The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Department of Electrical Engineering

High Voltage Engineering

EE509/EE509A/EE509B/EE509D
Prof. Derek S. W. Or

2020 / 2021
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Electrical Insulation ................................................................................ 1-1
1.1 Background ....................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Electric Fields ................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.3 Dielectric Breakdowns...................................................................................................................... 1-4
1.4 Fundamentals of Gaseous, Liquid, and Solid Insulation and Breakdown ........................................ 1-5
1.4.1 Gaseous Insulation and Breakdown ................................................................................... 1-5
1.4.2 Liquid Insulation and Breakdown ...................................................................................... 1-6
1.4.3 Solid Insulation and Breakdown ........................................................................................ 1-7
1.5 Industrial Applications of Electrical Insulating Materials ................................................................ 1-9
1.5.1 Essences of Applications .................................................................................................... 1-9
1.5.2 Applications in Rotating Machines .................................................................................. 1-11
1.5.3 Applications in Cables ...................................................................................................... 1-12
1.5.4 Applications in Power Transformers ................................................................................ 1-13
1.5.5 Applications in Power Capacitors .................................................................................... 1-15
1.6 Supplementary Information on Insulating Materials ...................................................................... 1-17
1.6.1 Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Gas ....................................................................................... 1-17
1.6.2 Petroleum Oil (Transformer Oil) ...................................................................................... 1-20
1.6.3 Solid Dielectrics ............................................................................................................... 1-22
1.7 References....................................................................................................................................... 1-36

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Chapter 1
Introduction to Electrical Insulation
1.1 Background

In modern times, high voltages are used in a wide variety of applications covering electrical power systems,
renewable energy systems, transportation systems, communication systems, medical equipment, research
laboratories, etc. These applications are essential to sustain modern civilization. For examples, high voltages are
utilized to transmit large bulks of power over long distances; are employed to energize high-speed and intercity
railway systems; are used to sustain the operation of power transmitters; are deployed in X-ray tubes for medical
equipment; and are applied in laboratories for nuclear research. The various conditions under which high voltages
are used require a careful design of their electrical insulation. The principal media of electrical insulation are: (1)
Gases (including vacuum), (2) Liquids, (3) Solids, and (4) A combination of them (e.g., coils/transformers with
epoxy molding and oil impregnation). For reliability, safety, and economy reasons, it is important for electrical
engineers to have knowledge of electrical insulating materials and insulation failures. In this chapter, some of the
general principles, concepts, materials, and applications in relation to electrical insulation are introduced.

1.2 Electric Fields

The electric field intensity E (units: V/m) at any location in an electrostatic field is the ratio of the force acting
on an infinitely small (point) charge at that location to the charge itself as the charge decreases to zero. The force F
acting on any charge q at that point in the field is given by Coulomb’s law as follows:

𝐅 = 𝑞 𝐄. (1.1)

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 The electric flux density D (units: C/m2) associated with the electric field intensity E is

𝐃 = 𝜀 𝐄, (1.2)

where 𝜀 = 𝜀r 𝜀0 (units: F/m) is the permittivity of the (dielectric) medium in which the electric field exists; 𝜀r is the
relative permittivity or the dielectric constant; and 𝜀0 = 8.85410-12 F/m is the permittivity of free space or the
absolute permittivity.

The work done on a charge moving in an electric field is defined as the electric potential 𝜑 (units: V) which, in
integral form, is expressed as

𝜑 = ∫𝑙 𝐄 𝑑𝑙, (1.3)

where l is the path through which the charge is moved.

The electric field intensity E, in point form, is numerically equal to the electric potential gradient 𝛁𝜑 by

𝐄 = −𝛁 𝜑, (1.4)

where 𝛁 (gradient, read “del” operator) is a vector differential operator defined as

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛁 ≡ 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
in the rectangular coordinate.

It is noted that electrons can move freely in a conductor under the influence of an electric field. This means that
the charges are distributed inside and over the surface of the conductor such that E = 0 in all places of the
conductor. Since E in Eq. (1.4) vanishes, it is necessary that 𝜑 is constant inside and on the surface of the
conductor; that is, the conductor has an “equipotential” surface with maximal charges and currents.

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 In the presence of an electric field, a coordinate movement of free electrons occurs but that the average space
charge density remains zero at any point in the conductive medium. This movement of free electrons is referred to
as an electric current and can be described as a current density vector J. In a conductive medium, the relationship
between J and E is known as Ohm’s law:

𝐉 = 𝜎𝐄, (1.5)

where  is the conductivity of the medium (units: S).

The electric (conduction) current I passing through some open surface is defined as the net positive charge Q
passing through that surface per unit of time t as follows:
𝑑𝑄
𝐼= . (1.6)
𝑑𝑡

A simple capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a dielectric medium. If one conductor surface
contains positive charge +Q and the other has negative charge –Q, and if the potential difference between them is
𝜑12 , the capacitance of such a capacitor is defined as the ratio of charge Q to the potential difference 𝜑12 by
𝑄
𝐶= . (1.7)
𝜑12

If the charge is not distributed uniformly over the two conductor surfaces, and if the charge density is ρ and the
electric field intensity in the dielectric medium is E, then
∬ 𝜌𝑑𝑆
𝐶 = 2S , (1.8)
∫1 𝐄 𝑑𝑙
where S is the closed surface containing the charge and l is the path through which the charge is moved.

