Chapter 1 THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF BUSINESS RESEARCH 2

Introduction: What is business research and why do it? 2

Key factors that business researchers take into account: 2
Relevance to practice 3
The process of business research 4
The messiness of business research 5
Key points 1 5
Chapter 2 BUSINESS RESEARCH STRATEGIES 5
Theory and research 5
Philosophical assumptions in business research 7
Ontological considerations 7
Epistemological considerations 7
Research paradigms 7
Developing a research strategy: quantitative or qualitative? 8
Other considerations 8
Key points 2 8
Chapter 1 THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF BUSINESS
RESEARCH

Introduction: What is business research and why do it?

Academic business research covers the process in all its phases formulating research
objectives, choosing research methods, securing research participants, collecting, analysing
and interpreting data and disseminating findings. The rigorous engagement with these steps
is what distinguishes academic business research from practitioner research.

Three reasons for the importants of understanding business research methods:

1. Will avoid common pitfalls

2. Important from the point of view of consuming published research
3. Satisfy your own curiosity about topics that interest you by undertaking your own
research projects

1. Common pitfall is failing to consider the relationship between research questions

and choice of research methods, asking ambiguous questions in questionnaires, or
engaging in practices that are ethically problematic.
2. A good grounding in the research process and a knowledge of potential pitfalls
provides an invaluable critical edge when reading about research done by others
3. Doing research, yourself will may generate insight into important business issues an
allow you, in a small, incremental way, to contribute to business knowledge.

Business research is situated in the social sciences which includes the disciplines of
sociology, psychology, anthropology and economics. This makes business research
potentially highly interdisciplinary.

Business research may be motivated by developments and changes in organizations and

societies. Social scientific ideas are key to illuminate and explain those changes.

Academics conduct research because in the course of reading the literature on a topic or
reflection on them, they may notice a gap in the literature.

No single reason why people do business research, but, at its core, it is done when there is
an aspect of business and management that is believed to be inadequately understood.

Key factors that business researchers take into account:

- Theories (current research is informed by existing theory)

- Existing knowledge (you have to be familiar with what is already known so that you
can build on it and avoid covering the same ground as others)
 - The researcher’s views about the nature of the relationship between theory and
research (The researcher engages in theoretical reflections from which a hypothesis
or hypotheses are formulated and tested)

- Assumptions and views about how research should be conducted influence the
research process. (Some researchers argue that people and organisations are very
different from the subject matter of the natural scientist. Thus, they require an
approach that is more sensitive) (epistemological)

- Assumptions about the nature of social phenomena influence the research process
too (Are social phenomena inert or beyond our influence or are they a product of
social interaction) (Ontological)

- The quality criteria used (Assessments of quality relate to all phases of the research
process. Assessing research quality has become a prominent issue among business
researchers and policy-makers)

- The values of the research community (Ethical issues have always been a point of
discussion and controversy I research, but in recent times they have become even
more prominent.

Business research is shaped by theoretical considerations, in addition to ethical and practical

issues which influence how research is carried out.

Relevance to practice
Evidence-based management is ‘’the systematic use off the best available evidence to
improve management practice’’. It seeks to bridge the gap between business research and
relevant practise. The value of evidence-based management depends on whether it enables
research findings to be transferred or translated into practice.

There are four sources of information that contribute to evidence-based management:

1. Practitioner expertise and judgement
2. Evidence from the local context
3. Critical evaluation of the best available research evidence (systematic review)
4. Perspectives of those who may be affected by a particular decision

Gibbons suggest that the process of knowledge productions in society falls into two
contrasting categories or types, which they describe as mode 1 and mode 2. Although mode
2 research is intended to exist alongside mode 1, rather than to replace it. Some argue that
business research is more suited to mode 2 knowledge production.

Mode 1: Within the traditional, university-based model, knowledge production is driven

primarily by an academic agenda. Discoveries tend to build upon existing knowledge in a
linear fashion. The model makes a distinction between theoretically pure knowledge and
applied knowledge.
Mode 2: draws attention to the role of trans-disciplinarity in research, which refers to a
process that causes the boundaries of single contributing disciplines to be exceed. Findings
are closely related to context and not easily replicated, so knowledge production is less of a
linear process. This involves academics, policymakers and practitioners who apply a broad
set of skills and experiences to tackle a shared problem.

The process of business research

Steps:
1. Introduction
2. Literature review
3. Concepts and theories
4. Research questions
5. Sampling
6. Data collection
7. Data analysis
8. Writing up

Literature review:
Crucial is to identify and read key books and articles of some of the main figures in the field.
You must know what is known, so that you cannot be accused of naively going over old
ground. Linking you research question, findings, and discussion to existing literature is an
important and useful way of demonstrating the credibility of you research. You will have to
be critical and assess its significant and how each item fits into the narrative.

