Topology

August 19, 2023

1 Topological spaces
Definition 1.1. Let X be a nonempty set. A topology on X is a family T of subsets of
X satisfying the following properties.

(i) Φ and X are in T .

(ii) If Uα ∈ T for all α ∈ I(any index set). then ∪α∈I ∈ T .

(iii) If U1 , U2 , · · · Un are in T for some n ∈ N, then ∩ni=1 Ui ∈ T .

Definition 1.2. A tuple (X, T ) consisting of a set X and a topology T on X is called

a topological space.

Remark 1.3. (a) The following phrases

• (X, T ) is a topological space

• T is a topology on X,
• X carries the topology T

have the same meaning. If the topology T is understood from the context then we
simply say that X is a space.

(b) Element of X are called points; elements of T are called open sets. By a neigh-
borhood (nbd) of a point x, we mean an open set U containing x.

Example 1.4. (i) Let X be a nonempty set. Then I := {Φ, X} is a topology on X.

We call it the indiscrete topology on X. Here the only open sets are the empty set
and X.

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 (ii) Let X be a nonempty set. Then the power set 2X := {A : A ⊆ X} is a topology on
X. We call it the discrete topology on X. Here all subsets of X are open.

(iii) Let X be a set, and x0 ∈ X. Define

Tx0 = {A ⊆ X : x0 ∈ A} ∪ {Φ}.

Exercise Show that Tx0 is a topology on X.

(iv) Let X = R. Define

T = {U ⊆ R : for any x ∈ U, there exists r > 0such that (x − r, x + r) ⊆ U }.

Exercise : Verify that T is a topology on X.

We call T the Euclidean Topology or the standard topology on R.

(v) Let X be any nonempty set. Define

Tf in := {A ⊂ X : X \ A is either a finite set or equal to X}.

Then Tf in is a topology on X, called, the finite complement topology or the co-finite

topology.

(vi) Let X be any nonempty set. Define

Tc := {A ⊂ X : X \ A is either countable or equal to X}.

Then Tc is a topology on X, called, the co-countable topology.

Definition 1.5. Let T and T ′ be two topologies on X. We say that T is finer than T ′
(or T ′ is coarser than T ) if T ′ ⊂ T . We call T is strictly finer than T ′ if T ′ ⊊ T . We
say that T is comparable with T ′ if either T ⊂ T ′ or T ′ ⊂ T .

Exercise: Consider co-finite topology Tf in , co-countable topology Tc , and the standard

topology T on R. Decide if they are comparable or not. If yes, then which one is finer?

Exercise: Let {Tα }α∈I be a collection of topologies on a set X. Show that ∩α∈I Tα is a
topology on X. Is ∪α∈I Tα a topology on X?
The last exercise enable us to define what is called the smallest topology containing a
collection of subsets of X.

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Definition 1.6. Let ξ be a collection of subsets of X. Consider

I = {T ⊂ 2X : T is a topology on X such that ξ ⊂ T }.

Define
Tξ := ∩α∈I Tα .
The topology Tξ is called the smallest topology containg ξ or the topology generated by
ξ.

Exercise: Let X be a set. Take

ξ = {{x} : x ∈ X}.

Find the smallest topology Tξ generated by ξ.

Exercise: Let X be a set, and x0 ∈ X. Take

ξ = {{x, x0 } : x ∈ X}.

Find the smallest topology Tξ generated by ξ.

2 Basis for the/a Topology

2.1 Basis for the topology
Definition 2.1. Let (X, T ) be a topological space. A collection B of subsets of X is
called a basis for T if B ⊂ T , and each open set can be written as a union of elements
of B.

Exercise: Prove that the topology generated by a basis B is T .

Theorem 2.2. Let (X, T ) be a topological space, and B ⊂ T . The following are equiva-
lent:

(i) B is a basis of T .

(ii) For each U ∈ T and x ∈ U , there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ U .

Proof : (i) =⇒ (ii) : One has,

U = ∪α∈I Bα , Bα ∈ B.

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Given x ∈ U , there exists α ∈ I such that x ∈ Bα . Hence we have

x ∈ Bα ⊂ U.

(ii) =⇒ (i) : Take U ∈ T . Assume that for each x ∈ U , there exists Bx ∈ B such that

x ∈ Bx ⊂ U.

