What Is Diffraction?

- the spreading of waves as they pass through or around an obstacle.

- diffraction of light occurs when a light wave passes by a corner or through an opening
or slit that is physically the approximate size of, or even smaller than that light’s
wavelength.
Diffraction can be observed with various types of waves, such as:
 Light waves
 Sound waves
 Water waves
Interference
- Refers to the phenomenon of when two waves of the same kind overlap to give an
alternating spatial variation of large and small wave amplitude.
Types of Interference:
 Constructive Interference - the resultant wave has greater amplitude than the
individual waves.
 Destructive Interference - the resultant wave has lesser amplitude than the individual
waves.

The interference pattern

for a double slit has an intensity
that falls off with angle. The
photograph shows multiple bright and dark lines, or fringes, formed by light passing through
a double slit.

The Huygens' Principle

- Christiaan Huygens in 1678
- “Every point on a wavefront is a source of wavelets that spread out in the forward
direction at the same speed as the wave itself. The new wavefront is a line tangent to
all of the wavelets.”
- Rectilinear light theory - suggests light travels along straight paths.
Defining the Huygens Principle
Huygens principle is a method of analysis applied to wave propagation problems both in the
far-field limit and near-field diffraction and reflection. It states that:
“Every point on a wavefront is the source of spherical wavelets which spread out in the
forward direction at the speed of light. The sum of these spherical wavelets forms the
wavefront”.
However, this theory did not explain why refraction occurred in the first place. Secondly, it
could not explain how light carries energy as it travels.

Thomas Young
- Double-slit experiment (1801).
- Without diffraction and interference, the light would simply make two lines on the screen.
Young's experiment was based on the hypothesis that if light were wave-like in nature, then it
should behave in a manner like ripples or waves on a pond of water.

Isaac Newton
- Known for his
Law of Universal
Gravitation.
- Realized that
light had frequency-like properties when he used a prism to split sunlight into its
component colors.
- In 1700, concluded that light was a group of particles (corpuscular theory).

The
case
for a

particle nature for light is far stronger about the

reflection phenomenon than it is for refraction. Light emitted by a source, whether near or far,
arrives at the mirror surface as a stream of particles, which bounce away or are reflected from
the smooth surface.

THEORY OF RELATIVITY (Albert Einstein)

a. Special Relativity (1905)
- Applies to all physical phenomena in the absence of gravity.
b. General Relativity (1915)
c. Explains the law of gravitation and its relation to the forces of nature.
Postulate of Special Relativity
1. All the law of physics are the same in all inertial reference frame.
2. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers, regardless of the motion
of the source or the observer.
Frame of reference
- Any point from where an observer observes an event.
a. Inertial Frame of Reference - no external force is acting on a body
 b. Non-inertial Frame of Reference - undergoes acceleration
Time Dilation
- Phenomenon where time appears to pass more slowly for an object moving at a high
speeds compared to a stationary observer.
Length Contraction
- Phenomenon where objects appear to shorten in the direction of motion as they
approach the speed of light.
Atomic Phenomena
- Deal with the structure of atoms
- Investigate how the structure of atom affect its properties (stability, reactivity, state of
matter)
Nuclear Phenomena
- Involve the study of the nucleus of atoms.
- Focus on how the nucleus of an atom affect its properties (radioactivity, fission, and
fusion).
Nuclear Energy
- Energy in the nucleus or core of an atom.
Nuclear Reaction
- Reaction that involves the change in the identity or characteristics of an atomic
nucleus, induced by bombarding it with an energetic particle.
Four Main Types of Nuclear Reaction
Nuclear Fission
- Atoms are split into lighter nuclei to release energy.
- Splitting atom into two or more smaller ones.
Nuclear Fusion
- Two light nuclei merge to form a single heavier nucleus.
- Fusing two or more smaller atoms into a larger one.
Nuclear/ Radioactive Decay
- Occurs when a nucleus of an atom is unstable and spontaneously emits energy in the
form of radiation.
a. Alpha Decay
- Release or emission of an alpha particle (helium nucleus consisting of two protons
and neutrons).
- Occurs in larger and heavier atoms.
b. Beta Decay
- Occurs when a proton transform into a neutron or vice versa inside the nucleus.
c. Gamma Emission
- Emission of electromagnetic radiation of an extremely high frequency.
Nuclear Transmutation
- Conversation of one chemical element (isotopes) into another chemical element.
- Usually occur with unstable radioactive elements.
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
- “The emf induced in the circuit is directly proportional to the time rate of change of
the magnetic flux through the circuit.”
Electromagnetic Induction
 - Due to changing magnetic field, the electromagnetic force (EMF) is induced in a
circuit, and therefore current is produced.
1. First Law
- Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux associated with a coil, EMF is induced in
the coil.
2. Second Law
- The magnitude of EMF induced in the coil is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux associated with that coil
Induced EMF
Induced Currents
- Current cause by the change in flux through a closed circuit.
Motional EMF
Lens’s Law
Magnetic Flux
- Product of magnetic flux density and the area perpendicular to the field.
Induced Electrical Field
Inductance – tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in the electric current
flowing through it.
Magnetostatic
- Study of magnetic fields in systems where currents are steady.
Electromagnets
- Current flowing in a loop or coil of wire.
Permanent Magnets
- Atomic-level current loops.
Two major laws governing magnetostatic fields:
1. Biot - Savart’s Law
- Relates magnetic field to the current which are their sources.
- General law of magnetostatic
2. Ampere’s Circuit Law
- States the relation between the current and magnetic field created by it.
- Special case of Biot - Savart’s Law
- Apply in symmetrical current distribution.
Maxwell’s Equation
- Composed of four equations with one describes one phenomenon respectively.
1. Gauss’ Law = Static electric fields
2. Gauss’ Law = Static magnetic fields
3. Faraday’s Law = says a changing magnetic field produces an electric field.
4. Ampere-Maxwell’s Law = says a changing electric field produces a magnetic field.