities below are suggested for sharpening skills in discovering
and identifying problems.

1. Reading a lot of literature in one’s field of concentration and being

critical of what is read.
2. Attending professional lectures and speeches.
3. Being a close observer of situations and happenings around the
community and the country.
4. Thinking out the possibility of research for most topics or lessons taken
in content courses.
5. Attending colloquia or seminars.
6. Conducting mini-researchers and noting closely the obtained findings,
7. Compiling researchers with special references on content and
methodology.
8. Visiting various libraries for possible discovery of researchable topics.
9. Subscribing to journals in one’s field of interest.

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Defining and Limiting a Problem

As soon as the topic has been chosen, the student should go to the next
stage. This is now stating the problem into categorical ones. The problems as
stated in the statement of the problem should be categorically answered.

1. He may start defining some major terms or concepts. If for instance his
selected topic is on portfolio management, then it is time to find out
what the idea or what the topic means. He has too read books on
economics or on business management and administration to know
what it is. He has to know the components of the idea and the relevant
studies that have been conducted on it. He has to review the former
theories concerning portfolio management and the recent methods of
doing it. He has to read books written by experts on this topic.
2. He reads further literature. Concentration is held on what researchers
and experts have said and done about the subject matter. This time he
learns that investigations have been made on the subject matter and
that it has deviated from the former policy of investing portfolio in one
area, but rather through covariance one can determine other
investments. The portfolio theory discourages investments in only one
product, or discourages ”putting all eggs in one basket” but rather
”putting the eggs in many baskets.”
3. He gets attracted to the instruments constructed by researchers. If the
subject matter is still on portfolio management, he has to understand
the methods used in the application of portfolio management. In
portfolio analysis prices of stocks are used as the main source of data.
4. He shapes up his specific questions. Inasmuch as the student is
almost through with his survey of related literature both foreign and
local and has chosen a definite variable, he has now gained insights
into the formulation of the more specific questions which should been
stated in Chapter 1.
There are times even then, that a researcher repeats the work of
others, but in different setting. This is allowable in research. The findings of the
latter study may be different from the previous study, which makes the latter
study unique and original. The questions should be specific and clear and are
definitely answerable.

Writing the Title of the Investigation

There are some functions that the title serves among which are those
below.
1. It draws the summary form, the content of the entire investigation.
2. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole research report.
3. It enables the researcher to identify the title as his own.
4. It helps other researchers to refer to the work for possible survey of the
theory.

19
 In view of these functions, the researchers should write the title clearly
and specifically. The main concepts should be included and the variables being
investigates be written as part of the title. In the case of studies where many
variables are being studied there must be some ways to choose terms that will
summarize these variables. If for example some characteristics of administrator
are being looked into, the term, “personal variables” may be written in the title.
Under this term the following variables may be included: sex, age, civil status,
educational qualifications, place of residence, socio-economic status, sibling,
rank, etc.

It also for clarity and specifity that the relationship among the variables
be indicated. This relationship may be difference, effect, or of association as the
case maybe. If to these specifications, the target population is added to then title,
the title will achieve more specifity.

The inclusions of variables, relationships among the variables, and

target population will invariability make the title long. In this connection, Baker
and Schutz (1972) set the maximum of 20 Substantive words; function words are
not included in the counting. Moreover, phrases such as “A study of,” “An
investigation of,” ”An inquiry into,” “A comparison” are dropped from the titles
since all these or dissertations are investigations. The writer of the present book
agrees with Baker and Schutz in their demand for brevity in the title removing
unnecessary words.

The list below presents some titles in the left column. The same titles
have been improved and made more definite and specific, as shown in the
second column.
Original Better
1. A study of the relationship between 1. IQ, Socio-Economic Status, Work
IQ, Socio- Economic Status, Values, Personality and Career
Personality, Work Values and Preference of College Students of a
Career Preference certain University
2. Assessments of Corporate Earning 2. Assessments of the Earning Power
Power of a Certain Company in Metro
Manila
3. The Improvement of the Warrant 3. An Empirical-based Strategy of the
Systems of the Philippine Army treasury Warrant System of the
Philippine Army
4. Determinants of Real State 4. Correlates of Real Estate
Salesmanship Salesmanship – A Discriminant
Analysis
5. The Skill Mix Leadership Theory of 5. The Skill Mix Theory of a Leader
Military Officers behavior in A Philippine Air Force
Setting
6. The Federal – Aid Highway 6. The Structure and Performance of t
Contracting Industry he Federal-Aid Highway

20
 Construction Contracting Industry
7. Mobility of Executives 7. Factors of Mobility Among
Executives of various organizations
in Metro Manila
8. Effects of Land Zoning 8. Economic Effects of Land Zoning in
the national capital Region
9. The SGS Work 9. The Achievements of SGS in the
Collection revenues

It must be borne in mind that a research report does not contain a topic
that is broad and overwhelming, but rather one that is definite, specific and
narrow but can be subjected to in-depth treatment.

Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem or the objectives of the study is one of

the most if not the most important part of a research report. By just looking at the
statement of the problem, a seasoned adviser can determine the viability of a
research report, even if the other parts of a proposal leave much to be desired.
On the other hand, even if the other parts are well done, but the statement of the
problem is faulty, the whole thesis proposal can be rejected.
According to Sanchez (1998), the researcher should write out in simple
language just what it is he/she proposes to investigate. It may be in the form of
the following:
1. a question or questions or single question followed by several
sub-questions;
2. a declarative statement or a series of complete statements;
3. a statement followed by a series of questions.
The question form has some advantages by way of sharpening and
clarifying the problem to be attacked, although both statements and questions
are generally acceptable. Whatever the form may be, the researcher should
keep away from the phrase “a study to show” so to avoid the implications of initial
bias since the purpose of research is to seek an impartial answer to the
questions raised rather than to prove something.

Writing the Specific Problem

The specific questions of a research report must be written in narrow

quantifiable terms. This is one of the vital characteristics of these questions. The
specifity set will enable the researcher himself to ascertain just what the
questions to be answered are. Quantification and measurement will be facilitated
giving more direction to the investigation. If the question is broad it has to be
restated in a more specific language.

The problem or the objectives of the study may be written in two ways:
in 1) topic form and in 2) question form

21
Example 1:
Where Likert’s organizational profile was used as variables of the
study.
1. What is the organizational profile of the company in terms of the
eight organizational processes of:
1.1 leadership
1.2 motivation
1.3 communication
1.4 decision making
1.5 goal setting
1.6 interaction process
1.7 performance and training and
1.8 control

2. What management systems were seen prevailing in the eight

organizational processes as observed and desired?
3. To what extent was human resource management implemented in
the organization in the eight processes as perceived and desired?
4. Are there significant differences in the implementation of human
resource management in the company as perceived and desired?

Example 2:

Where the topic is about buying characteristics of a group for new cars.

1. The buying characteristics of cars of respondents in terms of:

1.1 brands of cars
1.2 colors of the car and
1.3 methods of buying the car

2. variances of buying characteristics when respondents are grouped

according to:
2.1 sex
2.2 age
2.3 profession

From the above examples, it is observed that the first is in question

form, while the second is in topical form.

The Hypothesis

Definition of Hypothesis

As soon as the researcher has found a suitable topic for a problem, he

starts building up his prediction of the outcome of the study. These predictions
may just be based on his observations or his firm belief about the topic but these

22
are all pending. The real hypothesis will be formulated after a thorough review of
related literature.

Generally, hypotheses of the study follow the statement of the problem

as they are considered as temporary solutions to the problem of the study.

A hypothesis is defined as 1) a preliminary or tentative explanation or

postulate by the researcher of what the researcher considers the outcome of an
investigation will be. It is an informed/educated guess. It indicates the
expectations of the researcher regarding certain variables. It is the most specific
way in which an answer to a problem can be stated. 2) it is a solution which is
either accepted or rejected at the end of the study after finding have been
determined.

Kinds of Hypothesis

In a statistical problem, there are at least two kind of hypothesis:

1. The null hypothesis – null in mathematics means zero, and asserts that
whatever is being compared or correlated, the result is zero. It is
always the first temporary solutions to a statistical problem and is
generally symbolized by Ho.
Example 1:
There is no significant difference in the performance of two classes of
Students, A and B in English, using the average or mean as the criterion
measure. In symbol, we denote it as:
__ __
Ho : XA = XB which actually means:
__ __
Ho : XA - XB = 0 (that there is no significant difference in means)

2. Alternative hypothesis

On the other hand, there is the alternative hypothesis, which serves as

an alternative to the null hypotheses.