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1.3 Dielectric Breakdowns

In high voltage equipment, the important materials used are: (1) Conductors and (2) Insulators. Conductors
promote the flow of electric currents, while insulators prevent the flow of electric currents to undesired paths or
circuits. If, due to some reasons, the flow of an electric current deviates from the desired path or circuit, the electric
potential associated with that path or circuit will drop as in the case of “short circuit”.

Normally, all dielectrics are good insulators at sufficiently low magnitudes of electric field intensities. However,
as the applied electric field increases, the electrons bound to the molecules of the dielectric will be subject to higher
forces as reflected by Eq. (1.1): 𝐅 = 𝑞 𝐄, and some of them will be “free” from their molecular bonding. The
electrons move in the opposite direction to the applied electric field, thus creating electric current as indicated by
Eq. (1.6): 𝐼 = 𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝑡. This is a temporary phenomenon in gases in which a combination occurs when the electric
field is removed, but is a partial or permanent phenomenon in liquids and solids. The phenomenon is called
dielectric breakdown, and the magnitude of an electric field leading to the dielectric breakdown and destroy of the
insulation properties of dielectric materials is called dielectric breakdown strength. Dielectric breakdown
strength is usually expressed in kV/cm, MV/cm, or MV/m. The basic ideas of the electrical insulating materials and
their breakdown mechanisms are presented in later sections, while their details are discussed in later chapters.

Besides the dielectric breakdown strength ⎯ an intrinsic property of insulating materials, the electric field
stress developed in insulating materials when subjected to a high voltage is another important parameter in high
voltage engineering. According to Eq. (1.4): 𝐄 = −𝛁𝜑, the electric field stress to which an insulating material is
subject to is equal to E, and is numerically equal to 𝛁𝜑. In other words, the dielectric breakdown strength of an
insulating material can be defined as the maximum dielectric stress that the material can withstand. It can also be
characterized by the maximum electric field stress required to cause a breakdown in a dielectric insulation. The
dielectric breakdown strength of insulating materials depends on a variety of parameters such as pressure,
temperature, humidity, field configurations, nature of applied voltage, imperfections in dielectric materials,
electrode materials, surface conditions of electrodes, etc. An understanding of the failure of the insulation will be
possible by the study of the insulation breakdown mechanisms to be talked in the following chapters.

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1.4 Fundamentals of Gaseous, Liquid, and Solid Insulation and Breakdown

1.4.1 Gaseous Insulation and Breakdown

Breakdown in gases occurs as a result of collision ionization. Electrons can be emitted from the cathode
electrode if the electric field stress is 100–1,000 kV/cm due to field emission. Electrons in the outermost orbit bear
the least attraction forces from the central nucleus, so they can be “free” easily by the collision of electrons.
Electrons get multiplied in an exponential manner, and if the applied electric field stress is sufficiently large,
breakdown occurs. The breakdown strength of gases increases steadily with the gap distance between the
electrodes, while the electric field stress reduces greatly from ~30 kV/cm for small distances of several centimeters
to ~6 kV/cm for large distances of several meters under uniform fields. For very large gaps as in lightning, the
average stress reduces to 1–3 kV/cm. The breakdown in gases can be described by Townsend and Streamer
breakdown mechanisms.

Air at atmospheric pressure is the most common gaseous insulation with the breakdown strength of
~100 kV/cm. High pressure (or compressed) gases have relatively larger breakdown strengths because free
electrons have been intentionally attached to neutral gas molecules to form negative ions via an electron attachment
process. Nitrogen (N2) was the firstly used high pressure gas due to its inertness and chemical stability, but its
breakdown strength is the same as that of air. Other practical insulating gases are carbon dioxide (CO2),
dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) (a nonflammable hydrocarbons popularly known as Freon), and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6). Among them, SF6 has the most attractive arc quenching properties and breakdown strength of
~250 kV/cm (~2.5 times larger than N2 and CO2 at atmospheric pressure).

Vacuum is the best insulator with breakdown strengths up to 10,000 kV/cm, limited only by emission from the
electrode surfaces. Breakdown strength decreases to <100 kV/cm for gap distance of several centimeters. Under
high vacuum conditions where pressures are as low as 10-3–10-6 torr (1 torr = 1 mm of Hg), breakdown cannot
generally occur. Vacuum insulation is used in particle accelerators, X-ray and field emission tubes, electron
microscopes, capacitors, circuit breakers, etc.

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1.4.2 Liquid Insulation and Breakdown

Liquids are mainly used to provide the dual purpose of electrical insulation and heat conduction (or removal).
The most attractive feature of liquid insulation is the self-healing of puncture paths. That is, temporary failures due
to overvoltage are reinsulated quickly by liquid flow to the attacked area. However, discharge products may
deposit on solid insulation supports, leading to surface breakdown over the solid supports.

Highly purified liquids have breakdown strengths as high as 1,000 kV/cm, being ~10 times higher than air and
N2. Under actual service conditions, however, the breakdown strength reduces greatly due to the presence of
impurities. The breakdown mechanism is the same as the gas breakdown in highly purified liquids, but in
commercial liquids, the breakdown mechanisms are significantly changed by the presence of the impurities (e.g.,
gas or vapor bubbles, moisture or water droplets, solid particles, etc.) with several times reduction in the
breakdown strengths in general.