Then it is not difficult to see that

U = ∪x∈U Bx .

Theorem 2.3. Let B is a basis of T . Then U is open if and only if for each x ∈ U there
exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ U .

Proof : If U is open, the condition follows from previous theorem. Conversely, assume
the condition holds. Take U such that for each x ∈ U there exists Bx ∈ B such that
x ∈ Bx ⊂ U . In that case, it is easy to see that U = ∪x∈U Bx . This prove that U is open.
□

2.2 Basis for a topology

Question: How to generate (or construct ) a topology on a set X?
Answer: via Basis (or Subbasis)

Definition 2.4. Let X be a set. A collection B consisting of subsets of X is called basis

for a topology if it satisfies the following conditions.

(i) For each x ∈ X, there exist B ∈ B such that x ∈ B.

(ii) If x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 , B1 , B2 ∈ B, then there exists B3 ∈ B such that

x ∈ B3 ⊂ B1 ∩ B2 .

Example: Take X = R. Consider

Bd := {{x} : x ∈ X}.

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Show that Bd is a basis for a topology.
Example: Take X = R. Consider

B := {(a, b) : a < b}. (2.1)

Bl := {[a, b) : a < b}. (2.2)
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Bk := {(a, b) : a < b} ∪ {(a, b) \ { : n ∈ N} : a < b}. (2.3)
n
Show that each of these collections is a basis for a topology.
Example: Take X = R2 . Consider

Bcirc := { open circular regions in R2 }. (2.4)

Brect := { open rectangular regions in R2 }. (2.5)

Show that each of these collections is a basis for a topology.

Aim: To get a topology from a basis?

Let B be a basis for a topology on X. Define

T := {U ⊂ X : for each x ∈ U, there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊂ U }.

Theorem 2.5. The collection T is a topology on X.

Proof : Ex □

Remark 2.6. It follows from Theorem 2.2 that B is a basis for the topology T . Hence
any open set U ∈ T can be written as a union of elements of B.
′ ′
Theorem 2.7. Let B and B be bases for the toplogies T and T , respectively on X. The
following are equivalent.
′
(i) T is finer than T .
′ ′
(ii) For each x ∈ X and a basis element B ∈ B, there exists a basis element B ∈ B
′
such that x ∈ B ⊂ B.
′ ′
Proof : (i) =⇒ (ii) : One has B ∈ T ⊂ T . Now the claim follows from the fact that B
′
is a basis of T .
(ii) =⇒ (i) : Take U ∈ T . For each x ∈ U , there exists Bx ∈ B such that x ∈ Bx ⊂ U .
′ ′
By (ii), one gets Bx ∈ B such that
′
x ∈ Bx ⊂ B ⊂ U.

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 ′
This proves that U ∈ T . □

Exercise: We defined three bases B, Bl , Bk on R. Call the topology generated by

B, Bl , Bk the standard topology T , the lower limit topology Tl , and K-topology.Tk , re-
spectively. Decide whether they are comparable, and if yes then which one is finer.

Exercise: Do the same with the topologies generated by Bcirc and Brect .
Exercise: Define
C = {f : [0, 1] → C : f is continuous}.
For f ∈ C and r > 0, define
n Z 1 o
M (f, r) = g ∈ C : |f (x) − g(x)| dx < r .
0

Show that
B1 := {M (f, r) : f ∈ C, r > 0}
is a basis for a topology on C.
Exercise: Define
C = {f : [0, 1] → C : f is continuous}.
For f ∈ C and r > 0, define

U (f, r) = {g ∈ C : |f (x) − g(x)| < r ∀x ∈ [0, 1]}.

Show that
B∞ := {U (f, r) : f ∈ C, r > 0}
is a basis for a topology on C.
Exercise: Prove that the topology generated by B∞ is strictly finer that the topology
generated by B1 .

Definition 2.8. Let (X, T ) be a topological space.

(i) An element of the topology is called an open set. A subset A is closed if its
complement X \ A is open.

(ii) Elements of a basis are called basis elements.

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Exercise: Show that

(i) ϕ and X are closed sets.

(ii) Finite union of closed sets are closed.

(iii) Arbitrary intersection of closed sets are closed.

3 Subspace Topology
Definition 3.1. Let (X, T ) be a topological space, and Y be a subset of X. Define

TY := {U ∩ Y : U ∈ T }.

