Arema Mre 2012 Volume 3

2012
Manual for Railway Engineering
Volume 3
Infrastructure and Passenger

1
Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail - Unified Table of Contents and Common
Elements of Planning, Design and Operations Analyses for Passenger Rail Systems
Chapter 6 Buildings and Support Facilities

3
Chapter 11 Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems
Chapter 12 Rail Transit
Chapter 14 Yards and Terminals
Chapter 17 High Speed Rail Systems
Chapter 18 Light Density and Short Line Railways
Chapter 27 Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment
Chapter 33 Electrical Energy Utilization
General Subject Index

Copyright © 2012
by the
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY ASSOCIATION
All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in an information or data retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or
by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, scanning, recording, or otherwise—without the prior written
permission of the publisher. Photocopying or electronic reproduction and/or distribution of this publication is a violation of
USA and International Copyright laws and is expressly prohibited.
Correspondence regarding copyright permission should be directed to the Director of Administration, AREMA, 10003
Derekwood Lane, Suite 210, Lanham, MD 20706 USA.
ISSN 1542-8036 - Print Version
ISSN 1543-2254 - CD-ROM Version

1
COMMUTER, TRANSIT AND

HIGH SPEED RAIL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part/Section Description Page
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.0 Corridor Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.2 Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.3.2 Demographic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.3.3 Attitude Surveys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
2.3.4 Zoning Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
2.3.5 Environmental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
2.3.6 Geographic and Physical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
2.3.7 Population and Economic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
2.3.8 Transportation Demand Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii

2.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
2.4.2 Rail Corridor Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
2.4.3 Operations Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
2.4.4 Traffic Sources and Destinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
2.4.5 Route Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
2.4.6 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
2.4.7 Land Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
2.4.8 Neighborhood Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
2.4.9 Regulatory Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
2.5 Corridor Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv

2.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
2.5.2 Selection of Route Within Corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
2.5.3 Passenger Convenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
2.5.4 Land Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
2.5.5 Multi-Modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
2.5.6 Central Business District Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
2.5.7 Community Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
2.5.8 Joint Facility Development Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association i

Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)
2.5.9 Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi

2.5.10 Property Value Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
2.5.11 Rolling Stock Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
2.5.12 Shared Right of Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
2.5.13 Shared Trackage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
2.5.14 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

2.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
2.6.2 Rolling Stock (Vehicle Technology) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii
2.7 Regional Transportation Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii

2.7.1 General - Interface with Other Transportation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii
2.7.2 Types of Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii
2.7.3 Typical Station Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
2.8 Corridor Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv

2.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv
2.8.2 Operations Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv
2.8.3 Implementation Schedule and Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
2.8.4 Capital Cost Estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
2.8.5 Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

ii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
RAPID TRANSIT, COMMUTER, INTERCITY RAIL, and HIGH SPEED RAIL SYSTEMS
Common Elements of Planning, Design and Operations Analyses for Passenger Rail Systems
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Passenger Rail Systems Section covers the common elements for passenger rail systems planning design and operations
in a systems approach for Chapters 11, 12 and 17 of the AREMA Manual. The reader will benefit by the broad discussion of
recommended operating practices, train characteristics and recommended infrastructure practices. The Passenger and Transit
chapters have been developed with a common outline and format to help the reader make direct comparisons between the
passenger modes. All common elements of the passenger modes are presented in this section, with unique mode practices
further detailed in the individual chapter materials.
2.0 CORRIDOR PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
2.2 PLANNING
2.3 DATA COLLECTION
2.3.1 General
Transportation planning and data collection is performed at many levels of government and by many agencies including
States, Metropolitan Planning Organizations, Regional Planning Organizations, Transportation Agencies, Municipalities,
Passenger, and Freight Railroads. The effect of the implementation of these plans will affect decisions about the proposed
corridor.
2.3.2 Demographic Data
Demography is the statistical study of human populations, particularly with respect to size, density, distribution, and vital
statistics over relatively large areas. The statistics must include where people live and where people work, as in many
instances, the rail corridor may be connecting people to their workplaces.
Vital statistics of the population are also important. The working population will have a different demand than the leisure
population. Age distribution will affect demand and particularly future demand. Economic distribution will also affect
demand.
Population growth, location, and average income trends are also important for forecasting future ridership.
2.3.3 Attitude Surveys
Opinion surveys must be interpreted with caution. What people say, how they feel, and what they eventually do to support or
block a project are not always consistent. Taking surveys does serve the function of coupling the project and its planning team
with the community, but objective data should always be utilized to assess the validity of subjective survey data.
2.3.3.1 Stakeholder Surveys
The attitudes of the current landowners and the residents of the communities through which the corridor passes will have a
strong influence on the feasibility of a rail corridor. Survey data about these attitudes are important because they imply
whether the project is a community effort, a development effort, or an unsupported concept. Projects often fail to materialize
due to the inability to resolve political differences.
The attitude surveys and observations must answer a number of questions:

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering iii
a. Do local residents and businesses see the rail corridor as improving mobility?
b. Is there resistance to transportation system changes? If so, what are they?
c. What are the perceived problems with the proposed transportation system?
d. Will the political system support the changes called for by adoption of a rail transit corridor?
e. How do attitudes vary between absentee owners, resident owners, and resident users?
2.3.3.2 Stated Preference Surveys
A Stated Preference Survey is used to determine the general perceptions, and preferences of the population concerning travel.
The survey will collect data that can be used to answer such questions as:
a. What are the goals of the transportation system (speed, trip time, value, cost, and safety)?
b. What is the perceived travel cost using presently available modes for the route?
c. What is the population's perceived value of their time?
d. What modes are acceptable?
2.3.4 Zoning Data
Land use zoning must be compatible with rail corridor development. The suitability of rail corridors is highly dependent on the
timing and density of population movements, the presence of high-density land occupancy, easy access to the corridor, and
connectivity with other modes of transportation.
Zoning maps and zoning levels help project future land use densities and weaknesses in the existing zoning plan. The zoning
data must be evaluated from the standpoint of what is practical. That is, how will zoning requirements change and will the
market really support either the projected land use or the present zoning on the books?
2.3.4.1 Existing and Future Land Use
A set of objective data should be collected to identify potential zoning changes. This data supplements the attitude surveys and
should include:
a. Adjacent land uses.
b. Recent trends in land use density and land use classification.
c. Apparent reasons for change.
d. Probable life cycles of present and future land use developments.
2.3.4.2 Available Land for Facilities
The rail corridor will likely require stations, parking lots, maintenance yards, and other support facilities. The availability of
land for these functions (and appropriate zoning and adjacent uses) should be determined.

iv AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
2.3.5 Environmental Data
Various governmental requirements exist to control activities that may disrupt the environment. If the rail project will utilize
Federal funds for its construction, the requirements for an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), Environmental Assessment
(EA) or Categorical Exclusion may be required. A project cannot be artificially divided into parts to avoid this requirement.
If federal funding is not used, state or local requirements must be met. Local requirements are often more stringent than the
federal requirements.
2.3.5.1 General
Environmental investigations can include:
a. Wetlands
b. Endangered species
c. Water quality
d. Floodplains/Beach & Shorelines
e. Wildlife
f. Air quality
g. Viewsheds
h. Hazardous substances (site cleanup)
i. Public safety
j. Public nuisances (noise, lighting, odor, vibration)
k. Public convenience (transit times, detours, delays, accessibility)
l. Rerouting of utilities and traffic
m. Taking of property
n. Construction limits (duration, time of day, work sites)
o. Construction nuisance
p. Impact on commercial establishments
q. Impact on property values
r. Presence or absence of at-grade highway crossings
2.3.5.2 Historical
Requirements exist to control activities that may disrupt the historical nature of an area. The disruptions may be to
archeological resources dating back to the original inhabitants of the area or to historic structures of a much more recent
vintage.

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering v
The use of existing abandoned or active right-of-ways by a new line may affect the historic fabric of an area. Similarly the re-
use of existing stations and the necessary modifications to comply with modern requirements and ADA regulations can create
effects on the historic fabric of an area.
2.3.6 Geographic and Physical Data
The collection of geographic and physical data is needed to form the basis of the physical constraints portion of a corridor
evaluation. Corridors can use new routes over the land or existing corridors.
The use of existing railroad rights of way for new rail projects is also typically considered.
Each of the corridor types requires specific data beyond the general geographic features.
2.3.6.1 Existing Transportation/Utility Corridors
The ability to use an existing transportation/utility corridor will depend on the technology chosen for the rail system. In the
data collection phase the corridors should be identified and data concerning them collected. The data needed to evaluate the
existing transportation/utility corridors include:
a. Is the corridor currently in use?
b. Wht is the level of use?
c. Is the corridor contiguous?
d. Who owns the corridor?
e. Are current uses compatible with rail?
f. Are the current uses compatible with rail?
g. Are there interferences with other corridors? (bridges over waterways, grade crossings, and vertical clearances)?
2.3.6.2 Existing Active and Historic Rail Corridors
In most cases, there is or has been one or more existing railroad rights-of-way between the cities of a given region. Corridor-
specific information on the past and present track configuration and alignment should be obtained. If electronic files
containing a recent map/chart are not available, a scale drawing showing the configuration should be developed. It should be
used to show the curves, tracks, and interlockings, and the proposed configuration. Components that should be documented
where they exist include:
a. Valuation Maps
b. Track Charts
c. Existing or Historic Timetable/Schedules
d. Maximum Authorized Speeds (MAS) and Permanent Speed Restrictions:
(1) Curvature related speed restrictions, (horizontal and vertical).
(2) Structures related speed restrictions (bridges, tunnels and viaducts).
(3) Signal related system speed limitations.

vi AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
(4) Interlocking related speed restrictions.
(5) Other non-civil speed restrictions.
e. Route Characteristics
(1) Main Tracks
(2) Passing Sidings
(3) Rail Characteristics - by location
(a) Continuous Welded Rail (CWR)/Jointed Rail
(b) Condition when installed (new, fit)
(c) Weight and Section
(d) Age of rail (date rolled, accumulated tonnage)
(e) Rail Type (continuous cooled, head hardened, etc.)
(4) Tie Characteristics - by location
(a) Tie Type (wood, concrete, other)
(b) General age of ties
(c) Tie spacing
(5) Industrial Sidetracks
(a) Industries served
(b) Status of sidings (active/inactive)
(c) Frequency of utilization
(6) Horizontal Curvature
(a) Curve type (simple, spiraled, compound, reverse)
(b) Location of curves
(c) Direction of curves (hand)
(d) Length of curves
(e) Degree of curvature (curve radius)
(f) Super-Elevation
(g) Tangent length between curves

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering vii
(7) Transition Curves or Spirals
(a) Spiral geometry
(b) Rate of superelevation change
(c) Spiral length and contraints to lengthening
(8) Gradient and Vertical Curves
(a) Ruling gradient of line
(b) Length of vertical curves
(c) Rate of change of gradient (R factor)
(d) Distance between vertical curves
(9) Interlockings and Control Points
(a) Spacing between interlockings (block length)
(b) Interlockings configuration
(c) Type and number of crossovers and turnouts, (including size, definition of tracks connected, and
condition/age)
(d) Diverging speed through crossovers and turnouts
(e) Number of tracks
(f) Interlocking operations (powered remote control, hand-thrown/electric lock, etc.)
(10) At-grade highway crossings
(a) Public
(b) Private
(c) AAR/DOT Number
(d) Surface material
(e) Type of warning devices (passive, active)
(f) Highway AADT/Percent Trucks
(g) Special characteristics of traffic over crossings (school buses, emergency vehicles, heavily loaded trucks)
(h) Highway configuration
(i) Sight distances
(j) Accident history at each crossing

viii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
(k) Proposed grade spearations
(l) Neighboring land uses
(11) Bridges
(a) Undergrade
(b) Overhead
(c) Fixed/Moveable
(d) Viaducts
(e) Bridge type
(f) Age and general condition
(g) Bridge ratings
(12) Tunnels
(a) Clearances
(b) Cross-sections
(c) Operating restrictions
(d) Age and general condition
(e) Ventilation
(f) Routes for emergency access and/or evacuation
(13) Planned Programs
(a) Infrastructure component replacements
(b) Systematic renewals and upgrades
(c) Spot repairs
f. Yards (type, capacity, limitations, expandability)
g. Terminals
h. Stations
i. Ownership
j. Air rights
k. Maintenance Facilities

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering ix
l. At-Grade Rail Crossings
m. Rail Junctions
(1) Entrance and exit configuration
(2) Traffic characteristics
n. Right-of-Way Features
(1) Drainage
(2) Cuts and fills
(3) Wetlands
(4) Fencing and barriers
(5) Use as a utility corridor (fiber-optics, power transmission)
o. Signal System
(1) Type
(2) Control locations
p. Electrification System
(1) Substations
(2) Paralleling stations and switching stations
(3) Catenary condition and type
(4) Third rail condition and type
q. Vertical and Horizontal Clearances
r. Limits to service that may be dictated by the property owners or political entities.
(1) Current and future freight and passenger traffic needs.
(2) Speed differential between existing and proposed passenger service.
(3) Compatibility of freight and passenger equipment.
s. Existing or proposed utility easements/crossings
2.3.7 Population and Economic Data
The demographic data collected under previous efforts lends itself to predicting general trends between two or more major
points of interest. As the corridors are refined, there is a need to collect more focused data concerning the population and its
economics as it relates to specific locations along the corridor.

x AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
A specific station site must be sized to provide such things as adequate parking, bus stops, passenger platform size, and
multimodal connections. A suburban station may have greater parking requirements on a per rider basis than an urban station
due to the local population characteristics, and the availability of alternate modes.
2.3.8 Transportation Demand Data
Corridor transportation needs should be considered within the context of both existing and projected demand. Existing
demand may be evident from the current level of traffic on highways and transit routes within the corridor. Traffic congestion
and/or heavy transit ridership may point out areas where additional capacity is needed and where rail development may be
feasible. The forecasts produced by metropolitan planning organizations (MPO) and similar bodies should be considered in
projecting future demand, although these forecasts may not be applicable to Intercity and High-Speed Rail Corridors. These
forecasts should provide an overall view of the area’s anticipated transit demands. Corridor-specific studies should be
conducted to accurately assess demand within each corridor.
2.3.8.1 Traffic Sources and Corridor Definition
A corridor will be generally defined by its major traffic flows. Key elements in refining the characteristics of a corridor are the
identification and characterization of its major traffic sources. These passenger generators must be identified so that logical
corridor end points and intermediate nodes can be determined, together with their connecting transportation links. Traffic
flows can then be analyzed within the framework of this skeletal corridor defined by links and nodes.
2.3.8.2 Origin Destination / Travel Pattern Study
Trip origins may be generated by close-by high-density housing, or by a more distant and dispersed market that arrives via
park-and-ride facilities or on feeder bus systems.
For rail corridors, it is thought that most destinations will be defined by high density, temporary populations such as offices,
commercial facilities, retail facilities, production facilities, transportation hubs, shopping areas, entertainment centers,
recreational facilities, etc. People visiting these activities may be either workers or customers. For example, the temporary
daily working population of New York’s JFK Airport is 50,000 people, a substantial market in itself without considering
customers.
The time of day that these populations congregate and disperse is critical to the corridor data. The primary task of the rail
corridor will be the handling of the peak period passenger flows. The off-peak and reverse commute movements must also be
estimated, since these supplemental markets are important to the overall economics of the corridor.
2.3.8.3 Competitive Modes
Studying the competitive modes in a corridor can provide data concerning travel attitudes and preferences. The data collected
on competitive modes include:
a. Transit times
b. Fare Structures
c. Total Travel Costs
d. Terminal Locations
e. Destinations
f. Number of Trips
g. Reliability