The important electrical properties of liquid insulation include dielectric strength, conductivity, flash point, gas
content, viscosity, dielectric constant, dissipation factor, stability, etc. Petroleum oils (transformer oils) are the
most common commercial liquids with breakdown strengths of ~150 kV/cm. Askarels (the generic name for a
number of synthetic chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons; very toxic) (200–250 kV/cm) and silicone oils (300–400
kV/cm) are used in transformers and capacitors due to their high operating temperatures in excess of 200 ºC.
Organic esters (including castor oils) (~200 kV/cm) and polybutenes are good for high voltage energy storage
capacitors because of their low dielectric losses. Hexanes (~300 kV/cm) are useful for cables.

In practical applications, liquids are normally used at much reduced electric field stress levels of 50–60 kV/cm
to minimize the effect of heating when the equipment is continuously operated. In applications like high voltage
bushings where the liquid only fills up the voids in the solid dielectrics, it can be used at elevated electric field
stress levels of 100–200 kV/cm.

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1.4.3 Solid Insulation and Breakdown

Homogenous and truly perfect solids have breakdown strengths as high as 10,000 kV/cm, being 10 times higher
than liquids and 100 times larger than air. The breakdown in solids occurs over the surface rather than in the solid
themselves so that the surface insulation failure is the most frequent cause of trouble in practice.

When breakdown occurs on the surface of a solid insulator, it can be a simple flashover on the surface or
formation of a conducting path on the surface called tracking, both resulting in the degradation of the insulation.
Surface flashover often occurs in the case when the solid insulator is immersed in a liquid dielectric. Porcelain (a
ceramic) insulators for use in power transmission lines are designed to have a long path over the surface, typically
20–30 times greater than that through the solid, but yet surface breakdown is still a frequent type of failure.

The failure of solid insulation themselves is called treeing. The phenomenon occurs when imperfections appear
either at the interfaces between the solid insulators and the conductors or inside the solid insulators.

The failure of solid insulation by discharges in general is called partial discharges (PDs). Partial discharges
may occur in the internal voids and cavities of the solids. The energy dissipated in the partial discharges causes
further deterioration of the cavity walls and gives rise to further evolution of gas. This is a cumulative process
eventually leading to breakdown. Partial discharges are receiving much attention today since it determines the life
versus stress characteristics of a solid insulator. In practice, it is impossible to completely eliminate partial
discharges, but it is possible to control them at a certain level by the expected operating life of the equipment. For
high voltage applications, cast epoxy resin (a thermosetting polymer) can solve many problems, but great care
should be taken during casting. Vacuum impregnation of the insulation can also help to minimize the effect of the
partial discharges. High voltage switchgears, bushings, cables, and transformers are typical devices for which
partial discharges should be considered in design.

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 As an important supplementary to electrical solid conductors and insulators, Fig. 1.1 shows the intrinsic
physical properties of the three basic categories of solid materials: (1) Metals, (2) Ceramics, and (3) Polymers.

Fig. 1.1 Intrinsic physical properties of metals, ceramics, and polymers.

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1.5 Industrial Applications of Electrical Insulating Materials

1.5.1 Essences of Applications

There is no piece of electrical equipment that does not need electrical insulation to prevent the flow of electric
current to undesired paths or circuits. Electrical insulation is used wherever there is a potential difference between
adjacent conducting bodies that carry currents. There are four main areas where electrical insulation must be
applied. They are:

(a) Between turns in a coil (inter-turn),

(b) Between coils of the same phase (inter-coil),
(c) Between coils of different phases (phase-to-phase), and
(d) Between coils and earth (phase-to-earth).

There are three main categories of electrical insulating materials: (1) Gases, (2) Liquids, and (3) Solids. While
insulation is primarily used to resist electric field stresses, the performance of an insulator depends on its operating
temperature. The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of its chemical deterioration and the lower the useful
life will result. Thus, it is required to determine the operating temperature limit for insulation in order to ensure
safe operation over its expected life. In the field of electrical insulation, the insulating materials are generally
grouped into four different classes as follows:

Class O: Up to 90 ºC Organic materials (papers, polymers, woods, cottons, pressboards,

waxes, etc.) without impregnation.
Class A: Up to 105 ºC Organic materials with impregnation.
Class B: Up to 130 ºC Inorganic materials (glasses, ceramics, mica, etc.) with a binder.
Class C: No specific limit fixed Inorganic materials without a binder.

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 With the development of newer insulating materials, such as plastics and silicones, during the middle of the last
century, a need was felt to reorganize the classification of the insulating materials. This led IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) to come up with the following new classes:

Class Y (formerly O): 90 ºC Paper, cotton, silk, natural rubber, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), etc.
without impregnation.
Class A: 105 ºC Same as Class Y but with impregnation, plus nylon.
Class E: 120 ºC Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (terylene fiber, melinex film),
cellulose triacetate, polyurethanes (PU), polyvinyl acetate (PVA)
enamel.
Class B: 130 ºC Mica, fiberglass (alkali free alumino borosilicate), bituminized
asbestos, Bakelite (phenolics), polyester (PET) enamel.
Class F: 155 ºC As Class B but with epoxy- and alkyd-based resins.
Class H: 180 ºC As Class B but with silicone resin binder, silicone rubber, aromatic
polyamide (nomex paper and fiber), polyimide film (enamel, varnish
and film), and stermide enamel.
Class C: >180 ºC As Class B but with suitable inorganic binders; Teflon
(polytetraflouroethylene, PTFE).