It is easy to see that TY is a topology on Y , called, the subspace topology on Y . We call

Y when equipped with the subspace topology, a subspace of X.

Example 3.2. Consider R with the standard topology.

(i) In the subspace topology on [0, 1], the set [0, 21 ) is open as

1 1
[0, ) = (−1, ) ∩ [0, 1].
2 2

(ii) In the subspace topology on Y = [0, 1] ∪ (3, 4), the set [0, 1] is open as

[0, 1] = (−1, 2) ∩ [0, 1] ∪ (3, 4) = (−1, 2) ∩ Y.

(iii) On any finite subset of R, the subspace topology is the same as the discrete topology.

(iv) On N or on Z, the subspace topology is the same as the discrete topology.

(v) On { n1 : n ∈ N}, the subspace topology is the same as the discrete topology.

Question: Is the subspace topology on { n1 : n ∈ N} ∪ {0} same as the discrete topology?

Question: Is the subspace topology on Q same as the discrete topology?

Proposition 3.3. Let B be a basis for the topology T on X. Then

BY = {B ∩ Y : B ∈ B}

is a basis for the subspace topology on Y .

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Proof : Take a point y in an open set U ∩ Y of the subspace topology. Since y ∈ U , it
follows that there exists a basis element B ∈ B such that

y ∈ B ⊂ U.

We have
y ∈ B ∩ Y ⊂ U ∩ Y.
This shows that BY is a basis for the subspace topology. □

Proposition 3.4. Let Y be a subspace of X. If U is open in Y and Y is open in X then

U is open in X.

Proof : Ex. □
Exercise: Let Y be a subspace of X and A be a subset of Y . Show that the subspace
topology on C inherited from X is same as the subspace topology on C inherited from
Y.

4 Product Topology
Definition 4.1. Let (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ) be topological spaces. Consider

B := {U × V : U ∈ TX , Y ∈ TY }.

Exercise: The set B is a basis for a topology on X × Y .

Hint: Use ()U1 × V1 ) ∩ (U2 × V2 ) = (U1 ∩ U2 ) × (V1 ∩ V2 ).
The topology generated by B is called the product topology TX×Y on X × Y .

Theorem 4.2. Let BX be a basis for the topology TX on X, and BY be a basis for the
topology TY on Y . Then

BX×Y = {B × C : B ∈ BX , C ∈ BY }

is a basis for the product topology on X × Y .

Proof : It is easy to see that BX×Y ⊂ TX×Y . Let W be an open set in the product
topology TX×Y , and x × y ∈ W . There exists a basis element U × V, U ∈ TX , V ∈ TY
such that
x × y ⊂ U × V ⊂ W.

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Since x ∈ U , there exists B ∈ BX such that x ∈ B ⊂ U . Similarly, there exists C ∈ BY
such that y ∈ C ⊂ V . Hence we have

x × y ∈ B × C ⊂ U × V ⊂ W.

□
Define π1 : X × Y → X and π2 : X × Y → Y by

π1 (x, y) = x, π2 (x, y) = y, for (x, y) ∈ X × Y.

The maps π1 and π2 are called projection of X × Y onto X and Y , respectively.

Exercise: Show that

(i) Both, π1 and π2 are surjective maps.

(ii) π1−1 (U ) = U × Y ; π2−1 (V ) = X × V ; for U ⊂ X, V ⊂ Y .

(iii) Use π1−1 (U ) ∩ π2−1 (V ) = U × V to see that the topology generated by

δ := {π1−1 (U ), π2−1 (V ) : U ∈ TX , V ∈ TY }

is the product topology TX×Y .

5 Metric Toploogy
Definition 5.1. A map d : X × X → R+ is called a metric if it satisfies the following
conditions:
(i) d(x, x) = 0 for all x ∈ X.

(ii) d(x, y) > 0 if x ̸= y.

(iii) Symmetry: d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y ∈ X.

(iv) Triangle Inequality: d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all x, y, z ∈ X.

For x, y ∈ X, the positive real number d(x, y) denotes the distance between x and y.
Definition 5.2. Suppose d is a metric on X, and x ∈ X. Let r > 0. The set

Bd (x, r) := {y ∈ X : d(x, y) < r}.

is called the ball of radius r around x or the r-ball centered at x. We will write B(x, r)
if the metric d is understood from the context.