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xi
2.4 CORRIDOR IDENTIFICATION
2.4.1 General
Rail corridors can be developed in a number of different areas. These include active or abandoned freight railroad rights of
way, exclusive street or highway medians, segregated rights of way, or shared right of way within local streets. The right of
way usually dictates the type of technology and service that passenger systems can provide. Geometric constraints often
dictate the technology that can be used within a certain corridor. For instance, commuter rail service usually operates within
an existing or abandoned freight rail corridor and often shares track with freight service. Light rail or trolley service can
operate within a street environment, often sharing the right of way with motor vehicle traffic. These vehicles will often
operate within an exclusive right of way where land exists for such a purpose. Heavy Rail and Rapid Transit Systems mostly
operate within an exclusive right of way, including tunnels and aerial structures, to minimize exposure and safety risks to the
general public. Rapid Transit and High-Speed service will most likely be limited to an exclusive right of way and track
because of differential speeds with resultant geometric criteria and to enhance safety of operations.
2.4.2 Rail Corridor Criteria
Within each study area, specific corridors of transportation demand will exist. These corridors are defined by the
transportation demand that arises from centers of economic and social activity such as business districts and their associated
residential communities, schools, hospitals, and shopping and recreational areas. Transportation demand manifests itself as
major traffic flows along the corridor between activity centers. The key point is to identify those corridors having sufficient
ridership potential to justify consideration of the passenger rail systems.
Corridor transportation needs should be considered within the context of both existing and projected demand. Existing
demand will be evident from the current level of traffic on highways and transit routes within the corridor. Traffic congestion
and/or heavy transit ridership point out areas where additional capacity is needed and where rail development may be feasible.
The forecasts produced by metropolitan planning organizations (MPO) and similar bodies should be considered in projecting
future demand. These forecasts will provide an overall view of the area’s anticipated transit demands. Corridor-specific
studies should be conducted to accurately assess demand within each corridor.
Study results must recognize and attempt to correct for the effects of data limitations, built-in software assumptions, and other
circumstances that may be present. Origin-destination studies can be undertaken to estimate future transportation demand in
the identified corridors within an appropriate planning horizon.
2.4.3 Operations Criteria
For each potential corridor identified, an analysis should be conducted to determine the vehicle technology that is suitable for
that corridor. The analysis should include the types of rail cars (light rail or trolley, heavy rail/rapid transit, commuter,
intercity or high speed rail) and the associated operational characteristics such as clearance envelopes, minimum alignment
curvatures, grades, travel speeds, power needs, station and platform types, car and bus access, yard and layover tracks, and
maintenance facilities. Compare these to the assumed desired operational characteristics important to the customer, such as
travel times, train frequencies (headways), major train and station amenities, joint development, and other such criteria
determined for the corridor.
2.4.4 Traffic Sources and Destinations
A corridor will be generally defined by its major traffic flows. Key elements in refining the characteristics of a corridor are the
identification and characterization of its major traffic sources. These passenger generators must be identified so that logical
corridor end points and intermediate nodes can be determined, together with their connecting transportation links. Traffic
flows can then be analyzed within the framework of this skeletal corridor defined by links and nodes.

xii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
2.4.5 Route Identification
Identification of potential routes within a corridor usually begins with a review of existing data sources including road maps,
USGS topographic maps, aerial photographs, and various GPS mapping sources available from many local municipalities.
There are a variety of other sources that provide higher levels of detail including topographic maps, subdivision development
plans, street improvement plans, utility maps and records, railroad right-of-way maps, railroad track charts, and aerial surveys.
When identifying routes within a corridor, consideration of potential vehicle technologies must be addressed to identify routes
that are compatible with the technology.
2.4.6 Constraints
During the corridor identification process, certain constraints will be readily apparent. The feasibility survey of a rail corridor
should include identification of as many of these constraints as possible. Constraints include natural topography (hills,
watercourses, wetlands, etc.) and other improvements such as highways and urban development. Although most constraints
can be overcome by various engineering solutions, the number and severity of these will have an impact on construction and
right of way costs and should be considered during the corridor identification process.
2.4.7 Land Availability
As development of urban and suburban areas continues, the identification of usable rights-of-way is a key item in the planning
process. If the line is to serve any portion of suburban development, not only must land be available for the line itself, but
equally important land must be available for the following ancillary requirements:
• Station facilities
• Intermodal facilities (bus, taxi, etc.)
• Pickup/Drop-off locations
• Parking areas and facilities
• Rolling stock storage and maintenance facilities
• Electrical substations (for electrified systems)
• Support facilities (administrative offices, maintenance of way bases)
2.4.8 Neighborhood Interface
A primary consideration in the preliminary identification is the location and access to other modes of transportation. The
location of stations should fit the community needs and be convenient for transferring between passenger rail, air, bus, and
automobile. Intermodal stations should be developed for use of the traveling public. The number of stations and frequency of
stops help shape the type of service which is being provided (from very few stops only at major cities for High-Speed Rail to
stops every few blocks for light rail service). Different schedules for station stops may reduce impact on travel times, yet still
provide coverage for a larger number of locations. Interfaces of passenger rail with other forms of transportation include
pedestrian and bicycle traffic, automobile traffic, taxis and shuttle buses, and public transit systems such as buses, ferry service
and other rail modes.
2.4.9 Regulatory Interface
A number of regulatory agencies, both Federal and State, dictate rules and regulations for the operation of passenger transit.
When operating within the general railroad system, passenger and freight railroad right of ways, the Federal Railroad
Administration (FRA) controls safety and maintenance standards as well as interfaces with highways at grade crossings.
Individual states have agencies that provide rules and regulations for the design, construction, maintenance and operation of

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xiii
urban transit systems. Some States have jurisdiction on grade crossings in their respective states. The Federal Transit
Authority (FTA) provides criteria for transit systems.
When operating within an active freight corridor, freight railroads often demand indemnification against financial liability,
regardless of cause, related to any passenger service that operates on the freight railroads’ tracks. This passenger service can
be existing service, new service or one that increases the frequency and/or maximum operating speed. It may be that the only
fully satisfactory way to resolve this issue is through Federal legislation or use of completely separated rights-of-way.
2.5 CORRIDOR EVALUATION
2.5.1 General
Once a corridor has been identified in the planning stages, a detailed evaluation of the corridor will be required to provide data
for both the operational models and the financial models. A number of factors must be considered in the corridor evaluation
stage. These factors will be assessed to determine a specific route within the corridor and the vehicle technology that will be
used.
2.5.2 Selection of Route Within Corridor
Following the determination that a particular corridor justifies a rail system, the selection of the route to be utilized within the
corridor is undertaken. The route selection process must recognize the differing characteristics of the various rail modes to
some degree. If this corridor will be served as an extension of an existing system, then many of the design standards will be
known at this point. If the decision of which rail mode to use has not been made, the physical attributes of the corridor (such
as right-of-way width, curvature, grades, street alignment vs. dedicated right-of-way, etc.) will influence the decision on the
rail system technology to be used.
Assessment of potential environmental impacts is another important activity early in the evaluation process. When federal or
state funds are used, the preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), Environmental Assessment (EA) or
Categorical Exclusion may be required. The EIS is a comprehensive and detailed study of impacts created by construction and
operation of service within the corridor and alternatives to the route and mode chosen. The EIS process must be started early in
project planning if implementation delays are to be avoided.
2.5.3 Passenger Convenience
The most heavily weighted factor in the selection of a particular route within a corridor should be how well the line serves its
potential passengers. Passenger ridership studies and modal split analyses help determine how many passengers will ride a
particular rail line. A route selection that maximizes the number of passengers attracted to the facility indicates how well the
public is served by the proposed route. One must also look at future growth tied to land use, future developments, regional
planning, and other factors that affect where people work, where they live, and how they will travel.
Design criteria for rail transit projects differ from most railway engineering projects. Criteria such as shortest distance, least
grade, minimum curvature, ease of operation, and other factors are often given less weight in the design of an urban passenger
line.
2.5.4 Land Availability
As development of urban and suburban areas continues, the identification of usable rights-of-way is a key item in the planning
process. If the line is to serve any portion of suburban development, not only must land be available for the line itself, but
equally important land must be available for the following:
• Station facilities
• Intermodal facilities (bus, taxi, etc.)

xiv AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
• Pickup/Drop-off locations
• Parking areas and facilities
• Rolling stock storage and maintenance facilities
• Electrical substations (for electrified systems)
• Support facilities (administrative offices, maintenance of way bases)
2.5.5 Multi-Modal Interfaces
The total travel time of the passenger is a very important consideration in route selection. However, this factor should not be
calculated simply from one rail station to another; rather it must be calculated from the passenger’s origin to the destination.
Total travel time includes walking or driving, waiting, transfer, travel on bus and/or rail transit, traversing the station, ticketing,
and use of elevators to the final destination.
The changing character of the work force over the past few decades has dramatically increased the proportion of rail riders
requiring automobile parking space at the railhead. Also changing in many older metropolitan areas is the concentration of
travel in what are now known as the morning and evening rush hours, as the work force has changed from multiple shift work
associated with heavy industry, to office or service work on one day shift per day. The relationship of the location of stations
to the highway network, and in particular, the freeway system and arterial road network, must be considered. If the purpose of
the line is to serve a large area beyond the corridor itself, then the design of the station/highway interface may include
modifications of the freeway interchanges to facilitate intermodal coordination.
Additionally, the design of passenger rail stations should include provisions for feeder bus service and automobile drop off.
Consideration must be given to feeder bus routes and the facilities required for bus layover space as well as driver break
facilities.
2.5.6 Central Business District Interfaces
In the Central Business District (CBD) there are many factors that must be considered. An extremely important factor is how
well the route is integrated with the passenger distribution system in the CBD. The alignment of the new system must also
mesh with existing and proposed high rise development.
If there are other rail transit lines in the area, new stations should be located in a manner to allow ease of passenger transfer
between systems. New stations should be directly connected to old stations if at all possible. If the CBD is, or will be, served
by a local guided transport system, it should complement the rail line; they should not duplicate each other. If buses and taxis
are the prime means of distribution within the CBD, then the location and design of stations must be selected to facilitate
transfer to these systems.
2.5.7 Community Relations
In the urban area, the route, type of construction (at-grade, aerial, underground), and selection of sites for stations, storage
yards, and maintenance shops must conform with the nature and character of each neighborhood that the line serves.
Station design should be integrated into the fabric of the individual neighborhood being served. From the engineering and
operation standpoints, stations may be standardized but from aesthetic standpoint they should be assets and an integral part of
the area. Properly done, the new stations will become the hubs in their local area and will attract development around them.
2.5.8 Joint Facility Development Opportunities
The location of a new transit station may attract private-sector development of stores, offices, and housing. The possibility of
joint public-sector/private-sector investment should be considered when decisions concerning station location are being made.

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xv
Such investments would offset portions of project construction costs and may be made through joint development of
station/commercial complexes, establishment of benefit assessment districts, or other means negotiated between the parties.
Similarly, the use of air rights over rail storage yards and maintenance shops for commercial and residential use should be part
of the basic planning of the line. Such basic considerations as additional spacing between yard tracks to allow later placement
of columns for future construction allows such development much later, even though the precise nature of the development
may not be predicted when the line is being built.
2.5.9 Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas
Passenger rail systems require support and maintenance facilities to provide for reliable service. The number, size and
location of these facilities are dependent upon the length of the system, the number of rail vehicles, and the frequency of
service. Vehicle maintenance and storage facilities should be located in an area along the line to minimize non-revenue
operations. Other facilities will be required for maintenance of way, fare collection, administrative activities, and operations
control.
2.5.10 Property Value Impacts
In the suburban zone, the goal should be to locate the line in such a manner as to maintain or increase property values, not
reduce them. Stations should be located where large tracts of land are available for parking facilities. Both immediate and
future parking needs should be thoroughly considered when site selection is being made. In the urban zone, proper integration
with existing distributor systems will reduce the need for large parking areas.
Location of traction power substations required for electrified systems must be handled carefully. If they cannot be located in
industrial areas, careful attention must be given to the architecture of the structures so that they appear to be part of the existing
environment. Substations should blend with the appearance of adjacent buildings and maintain the property values of
neighboring structures. Where possible, substations may be integrated with passenger stations, shop facilities, or other
project-related structures.
2.5.11 Rolling Stock Requirements
The type of equipment to be used must be determined before route evaluation is completed. To successfully achieve the
mission of attracting passengers from automobiles to rail systems, the rail vehicle chosen must be fast, safe, and include a
comfortable passenger environment. The cost of the vehicles is a major element in the economic evaluation of routes on a
proposed new system. The equipment decision, the civil engineering standards for the route, and the service level to be
achieved are all closely related.
The number of vehicles required on a system will depend not only on the length of a line but also on the frequency of service
(headways), actual operating speed, station dwell times, and other factors such as location of turn back facilities. When all of
these factors have been considered, then a determination can be made of the type of equipment to be used within the corridor.
In the case of electrified lines, factors peculiar to this form of propulsion must be considered, such as the availability of electric
power in the area. Depending on the type of electrification chosen (third-rail or overhead wire) appropriate measures must be
included to provide a safe environment.
In the case of internal combustion propulsion, factors such as fuel storage and handling, and the ventilation of tunnels and
stations must be considered. Noise and fumes from idling equipment both during daytime layover in the vicinity of the CBD
and during night hours at the urban or suburban terminals must be considered in terminal designs.
2.5.12 Shared Right of Way
Mixed use rail corridors are usually defined as upgraded intercity or commuter rail passenger service on existing railroad
rights-of-way. Many of these corridors are owned by freight railroads, usually allowing the passenger rail service to share
track with freight service.

xvi AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
A mixed use corridor can also include rail transit operating on separate tracks within an existing railroad right of way, or
within a freeway right of way. Light rail transit can also operate within a street right of way, sharing the alignment with motor
vehicle traffic.
A variety of factors must be taken into consideration in the planning of mixed use rail corridors including clearances between
transportation modes, safety, and compatibility of power sources to be used.
2.5.13 Shared Trackage
Shared trackage is a concept that has the potential to reduce construction and maintenance costs. However, there can be
operational limitations that could prove detrimental to level of service. Because of FRA rules regarding a rail vehicles ability
to absorb impact forces (measured by a factor called “buff strength”), sharing track with freight trains is usually reserved for
commuter, intercity, and high-speed rail systems. Rail vehicles not meeting FRA buff strength requirements can only use
freight track during periods when freight trains are completely off line.
2.5.14 Safety/Security
An important step in the evaluation of any corridor should be to evaluate the safety of the corridor as it relates to the proposed
operations. There are two components to safety of a passenger rail operation, hazards to the train and hazards caused by the
train.
A major safety concern in any corridor evaluation is the presence of at-grade automotive or rail crossings. An optimum route
would provide grade separations. However, the desired separation criteria may be difficult or impossible to obtain without
significant capital expenditures.
The following measures should be considered where grade crossings must exist:
• Optimal design of approach roadway, site improvements and crossing warning device.
• Crossing occupancy detected by sensors and transmitted to train braking system.
• Speed of approaching trains.
• Positive barrier system to restrict access of traffic crossing the tracks.
A number of other safety measures such as right-of-way fencing, barriers, or separation should be considered, particularly in
areas where patrons and the general public are expected to be near the right of way. Safety measures at stations include tactile
warning surface treatments at the edge of station platforms, audible warning devices, right of way fencing, and grade separated
pedestrian crossings.
2.6 IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY
2.6.1 General
The planner’s goal is to match the equipment technology to the physical characteristics and market requirements of the
corridor. The planner should use a sufficient horizon (20 years or more) to consider future population growth, development,
interfaces to other transportation modes, changes in market conditions, trends, etc. when evaluating the technology/equipment.
Flexibility must be designed into any rail system so that the system can react to unforeseen conditions, technological advances,
future regulatory requirements and market conditions that the planner did not anticipate.
Technology, per se, should not be a primary objective. The primary considerations for equipping any project must be:
• Performance objectives and reliability