The temperatures mentioned above can only be regarded as an index to compare the various insulating
materials; they cannot be treated as the limiting operating temperatures. All the standards permit the equipment to
work up to these temperatures, but in practice, certain differentials are allowed because of the overloads,
manufacturing advantages, and economics.

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1.5.2 Applications in Rotating Machines

Rotating machines are normally divided into two groups: (1) Low Voltage Machines with ratings <6.6 kV and
(2) High Voltage Machines. High voltage machines with ratings >22 kV rating are not usually built due to the
difficulty in insulating ultrahigh voltages. Table 1.1 shows the various materials used in modern rotating machines.
The two extreme classes, Class Y (90 ºC) and Class C (>180 ºC), find no application in rotating machines. Class E
(120 ºC), which has been widely used in low voltage machines for over 20 years, is now being replaced by Class F
(155 ºC) for higher voltage machines. Also, Class F is being increasingly used in place of Class B (130 ºC). Hence,
Class F appears to be the insulation of the future. Considerable progress has been made in recent years to reduce
the size of the machines for a given rating by using Class H (180 ºC) and Class C, particularly, for small machines.
However, the costs of Class H (with silicones) and Class C (with Teflon) are very high, and they are only used
under special conditions like severe overloads in traction motors and mill motors.

Table 1.1 Various materials used in modern rotating machines.

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1.5.3 Applications in Cables

The physical properties required for wire and cable insulation depend on the type of application. Electrically,
they should also have low dielectric permittivity, dielectric loss, and power factor but high dielectric strength and
insulation resistance. Mechanically, they should have good elongation, tensile strength, and toughness to withstand
handling during installation and service. Thermally, they should have excellent resistance to aging at high
temperatures and to withstand long exposure to sunlight and various chemicals. For underwater environment, they
should have very low water absorption. For low-temperature environment, they should not become stiff and brittle.

Table 1.2 gives the various insulating materials for cables and their maximum cable operating voltages and
range of operating temperatures. Paper-insulated, lead-sheathed cables are still used because of their reliability,
high dielectric strength, low dielectric loss, and long life, but low operating temperatures (<100 ºC) in general.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE) are commonly used in low and medium voltage (<3.3 kV) cables.
Teflon (PTFE) is best-suited for high voltage (<5 kV) and temperature (<250 ºC) operations. Silicone rubber forms
very little carbon when destroyed by fire, and as such it continues to function even after the fire. It is thus used for
aircraft cables where contamination with aircraft fuel can occur at high temperatures.

Table 1.2 Some important insulating materials for cables.

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1.5.4 Applications in Power Transformers

Transformers are liable to lightning and other high voltage surges, so the insulation has to withstand very high
impulse voltages many times the power frequency operating voltages. The transformer insulation is broadly
divided into five main areas:

(a) Conductor or turn-to-turn insulation,

(b) Coil-to-coil insulation,
(c) Low voltage coil-to-earth insulation,
(d) High voltage coil-to-low voltage coil insulation, and
(e) High voltage coil-to-ground insulation.

For (a), organic enamel is directly applied on the conductor in smaller rating transformers, whereas paper or
glass tape is wrapped on the rectangular conductors in higher rating transformers.

For (b), Kraft paper is used in smaller transformers, whereas thick radial spacers made of pressboard, glass
fabric, or porcelain are used in higher rating transformers.

For (c), (d), and (e), solid tubes combined with liquid- or gas-filled spacers are used to help in removing the
heat from the core and coil structure and also in improving the insulation strengths.

Oil-impregnated paper and pressboard are extensively used in liquid-filled transformers. However, the lack of
thermal stability at higher temperatures limits their use in continuously operated transformers up to 105 ºC. Also,
paper absorbs moisture very rapidly from the atmosphere so that it should be kept free of moisture during its life in
transformers.

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 Transformer oil (petroleum oil) provides the required dielectric strength and insulation, besides cooling the
transformer by circulating itself through the core and the coil structure. However, it should be in the liquid state
over the complete operating temperature range of -40 – +50 ºC. The transformer oil gets oxidized when exposed to
oxygen (O2) at high temperatures, resulting in the formation of undesirable products such as peroxides, water,
organic acids, and sludge. These products cause chemical deterioration of the paper insulation and the metal parts
of the transformer. Sludge, being heavy, reduces the heat transfer by forming a heat insulating layer on the coil
structure, the core, and the tank walls. In present-day transformers, the oxidation problem is minimized by using
sealed transformers, by filling the air space with N2 gas, and by providing O2 absorbers like activated clay or
alumina.

When an arc discharge occurs inside a transformer, the oil decomposition occurs and produces explosible
products of hydrogen and hydrocarbon gases. Thus, oil-insulated transformers are seldom used inside buildings or
other hazardous locations like mines, but dry-type and liquid (askarel)- or gas (SF6)-filled transformers are used
instead. Askarel is a fireproof liquid, more stable to oxidation and arcing, and does not form acids or sludge, at the
expense of giving out very toxic and paper insulation-attackable hydrochloric acid. Also, askarel cannot be used in
high voltage transformers, because the impulse strength of askarel-impregnated paper is very low compared to that
of oil-impregnated paper. Moreover, its dielectric strength deteriorates rapidly at high voltages and at high
frequencies releasing hydrochloric acid.