There are three types of alternative hypothesis:

__ __
a. Ha : XA + XB. This is a non – directional hypothesis or a two tailed test. the
researcher is not interested in knowing whether the performance of one group is
significantly better or less better than the other group. He is merely interested in
the difference of their performance. The figure shows a two-tailed test.

23
 __ __
Ho : XA = XB
Lower tail Upper tail
__ __
Ha : XA + XB 1

The two – tailed is a rigid test and is used in research problems where the
results are very critical as in medical research.

___
b. Ha : XA > XB. This is known as a positive directional hypothesis, and the
researcher is interested in knowing if the performance of Group or Class A is
significantly better than that of the other group.

This is a one – tailed test and uses the upper tail of the probability
distribution in the interpretation of results.

The figure below illustrates a one-tailed test using the upper tail.

Upper tail

__ __
Ho : XA = XB
__ __
Ha : XA > XB

__ __
c. Ha : XA < XB. This is known as a negative directional hypothesis and clearly
the researcher is interested only in knowing if the performance of group B is
significantly less than that of the other group.

Likewise, this is also known as a one-tailed test, using the lower tail of the
probability distribution.

24
The figure below illustrates a one-tailed using the lower tail.

Lower tail

__ __
Ho : XA = XB
__ __
Ha : XA < XB

Note the use of the word “significant.” One is licensed to use the word
significant only id f the results have been tested statistically.

There is also the research hypothesis which generally follows the patterns
of the statistical hypothesis. It is always wise to have the research hypothesis jibe
with those of the statistical hypothesis so that there will be no difficulty in giving
out the conclusions.

The classifications of two-tailed and one-tailed tests has implications in

the reading of the tabular values of the probability distribution and interpretation.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

1. A good hypothesis is one that shows a reasonable explanation of the

events that occurred or will occur. Almost, everyday, people make use
of the hypothesis. If one of the members of the family has snot come
home yet and it is getting late then one offers temporary solutions to
her getting late. She could be delayed due to traffic, or she went
shopping. One offers temporary solution to the problem.
2. It is clear and shows separation of variables. The reader will
immediately know what the problem is about and why such hypothesis
is being formed. The reader will also know what variables are
correlated or compared.

The study may hypothesize that educational attainment does not

influence managerial skills and decision-making.

Or that decision making may vary according to one’s age, sex, and
educational attainment and attitude towards work. Here one will know the
direction of the research of the study.

25
 3. A hypothesis should show no bias, is objective and furthermore, it
shows an open mind towards all possible solutions. A study may
hypothesize that salesmen performances do not vary , or may vary, or
may increase, or decrease when a reward system is introduced.
4. The hypothesis should serve a temporary solutions to the problems
posted in the study. If the problem tests for the significant difference of
observations of planners and business people towards the
establishments of a food processing plant, then the hypothesis should
be clear and likewise the test for significant difference.
5. It should be testable. If the hypothesis in one thesis runs this way: “The
marketing concept is more implemented in commercial banks rather
than in saving banks.” The instrument to be used and the groups to be
compared are very clearly specified. This hypothesis is testable on
account of the operational terms indicated. Evidently the dependent
variable is the influence drawn as points in a marketing concept
questionnaire. Moreover, the variables are so definitely stated that the
hypothesis indicates what are to be predicted.

Purposes and Functions of the Hypothesis

Aside from being a necessary part of a research report, especially when

the hypotheses to the problems are to be tested for acceptance or rejection, the
hypothesis plays an important role in the interpretations of the results especially
the statistical results.

The following are the purposes and functions of hypothesis:

• It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that
can be empirically tested.
• It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge
to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to extend existing
knowledge.
• It gives direction to an investigation.
• It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes
continuity to the examination of the problem.
• It points to the fact that it can only help provide the format for the
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data.

Assumptions of the Study

Assumptions are needed in a research report. There are many situations

in a research endeavor that the researcher has no control of. For instance, in
surveys where the questionnaire is the main source of data, the researcher
cannot be sure whether the respondent is telling the truth or not; he can only
assume the former.

26
 There is no research endeavor which has no problem or which is faultless.
There will always be problems beyond the control of the researcher, hence some
situations have to be assumed. For instance, in predicting or forecasting the price
of a certain commodity, the assumption that factors remain constant must exist
since the forces of nature like floods, earthquakes, typhoons are beyond his
control.