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xvii
• Compatibility with any existing equipment or infrastructure with which it must work
• The amount of schedule or performance risk which can be accepted
• The availability of two or more competitive, proven sources which can fulfill these needs
• Life cycle costs
Secondary considerations, which also may be evaluated or analyzed, are:
• Long term maintenance or operations contract possibilities
• Efficiency and design life
• Guarantees, reliability of sub-prime parts sources
• Technology transfer benefits
• Financing offers
• National content
The compatibility and scheduling considerations for complex projects involving all or several sub-systems often lead to
combining several sub-systems into one procurement package. This approach transfers much but not all of the interfacing and
management responsibilities to suppliers. A combination of signaling, communications, and traction power is often referred to
as a Core System, which may also be combined with a rolling stock package. In fact, it is often the rolling stock suppliers that
promote this approach. In transit and some rail systems the traction power is often combined with trackwork.
The complex technical aspects, many variables of actual performance characteristics, price/payment schedules, life cycle
costs, etc. require that offers of equipment be evaluated by a comprehensive discounted cash flow (present value) calculation.
This process leaves little leeway for subjective judgments or technology preferences, especially when the purchaser is a public
agency or is using public funds. Therefore, equipment systems engineers and their contracting specialist associates must
prepare the procurement documents with great care beforehand and then adapt them during negotiations with the apparent best
overall bidder.
Clearly, there will be some “technology selection” opportunities when the performance specifications are drafted. As
acceptable designs are considered, efforts should be made to avoid a loss of competition. It is usually necessary to include
some design specific requirements in the final contracts, since some characteristics cannot be circumscribed in purely
functional or objective terms.
Throughout these “selection” processes each and every technical discipline must be involved with each other in the evaluation
process, especially the infrastructure engineers, operations specialists, and construction planners.
In addition, rolling stock and passenger facilities design criteria must involve representatives of the public – via architectural
groups, public meetings, political bodies, community action committees, etc. All of the technical, contractual, political, and
community members must agree on the criteria before final adjustments are made prior to a contract signature.
2.6.2 Rolling Stock (Vehicle Technology)
2.6.2.1 General
Types of passenger rail rolling stock differ significantly in detail between six basic applications, although most of the design
factors to be considered are common to all of them. They all are forms of “mass transport” and must offer sufficient capacity,

xviii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
reliability, and trip times to justify their inherent lack of origin/destination and schedule flexibility, perceived cost, and in the
urban context, privacy.
Equipment considerations must be based on the physical corridor characteristics and market requirements. These
characteristics and requirements include: top speed, average running speed, acceleration, braking capability, ride quality
requirements, vertical and horizontal curves, super-elevation unbalance requirements, turnout and crossover geometry, etc.
Equipment considerations include: seat and train capacity including standees for light rail and rapid transit applications, train
consist, single level or bi-level cars, high or low platform access, multiple units of individually powered cars or couplets,
traditional power car with individual coaches, trainsets of power cars with coaches coupled permanently, electric versus non-
electric power, tilt versus non-tilt technology, passenger amenities such as dining, snack, baggage handling, first class versus
coach seating, etc.
Light Rail Rapid Transit (LRT) is a successor to the tram, trolley or streetcar, with running speeds up to 55 MPH and stop
spacing of 1/4 to 1-1/2 miles or more. A key characteristic is the ability to operate on city streets without significant station
facilities and in mixed traffic.
Heavy Rail Rapid Transit (HRT) is frequently associated with subways, although much if not all of the lines may be at-grade
or elevated. In most instances, HRT lines are in their own sealed corridor, (i.e. without grade crossings and physically isolated
from adjacent property by fences and barriers), and station facilities are significant. Running speeds may be up to 80 miles per
hour with station spacing of approximately one half (1/2) mile up to two (2) or more miles. Keeping the average spacing as
long as possible while maintaining sufficient accessibility greatly minimizes trip time and reduces fleet size, as do short dwell
(station stop) times.
In both HRT and LRT, high-density standee passenger loads are assumed for peak hour periods.
Conventional Rail, short or long distance commuter train service is similar in many respects to HRT, including the burden of
low overall load factors due to very peaked demand. But trip lengths and station spacings are much longer than HRT (perhaps
20 miles and 3 miles respectively) but much less than long haul intercity service. Longer commuter trip times necessitate the
provision of toilet facilities and the avoidance of standee loading. Running speeds tend to be as high as 80 miles per hour.
Intercity or traditional long distance service involves extensive passenger amenities with no standee assumptions. Speeds can
be as high as 110 miles per hour, but seldom exceeding 80 miles per hour. Station dwells may be several minutes to
accommodate a very diverse passenger population, most carrying luggage.
High-Speed Rail (HSR) includes both the intermediate, incremental system and the ultimate or ideal all new system. HSR
involves many of the characteristics of traditional Intercity service but at higher speeds; typically average speeds are usually
between 90 miles per hour and 125 miles per hour with maximum speeds from 150 miles per hour to 200 miles per hour.
Incremental HSR (IHSR) is characterized by a gradual introduction on existing lines with other conventional intercity
passenger, commuter, and/or freight traffic. Some at grade highway crossings may be tolerated but it may be necessary in
certain locations to incorporate more extensive warning devices.
HSR station stops and dwells are minimized, to perhaps 40 miles average and a one to three minute dwell time respectively.
HSR service may include some non-stop express service between major origin destination pairs as well as skip stop service
depending on market conditions. HSR service is more expensive and caters to the time sensitive passenger such as business
travelers as opposed to the leisure traveler or student market.
All new greenfield HSR service should have a dedicated right of way (a “Sealed Corridor”) without any at grade crossings and
with extensive tangent sections enabling higher average speeds, in excess of 125 miles per hour and with maximum speeds of
200 miles per hour. Station stops should be defined by demand in population centers. Station dwells can range from one to
three minutes and market conditions may require express service or skip stop service.
These two HSR versions (Incremental and all new) may be combined, employing the incremental approach in urban, highly
developed areas near cities and all new HSR in the less developed, less urban areas where right of way is less expensive and

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xix
more readily available. The rolling stock would of necessity conform to the HSR requirements but in itself may impose some
extra constraints upon the upgraded infrastructure portion.
2.6.2.2 Factors Relating to Choice of Equipment
a. The type of equipment to be used must be determined before route evaluation is completed. In order to successfully
achieve the mission of attracting passengers from automobiles or airplanes to the rail system, the rail equipment chosen
must be fast, safe, and include a comfortable passenger environment. The cost of the equipment is a major element in
the economic evaluation of routes on a proposed new system.
b. The quantity of equipment required on a system will depend not only on the length and desired service frequency of a
line but also on the actual operating speed, acceleration and deceleration, station dwell times, peak ridership, and other
factors such as location of turnback facilities. When all of these factors have been considered, then a determination can
be made of the type of equipment to be used within the corridor.
c. In the case of electrified lines, factors peculiar to this form of propulsion must be considered, such as the availability of
electric power in the area. Depending on the type of electrification chosen (third-rail or overhead wire) appropriate
measures must be included to provide a safe environment.
d. The equipment decisions, the civil engineering standards for the route, and the service level to be achieved are all
closely related. Subsequent sections in this chapter give a broad range of possibilities that can be considered.
e. Joint operations with freight carriers will require consideration of clearance issues and access for freight only
customers. Equipment must be flexible to the needs of the multi use or corridor owners’ requirements.
f. Multiple passenger services and equipment type usage on the same route may produce new challenges for passenger
access and station design. Intercity passenger rail needs for stations, parking, baggage handling, handicap access and
platform level needs can be integrated for ease of use.
g. Service frequency is a critical determinant of equipment quantities required.
2.6.2.2.1 Rapid Transit
a. If the designated corridor has characteristics suggesting the need for a trunk line rapid transit system, the selection of
such factors as car length, platform height, and door pattern affect the length of stations, the required running and
station dwell time, and the number of cars in the fleet.
b. In turn, the selection of the route alignment may require cars that can negotiate small radius curves and steep grades.
The height of the car becomes a factor in the cost of construction if extensive tunneling is involved. The weight of the
car becomes a factor if extensive aerial structures are required.
c. The capacity of the cars, the size of the door openings, and the minimum spacing between trains stopped in the station
significantly impact the design of the station platforms, staircases, escalators, and other station design elements relating
to capacity.
2.6.2.2.2 Commuter Rail
a. Commuter rail services operate over trackage that is part of the general railroad system of transportation. As such, the
rolling stock, signal equipment, and operating practices must be in accordance with all applicable government (e.g.,
state regulations, Federal Railroad Administration) and Association of American Railroads standards. Commuter
railroad operations, including associated terminals and shop facilities, will therefore require railroad-type rolling stock,
large curve radii, low grades, and signaling systems compatible with main line railroad practice. Steeper grades may
be allowable when operating on dedicated lines.

xx AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
b. Passenger cars may utilize the single-level, bi-level or gallery configurations. Generally, multilevel cars will offer
increased passenger capacity over single-level designs. Seating pitch and type (four-across vs. five-across) will also
influence capacity.
c. Consideration should be given to use of as large a car as possible, consistent with capacity requirements available
physical clearances, and community preferences. Use of larger cars will keep the fleet size down and reduce many
factors, such as:
• Cost of maintenance
• Length of station platforms
• Storage track requirements
d. If a desired extension requires tunneling (e.g. into the central business district (CBD)), there is an immediate trade-off
between the additional costs for tunneling for a larger car, versus the factors involved in a larger fleet. A limited area
for a terminal station on the other hand, may require use of high capacity cars to minimize required platform lengths.
The trade-offs are unique for each situation, and should be evaluated to identify the most economic approach.
2.6.2.2.3 Conventional Intercity
a. Conventional Intercity rail services are similar to Commuter Rail except for the number of station stops, distance
between stations, average speed and passenger amenities. Intercity services operate over trackage that is part of the
general railroad system of transportation. As such, the rolling stock, signal equipment, and operating practices must be
in accordance with all applicable government (e.g., state regulations, Federal Railroad Administration and Association
of American Railroad) standards. Intercity railroad operations, including associated terminals and shop facilities, will
therefore require railroad-type rolling stock, large curve radii, low grades, and signaling systems compatible with main
line railroad practice.
b. Passenger cars may utilize the single-level, bi-level or gallery configurations. Passenger amenities and services may be
offered depending on passenger expectations and practical requirements. Baggage handling and transportation must be
considered consistent with the market served.
c. Consideration should be given to use of as large a car as possible, consistent with capacity requirements available
physical clearances, and community preferences. Use of larger cars will keep the fleet size down and reduce many
factors, such as:
2.6.2.2.4 High-speed Intercity
Coordination of maintenance of way facilities and services with a service corridor owner must be considered within the
development of incremental service as well as any joint urban access segments of new systems.
Maintenance and Operational Considerations
Maintenance and Operational requirements must be evaluated. These requirements include: inspection and maintenance
facility requirements, storage and yard requirements, turnaround servicing needs, and cleaning. The evaluation must include

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xxi
overall equipment and operating policies that may involve individual equipment or trainset approaches. Equipment may be
operated in a predetermined consist of power cars and passenger cars that stay together as a unit and are not separated for
maintenance or seat capacity increase. Alternatively, the traditional approach of varying train consists by adding or
eliminating power cars and passenger cars based by individual train requirements may be implemented.
Both systems have advantages depending on the requirements of train operations, but require very different maintenance
practices, maintenance facilities and operational considerations. In addition to the trainset approach, other equipment system
issues, that must be evaluated, include: type of trucks, articulated versus non-articulated trainsets, electric versus non-electric
propulsion, tilt versus non-tilt systems. Power considerations must include horsepower per ton requirements, tractive effort,
single versus double heading of trains, cab car configurations, and multiple unit train systems.
2.6.2.3 Types of Power Sources
The power source for the equipment may be:
a. Fossil Fueled (non-electrified); Diesel-electric, turbine-electric, turbine-hydraulic, etc.
b. Electrified – with a pantograph for an overhead catenary system or with a truck/equipment mounted pickup shoe for
third rail systems
2.7 REGIONAL TRANSPORTATION INTERFACES
2.7.1 General - Interface with Other Transportation Modes
A primary consideration in a preliminary evaluation is the location of and access by or to other modes of transportation. The
location of stations should fit the community needs and be convenient for transferring from rail, air, bus and automobile.
Intermodal stations should be developed for use by the traveling public. However, the number of stations and frequency of
stops help shape the type of service that is being provided [from very few stops only at major cities for High-Speed Rail to
stops every few blocks for Rapid Transit Service]. Different schedules for station stops may reduce impact on travel times, yet
still provide coverage for a larger number of locations.
2.7.2 Types of Interfaces
Interfaces of rail systems with other forms of transportation are generally as follows:
• Pedestrian Traffic or “Walk-Ins”
• Bicycles
Automobile Traffic:
• Park-and-ride
• Drop off passengers (Kiss-and-Ride)
• Pick up passengers
• Taxis
• Van pools
Other Public Transit Systems:

xxii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
• Buses and trolleys
• Subway systems
• Light Rail Systems
• Commuter rail systems
• Intercity passenger trains
• Airports
• People movers
• Ferries/Marine Taxis
2.7.3 Typical Station Interfaces
Two basic types of stations and their respective interfacing are discussed below. The reader should also refer to Chapter 6
Buildings and Support Facilities, Part 8 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations and Chapter 14 Yards and Terminals,
Part 6 Passenger Facilities for additional information concerning stations. In this section, the emphasis is on the relationship
between rail corridors and other transportation modes and transportation systems.
Since no single system can meet all transportation needs, a set of systems exists. Ideally, an effective transportation plan
combines these systems in an overall public transportation policy. A level of service concept with a wide range of solutions is
the key and requires interface coordination.
For the purpose of this discussion, a transportation system should be viewed not as technology, but as a means of moving
people. The eventual success of the rail corridor will depend on this ability to smoothly interface and exchange passengers
with other transportation systems.
The interfacing of two basic station types to their particular neighborhoods is described in the following sections: the central
business district (CBD) terminal and the outlying station. These two types of stations obviously have differing interface
requirements and generate passengers in different ways. For CBD stations, the interfaces with pedestrian traffic and high-
density transportation systems predominate. For outlying stations, distributor systems of buses and automobiles generate the
majority of passengers.
2.7.3.1 Central Business District Stations
In the CBD station, pedestrians make up a large share of the arrivals and departures. Interfacing is primarily concerned with
the location and flow characteristics of passageways in and out of the station. One problem is how to best direct the pedestrian
traffic to bus stops, adjacent rail stations or waiting taxis. A second problem is to guide passengers out of the station to
continue walking at street level. Ingress and egress of pedestrian traffic may either be through buildings or via traditional
sidewalk access. Understanding the basic interfaces and realizing their importance in creating a desirable transport mix is
essential for decision makers and station planners. The quality of the interface of rail transit with the other transport modes will
have a large impact on rider’s decisions regarding all public transit use. Station interfaces in general, must mesh with the local
transportation network and be compatible with their neighborhoods.
2.7.3.2 Outlying or Distributor Stations
At outlying stations, park-and-ride passengers need dedicated, secure, low-cost or secure parking, a suitable walkway into the
station, and good street access. If climatic conditions warrant, a covered walkway through the lot may be required. The
parking entrance/exit must be coordinated with other station traffic and not impair traffic flow on public streets.