Concepts and theories:

In social sciences, concept are how we makes sense of the social world. Example power,
social control, status, labour process. These are all part of the body of theories the
generations of scientist have constructed. Concepts are key ingredients of theories. The
relationship between theory and research is invariably depicted as a choice between
deductive and inductive approaches.

Research questions
Guides your literature search and about the kind of research design to use. Reading
literature may generate one or two research questions, but reading further may lead you to
revise them and possibly generate new ones. A research question provides an explicit
statement of what it is the researcher wants to know about. You can have different types of
research questions:

- Predicting
- Explaining causes and phenomenon
- Evaluating phenomenon
- Describing phenomenon
- Developing good practice
- Empowerment
- Comparison
Sampling
Many people associate sampling with surveys and the quest for representative samples.
Which is based on constructing a sample that can represent a wider population. Sampling
issues can have implications for representativeness. Time and cost issues will always
constrain the number of cases we can include in our research, so we almost always have to
sample.

Data Collection
Data collection is the key point of any research project, and therefore this book gives more
space to this stage of the research process. There are different types of data collection
methods. Some are structured and some are more open ended which leads to less
restrictions on the topics and process.

Data Analysis
By coding researchers can make sense of the data. Linking the codes to develop higher-level
themes is what is called thematic analysis. The coding can help the researcher link the data
to the research question, as well as with the literature and theoretical concepts. Primary
analysis means that the researcher who collected the primary data also conducts the
analysis. Secondary data analysis occurs when someone else analyses such data.

Writing up
The finest piece of research is useless if it is not disseminated so that others can benefit
from it.

The messiness of business research

In reality business research is full of false starts, blind alleys, mistakes and enforced changes.
It is important to stay flexible and to modify and adapt their research plans in response to
opportunities and problems that arise.

Key points 1
- Business research is shaped by theoretical considerations, in addition to ethical and
practical issues which influence how research is carried out
- Business research comprises some common elements that are nearly always
present. These include a literature reviews, concepts and theories, research
questions, sampling of cases, data collection, data analysis and writing up of research
findings
- Rigorous engagement with these steps is what distinguishes academic business
research from practitioner research such market research done by private
companies
- Although we can attempt to formulate general principles for doing business research
it is important to recognize that things do not always go entirely to plan

Chapter 2 BUSINESS RESEARCH STRATEGIES

Theory and research
The link between theory and research depends on what form of theory is being referred to.
There is the question of whether data are collected and analysed in order to test existing
theory or to build new theory.

What is theory
The most common meaning is a way of explaining observed patterns of associations
between phenomena: for example, why women and ethnic minorities are under-
represented in higher-paid managerial positions. The sociologist Robert Merton referred to
this as middle-range theory because it consists of theoretical explanations for social
phenomena which can be explored using empirical data of various kind.

Grand theories are abstract frameworks that aim to explain broad patterns and structures in
society, while middle-range theories are more specific and aim to explain a narrower range
of phenomena

Deductive and inductive logics of inquiry

Deductive approach on the basis of what is known about a domain and the theoretical
considerations within it, deduces a hypothesis.

The process of deduction:

1. Theory
2. Hypothesis
3. Data collection
4. Findings
5. Hypothesis confirmer or rejected
6. Revision of theory

Empiricism is the belief that knowledge comes from our experiences and observations,
rather than just imagination or preconceived ideas. It emphasizes the importance of
evidence and scientific investigation.

Inductive research starts from specific observations and aims to identify patterns, themes,
and relationships, which are then used to develop more general theories and hypotheses.
This type of research often involves gathering data through observation, surveys, or other
forms of qualitative data collection.

Deductive research, on the other hand, begins with a general theory or hypothesis and then
tests it through specific observations and experiments. The goal of deductive research is to
validate or falsify the theory by examining the evidence. This type of research often involves
collecting data through experiments, surveys, or other quantitative methods.

Abductive research is a type of research that involves forming tentative explanations for
observed phenomena, based on the available data. It involves a combination of inductive
and deductive reasoning, and is used to generate multiple possible explanations, which are
then refined and tested through further data collection and analysis. The goal of abductive
research is to find the best explanation for a problem or phenomenon.
Philosophical assumptions in business research

To understand why the philosophy of social science matters, it is necessary to understand its
components.

Ontology, our understanding of what reality is. Epistemology, our understanding of how we
can know reality. Methodology or research strategy, our understanding of the common
sense or normal in research.

Ontological considerations
Objectivism and constructionism. Their differences can be illustrated by reference to two of
the most common terms in social science: ‘organization’ and ‘culture’.