Even today, there is no perfect all purpose transformer fluid. In recent years, progress has been made with the
use of fluorocarbon liquids and SF6 gas. SF6-insulated transformers become popular, but fluorocarbon liquids are
not because of their high cost.

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1.5.5 Applications in Power Capacitors

Power capacitors are indispensable for power system administration, voltage regulation of power transmission
systems, and improvement of power factor of power distribution networks. They are made in simple units with
voltage ratings of 220–13,800 V with kVAR ratings varying from 0.5–25 kVAR. They are generally formed by
several layers of insulating paper of adequate thickness and aluminum foil of 6 μm thickness as electrodes
interleaved and wound. Single units are connected in parallel depending on the rating of the capacitor unit to be
manufactured. These are placed in containers hermetically sealed, thoroughly dried, and then impregnated with
insulating oil.

The insulation paper should have high dielectric strength, low dielectric loss, high dielectric constant, uniform
thickness, and minimum conducting particles. Polypropylene (PP) film has generally good properties, but paper is
still widely used mainly due to the cost.

The impregnating oils should provide high dielectric strength, dielectric constant equal to that of paper, high
permeability to paper, and sufficient viscosity to enter the voids in paper. Their flash and solidifying points should
be >120 ºC and <-10 ºC, respectively. Mineral oil and synthetic oil (askarels) are popular. Mineral oil-based
capacitors are quite expensive, while askarel-based capacitors are harmful to the environment and humans. The
dielectric properties of the tissue paper and impregnating oils are given in Tables 1.3 and 1.4.

Aluminum foil of 6 μm thickness is widely used as the electrode material because of its high tensile strength,
low specific resistance, high melting point, low specific gravity, low cost, and easy availability.

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Table 1.3 Properties of tissue paper.

Table 1.4 Properties of impregnating oils.

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1.6 Supplementary Information on Insulating Materials

1.6.1 Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF 6 ) Gas

Generally, the preferred properties of a gaseous dielectric for high voltage applications are:
(a) High dielectric strength,
(b) Thermal stability and chemical inactivity towards materials of construction,
(c) Non-flammability and physiological inertness,
(d) Low temperature of condensation,
(e) Good heat transfer, and
(f) Ready availability at moderate cost.

Of the above properties, dielectric strength is the most important property of a gaseous dielectric for practical
use. The dielectric strength of gases is comparable with those of solid and liquid dielectrics (Fig. 1.2). This feature
of high dielectric strength of gases is attributed to the molecular complexity and the high rates of electron
attachment. In recent years, the dielectric properties of many complex chlorinated and fluorinated molecular
compounds have also been studied (Fig. 1.3).

The physical and chemical properties of some of the commercially important insulating gases are shown in
Table 1.5. From the figures and the table, it is seen that SF6 has high dielectric strength and low liquification
temperature, and it can be used over a wide range of operating conditions. SF6 also has excellent arc-quenching
properties. Thus, it is widely used as an insulating as well as arc-quenching medium in high voltage equipment
such as high voltage cables, current and voltage transformers, circuit breakers, and metal-enclosed substations. It is
also seen from the table that an addition of 30 % SF6 to air (by volume) increases the dielectric strength of air by
100%. One of the qualitative effects of mixing SF6 to air is to reduce the overall cost of the gas, and at the same
time attaining relatively high dielectric strength or simply preventing the onset of corona at desired operating
voltages. In addition to the use of SF6 gas in recent times, everyone knows of the essential quality of air as an
insulating medium for overhead power transmission lines and in air blast circuit-breakers.
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 Fig. 1.2 DC breakdown strength of typical solid, liquid,
gas, and vacuum insulations in uniform fields.
Fig. 1.3 Breakdown strength of insulating gases for
75 cm diameter uniform field electrodes having 12 mm gap.

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Table 1.5 Physical and chemical properties of some of the commercially important insulating gases.

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1.6.2 Petroleum Oil (Transformer Oil)

The electrical properties that are essential in determining the dielectric performance of a liquid dielectric are:
(a) Capacitance per unit volume or relative permittivity,
(b) Resistivity,
(c) Loss tangent (tan δ) or power factor which is an indication of the power loss under a.c. voltage
application, and
(d) Ability to withstand high electric stresses.

Permittivities of most of the petroleum oils vary from 2.0 to 2.6, while those of askarels vary between 4.5 and
5.0, and those of silicone oils from 2.0 to 73. In case of the non-polar liquids, the permittivity is independent of
frequency but in the case of polar liquids, such as water, it changes with frequency. For example, the permittivity
of water is 78 at 50 Hz and reduces to ~5.0 at 1 MHz.

Resistivities of insulating liquids used for high voltage applications should be more than 10 16 ·m and most of
the liquids in their pure state exhibit this property.

Power Factor of a liquid dielectric under a.c. voltage will determine its performance under load conditions.
Power factor is a measure of the power loss and is an important parameter in cable and capacitor systems. However,
in the case of transformers, the dielectric loss in the oil is negligible when compared to copper and iron losses. Pure
and dry transformer oils will have a very low power factor varying between 10 -4 at 20 ºC and 10-3 at 90 ºC at a
frequency of 50 Hz.