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xxiii
Outlying stations must also accommodate kiss-and-ride auto traffic of two types, as drop-off traffic characteristics are not the
same as for pickup traffic. Drop-off traffic moves through the station, does not need parking and should be routed back out into
surrounding streets. Drop-off traffic should be separated from pickup traffic where possible. Slow moving traffic intending to
pick up people should have some short-term parking close to the station, be in view of people waiting in the station, and have
a means of recircling if there are no free parking places or their pick-up is not yet evident. Good coordination with the local
traffic pattern is necessary.
The interface with bus lines is also important. Buses properly routed at the home end act as feeders to the corridor rail line.
Buses can be utilized for collection and distribution, while the rail line is utilized for the line haul. Station design must handle
bus traffic expeditiously. A good working relationship with bus operators during planning and design is essential. Train
Arrival (TA) lights are often used to advise bus drives and others waiting to pick up passengers that a train is arriving shortly.
Provision for secure storage of bicycles and pedestrian accessibility should also be considered
2.8 CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION
The purpose of this section is to provide a plan to progress the candidate projects defined by the conceptual level planning
process. It will provide information required to evaluate the feasibility of the short-listed alternatives.
2.8.1 General
The preceding sections deal exclusively with planning, data collection, corridor identification, corridor evaluation, conceptual
engineering, and corridor selection. At the conclusion of the selection phase, the feasibility of the project will be established so
that a more definitive design of the proposed system can be developed in the subsequent phase, preliminary engineering. At
the end of the preliminary engineering activities, the project would be ready for implementation by the commitment of funding
and the authorization of final, detailed design of all elements of the project.
The political and financial ramifications of rail corridor selection and route design should be considered concurrently with the
preceding steps so that implementation of the system will proceed smoothly.
Planning and design functions should be coordinated closely with the sponsor and other stakeholders throughout the corridor
evaluation and selection process to ensure proper scoping, identification of issues, risks, safety issues, environmental
concerns, accuracy of land acquisition needs and construction cost estimates.
Right-of-way acquisition is often the “make or break” factor for a proposed transportation system and will, in some instances,
govern the location and alignment of the system. During the evaluation phase, the planning team must be constantly attuned to
this important factor and be authoritative in assessments that sufficient right-of-way is available for the trackway, stations,
substations, yards, maintenance shops, and storage facilities. Wherever possible, viable alternate routes should be considered
in addition to the preferred alignment. Costs and non-economic implications of each alternate approach should be clearly set
forth for evaluation by stakeholders and public sector decision-makers. Very often legislation at one or more government
levels is required to make the necessary land obtainable, and errors can be costly, or perhaps fatal, to the project.
Most rail systems are funded through a combination of sources such as local government, regional authorities, and state,
provincial and federal governments. Here again, much care must be exercised during the evaluation process to provide
accurate and defendable cost information to the supporting agencies, stakeholders, and sometimes the voting public, for
approval of loans, grants, and bond issues. Major rail system programs that over-run estimated construction costs and fail to
achieve ridership and revenue targets alienate the general public. Legislators must be heavily involved in the evaluation phase
of corridor and route selection activities.
2.8.2 Operations Simulation
Operation Simulation combines the essentials for complete evaluation of the overall plans for feasibility and functionality.
Alternative analysis of facility locations, operations, and issues such as differentiation between an existing railroad or a fresh

xxiv AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
start on a totally new railroad should be considered. The results should provide a realistic evaluation to determine the final
recommended service.
The train operational analysis primarily consists of using a computer simulation model, or other appropriate analytic
technique, to overlay the current and projected train movements (of all users including freight and passenger) on the current
physical infrastructure of the rail line being analyzed. The purpose is to identify the ability of the current infrastructure to
accommodate existing as well as proposed future train movements. The analysis produces information on where train
movements are constrained (movement of the train according to the prescribed schedule is not possible as the number of
movements is increased according to a proposed train schedule). The analysis begins with the existing or proposed base case
train schedule and progresses as incremental increases in train movements are added. This process reveals not only where
capacity is constrained but also approximately what combination of existing or proposed base case and new scheduled train
movements caused the constraint that is measured (among other ways) as hours of train delay. Proposed improvements, such
as a new parallel track or new crossovers, are added to the rail line description in the analysis to determine what degree of
benefit they provide in removing the constraint and permitting the movement of trains according to the existing schedule,
without causing a net increase in hours of existing train delay. The rail line infrastructure improvements identified through this
process are the basis for preparing the Capital Cost Estimate.
2.8.3 Implementation Schedule and Plan
An Implementation Plan is required to advance the project from 2.2 Planning to 2.8 Corridor Implementation. This plan should
include planning, permitting, implementation, construction, inspection, quality control, and startup.
The use of modern Project Management Techniques and establishment of an effective Project Team is essential to successful
program implementation. Institutional and personal commitments are key to progressing the program in a timely manner.
Stakeholder representatives are valuable members of the project team.
An Implementation Plan is not just a schedule but includes or considers the following:
• Emphasis on obtaining program scope approvals and stakeholder commitment. The Corridor Configuration Plan can
be used as a tool to conceptually describe the short, medium and long-range improvements that are required to
achieve the goals and obtain stakeholder consensus and commitment. The Corridor Configuration Plan
supplemented by more detailed engineered drawings can document approvals by incorporating stakeholder
signatures.
• General agreement on project benefits and forecasted/expected project funding can determine a conceptual sequence
for implementation. This sequence can be further developed and refined as the project is progressed.
• The milestone schedule depicts the following high level activities:
(a) Design
(b) Grade Separation Planning
(c) Environmental Process
(d) Negotiation with Outside
(e) Land Acquisition
(f) Procurement of Long Lead Material
(g) Procurement of Construction Services
(h) Contract Construction

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xxv
(i) Force Account Construction
(j) Equipment Procurement
(k) Project System Testing
(l) Project Completion and Start of Revenue Service
• Risk Analysis and Contingency Planning – identifies risks, impact analysis, risk response and mitigation, risk
deflection, risk avoidance, and risk modeling.
• Change Process and Control – a formal process to manage project changes in quality, scope, functions, cost and time.
• Responsibility Matrix and tracking of action items from program meetings.
• Useful metrics to measure and monitor performance.
• Time Management - Establishment of a Target Schedule and comparison with current schedule, using percent
complete, earned values, etc.
• Resource Management and Planning – people, material, equipment and time.
• Scope Management – value engineering considering life cycle costs, benefits, quality and functions.
DESIGN
The design process includes advancing the design from the feasibility study level, through schematic design, preliminary
design (30%), to pre-final design (60 to 90%), and final design (construction documents). It is advisable that a formal value
engineering analysis and constructibility review be incorporated into the design process to ensure that a cost effective and
practical system criteria and subsequent design is achieved.
• The design process also produces construction schedules and cost estimates at each level of design. This allows the
project staff to monitor costs, quality and budget and mitigate problems/issues as they occur.
• During the design to modify an existing rail corridor, a Construction Operating Plan is developed that includes:
(a) Railroad operating plan during construction
(b) Possible railroad detour plan if “blitz” methods are utilized
(c) Road closure and maintenance of traffic plan
(d) Emergency access and response plan
(e) Freight shipper plan
(f) Bridge plan
(g) Community outreach
GRADE SEPARATION PLANNING (Under Development)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESS

xxvi AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
The Environmental Process flows from design development. As the program and discrete project improvements are better
defined a screening process is used to identify environmental issues. Typically, initial conceptual engineering is based on field
visits, available information like track charts and related physical data and other source material. If the proposed
improvements are all on existing railroad right-of-way it may be possible to obtain a “categorical exclusion” from the lead
federal or state agency.
Those improvements that are off an existing railroad right-of-way may need to go through a more complete environmental
review and approval process. Compliance with Federal and State Environmental Regulations should be anticipated and
incorporated into the implementation plan.
NEGOTIATION WITH OUTSIDE PARTIES (Under Development)
LAND ACQUISITION (Under Development)
CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCING
The goal of construction sequencing is to perform work in the right order to achieve the desired results in an efficient, practical
and cost effective manner. Construction planning occurs during design development and is the basis for proper construction
sequencing. Construction sequencing is an iterative process that considers design, construction, logistic, resource, funding,
operational, community, and stakeholder concerns.
Fabrication and delivery of long lead material should be considered in proper construction sequencing and in the
implementation schedule. Specialized material for the maintenance facilities, stations, structural work, signal work and track
work is identified during design and procured to minimize the effects of significant lead times. Typically, the longest lead track
materials are the turnouts and crossovers. Signal houses, signal bridges, and track circuits are the usual long lead signal
material. The maintenance facilities incorporate specialized needs like wheel truing, fueling, sanding, drop tables, etc. that are
long lead specialized items.
Ranking of the improvements provides a basis for construction sequencing and a reasonable starting point for initial
discussions and coordination efforts. Ranking of Improvements is performed both discretely and as groups that are linked
functionally or operationally. A logical phasing plan may be a result of market and ridership. Station and Facility
Improvements would be advanced to meet the anticipated in service (completion) date. These improvements potentially may
include more environmental and community involvement.
• The initial analysis assumes a favorable funding stream that does not constrain implementation but actual funding
may impact implementation.
• Operational and Community issues may conflict with rankings and require some re-sequencing. This is an iterative
process until an acceptable sequence is determined.
• Facilities and stations are geographically compact compared to the corridor segment improvements and require less
operational coordination but are more complex incorporating more disciplines and trades.
• Corridor segment improvements are linked together both operationally as well as functionally (track, signals,
crossings, bridges, etc.)
The agreement among the major stakeholders on the project elements and schedule and the environmental review and
permitting process typically are among the most unpredictable tasks in terms of the time needed for their completion.
2.8.4 Capital Cost Estimating
Capital Cost Estimates will be an estimate of total infrastructure, equipment and systems costs based on the results of
operation simulation and the proposed schedule in the operating plan.

AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering xxvii
The purpose of Capital Cost Estimating is to provide reasonable, useful and professional estimates for budgeting and
evaluation of candidate projects. The capital costs are only one factor to be considered for a project’s feasibility. Most
estimates are based on concepts and schematic data and therefore, are sometimes referred to as “Conceptual Estimates”. These
estimates allow agencies, stakeholders, and decision makers to evaluate capital cost funding requirements as one of their
criteria in evaluating, ranking, and selecting projects.
The accuracy of the cost estimate depends on the quality and level of detail of the information used in the estimate. At this
early level of project development, there is very limited specific engineering and scope information available. Typical details,
historical data and accepted standards can be used in lieu of a more developed design. An adequate contingency must be
applied to compensate for the lack of detailed information. Contingencies can vary for each component or assembly based on
the quality of information and potential for cost variation.
The first step in the estimate is to define the project scope. Project documents (i.e. line diagrams, schematic plans,
specifications, technical memoranda, reports, studies, etc.) can be used to define the project scope. The scope definition
process should provide adequate detail to prepare an estimate based on quantitative information. Quantity takeoffs can be
performed and unit prices applied to obtain an extended amount for each task or item of work.
All of the available information is used to prepare track diagrams, charts and drawings that describe the baseline proposed
conditions that support the initial Train Operational Simulation and Analysis. The Operational Simulation and Analysis and
Infrastructure Requirements are an iterative process.
Costs are based on a conceptual scope developed, as appropriate, for each specific improvement. The unit cost for each item
may be the total of unit costs for each component of the item. Where applicable, these values should be modified to better
reflect local conditions.
As the project is developed and the scope becomes better defined, the cost estimate should be updated to reflect current
information. Typically cost estimates for large programs increase as engineering progresses. The greatest unknowns in most
projects are: physical information on the right-of-way (including soils, drainage, utilities and property lines; environmental
mitigation; government regulations and community issues).
The estimating methodology should be developed in accordance with current best practice and guidelines. Capital costs may
be determined in current year dollars that can be adjusted using financial models, inflation assumptions, material indices and
productivity data.
2.8.4.1 The Capital Cost Estimating Process
The capital cost estimating process is a function of an assessment of the operational requirements of a rail line segment that
allows for a specific train schedule, frequency and reliability combined with an analysis of the physical site conditions along
that rail line segment. The need for specific capital improvements is determined based on the operational analysis of proposed
train schedules, train meet and pass points, station stops; and road and local freight operations if applicable. An analysis of the
type and scale of the specific improvement should be conducted to determine a general estimate of quantities of materials and
labor required for construction of the capital improvement. Unit costs are then applied to each item to develop an extended
amount.
Allowances for contingency are applied to the totals of the extended amounts for each right-of-way segment consistent with
estimating costs at this conceptual design level.
Capital Improvements are defined from an Operational Analysis of the proposed train schedule/frequencies, train meet and
pass points, station stops, etc. The analysis produces a draft operating plan, which defines the following parameters:
• Type of equipment and equipment characteristics
• Dispatching & control of train operations

xxviii AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
• Line segment capacity
• Desired Trip Time
• Signaling requirements
• Station platform requirements
• Terminals / Layover yards / Equipment maintenance points
• Equipment cycles
• Station dwell times
• Draft TPC trip times with input and output tables and graphs
The preceding information is then analyzed to determine the quantity of construction items for each improvement.
2.8.5 Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimating
Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimates will be established for the proposed service on a recurring basis for train
operations and maintenance of the facilities to support the recommended service.
The purpose of Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimating is to provide reasonable, useful and professional operating cost
estimates and maintenance cost estimates for budgeting and evaluation of candidate projects. The project evaluations should
consider all life cycle costs as part of the feasibility stage. Life cycle cost estimates allow agencies, stakeholders, and decision
makers to evaluate total costs when ranking and selecting projects.

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xxx AREMA Manual of Railway Engineering
6
CHAPTER 6
BUILDINGS AND SUPPORT FACILITIES1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Specifications and General Design Criteria for Railway Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-1

1.1 Organization of Bid Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3
1.2 General Design Criteria for Railway Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-9
1.3 Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-12
2 Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-1 1

2.1 Site Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.2 Functional Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.3 Spacial Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-5
2.4 Structural Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-9
2.5 Finish Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-10
2.6 Mechanical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-13
2.7 Electrical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14 3
2.8 Fire and Life Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-16
3 Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-1

3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3
3.3 Building Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-4
3.5 Space Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
3.6 Mechanical, Electrical and Specialized Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-7
3.7 Finish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.8 Miscellaneous Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.9 Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.10 Environmental Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-11
1
The material in this and other chapters in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering is published as recommended practice to railroads and others
concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signals and communications), and allied services and facilities.
For the purpose of this Manual, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE is defined as a material, device, design, plan, specification, principle or practice
recommended to the railways for use as required, either exactly as presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable to meet the needs
of individual railways, but in either event, with a view to promoting efficiency and economy in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of
railways. It is not intended to imply that other practices may not be equally acceptable.
© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 6-i

3.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-12
4 Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-1

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-3
4.2 Site Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-15
4.3 Building Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16
4.4 Equipment and Related Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-19
4.5 Service Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-25
4.6 Building Superstructure Details. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-30
4.7 Heating and Ventilation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-32
4.8 Electrical Lighting and Power Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-34
4.9 Pollution (Noise-Air-Water) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-35
4.10 Communications and Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-35
4.11 Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-36
4.12 Blue Signal/Flag Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-37
4.13 Storage Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-37
4.14 Track Drip Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-38
5 Energy Conservation and Audits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-1

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-2
5.2 Elements of Energy Conservation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-3
5.3 Strategies and Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-4
5.4 Advances in Energy Cost Savings for Railway Buildings and Shop Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.5 Types of Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-6
5.6 Organization of Railroad Energy Management Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-7
5.7 Audit Survey Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-8
5.8 Justification of Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-11
5.9 Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-13
5.10 Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-14
6 Locomotive Sanding Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-1

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-2
6.2 Sanding Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-3
6.3 System Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-6
6.4 Sanding Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-12
6.5 Environmental Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-17
6.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-18
7 Design Criteria for Railway Materials Management Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-1

7.1 Site Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-2
7.2 Functional Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-3
7.3 Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-6
7.4 Exterior Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-6
8 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-1

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-3
8.2 Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-4
8.3 Functional Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-7
8.4 Building Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-16
6-ii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

8.5 Mechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-17

8.6 Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-18
8.7 Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-20
8.8 Station and Platform Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-25
8.9 Passenger Train Yards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-32
9 Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Repair Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-1

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-2
9.2 Machine Maintenance Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4
9.3 Other Workshop Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5
9.4 Machine and Material Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8
9.5 Support Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9
10 Design Criteria for Observation Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-1

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2
10.2 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2
10.3 Tower Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-3
10.4 Special Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5
11 Design Criteria for CTC Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-1 1

11.1 Site Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-2
11.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-2
11.4 Support Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.5 Room Finishes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
12 Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-1 3

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2
12.2 Washing Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2
13 Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and Servicing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-1

13.3 Special Requirements – Coach Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-5 4
13.4 Special Requirements – Combined Coach Locomotive Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-7
13.5 Special Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-8
13.7 Mechanical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-9
13.8 Electrical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-10
13.9 Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-11
14 Roofing Systems Descriptions and Recommendations for Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-1

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-2
14.2 Selecting a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-3
14.3 Roofing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-4
14.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-29
15 Inspection of Railway Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-1

15.1 Organization and Inspection Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-2
15.2 Inspectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-2
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 6-iii

15.3 Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-3

15.4 Conducting an Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-3
15.5 Inspection Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-5
16 Design Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-1

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
16.2 Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
16.3 Types of Main Line Fueling Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-3
16.4 Services Provided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-4
17 Other Yard and Terminal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-1

17.1 Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-2
17.2 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-3
17.3 Design of Roadway Material Reclamation and Fabrication Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-4
17.4 Design of Yard Compressed Air Facilities for Train Air Brake Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-10
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-G-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-R-1
INTRODUCTION
The Chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents (specifications,
recommended practices, plans, etc.). Individual Parts are divided into Sections by centered headings set in capital letters and
identified by a Section number. These Sections are subdivided into Articles designated by numbered side headings.
Page Numbers – In the page numbering of the Manual (6-2-1, for example) the first numeral designates the Chapter
number, the second denotes the Part number in the Chapter, and the third numeral designates the page number in the Part.
Thus, 6-2-1 means Chapter 6, Part 2, page 1.
In the Glossary and References, the Part number is replaced by either a “G” for Glossary or “R” for References.
Document Dates – The bold type date (Document Date) at the beginning of each document (Part) applies to the document
as a whole and designates the year in which revisions were last made somewhere in the document, unless an attached footnote
indicates that the document was adopted, reapproved, or rewritten in that year.
Article Dates – Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last time the Article was modified.
Revision Marks – All current year revisions (changes and additions) which have been incorporated into the document are
identified by a vertical line along the outside margin of the page, directly beside the modified information.
Proceedings Footnote – The Proceedings footnote on the first page of each document gives references to all Association
action with respect to the document.
Annual Updates – New manuals, as well as revision sets, will be printed and issued yearly.
6-iv AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