Assumptions unlike hypothesis, are not to be tested for acceptance or

rejection. On the other hand, they are taken for granted and presumed to be true.
Some examples of assumptions that some researchers have taken are as
follows.
1. That the respondents answered the questionnaire to the best of
their ability; hence their assertions are taken per se for analysis.
2. That the respondents rated some situations truthfully.
3. That data collected by a government office are true and correct and
therefore valid for interpretations.
4. Job satisfaction can be inferred from indices which are quantifiable.

There are aspects however, that researchers cannot assume and among
these situations are as follows.

1. That the method of research used is valid. It is the work of the

researcher to prove that his research design is valid and good.
2. That the computations in the study are correct. Computations
are within the control of the student; hence he is responsible for
computations included in the study for interpretation.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The Scope of a study pertains to its extent or boundaries. It sets the

precise limits of the problem area – where it begins, where it ends, and what it
will not include. It narrows down the problem top a workable size. Among the
necessary decision to be made as regards scope are the restrictions of the
research design and on time dimension, geographical boundaries, availability of
resources, relevance to theory and practical needs, and the demands of the
paper, such as those of a thesis or dissertation.

Limitations refer to the weaknesses or shortcomings of the study which

may adversely affect its results. Such limitations should be stated for honesty’s
sake and to avoid possible misinterpretations, questions and doubts arising from
limitations due to use of foreign- prepared instruments, over-dependence on
questionnaire, seemingly inadequate time for experimentation and seeming
inadequate control of variables. In general, however, limitations of the study can
be endorsed in the Recommendations for repetition by other researchers of
similar studies which may give meaningful results on that particular aspects.

27
Significance of the Study

The significance or importance of the study points out the practical or

instrumental value of the probable results or the intrinsic value of one’s research.
In short, the significance of the study justifies its worth.

The significance of the study is narrated in terms of the following:

1. its practical contributions to particular individuals or to society in

general;
2. its intrinsic value to the researcher himself and to other researchers
interested in investigating a similar theory;
3. its impact on current gaps in literature; and
4. its implications to research methodologies, measurement
5. procedures, treatment of data, and sampling

Definitions of Terms

Definitions of terms are important for better reading and common

understanding of the research report. Definitions may be conceptual, that is,
based on its true or technical meaning or they may be operational, that is based
on actual observable characteristics or on the basis of how the terms are used in
the text.

There is no specific rule on the order of the terms. The first terms that are
defines are the key words in the title of the research report. Generally, however,
the terms are arranged alphabetically.

Actually, we have finished Chapter 1 of the research report. And at this

point, you have covered enough content that should be tested. If you think you
are ready, you may take the Self-progress Check test. And later check your
answers with those found at the back of the module.

(SEE NO. 3 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

28
Research 1A
Module I
Lesson 2

SELF – PROGRESS CHECK TEST

On the blank before the number, write the word True if the statement is
correct; otherwise, write False.

_____ 1. A researcher on scholarship or study leave must contend with

constraints of time and resources; otherwise he cannot complete his studies as
scheduled.
_____ 2. A student’s first source of a research problem is his research
professor.
_____ 3. Assumption and hypothesis are synonymous terms.
_____ 4. An assumption needs to be tested for acceptance or rejection.
_____ 5. A hypothesis is a calculated guess as to the probable outcome of a
study.
_____ 6. When the researcher is merely interested in the difference in the
performance of two groups of students, he uses a two-tailed test.
_____ 7. When he is interested in knowing whether the performance pf one
group is better than that of the other group, he uses a one-tailed test.
_____ 8. The Significance of the Study focuses on the extrinsic and intrinsic
values of the study.
_____ 9. Definitions of terms are important for better reading and common
understanding of the research report.
_____ 10. There is a specific rule on the order of the definition of terms.

(SEE NO. 4 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

29
Research 1A
Module I

ANSWER KEYS TO THE SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TESTS

Lesson 1
1. Research
2. Researcher
3. Basic (pure or fundamental)
4. Applied (field)
5. Pure or fundamental research
6. Identification of the problem
7. Readings or a review of literature
8. Thesis Proposal
9. Thesis
10. Dissertation

Lesson 2

1. True
2. False
3. False
4. False
5. True
6. True
7. True
8. True
9. True
10. False

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31