Dielectric Strength is the most important parameter in the choice of a given liquid dielectric for a given
application. The dielectric strength depends on the atomic and molecular properties of the liquid itself. However,
under practical conditions, the dielectric strength depends on the material of the electrodes, temperature, type of
applied voltage, gas content in the liquid, etc., which change the dielectric strength by changing the molecular

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properties of the liquid. The above factors which control the breakdown strength and lead to electrical breakdown
of the liquid dielectrics are discussed in subsequent sections.

Table 1.6 shows the electrical properties of some liquid dielectrics used in transformers, cables, capacitors, and
in other special applications. In practice, the choice of a liquid dielectric for a given application is also made on the
basis of its chemical stability. Other factors such as saving of space, cost, previous usage, and susceptibility to the
environmental influences are also considered. Transformer oil is the cheapest and the most commonly used liquid
dielectric in power equipment. It is an almost colorless liquid consisting a mixture of hydrocarbons, including
paraffins, iso-paraffins, naphthalenes, and aromatics. When in service, the liquid in a transformer is subject to
prolonged heating at high temperatures of ~95 ºC, and consequently it undergoes a gradual ageing process. With
time the oil becomes darker due to the formation of acids and resins, or sludge in the liquid. Some of the acids are
corrosive to the solid insulating materials and metal parts in the transformer. Deposits of sludge on the transformer
core, on the coils and inside the oil ducts reduce circulation of oil and thus its heat transfer capability gets
considerably reduced. Complete specifications for the testing of transformer oils are given in IS 1866 (1983), IEC
296 (1969), and IEC 474 (1974).

Table 1.6 Electrical properties of some commercial liquid dielectrics.

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1.6.3 Solid Dielectrics

The majority of the insulating systems used in practice are solids. They can be broadly classified into three
groups: (1) Organic Materials, (2) Inorganic Materials, and (3) Synthetic Polymers. Some of these materials are
listed in Table 1.7.

Table 1.7 Classification of solid insulating materials.

Organic materials are those which are produced from vegetable or animal matter and all of them have similar
characteristics. They are good insulators and can be easily adopted for practical applications. However, their
mechanical and electrical properties always deteriorate rapidly when the temperature exceeds 100 ºC. Therefore,
they are generally used after treating with a varnish or impregnation with an oil. Examples are paper and press
board used in cables, capacitors, and transformers.

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 Inorganic materials, unlike the organic materials, do not show any appreciable reduction (<10 %) in their
electrical and mechanical properties almost up to 250 ºC. Important inorganic materials used for electric
applications are glasses and ceramics. They are widely used for the manufacture of insulators, bushings, etc.,
because of their resistance to atmospheric pollutants and their excellent performance under varying conditions of
temperature and pressure.

Synthetic polymers are the polymeric materials which possess excellent insulating properties and can be easily
fabricated and applied to the apparatus. These are generally divided into two groups, the thermoplastic and the
thermosetting plastic types. Although they have low melting temperatures in the range 100–120 ºC, they are very
flexible and can be molded and extruded at temperatures below their melting points. They are widely used in
bushings, insulators etc. Their electrical use depends on their ability to prevent the absorption of moisture.

Some of the important dielectric properties of the above materials are discussed below.

(a) Paper
The kind of paper normally employed for insulation purposes is a special variety known as tissue paper or Kraft
paper. The thickness and density of paper vary depending on the application. Low-density paper (0.8 g/cm3) is
preferred in high frequency capacitors and cables, while medium density paper is used in power capacitors. High-
density papers are preferable in d.c. and energy storage capacitors and for the insulation of d.c. machines.

Paper is hygroscopic. Therefore, it has to be dried and impregnated with impregnants, such as mineral oil,
chlorinated diphenyl and vegetable oils. The relative dielectric constant of impregnated paper depends upon the
permittivity of cellulose of which the paper is made, and permittivity of the impregnant and the density of the paper.
Table 1.8 gives the dielectric constants for different densities of paper impregnated with different oils.

When very thin (thickness 8–20 µm) paper is used, it is very essential to see that the number of conducting
particles on the surface of the paper is minimum. The conventional method of detecting conducting particles is by
means of using a roller and plate, the conduction being indicated by means of headphones.

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Table 1.8 Dielectric constant and density of paper impregnated with different oils.

(b) Fibers
Fibers when used for electrical purposes will have the ability to combine strength and durability with extreme
fineness and flexibility. The fibers used are both natural and man-made. They include cotton, jute, flax, wool, silk
(natural fibers), rayon, nylon, terylene, Teflon, and fiberglass.

The properties of fibrous materials depend on the temperature and humidity. Figures 1.4 and 1.5 show the
variation of 𝜀𝑟 and tan δ of various fibrous materials as a function of the frequency. It can be observed from these
figures that 𝜀𝑟 decreases with frequency, while tan δ is higher at lower frequencies. Most of the perfectly-dried
fibers have a dielectric constant between 3 and 8. The presence of ionic impurities (e.g., salt) considerably reduces
the electrical resistance of the fiber. Artificial fibers, such as terylene and fiberglass absorb very little water and
hence have very high resistance. Table 1.9 gives the density, 𝜀𝑟 and tan δ of various fibers.

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 Fig. 1.4 Variation of dielectric constant, 𝜺𝒓 with temperature for paper.
1. Trichlorodipheny impregnated paper.
2. Pentachlorodiphenyl impregnated paper.

Fig. 1.5 Variation of tan δ with the density of paper.