6
Part 1
Specifications and General Design Criteria
for Railway Buildings1
— 2003 —
FOREWORD
a. This section will cover the following areas in general: 1

(1) Organization of Bid Documents.
(2) General Design Criteria for railway buildings.
b. It is not the intent of this section to cover Material and Workmanship Specifications required for construction of
railway buildings. To do so would make this section voluminous and would also be redundant, as most architectural 3
and/or engineering firms and in-house design departments have their own “Standard Files” from which front end
documents and specifications are taken, added to, or revised to fit specific job requirements.
1
References, Vol. 70, 1969, p. 200; Vol. 85, 1984, p. 28.
© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 6-1-1

Buildings and Support Facilities
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article Description Page
1.1 Organization of Bid Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3

1.1.1 Recommended Format (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3
1.1.2 Bidding Requirements (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3
1.1.3 Contract Forms (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3
1.1.4 General Conditions (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-3
1.1.5 Special Conditions (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-4
1.1.6 Technical Specifications (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-4
1.1.7 Construction Specifications Institute Format (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-4
1.2 General Design Criteria for Railway Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-9

1.2.1 Scope (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-9
1.2.2 Warning…(2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-9
1.2.3 Site Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-10
1.2.4 Site Work (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-10
1.2.5 Utilities (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-10
1.2.6 General Considerations for Railway Building Design (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-11
1.3 Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-12

1.3.1 Overall Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-12
1.3.2 Special Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-12
1.3.3 Structural Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-12
1.3.4 Materials (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-13
1.3.5 Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-13
1.3.6 Electrical (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1-13
6-1-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Specifications and General Design Criteria for Railway Buildings
SECTION 1.1 ORGANIZATION OF BID DOCUMENTS
1.1.1 RECOMMENDED FORMAT (2003)
a. It is recommended that the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) format be used to organize bid documents.
b. The “CSI Format” has been established as a recognized industry standard. Widespread acceptance of the “CSI
Format” has provided contractors with an easier method to control a project’s efficiency. The “CSI Format” gives
specifiers the ability to relate all files, product literature, references, and specifications to a single unified system. The
building owner stands to reduce his expenditures through increased efficiencies.
c. The “CSI Format” is comprised of four major groupings of documents; bidding Requirements, Contract Forms,
General Conditions, and Technical Specifications. Due to the Special Requirements of Railroad construction work it
may be necessary to add a “Special Conditions” section to the “CSI Format”. It is recommended that if needed, a
“Special Conditions” section be inserted between the General Conditions, and Technical Specifications.
1.1.2 BIDDING REQUIREMENTS (2003)
a. Bidding requirements may vary considerably depending on the size and location of the project and the requirements of
the owner.
b. The following should be considered when preparing Bidding Requirements:
(1) Invitation: will bids be solicited from any interested contractors or by invitation to only selected contractors. 1
(2) Description of Project: give a brief description of the project noting major items of work and any specialties.
(3) Plans and Specifications: give the address where Plans and Specifications may be obtained and the cost, if any.
Describe clearly how the plans and specifications are to be purchased, i.e. cash only, check, money order, etc.
Also can the plans and specifications be picked up only, mailed, etc.
3
(4) Contractor Requirements: specific requirements that must be met by the contractor such as experience, safety
record, equal employment opportunity, MBE/WBE requirements if any, etc., should be clearly stated.
(5) Owner’s Rights: the right of the owner to reject:
(a) Any bids that appear to be extremely out of line. 4

(b) Any bids from contractors not qualified to do the work.
(c) All bids, if they are considered to be too high or not economically justified.
1.1.3 CONTRACT FORMS (2003)
a. Most railroads have their own set of contract forms to be used for construction work performed by outside parties.
However, should this not be the case, the American Institute of Architects has standard printed contract forms that may
be used as a guide to formulating contract forms for railroad building construction projects.
1.1.4 GENERAL CONDITIONS (2003)
a. It is normally standard practice for a railroad to have a prepared set of general conditions which will apply to all
construction work carried out by outside parties. There may be some divergence if a company operates in more than
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 6-1-3

one state due to differences in lien laws and insurance requirements. It is, however, normal for each railroad to have a
format or general outline for its general conditions which will be applicable in all cases. The general conditions for the
proposed work should cover such things as general provisions of the contract, project organization, property rights,
scope of work, subcontracting and assignment, quality of workmanship, equipment and materials, personnel, schedule,
payments, changes in the work, shop drawings, product data and samples, project record documents and project
account records, testing and inspection, protection of persons and property, insurance, indemnity and bonds, claims and
disputes, events of default and termination, compliance with all laws, and miscellaneous. The American Institute of
Architects has standard printed “General Conditions” which may be used as a guide to formulating a standard set for
use by any company.
b. Proper protection of the railroad company from legal entanglements is one of the primary objectives of the general
conditions. Therefore, the general conditions should clearly state who is responsible for obtaining insurance, taxes,
inspection fees, etc.
c. The Federal Railway Administration (FRA) requires certain safety training, equipment and practices for work on
railroads. The general conditions should clearly state the requirements of compliance with these regulations and any
other railroad safety requirements.
1.1.5 SPECIAL CONDITIONS (2003)
a. Special Conditions should be written to supplement the general conditions in all cases where unusual circumstances
may exist. For example, the responsibility of the contractor to perform his work without disrupting normal train
movements in the area and staging of work to maintain normal operations. Special conditions should spell out
responsibilities in any area of the contract, which due to they’re being peculiar to the job at hand, are not covered
specifically in the general conditions such as warranties and guarantees.
b. The special conditions should also list all items of work to be performed by others outside of the contract, and should
list all materials that are to be furnished by the railroad to the contractor.
1.1.6 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS (2003)
a. Technical specification sections do not have a hierarchical relationship to one another. One specification section
cannot govern another but can be complementary documents since each specification section potentially can affect all
other specification sections. Specification section titles and their arrangement are not intended to imply how the work
is assigned to various trades or subcontractors. The format titles used have not been arranged to correspond to
common trade and/or subcontractors, but are intended to reflect the “Master Format™” titles used as part of the CSI
Format.
b. Each CSI format division is identified by division number and title. The divisions are fixed in number and in name,
and are referred to as the “Master Format™” Level Two Numbers and Titles.
c. In general, the body of each technical specification should spell out the quality of material and workmanship expected
under that section. This will vary greatly depending on the trade or work involved but should be presented in a like
manner in all of the separate specifications. Outline specifications for various building materials are available from the
Construction Specifications Institute.
1.1.7 CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS INSTITUTE FORMAT (2003)
The format presented below outlines the Master Format Level Two, Numbers and Titles. A complete list of titles is available
from the Construction Specifications Institute:

DIVISION 1 – GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Concrete Forms and Accessories
Summary Concrete Reinforcement
Price and Payment Procedures Cast-In-Place Concrete
Administrative Requirements Precast Concrete
Quality Requirements Cementituous Decks and Underlayment
Temporary Facilities and Controls Grouts
Product Requirements Mass Concrete
Execution Requirements Concrete Restoration and Cleaning
Facility Operation
Facility Decommissioning DIVISION 4 – MASONRY
Basic Masonry Materials and Methods
DIVISION 2 – SITE CONSTRUCTION Masonry Units
Basic Site Materials and Methods Stone

1
Site Remediation Refactories
Site Preparation Corrosion – Resistant Masonry
Earthwork Simulated Masonry 3

Tunneling, Boring, and Jacking Masonry Assemblies
Foundation and Load-Bearing Elements Masonry Restoration and Cleaning
Utility Services
4
Drainage and Containment DIVISION 5 – METALS
Bases, Ballasts, Pavement and Appurtenances Basic Materials and Methods
Site Improvements and Amenities Structural Metal Framing
Planting Metal Joists
Site Restoration and Rehabilitation Metal Deck
Cold-Form Metal Framing
DIVISION 3 – CONCRETE Metal Fabrications
Basic Concrete Materials and Methods Hydraulic Fabrications

Railroad Track and Accessories DIVISION 8 – DOORS AND WINDOWS
Ornamental Metal Basic Door and Window Materials
Expansion Control Metal Doors and Frames/and Methods
Metal Restoration and Cleaning Wood and Plastic Doors
Specialty Doors
DIVISION 6 – WOOD AND PLASTICS Entrances and Storefronts
Basic Wood and Plastic Materials and Methods Windows
Rough Carpentry Skylights
Finish Carpentry Hardware
Architectural Woodwork Glazing
Structural Plastics Glazed Curtain Wall
Plastic Fabrications
Wood and Plastic Restoration and Cleaning DIVISION 9 – FINISHES
Basic Finish Materials and Methods
DIVISION 7 – THERMAL AND MOISTURE Metal Support Assemblies

PROTECTION
Plaster and Gypsum Board
Basic Thermal and Moisture Protection Materials and
Methods Tile
Dampproofing and Waterproofing Terrazzo
Thermal Protection Ceilings
Shingles Roof Tiles, and Roof Coverings Flooring
Roofing and Siding Panels Wall Finishes
Membrane Roofing Acoustical Treatment
Flashing and Sheet Metal Paint and Coatings
Roof Specialties and Accessories
Fire and Smoke Protection DIVISION 10 – SPECIALTIES
Joint Sealers Visual Display Boards
Compartments and Cubicles

Louvers and Vents Library Equipment
Grilles and Screens Theater and Stage Equipment
Service Walls Instrumental Equipment
Wall and Corner Guards Registration Equipment
Access Flooring Checkroom Equipment
Pest Control Mercantile Equipment
Fireplaces and Stoves Commercial Laundry & Dry Cleaning Equipment
Manufactured Exterior Specialties Vending Equipment
Flagpoles Audio-Visual Equipment
Identification Devices Vehicle Service Equipment
Pedestrian Control Devices Parking Control Equipment
Lockers Loading Dock Equipment
Protective Covers Solid Waste Handling Equipment

1
Postal Specialties Detention Equipment
Partitions Water Supply and Treatment Equipment
Storage Shelving Hydraulic Gate and Valves 3

Exterior Protection Fluid Waste Treatment and Disposal Equipment
Telephone Specialties Food Service Equipment
Toilet, Bath, and Laundry Accessories Residential Equipment

4
Scales Unit Kitchens
Wardrobe and Closet Specialties Darkroom Equipment
Athletic, Recreational, and Therapeutic Equipment
DIVISION 11 – EQUIPMENT Industrial and Process Equipment
Maintenance Equipment Laboratory Equipment
Security and Vault Equipment Planetarium Equipment
Teller and Service Equipment Observatory Equipment
Ecclesiastical Equipment Office Equipment

Medical Equipment Aquariums
Mortuary Equipment Aquatic Park Facilities
Navigation Equipment Tubs and Pools
Agricultural Equipment Ice Rinks
Exhibit Equipment Kennels and Animal Shelters
Site Constructed Incinerators
DIVISION 12 – FURNISHINGS Storage Tanks
Fabrics Filter Underdrains and Media
Art Digester Covers and Appurtenances
Manufactured Casework Oxygenation Systems
Furnishings and Accessories Sludge Conditioning Systems
Furniture Hazardous Material Remediation
Multiple Seating Measurement and Control Instrumentation
Systems Furniture Recording Instrumentation
Interior Plants and Planters Transportation Control Instrumentation
Furnishing Restoration and Repair Solar and Wind Energy Equipment
Security Access and Surveillance
DIVISION 13 – SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION Building Automation and Control
Air Supported Structures Detection and Alarm
Building Modules Fire Suppression
Special Purpose Rooms
Sound, Vibration, and Seismic Control DIVISION 14 – CONVEYING SYSTEMS
Radiation Protection Dumbwaiters
Lightning Protection Elevators
Cathodic Protection Escalators and Moving Walls
Pre-Engineered Structures Lifts
Swimming Pools Material Handling

Hoists and Cranes Air Distribution
Turntables HVAC Instrumentation and Controls
Scaffolding Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing
Transportation Control and Instrumentation
DIVISION 15 – MECHANICAL DIVISION 16 – ELECTRICAL
Basic Mechanical Materials and Methods Basic Electrical Materials and Methods
Building Services Piping Wiring Methods
Process Piping Electrical Power
Fire Protection Piping Transmission and Distribution
Fixtures and Equipment Low-Voltage Distribution
Heat – Generation Equipment Lighting
Refrigeration Equipment Communications

1
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Equipment Sound and Video
3
SECTION 1.2 GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY BUILDINGS
1.2.1 SCOPE (2003)
a. The intent of this section is to bring to the attention of the Architect, Engineer, or Contractor involved in designing or
constructing railway buildings, design and construction problems that are unique to railway buildings and/or are rarely
encountered in other design or construction projects. This section should be used in conjunction with design criteria 4
for specific railway facilities presented in other sections of this Manual.
b. It is not the intent of this section to cover material and/or workmanship specifications or design practices.
1.2.2 WARNING…(2003)
NEVER ASSUME A TRACK IS NOT BEING USED.
a. You may be working adjacent to a track for hours, or in some cases days, and may not see a train. Do not assume that
it is safe to put equipment or material on or near a track, no matter how short a time it will be there. Failure to comply
with this simple rule may cause serious damage, personal injury, or death.
b. The FRA and the railroads have specific rules to follow when it is necessary to work on or within certain distances of
any track. If it will be necessary to work close to or on tracks, know the rules and be sure you and your personnel
follow them.

c. The railroad authority to contact when it is necessary to work on or near tracks should be clearly named in the special
conditions of the contract and the procedure for notification should also be clearly defined.
1.2.3 SITE CONSIDERATIONS (2003)
1.2.3.1 Track Clearance
a. Railroads have minimum clearance criteria, and states also maintain minimum clearance requirements. Refer to
Chapter 28, Clearances for Clearance Diagrams. Legal Clearance Requirements by States are shown in Table 28-3-3.
Also consult with the railroad involved as they may have more stringent requirements.
1.2.3.2 Sight Distances
a. Buildings should be located as far as possible from road crossings to allow vehicle or pedestrian traffic adequate sight
lines to see approaching trains.
b. Landscaping should anticipate vegetation growth to preclude obstructing sight lines in the future.
1.2.3.3 Additional Tracks
a. If space permits, the building should be located in such a way as to allow for additional future tracks.
1.2.3.4 Derailments
a. Although railroads strive to avoid derailments, they do happen. Locations where derailments are most likely to happen
are at turnouts, the outside of tight curves, ends of bridges, at road crossings, and the pullout end of classification yards.
Locating buildings at or near these locations should be avoided if possible. The distance from the track should be
increased proportionately with allowed train speed.
1.2.3.5 Building Accessibility
a. Public access and employee access to the building and/or facility must be considered. In addition, roadway access for
automobiles, truck deliveries and emergency vehicles must also be addressed. If personnel must cross heavily used
tracks, consideration should be given to either providing an underpass or an overhead walkway.
1.2.3.6 Protection of Personnel
a. Where a building is located close to tracks, railings should be installed in front of doors between the building and the
track. The railings should be parallel to the track and of sufficient length to make anyone exiting the building walk to
a designated crossing of the track and be aware of train movements before he/she is able to turn and cross the track(s).
1.2.4 SITE WORK (2003)
a. Site work requirements for buildings constructed on railroad property will vary considerably according to the
geographic area in which they are to be built. Local codes and building ordinances should be reviewed to determine
any special requirements which may apply to the project.
b. If the building involves trackwork refer to Volume 1 of the AREMA Manual for specific requirements.
1.2.5 UTILITIES (2003)
a. Most railroads have special requirements for the installation of water, sewer, gas, fiber optics, electric, and telephone
lines crossing under or above their tracks. A copy of their requirements should be obtained. Utilities should be routed

in order to minimize rail crossings; where required they should be as close to right angles as possible to facilitate future
repairs.
b. Septic tanks and subsoil disposal systems should be located away from tracks and fills and must comply with Federal
and State environmental regulations.
c. If located near an electrified railroad track, bonding isolation of underground utilities, or cathodic protection may be
required.
1.2.6 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR RAILWAY BUILDING DESIGN (2003)
1.2.6.1 Excavation
a. When locating buildings adjacent to tracks care shall be taken to determine if communication and/or signal cables exist
in the area. The railroad’s communication and signaling department’s should be contacted to locate any possible
cabling in the area.
b. Excavation work required immediately next to tracks should require consideration of possible sheeting and shoring of
embankments in order to accommodate passing trainloads. Approval of sheeting and shoring designs should be
obtained from the railroad.
1.2.6.2 Vibration and Noise
a. Buildings to be located adjacent to high-speed main lines should take into consideration the vibration generated by 1
high speed, heavy tonnage trains. Materials and methods of construction should be capable of withstanding the
vibration without physical damage.
b. Buildings which are erected in close proximity to idling locomotives may require sound attenuation to be incorporated
into the design.
1.2.6.3 Maintenance 3
a. Materials selected should require minimum cleaning and maintenance. Considerable amounts of oil, grease, exhaust
fumes, and dirt – producing functions exist in and around railroad building, shops and facilities. Therefore, finish
materials in buildings, shops and facilities should be selected accordingly.
b. Some railroad facilities such as shops, warehouses, etc. employ forklifts and other devices for the movement of
material and parts to different locations within the building. Consequently, the building structure should be provided 4
with impact protection to protect against damage to walls and structural elements in the areas where such movement is
possible.
1.2.6.4 Railroad Equipment
a. Railroad buildings may require provisions for one or more of the following:
• Railroad telephone equipment.
• Microwave communication system.
• Radio equipment.
• Signal equipment, etc.