Constructionism emphasizes the role of interpretation and meaning-making in shaping our

understanding of reality, while Objectivism emphasizes the existence of objective reality and
the importance of using scientific methods to understand it. These perspectives have
important implications for the design and interpretation of research in the social sciences.
Epistemological considerations
Interpretivism emphasizes the importance of understanding social reality from the
perspectives of those being studied, and the use of empathetic and participatory research
methods, while Positivism emphasizes the use of scientific methods to understand social
reality and the search for objective and universal laws. These perspectives have important
implications for the design and interpretation of research in the social sciences.

Research paradigms
Developing a research strategy: quantitative or qualitative?
quantitative research is based on positivist epistemology, objectivist ontology, is deductive
in reasoning and uses statistical methods to test theories, while qualitative research is based
on constructivist epistemology, constructivist ontology, and uses inductive reasoning to
generate a rich, in-depth understanding of the phenomenon being studied.

Other considerations
Researcher has own beliefs and feelings that can influence the objective. Also there are
practical issues to take into account.
Key points 2
- Theory can be used to inform business research according to a deductive logic of
inquiry, or it can emerge out of a study inductively
- Philosophical assumptions are important in business research because they enable
us to think about the nature of reality (ontology) and how to get about studying it.
- The distinction between objectivism and constructionism is an important dimension
of the quantitative /qualitative contrast
- Epistemological concerns about how we can know or understand something loom
large in considerations of research strategy. To a large extend, these revolve around
the desirability of employing a natural science model and in particular positivism
versus interpretivism
- Quantitative and qualitative research constitute different research strategies and are
usually associated with different epistemological and ontological considerations
- Values and practical considerations may also impinge on the research process.
Chapter 3 Research designs
Research strategy: refers to the overall approach you take in your research project.

Research method: method with which the data is collected. For example, survey,
questionnaire or interviews

Research design: guides the execution of a research method and the analysis of the
subsequent data. The five are experimental design (quasi-experiment), cross-sectional
design, longitudinal design, case study and comparative design.

Quality criteria in business research

Reliability: concerned with the question of whether the results of a study are repeatable
Replicability: If a researcher does not spell out their procedures in great detail, replication is
impossible.
Validity: concerned with the integrity of conclusions that are generated from a piece of
research.

- Measurement validity, whether a measure captures the phenomenon which is

intended to capture
- Internal validity, concerned with understanding whether a conclusion that
incorporates a causal relationship between two or more variables holds
- External validity, whether the results of a study can be generalized beyond the
specific research context
- Ecological validity, whether or not social scientific findings are applicable in
everyday, naturally occurring social settings

Research designs
Five different research designs:
- Experimental design
- Cross-sectional design
- Longitudinal design
- Case study
- Comparative design

Experimental design, the difference between the treatment and control outcomes is the
treatment effect
Examples: lab experiments, field experiments and quasi-experimental designs
Decoy effect: providing an option that is high in price but low in value, compared to two
other options that both have a better price/value prospective, but due to the high price of
the decoy people choose for the high-priced option which has better value.
Experiments Threats to internal validity and external validity
Internal: events that caused changes observed, subjects may become sensitized to testing,
people change over time, non-random selection could explain differences, ambiguity about
the direction of causal influence.
External: an experiment can be so controlled that is does not represent the real world
anymore. In the real world they may make different decisions then in real life.

Cross-sectional design: collection of data on more than one case at a single point in time in
order to collect a body of quantitative (or quantifiable) data in connection with two or more
variables, which are then examined to detect patterns of association
Mostly associated with survey method, but can be used with other methods: structured
observation, content analysis, official statistics, and diaries
- Replicability will be high as long as the researcher specifies all the procedures
- Internal Validity is weak, associations instead of causal relations
- External Validity will be strong if sample is truly random;
- Ecological Validity may be compromised by instruments used

Longitudinal design
- Survey of the same sample on more than one occasion
- Typically used to map change in business and management research
- in a panel study
- or a cohort study (e.g.– all graduates from a business studies course in the same
year)
Special problems
- Attrition, people/managers leave the study or companies merge or go out of
business (or more risk taking persons die earlier)
- Knowing when is the right time for the next wave of data collection
- A panel conditioning effect may creep into the research

Case study
- Detailed and intensive analysis of one case, e.g., a specific person, event,
organization or community
Often involves qualitative research or mixed methods
- Case is the focus of interest in its own right - location/setting just provides a
background
- Types of case: critical, unique, extreme, revelatory, exemplifying,.
Evaluating case-study
- Biggest issue concerns external validity, because it is impossible to generalize the
findings
- The goal of a case study is to examine particulars rather than attempt to generalize
- Cases may be extended longitudinally or through a comparative design
Comparative design
- Using the same methods to compare two or more meaningfully contrasting cases
- Can be qualitative or quantitative
- Often cross-cultural comparisons
- Includes multiple case studies