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Example 5.3. (i) Let X be a nonempty set. Define

0 if x = y,
d(x, y) =
1 if x ̸= y.

One can check that d is a metric on X. We call it the discrete metric on X.

Exercise: Find Bd (x, 1) and Bd (x, 2).

(ii) Let d be a metric on X. Define d : X × X → R+ as follows:

d(x, y) = min{d(x, y), 1}.

Then d is a metric on X.
Exercise: Show that Bd (x, r) = Bd (x, r) if r ≤ 1, and Bd (x, r) = X if r > 1.

(iii) For x, y ∈ R, define

d(x, y) = |x − y|.
One can check that d is a metric. It is called Euclidean metric on R.

(iv) For x = (x1 , x2 , · · · xn ), y = (y1 , y2 , · · · yn ), ∈ Rn , define

v
u n
uX
d(x, y) = t (xi − yi )2 .
i=1

One can check that d is a metric. It is called Euclidean metric or ℓ2 -metric on Rn .

(v) For x = (x1 , x2 , · · · xn ), y = (y1 , y2 , · · · yn ), ∈ Rn , define

n
X
d1 (x, y) = |xi − yi |.
i=1

One can check that d is a metric. It is called ℓ1 -metric on Rn .

(vi) For x = (x1 , x2 , · · · xn ), y = (y1 , y2 , · · · yn ), ∈ Rn , define

d∞ (x, y) = max{ |xi − yi | : 1 ≤ i ≤ n}.

One can check that d is a metric. It is called ℓ∞ -metric on Rn .

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(vii) Let
C([0, 1]) = {f : [0, 1] → R : f is continuous}.
Define
d(f, g) = max{|f (x) − g(x)| : x ∈ [0, 1]}.
Show that d is a metric on C([0, 1]).

Definition 5.4. Let d be a metric on X. Consider

B := {Bd (x, r) : r > 0, x ∈ X}.

Using the properties of a metric, one can check that B is a basis for a topology (see the
proposition below). The topology generated by the basis B is called the metric topology
Td on X, induced by the metric d. The topological space induced by a metric is called a
metric space. We denote the metric space by (X, d).

Proposition 5.5. The collection

B := {Bd (x, r) : r > 0, x ∈ X}

is a basis for a topology.

Proof : Take x ∈ X. Then x ∈ Bd (x, 1). To verify the second defining condition of
a basis, take y ∈ Bd (x1 , r1 ) ∩ Bd (x2 , r2 ). Let d(y, x1 ) = s1 and d(y, x2 ) = s2 . Take
r = min{r1 − s1 , r2 − s2 }. To show the claim, it suffices to prove that

Bd (y, r) ⊂ Bd (x1 , r1 ) ∩ Bd (x2 , r2 ).

For that, take z ∈ Bd (y, r). Then we have

d(x1 , z) ≤ d(x1 , y) + d(y, z) < s1 + r ≤ s1 + r1 − s1 = r1 .

Hence z ∈ Bd (x1 , r1 ). Similarly,

d(x2 , z) ≤ d(x2 , y) + d(y, z) < s2 + r ≤ s2 + r2 − s2 = r2 .

Hence z ∈ Bd (x1 , r1 ). This proves that z ∈ Bd (x1 , r1 ) ∩ Bd (x2 , r2 ). □

Remark 5.6. Note that if y ∈ Bd (x1 , r1 ) ∩ Bd (x2 , r2 ) then there exists r > 0 such that

Bd (y, r) ⊂ Bd (x1 , r1 ) ∩ Bd (x2 , r2 ).

In fact, whenever y ∈ B(z, r), there exists s (may depend on y, z, r) such that

Bd (y, s) ⊂ Bd (z, r).

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Proposition 5.7. In the metrc topology, a subset U of X is open if for each x ∈ U ,
there exists a ball Bd (x, r) centered at x such that Bd (x, r) ⊂ U .

Proof : It follows from the definition of a basis and the remark above. □

Theorem 5.8. Let d and d′ be the two metrics on X, inducing the topologies T and T ′ ,
respectively. Then T ′ is finer than T if and only if for each x ∈ X and r > 0, there
exists s > 0 such that
Bd′ (x, s) ⊂ Bd (x, r).

Proof :
□

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