• Compressed air, lube oil, waste oil recovery, etc.
b. It may be necessary to provide space for this equipment as well as empty conduits or raceways under floors, above
ceilings, or in walls for connection of this equipment by others.
1.2.6.5 Security
a. Many railroad buildings are located in remote areas or contain materials or equipment whose theft or damage would
greatly impair the operation of the railroad. The installation of heavy-duty locks, doors, window guards, fencing,
security lighting, etc., should be given serious consideration.
1.2.6.6 Special Access
a. Due to mixed-use occupancy of many railroad buildings, consideration should be given to providing separate access to
portions of the building either from common corridors or directly from the outside. Also, each building access shall be
ADA compliant.
SECTION 1.3 DESIGN CRITERIA
1.3.1 OVERALL CONSIDERATIONS (2003)
a. Design criteria should be developed which is directly related to the purpose, function and operational patterns
applicable to the particular building and/or facility to be designed.
b. Aside from any aesthetic considerations, the designer must familiarize himself/herself with the surroundings in which
the project is to be constructed, understand the interdepartmental relationships that may be imposed on the building
and/or facility, and understand how the flow of the work must proceed. In determining workflows, care should be
taken to recognize where possible efficiencies may be realized.
c. In addition to workflow, consideration must be given to employee circulation, accessibility to work stations, normal
exiting and entrance requirements and emergency exiting requirements. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
requirements must also be incorporated in those areas of the building and/or facilities where such regulation would
apply.
1.3.2 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS (2003)
a. Special needs will vary according to the type of building and/or facility to be designed. Care must be taken to provide
for such things as adequate office space (private and general), meeting space(s), employee welfare areas, public
welfare areas, storage for office supplies, parts, tools, etc., delivery areas, if applicable, mail rooms, elevators, stairs,
mechanical equipment areas (rooms), electrical equipment rooms, and special equipment. All of the foregoing must be
considered in addition to the functional needs of the building and/or facility.
1.3.3 STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS (2003)
a. Each building and/or facility will require its own unique structural system. The designer should have adequate
information about the soil conditions upon which the building is to be constructed, any seismic requirements, and
loading conditions.

b. In buildings and/or facilities where columns are to be used, designers should give careful consideration to modular bay
sizing in order to maximize work areas. In shop areas, placement of columns in work areas should be avoided
wherever possible.
c. Building cost may be significantly impacted by crane spans and capacity. Actual loads to be moved/lifted should be
carefully reviewed. Several smaller cranes can be less costly than one large crane.
1.3.4 MATERIALS (2003)
a. Materials selected for a project should be durable, compatible with the environment in which they must exist and be
easily and economically maintained. Buildings and/or facilities where vehicles can move about within the interior
and/or located adjacent to vehicle movement and/or storage areas should consider the use of materials which can
withstand vehicle impacts and/or impacts from equipment being stored.
b. Interior finishes should be selected on the basis of their ability to be easily maintained and altered if need be. In some
interior areas, materials selected must be able to withstand abuse from frequent use.
1.3.5 HEATING, VENTILATING AND AIR CONDITIONING (2003)
a. Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning requirements will be determined upon a number of factors such as geographic
location, type of building and/or facility involved and local building codes and ordinances.
b. Equipment selection should be based upon economy of use and suitability for the surroundings which it must serve.
Temperature control devices should also be used whenever possible and areas within the building and/or facility zoned 1
for greater efficiency. Temperature control devices should be tamper-proof in all cases.
c. Ventilation should meet local code requirements.
d. If diesel exhaust is present, provisions should be made to access ductwork, coils and fans for periodic cleaning in order
to reduce the probability of fire.
3
e. Outside air intakes should not be positioned where locomotive exhaust fumes may be ingested into the buildings fresh
air supply.
1.3.6 ELECTRICAL (2003)
a. Primary power for each building and/or facility shall be properly sized to supply adequate power with sufficient 4
capacity for expansion.
b. Lighting shall be properly provided in order to meet adequate illumination levels throughout the building and/or
facility.
c. All electrical work shall be designed to meet local building code requirements and/or the National Electrical Code.
d. If a building supports a large facility such as a yard or terminal complex, the electrical switchgear may be substantial
and a dedicated room may be needed in the building and/or an enclosure adjacent to the building.
e. If the building is in close proximity to an electrified railroad track, specific care should be taken to bond exterior metal
in order to minimize the potential for electric shock and stray current.


6
Part 2
Design Criteria for
Railway Office Buildings1
— 1991 —
FOREWORD
The material presented herein is intended to be used as a guide by the designer for office planning of leased property and for
designing railway buildings.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article Description Page 3

2.1 Site Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.1.1 Location (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.1.2 Code Requirements (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.1.3 Parking (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.1.4 Landscaping (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.1.5 Expansion (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.2 Functional Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3

2.2.1 General Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-3
2.2.2 Work Sequence Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-4
2.2.3 Employee Circulation Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-4
2.2.4 Special Equipment Considerations (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-4
2.3 Spacial Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-5

2.3.2 Office Space (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-6
2.3.3 File Space (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-6
2.3.4 Storage Spaces (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-7
2.3.5 Special Room Allowance (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-7
1
References, Vol. 72, 1971, p. 120; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 167; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 58. Revised 1991.

2.3.6 Space Required for Aisles (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-7

2.3.7 Conference Room (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-8
2.4 Structural Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-9

2.4.1 Framing Systems (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-9
2.4.2 Floor Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-9
2.4.3 Partitions (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-9
2.5 Finish Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-10

2.5.1 Exterior Materials (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-10
2.5.2 Wall and Ceiling Finishes (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-10
2.5.3 Floor Coverings and Finishes (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-11
2.5.4 Colors (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-12
2.5.5 Sound Control (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-13
2.5.6 Furniture (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-13
2.6 Mechanical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-13

2.6.1 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-13
2.6.2 Plumbing (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14
2.6.3 Energy Efficiency (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14
2.6.4 Elevators (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14
2.7 Electrical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14

2.7.1 Electrical Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14
2.7.2 Lighting (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-15
2.8 Fire and Life Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-16

2.8.1 Fire Protection (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-16
2.8.2 Life Safety (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-16
LIST OF TABLES
Table Description Page
6-2-1 Wall and Ceiling Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-12

6-2-2 Interior Environment Criteria for Design of HVAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2-14

Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings
SECTION 2.1 SITE CONSIDERATIONS
2.1.1 LOCATION (1991)
The location, availability of space, environmental conditions and property value will have an influence on the design of the
structure.
2.1.2 CODE REQUIREMENTS (1991)
Governing building, fire, life safety, and sanitary code requirements must be considered in the design of the structure and its
location on the site.
2.1.3 PARKING (1991)
a. Provision for parking is recommended where space is available.
b. Parking spaces for employees and visitors are required in some communities.
2.1.4 LANDSCAPING (1991)
a. The designer should determine from local ordinances if landscaping is required and what percent of the site must be
landscaped. If there are no landscaping requirements by law, it is now considered good practice to provide some
planting around the building and parking areas. 1
b. Vegetation used in landscaping should be easy to grow in the climate involved and inexpensive to maintain.
2.1.5 EXPANSION (1991)
Future building expansion should be considered when evaluating the site and the location of the building relative to the site.
3
SECTION 2.2 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
2.2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS (1991) 4

a. The functional requirements are those design criteria which are directly related to the purpose, duties, and
characteristic operational patterns of a particular office situation. As work is processed by the office, there is a
characteristic interaction between individual workstations in conjunction with the flow of work. Providing for
continuity and efficiency of these flow patterns is the major concern of functional planning.
b. Before commencing an immediate design problem, the designer should research interoffice and interdepartmental
relationships to better coordinate an entire sphere of operations. He should investigate existing flow patterns and
develop possible variations for improved efficiency. New flow patterns should not be initiated without thorough
analysis, but neither should old practices be retained without reevaluation.
c. The designer should consider the possibility and probability of expansion of activity and/or revision of existing or
proposed flow patterns. Final spacial design should provide adequate expansion space which could be occupied with
minimum disruption of office activity. Retention of desirable flow patterns after expansion is necessary for continued
efficient operation. Open planning with spaces free of restrictions is desirable to allow simple rearrangement of

workstations as activity, volume and flow patterns change. The versatility of open planning should be considered when
evaluating the need for private offices.
d. The designer should include handicapped accessibility in the design for site work as well as the office structure.
Minimum guidelines and requirements for handicapped accessibility are available through the American National
Standards Institute (A.N.S.I.) manual titled “Architectural and Transportation Barrier Compliance Board.”
2.2.2 WORK SEQUENCE CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
a. The location of interrelated offices should be such that any work flow between offices can be accomplished speedily
and with a minimum of travel distances or congestion involved. Adjacent locations reduce employee transit time and
intercommunication equipment overloads. Vertical as well as horizontal spacial relationships should be investigated.
b. Cubicles and/or work centers within an office should be spacially arranged according to the most efficient flow pattern
of operations. Continuity of flow through the office should be accomplished with a minimum of congestion,
backtracking, or excessive distance involved in the transfer of work.
c. Work centers used commonly by several individuals should be centrally located with respect to their users while
satisfying the overall flow pattern continuity. Minimal distances to the centralized work centers encourage more
efficient operation and better use of the specialized facilities.
2.2.3 EMPLOYEE CIRCULATION CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
a. Frequent interoffice traffic is best accommodated by direct passageways rather than by use of the common building
corridor.
b. Office spaces should be so designed as to allow unrestricted circulation between work centers, allowing sufficient
space to eliminate congestion. Circulation ways should be designed with maximum flexibility to accommodate varied
flow pattern developments.
c. Employees require interaction among themselves and their supervisors, necessitating office designs which allow easy
communications. Generous spacial layouts cause inefficient communications and loss of time, but provides cost
effective space for future expansion.
d. Where the office has frequent visitors, suitable reception and waiting areas should be provided adjacent to the public
entrance or the area to be visited. The visitor’s area should be located on the periphery of the office to reduce
distraction and interruption to other functions.
e. Provision should be made for employee circulation to drinking fountains, toilet rooms and lunch rooms. Fountains
should be dispersed throughout the work area to reduce circulation time and congestion. Toilet rooms and lunch rooms,
where required, can be centralized, allowing use by several adjacent offices. Overall circulations, especially in
complex office structures, should be designed to accommodate rush periods as well as the normal interoffice
circulation patterns.
2.2.4 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
a. Communications equipment and machines frequently used by many of the individuals within an office are best
dispersed through the area. Equipment can be completely distributed to every workstation or can be allocated to a
group of neighboring workstations when frequency of use is less. Dispersal will reduce the concentration of activity
and noise inherent in centralized work centers, but distractions to individual employees may rise as disturbances are
brought nearer to them. Acoustical control is also more difficult in dispersed situations than with centralized facilities
where sound barriers are feasible.

b. Isolation of equipment or work centers from the basic office area is normally undertaken because of:
(1) Acoustical disturbance.
(2) Climate control (computer rooms).
(3) Limited access for security reasons.
(4) Dirty, messy or malodorous operations.
SECTION 2.3 SPACIAL REQUIREMENTS
2.3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
a. Before any office can be planned, relocated or expanded, there should be a reasonable estimate of the amount of space
required to house the working activity.
b. To determine the required floor area it is necessary to consider the number of employees and departments, the number
of private offices and the size of the general office area for each department. Adequate space must be provided for
stairways, elevators, corridors, mechanical and electrical equipment rooms, toilet rooms, janitors closets, conference
rooms, lounges, food service areas, public areas, smoking areas (if allowed), storage and record rooms. The delivery 1
service, mail room and special equipment requirements should be considered when determining the floor area of the
building.
c. The actual space requirements are dictated by five basic factors:
(1) Nature of the work. The specific requirements of the office operation performed dictates the type and size of the
working area, the aisle width, the number and type of files, cabinets, tables and desks. 3
(2) Nature of space. The shape of the space effects its utilization economy. The position of columns, depth of bays,
presence of utility piping and/or duct chases, windows, and availability of electrical and phone outlets affect the
economical placement of equipment.
(3) Need for privacy. Private offices, conference rooms, partitions, and railings add to space requirements.
4
(4) Need for access. The access requirements of toilet rooms, lunch rooms, lounges, file rooms, stock rooms, janitor
closets, mail rooms, and electrical, mechanical, and other utility spaces must be considered in space allotments.
(5) Need for expansion. Provision for operational flexibility during growth cycles.
d. After making a preliminary evaluation of space required and evaluating the functional requirements, a more refined
estimate should be made prior to executing a layout.
(1) Inventory of the space required in each department for people, equipment and special facilities.
(2) Forecast by departments of the space required for normal expansion over a reasonable period of time.
e. Taking a space inventory, worker by worker, in each department, has an additional benefit of permitting a close look at
each workstation to see if present space is sufficient, or if a change in equipment would alter requirement.