Evaluating comparative design

- Characteristics are identical to those of cross-sectional design, because a
comparative design is essentially two or more cross-sectional studies
- Comparing two or more cases can show circumstances in which a particular theory
will or will not hold
- Problem of translating research instruments and finding comparable samples

Key points:
- A research method is a technique for collecting data, while a research design is a
framework for generating research evidence according to certain quality criteria
- It is important to become familiar with the criteria that are commonly used to
evaluate research: reliability, validity and type of validity (measurement, internal,
external, ecological) and replicability.
- There are five major research designs covered in this book (experimental, cross-
sectional, longitudinal, case study and comparative)
- True experimental business research is rare but important to understand, as it is the
yardstick against which other research designs are often measured.
- Although the case study is often thought to be a single type of research design, it in
fact has serval forms. It is also important to be aware of the key issues concerned
with the nature of case study evidence in relation to issues such as external validity
(generalizability)
- Comparative, including cross-cultural, research is an important way of testing the
generalizability of organizational theories.
Chapter 4 Planning a research project and developing research
questions
Developing a (preliminary) research question
Find a topic
- Read the articles on Sustainability posted on the course page
- Read tables of content of leading journals and abstracts of recent articles
- Calls for papers from academic conferences and journals
- What is on the agenda of practitioners’ conferences?
- Analyse a set of articles you like, look for limitations
- Future research sections in recent articles
Identify a research question
Once you have selected a topic, you need to develop a research question:
- Totally open-ended research is risky
- Poorly formulated questions will lead to poor research
- Research questions help to focus your literature searches, data collection, analysis
and writing
 Choose a topic that interests you
 Ask yourself whether you can answer the research question
 Read a lot!!
 Use opportunities to talk to others
 Remember that this is not your life work or a bid for a Nobel Prize
Although a degree of originality is a key requirement, research is never totally original.
Rather, it operates on the edge of what is already known; venturing forward but still
connected to and dependent on that which has been done before
Contributions come in many forms, Research in different country or during a different time
period, new technologies or new regulations

A good research question has:

- Has a question mark. Formulate your research question as a question
- Has no easy answer, but it is possible to find an answer
- Is relevant. Practical and/or theoretical relevance of your question is clear
 - Is feasible. Can your question be answered within the scheduled time. Is it not
formulated too small/too broad?
- Is not ambiguous/ is precise. Are the main concepts specified? Is it useful to mention
the setting?
- Uses - where possible - known concepts from your research domain
 Aids in reducing the work for a literature review
 Aids in the development of a conceptual or theoretical framework
 Aids in the development of hypotheses and clarifying relationships among variables
 Aids in decisions about the research design
 Stops you from going off in unnecessary directions
Research question can be quantitative (“Is (are) there” “Does” How much” “To what
extent”) or qualitative (Focuses on “how” and “why” things happen)

Exploring the literature

How to select articles, five principles
1. Research question as starting point
2. Start with a literature review or other synthesizing documents, instead of empirical
research that studies details
3. When reading an article, focus on main ideas: Read the abstract, introduction and
conclusion, not method and results
4. Ignore the more ‘popular’ articles…
5. Take time to reflect on what you found
Peer review as the cornerstone of the scientific process

Where to find scientific articles, book, PhD theses?

 Library: http://library.maastrichtuniversity.nl/ (LibSearch for e-journals and e-books)
 Databases (e.g. EBSCO, JSTOR, PsycINFO, SSRN,…)
 Google Scholar [full text-link/UM-link]
  Journals (see journal list)
 Snowball-method
 Personal webpages of important authors
 https://www.researchgate.net/
 https://www.ssrn.com

How to motivate your research questions?

Is the “so what?” test
 RQ is what you are going to investigate
 Motivation is why
 This usually narrows down to: (a) it would be useful or (b) it would fill in an area of
knowledge
A Good motivation has
 Seeks to set a scene
 Tells where you are coming from
 Creates context and highlights how it fits with previous studies/ known facts: –What
is the status quo on your topic?
 Points to shortcomings in existing research and approaches
 Indicates how your work will help fill the void
Can take the following forms:
- The knowledge on the topic has been limited
- There’s a mystery or puzzle or question that needs answering
- Published views of the matter conflict
- We can learn about a larger phenomenon by studying this smaller one
- This seemingly insignificant matter is actually important or interesting
- There’s an inconsistency, contradiction, or tension that needs explaining
- It is important to lay out where we still lack research
Final Research Proposal
- RP = research project that seeks to answer a clear research question on a
sustainability topic
- Max. 5 pages (excl. reference list)
- Introduction:  What, Why, How
- Body:  Literature review  Theoretical framework & RQ/hypotheses  Research design
& method
- Conclusion
- Reference list