1. Trichlorodiphenyl impregnated paper.
2. Mineral oil impregnated paper.
3. Dry paper.

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Table 1.9 Electrical properties of fibrous dielectrics.

(c) Mica and Its Products

Mica is the generic name of a class of crystalline mineral silicates of alumina and potash. It can be classified
into four main groups: (1) Muscovite, (2) Phlogopite, (3) Fibiolite, and (4) Lipidolite. The last two groups are hard
and brittle and hence are unsuitable for electrical insulation purposes. Mica can be split into very thin flat laminate.
It has got a unique combination of electrical properties, such as high dielectric strength, low dielectric losses,
resistance to high temperatures and good mechanical strength. These have made it possible for it to be used in
many electrical apparatus. Very pure mica is used for high frequency applications. Spotted mica is used for low
voltage insulation, such as for commutator segment separators, armature windings, switchgear and in electrical
heating and cooling equipments. Table 1.10 shows the electrical properties of mica.

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 Mica is built into sheet form by bounding together with a suitable resin or varnish. Depending on the type of
application, mica can be mixed with the required type of resin to meet the operating temperature requirements.
Micanite is another form of mica which is extensively used for insulation purposes. Mica splitting and mica
powder are used as filters in insulating materials, such as glass and phenolic resins. The use of mica as a filler
results in improved dielectric strength, reduced dielectric loss and improved heat resistance and hardness of the
material.

Table 1.10 Electrical properties of muscovite and phlogopite mica.

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(d) Glass
Glass is a thermoplastic inorganic material comprising complex systems of oxides (SiO 2). The dielectric
constant of glass varies from 3.7 to 10 and the density varies from 2.2 to 6 g/cm3. At room temperature, the volume
resistivity of glass varies from 1012 to 1020 ohmcm. The dielectric loss of glass varies from 0.004 to 0.020,
depending on the frequency. The losses are highest at lowest frequencies. The dielectric strength of glass varies
from 3,000 to 5,000 kV/cm and decreases with increase in temperature, reaching half the value at 100 ºC. Glass is
used as a cover and for internal supports in electric bulbs, electronic valves, mercury arc switches, X-ray
equipment, capacitors, and as insulators in telephones.

(e) Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic materials produced by consolidating minerals into monolithic bodies by high
temperature heat treatment. Ceramics can be divided into two groups depending on the dielectric constant. Low
permittivity ceramics (𝜀𝑟 < 12) are used as insulators, while the high permittivity ceramics (𝜀𝑟 > 12) are used in
capacitors and transducers.

Tables 1.11 and 1.12 give the various dielectric properties of some ceramics commonly used for electrical
insulation purposes.

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Table 1.11 Properties of low permittivity ceramics.

Table 1.12 Properties of high permittivity ceramics.

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(f) Rubbers
Rubber is a natural or synthetic vulcanizable high polymer having high elastic properties. Electrical properties
of rubber depend on the degree of compounding and vulcanizing. General impurities, chemical changes due to
ageing, moisture content and variations in temperature and frequency have substantial effects on the electrical
properties of rubber. Some important electrical properties and applications of different types of rubber are given in
Table 1.13.

Table 1.13 Properties and applications of rubbers.

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(g) Plastics
Plastics are very widely used as insulating materials because of their excellent dielectric properties. Many new
developments in electrical engineering and electronics would not have been possible without the development of
plastics. Plastics are made by combining large numbers of small molecules into a few big ones. When small
molecules link to form the bigger molecules of the plastics, many different types of structures result Most
thermoplastic resins approximate to a structure in which several thousand atoms are tied together in one direction.
The thermosetting resins on the other hand, form a three-dimensional network. In view of the large number of
plastics available, it will not be possible to deal with all of them, and only materials which are commonly used for
insulation purposes are described.

(i) Polyethylene
Polyethylene is a thermoplastic material which combines unusual electrical properties, high resistance to
moisture and chemicals, easy processability, and low cost. It has got high resistivity and good dielectric properties
at high frequencies, and therefore, is widely used for power and coaxial cables, telephone cables, multi-conductor
control cables, TV lead-in wires, etc. By varying the methods of manufacture, different types of polyethylene are
made with specific properties for different applications. They may have low, medium, and high densities or may be
irradiated types. The dielectric properties of these are summarized in Table 1.14.

Table 1.14 Electrical properties of polyethylene.

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(ii) Fluorocarbon Plastics
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), and polyvinylidene (PVF2) plastics
come under this category. PTFE is the most thermally stable and chemically resistant of all the three. It is
considered as one of the best plastics used for insulation because of its excellent electrical and mechanical
properties. It can be used without decomposition up to temperatures of 327 ºC. It is widely used in almost all
applications. P.C.T.F.E. has higher dielectric constant and loss factor than PTFE, but melts at 190 ºC. PVF2 can be
worked in the temperature range -30 to 150 ºC. It is used as thin wall insulation, as jacketing for computer wires
and special control wires, and for tubing and sleeving for capacitors, resistors, terminal junctions, and solder
sleeves. The electrical properties of fluorocarbons are tabulated in Table 1.15.

Table 1.15 Properties of fluorocarbon plastics.