Where practical, phone numbers rather than individual employee’s names should be used as a reference in laying out
individual work spaces.
f. A simple inventory form can be drawn up to provide the space estimate. Supervisors can prepare the inventory, with
department head’s approval. To assist the designer during his interviews with the supervisors, a check list would
provide a handy and valuable aid for obtaining information.
2.3.2 OFFICE SPACE (1991)
a. The fundamental unit (module) for office space is the individual worker, seated at his or her work position or their
workstation.
b. Floor area for executive and private offices is often mandated by corporate standards or dictated by economics.
In lieu of restrictions a guide figure of 250 to 350 square feet for executive, and 120 to 200 square feet for other offices
may be used as a design tool.
c. Density of open office space is either mandated by corporate standards or based on some configuration of free standing
modules of adequate size to enclose a work space with all its required furnishings.
For preliminary space allocation a figure of 150 square feet per person in offices of 2 to 5 people and 100 square feet
per person in offices of more than 5 people may be used.
d. Certain types of office equipment require more space than normally allowed in an estimate based on the average clerk
or typist position. Any space taken up by this equipment and their operations should be added to that considered for
regular office space. Equipment in this category includes:
(1) Word processing equipment.
(2) Duplicating equipment.
(3) Personal computers.
(4) Telefax equipment.
(5) Other special equipment.
2.3.3 FILE SPACE (1991)
a. Each open file will require the following space allowance without consideration of any working area in front of the
open drawer:
(1) Standard letter file (15″ × 30″) – allows 6-1/4 square feet.
(2) Standard legal file (18″ × 30″) – allow 7-1/2 square feet.
(3) Lateral files:
– 18″D × 30″L – allow 7 square feet.
– 18″D × 36″L – allow 8-1/4 square feet.
– 18″D × 42″L – allow 9-1/2 square feet.
b. Working space in front of file cabinets:

(1) Minimum, 2′-4″ from front of open drawer.
(2) Desirable, 3′-8″ from front of open drawer (especially if work space is also on an aisle).
c. Area requirements for file rooms should be based on the physical shape and nature of the space and the arrangement
chosen for file cabinet layout.
2.3.4 STORAGE SPACES (1991)
a. Storage requirements depend on the practices of the particular railroad, and the record keeping methods of the
management.
b. Consideration should be given to various types of storage:
(1) Vaults.
(2) Stock rooms.
(3) File rooms.
(4) Mobile files.
(5) Shelving.
1
(6) Janitors supplies.
(7) Coat closets.
2.3.5 SPECIAL ROOM ALLOWANCE (1991)
a. Depending on the operations, offices will require allied rooms of a size matched to their use. Allow 500 square foot for 3
15 persons plus 10 square foot for each additional person in:
(1) Reception room.
(2) Waiting room.
b. Space should be provided for: 4
(1) Lunch room.
(2) Employees lounge.
(3) Mail room.
(4) Conference room.
(5) Equipment spaces.
2.3.6 SPACE REQUIRED FOR AISLES (1991)
a. Aisle or passageways leading to main exits are mandated by code requirements.

b. Recommended aisle widths between work spaces or cubicles:
(1) Secondary aisle – 3′-0″.
(2) Intermediate aisle – 3′-3″.
(3) Main aisle – 5′-0″.
2.3.7 CONFERENCE ROOM (1991)
a. The size of the room is directly related to the number of persons to be seated.
(1) Small conference room seating 4 to 6 people – allow 150 to 200 square feet.
(2) Medium conference room seating 8 to 12 persons – allow 250 to 325 square feet.
(3) Large conference room seating 14 to 24 persons – allow 450 to 600 square feet.
b. Conference tables may be rectangular, round, boat shape or oval. Table width should be increased as the number at the
table increases.
c. Allow 30 inches per person for chair space to permit comfortable seating at the table.
d. Recommended egress from conference rooms.
(1) Up to 24 persons – one door.
(2) More than 24 persons – two doors.
e. A hard-surface ceiling over the conference table in large rooms is desirable to reinforce voice travel. Floors should be
carpeted to minimize background noise.
f. Consideration should be given to the incorporation of any of the following special features as required.
(1) Coat racks or closets.
(2) Projection booth.
(3) Toilet facilities.
(4) Kitchenette.
(5) Sound and/or video systems.
(6) Built-in bulletin and chalk boards.
(7) Special ventilation.
(8) Draperies and room darkening equipment.

SECTION 2.4 STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
2.4.1 FRAMING SYSTEMS (1991)
a. The structural system will be influenced by the building size, use, location, life expectancy, and economic factors.
b. The building designer must use his own judgement in making the final decision for the type of construction utilized as
there can be no hard and fast rule to govern. A careful study of the principal use, location and cost will be a factor in
selection of the structural system and the exterior finishes.
c. An office building is a complex, made up of many units. It is therefore wise to base the floor plan on a modular design.
The designer should study many modular bay sizes in order to make the space fit the requirements. He should also
study the effects different modules would have on the installation cost for lighting and heating.
(1) Have as few columns as possible and have them in exterior or corridor walls rather than free standing.
(2) Use a practical module and integrated lighting, air conditioning, underfloor duct outlets and window mullions so
that subsequent subdivision will permit partitions on the modular lines without requiring relocation of these
facilities.
d. A center core design which includes mechanical rooms, stairways, elevators and toilet rooms will leave the office area
open for arranging offices and planning for the most economical use of floor area.
2.4.2 FLOOR SYSTEMS (1991) 1

a. Floor live loads as recommended below or as required by governing codes.
Offices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 P.S.F.
Public corridors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 P.S.F.
Rest rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-100 P.S.F. 3
Computer rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 P.S.F.
Light storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 P.S.F.
b. In computer rooms, it is generally desirable to install a double floor system for the many large cables connecting the
various components. These elevated floors are manufactured in square panels and supported above the primary floor
on metal pedestals. The floor panels are easily lifted out to access the cabling and install floor fittings. 4
c. Floor construction with concrete over metal decking, precast concrete panels with voids or poured concrete with under
floor ducts provide a flexible means of furnishing power and communications to an open floor plan, utilizing modular
office partitions.
2.4.3 PARTITIONS (1991)
a. Core area partitions should be constructed of a permanent type material such as masonry, with or without plaster, or
other permanent finish.
b. Office partitions of metal or wood studs with plaster or gypsum board, will fulfill safety and privacy requirements if
conditions warrant.
c. Modular office partition systems:

(1) Partitions are available in a variety of heights, styles, materials and finishes.
(2) Various length components can be combined to create a wide variety of modular cubicles to serve as workstations.
(3) Modules may be activated or non-activated type.
(a) Activated modules have either integrated wiring in the panels or cableways in the panels through which
wiring can be pulled.
(b) Non-activated panels must have surface mounted conduit applied after installation.
(4) Power and communication connection is usually through:
(a) A power pole between the module and cabling above a suspended ceiling.
(b) Poke-through connection through the floor.
(c) Raised floor or computer floor system.
(d) Underfloor duct system.
(e) Flat cable system from baseboard, under carpet, to module.
SECTION 2.5 FINISH MATERIALS
2.5.1 EXTERIOR MATERIALS (1991)
a. The selection of exterior materials will be largely dependent on the type of structural system selected. Visibility and
access to the public will determine to a great extent the amount of aesthetic treatment.
b. In many instances local building codes will specifically prohibit certain types of exterior finish or specify a minimum
fire rating to be provided.
c. Windows:
(1) Air conditioned buildings should have insulating and/or tinted glazing. The windows may or may not be operable.
(2) Windows in non-air conditioned buildings may or may not be insulating or tinted. The windows should be awning
or hopper type, with screens, to provide ventilation.
(3) Building codes in some locations dictate formulas for computing window areas based on room size, ventilation,
and light.
2.5.2 WALL AND CEILING FINISHES (1991)
a. The type of wall and ceiling finish chosen will be determined by fire resistance requirements, appearance and
maintenance considerations.

b. Lobby and corridor walls, in many cases, influence public opinion. Therefore, attractive, easily cared for materials
should be used in such locations. Vinyl or plastic coverings, marble, ceramic tile, or paint are appropriate. (See Table 6-
2-1)
c. In general, office walls should have a hard, durable surface. However, private offices may be paneled with wood panels
and painted surfaces. Many special paints and epoxy finishes are available which are attractive and durable.
d. Sanitary requirements in toilet rooms can be met by using ceramic tile, plastic surfaces, enamels and epoxies which are
durable and easily cleaned.
e. Ceilings in general, should be fire retardant, sound absorbing, and in public areas aesthetically pleasing. The designer
should include in the contract documents a reflected ceiling plan showing the location of lighting fixtures, other
electrical, and mechanical components.
2.5.3 FLOOR COVERINGS AND FINISHES (1991)
a. The selection of floor coverings and finishes will be governed by the use to which specific areas are subjected. Heavy
traffic areas such as lobbies and corridors require substantial materials such as terrazzo, ceramic or quarry tile.
Resilient type coverings may also be used.
b. Vinyl resilient floor coverings are suitable for general or private offices. Executive offices are generally carpeted.
Carpeting with resilient backing which may be cemented in place is being used more often where tile or resilient
surfaces have previously been used.
1
c. Concrete floors may, in some cases be surfaced with epoxy finishes which are durable and easily maintained.

Table 6-2-1. Wall and Ceiling Finishes
Wall Finish Materials Type of Occupancy
Decorative Public General Private Executive

Material
Value Corridors Office Office Office
Clay Products Murals Recommended Satisfactory — Satisfactory
(glazed and ceramic tile) for Murals for Murals
Concrete Not Recommended — — — —
Exposed
Masonry Should be Painted Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory Not Recommended
(exposed CMU)
Masonry Good Natural Finish Recommended — — Suitable for Decor
(marble-stone-brick)
Metals Limited Recommended — — —
(stainless steel-bronze)
Paint Color Satisfactory Recommended Recommended Recommended
(latex-alkyd-epoxy) Above Wainscot
Paper Color and Pattern Not Not Not Suitable for Decor
Recommended Recommended Recommended
Plaster Must Be Painted Recommended Recommended Recommended Recommended
Above Wainscot
Drywall Must Be Painted Not Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory
Recommended
Plastic Covered Vinyl Color and Pattern Recommended Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory
Above Wainscot
Plastic Laminate Color and Pattern Recommended Recommended Recommended Recommended
Plastic Special Decor Decor Only — — Decor Only
Porcelain (on metal) Color Recommended — — —
Textiles Color and Pattern Not Not Recommended Recommended
Recommended Recommended
Wood Paneling Color Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory
2.5.4 COLORS (1991)
a. Color, texture, lighting and other design aspects, when used with discretion, comprise that extra ingredient that sets
apart the extraordinary building from the commonplace. The proper use of color and texture can enhance architectural
features.
b. The goal of good design is to produce an attractive and pleasant environment. Colors should be selected to suit the
purpose of the area and assist in creating a congenial work space.
c. Consideration should be given to the exposure of the space to natural lighting as well as to the type of artificial lighting
used.

2.5.5 SOUND CONTROL (1991)
a. Sound control is an important factor to be considered in the design of office buildings. Sound control, in general,
consists of sound absorption within a room or space, and sound attenuation (transmission loss) between rooms or
spaces.
b. Special care should be exercised in the design of ceiling systems and partitions to minimize the transmission of sound
from space to space.
c. Integrated ceiling systems that incorporate lighting, ventilating and acoustical qualities are available from various
manufacturers.
d. Acoustical ceilings, either glued or suspended, will alleviate noise problems. These are available in either metal or
mineral fiber.
e. Wall finishes and partition systems are available which will alleviate reflected sound within offices or spaces.
2.5.6 FURNITURE (1991)
a. Furnishing the office building with new furniture will require a departmental survey to obtain the requirements of each
workstation, office space or special use room or area.
b. Integrated modular partitions and their accompanying modular furniture will provide more storage space and work
surfaces per square foot of floor area than a system of demountable partitions and conventional furniture pieces 1
purchased independently.
c. The public or reception area of the building should have a directory placed in a prominent position. Lounge furniture
should be comfortable and of durable material, and attractive design. Ash trays in lounge areas and sand urns in the
corridors where smoking is permitted will aid in protecting floor finishes.
SECTION 2.6 MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.6.1 HEATING, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING (1991)

4
a. The selection of equipment and design of HVAC systems should be reflective of the site constraints, existing building
systems, availability of fuel, and low lifetime maintenance costs.
b. In making decisions regarding the selection of HVAC equipment, the following guidelines should be considered:
(1) Air cooled equipment is usually less difficult to install and maintain.
(2) The transfer of internal heat from equipment to perimeter offices and support spaces is desirable.
(3) The use of economizer cycles to obtain “free cooling” should be considered. However, where relative humidity
control is required, careful consideration should be given to its effects on relative humidity control.
(4) Ventilation requirements shall be in accordance with current ASHRAE recommendations.
(5) The location of equipment requiring frequent, routine maintenance should be provided with a suitable means of
access that does not require removal of any part of the building such as ceiling tiles.

(6) The use of reheat systems should be avoided if possible.
(7) The duct work should be in accordance with a recognized industrial standard.
c. The criteria found in Table 6-2-2 should be considered in the design of HVAC equipment and systems.
Table 6-2-2. Interior Environment Criteria for Design of HVAC
Summer Temperature Winter Temperature

Location
and Relative Humidity and Relative Humidity
Office, Clerical Areas and Conference Rooms 78°F 68°F
65% max RH 40% min RH
Main Frame Computer Rooms 72°F 72°F
50% RH 50% RH
Data Entry/Retrieval and Operations Areas 75°F 68°F
50% RH 50% RH
Storage and Equipment Rooms ambient conditions 60°F
Toilet and Locker Rooms ambient conditions 68°F
Communications Equipment Spaces, and Uninterrupted Power conditioned air, temperature and RH as per
Source Room manufacturer’s recommendation.
2.6.2 PLUMBING (1991)
a. Sanitary facilities should be located in a central core area, where possible, to reduce the amount of piping required.
Toilet rooms should be located back to back where practical.
b. All main piping should be accessible to the degree possible to facilitate alterations and maintenance.
c. All plumbing shall be installed to meet state and local codes.
2.6.3 ENERGY EFFICIENCY (1991)
The energy conservation/efficiency standards of the building should be per latest BOCA Mechanical Code and ASHRAE 90A,
or per governing codes whichever is more stringent.
2.6.4 ELEVATORS (1991)
Office buildings of two or more stories should have an elevator for handicapped accessibility, and moving materials.
SECTION 2.7 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
2.7.1 ELECTRICAL CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
a. The electrical systems design must conform to the latest edition of the National Electrical Code, and local and state
codes.

b. To the extent possible, electrical systems must make use of products tested and certified by qualified and recognized
testing laboratories, such as UL.
c. It is recommended that conductors, raceways, boxes, as well as sub-feeders be sized one size larger than calculated
electrical load requires. Conduit should be sized for anticipated load growth.
d. A standby system should be provided as backup for vital equipment, computer systems, etc., or to aid in fire or rescue
operations.
e. Surge protection should be utilized where appropriate (computer systems, etc.) and should conform to NEC Article
280.
f. Communications equipment should be powered through dedicated circuits and be provided with a backup emergency
powered system where appropriate (UPS, generator, or secondary utility company power source).
2.7.2 LIGHTING (1991)
a. Factors which aid in determining the most appropriate lighting system include:
(1) Economics.
(2) Appearance.
(3) Room finish. 1

(4) Energy consumption.
(5) Color.
(6) Task visibility.

3
b. Appropriate illumination levels should be as per IES Lighting Handbook, latest edition.
c. Consideration should be given to the lighting of the building exterior, walkways and parking lot. Lighting levels shall
be as listed in the IES Lighting Handbook.
d. Emergency lighting should be provided to maintain a minimum average illumination of 1.5 feet candles for a minimum
of 90 minutes (or as governing code requires) in event of power failure in: 4
(1) Exit corridors.
(2) Hallways.
(3) Stairways.
(4) Illuminated exit signage.

SECTION 2.8 FIRE AND LIFE SAFETY
2.8.1 FIRE PROTECTION (1991)
a. The railroads’ best interests are served when its facilities and the people who occupy them are adequately protected
against the threat of fire. The railroads specific policy requirements and/or other guidelines for a consistent and
comprehensive fire protection program, should be included in the design.
b. Implementation relies on the application of sound fire safety judgement coupled with compliance with all applicable
fire protection codes and standards.
2.8.2 LIFE SAFETY (1991)
a. All occupied buildings should comply with the appropriate provisions of NFPA Code 101 and all other applicable
codes. The goal is to provide all facilities with an adequate level of life safety so that in the event of a fire or other
mishap, occupants will be provided with the means to reach an area of safety in as brief a time as is practical, without
having to endanger themselves during the process of evacuation. This concept necessitates a reasonable degree of
redundancy due to the possibility that individual exits may be blocked by fire, heat or smoke.
b. Special consideration should be given to any building or areas containing essential electronic equipment (computers,
telephone switchgear, etc.) due to the high dollar value, complex wiring and design usually associated with these areas.
c. All fire protection equipment shall be listed and/or approved by local codes or standards.

6
Part 3
Design Criteria for
Spot Car Repair Shops1
— 1994 —
FOREWORD
A spot car repair system is a facility arranged to bring cars in need of repair to one central location, thus eliminating lost time
in moving men, equipment, materials and tools to the cars. One-spot systems are designed for making light repairs. It is
advantageous to have at least one track for heavy repairs and one for working three-axle trucks. The facilities must be designed 1
in cooperation with all departments concerned, with the architect or building engineer acting as the coordinator.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3

3.1.1 Advantages (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3

3.2.1 Location (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3
3.2.2 Parking (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-3
3.2.3 Landscaping (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-4
3.2.4 Trackage (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-4
3.3 Building Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-4

3.3.1 General (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-4
3.4 Structural Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5

3.4.1 Building Types (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
3.4.2 Structural Systems (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
3.4.3 Floors (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
3.4.4 Roofs (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
1
References, Vol. 74 (1973), p. 115; Vol. 94 (1994), p. 95.