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(iii) Nylon
Nylon is a thermoplastic which possesses high impact, tensile, and flexural strengths over a wide range of
temperature (0 – 300 ºC). It also has high dielectric strength and good surface and volume resistivities even after
lengthy exposure to high humidity. It is also resistant to chemical action, and can be easily molded, extruded and
machined. It is generally recommended for high frequency low loss applications. In electrical engineering, nylon
moldings are used to make coil forms, fasteners, connectors, washers, cable clamps, switch housings, etc. There are
three different types of nylon commonly used. They are nylon 6/6, nylon 6, and nylon 6/10. The dielectric
properties of these three types are given in Table 1.16.

Table 1.16 Dielectric properties of nylon.

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(iv) Polyvinyl Chloride
Polyvinyl chloride or PVC is used commercially in various forms. It is available as an unplasticized, tough, and
rigid sheet material and can be easily shaped to any required form. It is chemically resistant to strong acids and
alkalis and is insoluble in water, alcohol and organic solvents like benzene. The upper temperature limit of
operation is about 60 ºC. The dielectric strength, volume resistivity and surface resistivity are relatively high. The
dielectric constant and loss tangent are 3.0–3.3 and 0.015–0.02, respectively, at all frequencies up to 1 MHz. PVC
is also available as a highly plasticized flexible material, which is used extensively for wire covering, insulated
sleeving, and cable sheathing in preference to natural rubber because of its resistance to the action of sunlight,
water and oxygen.

(v) Polyesters
Polyesters have excellent dielectric properties and superior surface hardness, and are highly resistant to most
chemicals. They represent a whole family of thermosetting plastics produced by the condensation of dicaiboxylic
acids and dihydric alcohols, and are classified as either saturated or unsaturated types. Unsaturated polyesters are
used in glass laminates and glass fiber-reinforced moldings, both of which are widely used for making small
electrical components to very large structures. Saturated polyesters are used in producing fibers and films.
Polyester fiber is used to make paper, mat and cloth for electrical applications. The film is used for insulating wires
and cables in motors, capacitors, and transformers. The dielectric properties of polyester compounds are given in
Table 1.17.

Mylor polyester film is being largely used in preference to paper insulation. At power frequencies, its
dissipation factor is very low, and it decreases as the temperature increases. It has got a dielectric strength of
2,000 kV/cm, and its volume resistivity is better than 1015 ·cm at 100 ºC. Its high softening point enables it to be
used at temperatures above the operating limit of paper insulation. It has got high resistance to weathering and can
be buried under the soil also. Therefore, this can be used for motor and transformer insulation at power frequencies
and also for high frequency applications which are subjected to varying weather conditions.

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Table 1.17 Dielectric properties of polyesters.

(vi) Polystyrenes

Polystyrenes are obtained when styrene is polymerized with itself or with other polymers or monomers
producing a variety of thermoplastic materials with varying properties in different colors. Electrical grade
polystyrenes have a dielectric strength comparable to that of mica, and have low dielectric losses which are
independent of the frequency. Their volume resistivity is about 10 19 ohm·cm and the dielectric strength is
200 – 350 kV/cm. The dielectric constant at 20 ºC is 2.55, and the loss tangent is 0.0002 at all frequencies up to
10,000 MHz.

Polystyrene films are extensively used in the manufacture of low loss capacitors, which will have a very stable
capacitance and extremely high insulation resistance. Films and drawn threads of polystyrene are also used for high
frequency and cable insulations.

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(h) Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are thermosetting types of insulating materials. They possess excellent dielectric and mechanical
properties. They can be easily cast into desired shapes even at room temperature. They are very versatile, and their
basic properties can be modified either by the selection of a curing agent or by the use of modifiers or fillers. They
are highly elastic; samples tested under very high pressures, up to about 18,000 psi (12,000 atm) returned to their
original shape after the load was removed, and the sample showed no permanent damage. Resistance to weathering
and chemicals is also very good. The tensile strength of Araldite CT200 and hardener HV901 is in the range
5.5 – 8.5 kg/mm2, and the compressive strength is 11–13 kg/mm2. The dielectric constant varies between 2.5 and
3.8. The dielectric loss factor is very small under power frequency conditions lying in the range of 0.003 – 0.03.
The dielectric strength is ~750 kV/cm. The volume resistivity of the material is of the order of 1013 ·cm.

Epoxy resins can be formed into an insulator of any desired shape for almost any type of high voltage
applications, including insulators, bushings, apparatus, etc. It can also be used for encapsulation of electronic
components, generator windings, transformers, etc. It is used for bonding of very diverse materials such as
porcelain, wood, metals, plastics, etc. It is a very important adhesive used for sealing of high vacuum joints. In any
laboratory or industry in which electrical or electronic components or equipment are handled or manufactured,
numerous occasions arise wherein epoxy resins can be used with advantages of saving time, labor, and money.

1.7 References

1. Naidu, M.S. and Kamaraju, V., High Voltage Engineering, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (2004).
2. Naidu, M.S. and Kamaraju, V., High Voltage Engineering, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (1996).
3. Kuffel, E. E. and Zaengl, W.S. and Kuffel, J., High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals, 2nd Edition, Butterworth Heinemann,
Oxford (2000).
4. John, A.J. and Platts, J. R., High Voltage Engineering and Testing, Peter Peregrinus, Lodon (1994).
5. Shugg, W. T., Handbook of Electrical and Electronic Insulating Materials, 2nd Edition, IEEE Press, New York (1995).
6. Guide for the Determination of Thermal Endurance Properties of Electrical Insulating Materials, I.E.C. Publication, 216-1
(1974).

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