3.5 Space Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5

3.5.1 Size (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-5
3.5.2 Special Areas (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-6
3.5.3 Heavy Repairs (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-7
3.6 Mechanical, Electrical and Specialized Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-7

3.6.1 Heating (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-7
3.6.2 Lighting and Power (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.6.3 Ventilation (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.6.4 Compressed Air (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.6.5 Gutters and Downspouts (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.6.6 Sewers (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.6.7 Separation, Recovery or Disposal of Oil (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.7 Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8

3.7.1 Interior (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.7.2 Exterior (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-8
3.8 Miscellaneous Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9

3.8.1 Walls (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.8.2 Windows and Skylights (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.8.3 Firewalls (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.8.4 Doors (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.9 Mechanical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9

3.9.1 Jacking Systems and Related Equipment (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-9
3.9.2 Jib Cranes (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-10
3.9.3 Hoists (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-10
3.9.4 Hose Reels (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-10
3.9.5 Bins (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-10
3.9.6 Car Moving Equipment (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-11
3.10 Environmental Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-11
3.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-12

Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Description Page
6-3-1 Edmunston, N.B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-13

6-3-2 Cheyenne, WY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-13
6-3-3 Hinkle, OR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-14
6-3-4 Harvey, IL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-14
6-3-5 Saint John, N.B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-15
6-3-6 Cumberland, MD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-16
LIST OF TABLES
6-3-1 One Spot Car Repair Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-12
SECTION 3.1 GENERAL 1
3.1.1 ADVANTAGES (1994)
a. Time studies indicate that an approximate 100 per cent increase in efficiency is achieved over the conventional rip-
track method. This is due to all work being performed more efficiently, under direct supervision in a compact area and
protected from bad weather. Bad order delays have been reduced in some cases as much as 12 to 24 hours. 3
b. A switch engine places the cars on the inbound receiving track and retrieves them on the outbound track, thereby
eliminating the spotting and uncoupling of cars. All car movements are handled by repair personnel in the shop and
equipment is interlocked against train movement through the facility.
4
3.2.1 LOCATION (1994)
The arrangement of the yard and its operation will dictate the location of the shop facility. See Chapter 14, Yards and
Terminals for yard arrangement.
3.2.2 PARKING (1994)
Parking should be provided for personnel working in the areas and for visitors. Consideration should also be given to
overlapping shifts.

Landscaping should be provided in accordance with code requirements. Vegetation used should be easy to grow and maintain.
3.2.4 TRACKAGE (1994)
a. The track layout is dictated by trackage available and directly affects switch frequency. Inbound tracks should have a
capacity of 20 cars (two 10 car cuts) and an outbound capacity of 10 to 15 cars. With this arrangement, the operating
department has approximately 8 hours or more lead time to supply cars. Track profile must be provided for inbound car
control, and free roll outbound must be provided.
b. Where trackage space is not available more switching is required and, in some cases, cars must be brought into the
facility with the use of tractors or similar devices.
c. Where automatic car moving equipment is used, tracks should be tangent throughout the car puller area.
d. Track centers should not be less than 26 feet with 30 feet to 40 feet considered optimal.
SECTION 3.3 BUILDING CODES
3.3.1 GENERAL (1994)
The architect/building engineer should check all applicable codes. The following list should be used as a guide:
a. Municipal.
b. City.
c. State.
d. Sanitary.
e. Industrial Commission.
f. Electrical.
g. Mechanical.
h. Fire Regulations.
i. National Transportation Agency (Canada).
j. Environmental Agencies.
k. Other.

3.4.1 BUILDING TYPES (1994)
A variety of building structural types will normally meet the requirements of this service. Pre-engineered metal buildings are
the most common, followed by masonry, other forms of steel frame construction and tilt up concrete panels with laminated
wood trusses or beams.
3.4.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS (1994)
Columns or posts between tracks reduce flexibility of operations. Rigid frames or trusses permit column free clear spans and
are desirable in the main shop area.
3.4.3 FLOORS (1994)
Floors shall be of reinforced concrete designed to support the heaviest wheel loading that will be applied.
Flooring in office and lunch room areas may be resilient tile.
3.4.4 ROOFS (1994)
Roof systems shall be designed to be compatible with the structural system selected.
1
SECTION 3.5 SPACE REQUIREMENTS
3.5.1 SIZE (1994) 3

3.5.1.1 Length
Length will depend primarily on the desired number of work positions and whether end doors are used. With closed doors, a
practical minimum length for a one-spot facility is 170 feet. A two-spot facility should be a minimum of 300 feet long with a
jacking position located approximately 100 feet from the inbound end of the building. This will provide enough length to
advance a repaired car ahead to the next position for air brake testing and permit a second car to move into the jacking position 4
with both cars remaining in the building. A building with open ends need only be long enough to cover the work area; the
minimum length required would be 100 feet. These figures assume the use of built-in or stationary jacking equipment.
3.5.1.2 Width
Side of building to center line of first track should not be less than 17 feet. Track centers preferably should be 30 feet to 40
feet.
3.5.1.3 Height
Clearance above rail in working areas should be a minimum of 25 feet. Wall height of main shop building should permit 22
feet clear track door opening. Offices, lunch rooms, and other areas not within the main shop may be in attached low profile
structures with ceiling heights to suit the occupancy.

3.5.2 SPECIAL AREAS (1994)
3.5.2.1 Offices
Suitable office space must be provided for the shop foreman, his assistants and clerical staff. Offices should be designed in
accordance with Part 2, Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings.
3.5.2.2 Lunch and Locker Rooms
Lunch and locker rooms are necessary for all employees and should be separate rooms. If both male and female employees are
employed, separate locker rooms must be provided. Each employee must have a personal locker. The size of the room will be
based on the number of lockers. An approximate figure of 10 square feet per locker may be used to size the room. Actual
square foot requirements may vary as directed by local codes and contract agreements. Lunch tables should be included to
provide seating space for each employee based on the greatest number per shift.
3.5.2.3 Welfare Facilities
Toilet facilities must be provided for shop and office personnel. If possible, shop toilet facilities should be provided near the
work areas to eliminate employees being away from the work station for any great length of time. The number of fixtures
required is determined by code and varies with different locations.
3.5.2.4 Material Storage Facilities
The store and mechanical departments should be consulted on their space requirements which will usually consist of one large
storage area complete with racks and bins, located as near as possible to the central work area of the shop. Also required are
areas for lube pad soaking machines and storage areas for oil, paint, lumber and wheels. Storage areas should also be provided
outside of the building for items such as draft gears, couplers, brake shoes, brake beams, springs, miscellaneous steel side
frames, D.F. bars, barrels of oil, solvent, etc. This area should be surfaced with either concrete or asphalt and designed to
support the wheel loads for lift trucks. An unloading platform, approximately 3′-9″ high above top of rail and 50 feet in length
with a ramp should be provided. The width varies, however, the platform should be large enough for lift truck operation.
3.5.2.5 Mechanical Equipment Room
This may or may not be required depending upon whether the building is to be heated and the type of heating to be provided.
3.5.2.6 Compressor Room
The size of the room and air intake and exhaust will be determined by the size of the compressor to be installed. A special
foundation may be required to support the weight and vibration of the compressor. A dryer may be necessary in order to
remove condensation from the air lines. A self contained compressor unit may be located outside of the building.
3.5.2.7 Tool Room
A tool room of ample size to contain all the tools required in this facility should be included, this room may be part of the store
facility.
3.5.2.8 First Aid Room
This room should be large enough to contain a stock of first aid supplies, a stretcher and also a cot or bed.

3.5.2.9 Meeting Rooms
If possible, especially in larger shops, a meeting room large enough for safety meetings, etc., should be provided. Special
acoustical treatment is desirable so that meetings can be conducted while the shop is in operation. The lunch room could be
designed to serve this purpose.
3.5.3 HEAVY REPAIRS (1994)

Where heavy repairs are performed in the same shop the following must be considered:
3.5.3.1 Metalworking Shop
A metalworking shop is generally required. Usually both gas and electric welding equipment can be contained in the same
shop.
3.5.3.2 Woodworking Shop
A woodworking shop, located near the lumber store, with a dust collection system to dispose of sawdust and shavings.
3.5.3.3 Air Brake Room
An air brake room, if provided, shall have special emphasis placed on dust and environmental control.
3.5.3.4 Pipe Fitters Room

1
This is required usually in larger installations where pipe fitters are employed.
SECTION 3.6 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT 3

3.6.1 HEATING (1994)
Many different types of heating systems can be adapted to an installation of this type. Below is a partial list that can be referred
to the mechanical engineer to aid in selecting the system for each specific location. Adequate capacity should be provided to
overcome heat loss due to open doors.
4
a. Forced air (gas and/or electric).
b. Steam, high and low pressure.
c. Hot water (convection, radiation, etc.).
d. Individual gas fired unit heaters and convection systems.
e. Electric.
f. Infrared.

3.6.2 LIGHTING AND POWER (1994)

a. General lighting in the shop should not be less than 50 average initial foot candles at floor level.
b. Convenience outlets should be provided for small tools, etc. (110 v, 60 Hz, single phase).
c. Compatible welding outlets as required.
3.6.3 VENTILATION (1994)

Most installations of this type do not require any special ventilation except in welding shops, but ample ventilation should be
provided to meet local codes. Special exhaust systems will be required in areas such as welding stations, toilet rooms, etc.
3.6.4 COMPRESSED AIR (1994)

Compressed air outlets should be provided for pneumatic tools and equipment.
3.6.5 GUTTERS AND DOWNSPOUTS (1994)

Plumbing codes usually dictate the size of gutters and downspouts required for various roof areas. Where possible, all roof
drainage should be connected to the area storm sewer system. Heat tracing systems may also be necessary in cold climates to
prevent pipe damage.
3.6.6 SEWERS (1994)

a. Roof drainage and area drainage should be disposed of through the storm drainage system.
b. Drainage from shop floors and areas where industrial wastes may be encountered should be properly treated before
being discharged to a storm or sanitary sewer. Sanitary sewers should be connected to a city sewer where available.
Where city sewers are not available, the installation should conform to local, state, county or parish health codes.
3.6.7 SEPARATION, RECOVERY OR DISPOSAL OF OIL (1994)

Special studies will be required for this subject and it is important to call upon the services of the environmental engineer.
SECTION 3.7 FINISH
3.7.1 INTERIOR (1994)
A wide variety of finishes may be applied to the interior of the building. Lining materials, particularly in shop areas, should be
high impact, abrasion resistant and reflective, low initial cost and easy to maintain.
3.7.2 EXTERIOR (1994)
The exterior finish is left up to the discretion of the designer. It is highly desirable to use products that require little
maintenance. Metal siding, brick, concrete blocks, and concrete are all commonly used. It is advisable to use metal siding
below 8′-0″ above the top of rail. Buildings which are heated should be properly insulated.

SECTION 3.8 MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS
3.8.1 WALLS (1994)

Except in exceptional circumstances, a totally enclosed building is desirable. Walls adjacent to tracks can frequently be
equipped with a multiplicity of truck doors, which will facilitate the spotting or moving of material or portable equipment.
3.8.2 WINDOWS AND SKYLIGHTS (1994)

Windows in shop areas are of questionable value. They cannot take the place of adequate artificial lighting, but may
supplement it. Glass is easily broken and windows should be installed with suitable plastic type glazing materials. Skylights
should be considered for additional natural light. Windows should be placed so that the car mover operator can see through the
building to observe car movement, etc.
3.8.3 FIREWALLS (1994)

Applicable building codes should be checked carefully and complied with concerning the location of firewalls.
3.8.4 DOORS (1994)

3.8.4.1 Personnel Doors
The use of truck or track doors for personnel movement is not economical, and is wasteful of time, heat and power. Properly
sized personnel doors should be provided at strategic locations to meet code requirements. Doors should be installed with extra
heavy hardware and door closers. Heavy steel doors are most economical in the long run. 1
3.8.4.2 Truck Doors
Overhead-type doors are the most common and desirable. Size should be at least 12 feet high and 10 feet wide, with 14 feet
high and 12 feet wide optimal. Post mounted outside controls should be provided for fork lift operation. Post protection should
be provided for corners and doors.
3.8.4.3 Track Doors

3
Minimum size is 14 feet wide and 22 feet high. Recommended type is rolling steel doors with lifting speed of 2 feet per
second. Automatic start/stop interlocks, both inside and outside the building, are necessary for protection of equipment and
door mechanisms. All governing clearance laws should be checked before the doors are selected.
SECTION 3.9 MECHANICAL
3.9.1 JACKING SYSTEMS AND RELATED EQUIPMENT (1994)
3.9.1.1 Portable Jacks
These jacks are either electric/hydraulic or air operated and jacking pads are required. Pads should extend the full length of the
shop so that jacking can be performed at any location. Pads are constructed of reinforced concrete of sufficient depth as
determined by applied loads and soil conditions.

3.9.1.2 Electric Jacks
These are furnished in pairs of two 40 to 50 ton outside jacks with no center jack. The jacking speed is 4-1/2 feet per minute
unloaded and 2-1/4 feet per minute loaded. Jacks traverse under different widths of cars and under the side frame for
repacking, etc. Each pair of jacks is a self-contained unit.
3.9.1.3 Hydraulic Jacks
These jacks are built-in and are installed in sets composed of two 75 ton outside jacks and a 150 ton center jack with raising
speeds approximately 8 feet per minute. The outside jacks are used for standard jacking, repacking, spring removal, etc. The
center jack is used for center sill jacking of the cars and jacking under the bolster for repacking, spring removal or other
miscellaneous jobs. A single pump unit will usually handle several tracks.
3.9.1.4 Tie Downs
Tie downs are required for straightening and pulling draft gears and should be installed whether portable or built-in jacking
equipment is used.
3.9.2 JIB CRANES (1994)
Two jib cranes are required per track where built-in jacking equipment is used, normally about 16 feet center to center of
support posts and offset 12 feet to 18 feet to allow spring plank removal. A support post is required, and latches in the “open”
and “closed” positions. In the closed position they should be designed to have a capacity of 3 to 5 tons and are not designed for
loading in the open position. Single column jib cranes may also be used.
3.9.3 HOISTS (1994)
Three hoists are required for each jib crane and are used for truck disassembly. The two outside hoists lift side frames and the
center hoist raises the truck bolster. These hoists are usually one ton electric or air with hoisting speeds of 8 feet per minute.
3.9.4 HOSE REELS (1994)
a. Hose reel mounting plates are welded to the jib post or a support post or both. The number of reels may vary with the
requirements of each shop. Shops may have one or more of the following reels:
(1) air.
(2) journal oil.
(3) solvent.
(4) oxygen-acetylene.
(5) roller bearing grease.
b. The supply piping may be either overhead or under the floor in accessible trenches. If piping is located beneath or
within the floor, protection must be provided around the base of the jib for these pipes.
3.9.5 BINS (1994)
Storage bins should be provided and located as conveniently as possible to supply equipment to all tracks. Double bins may be
placed between two tracks in order to supply both tracks. Care must be taken in locating bins to prevent interference with the

efficient movement of wheels and other heavy equipment into the repair area. If possible, bins should be on the same side of
the track as the control panels for the pullers, jacks and the jib crane booms. Bins should be set at a height above floor level to
permit easier access. Ergonomics should be considered in all work areas to reduce employee fatigue and enhance productivity.
3.9.6 CAR MOVING EQUIPMENT (1994)
3.9.6.1 Automatic Car Moving Equipment
This is a closed cable system with a car moving device mounted between the rails to contact the axle of the car. An axle contact
arm is in the up position when traveling forward to move the cars, and either ratchets under the cars or lowers in its reverse
direction. Movement is remote controlled from a push button panel at the repair position. Maximum travel positions of the
pulling device are controlled by either rotating cam limit switches or track limit switches with various interlocking features
incorporated. For example, car pullers will not operate when doors are closed; jacks are up; or jib cranes are across the track.
Protection must be provided for car mover control panels to prevent damage from fork lift trucks. Signal protection should be
used in conjunction with car moving equipment.
3.9.6.1.1 Two Puller System
This is the most efficient system available and is recommended for high-production light-repair facilities in classification
yards. The inbound puller brings cars into the repair facility and the outbound puller moves cars through the shop and to the
outbound storage area.
3.9.6.1.2 Single Puller
Recommended for low-production shops or areas where sufficient trackage is not available for the two puller system. A single
1
puller is used to bring the cars into the facility, position them in the repair spot, and then move them out.
3.9.6.2 Manual Type Pullers
This is basically the same electric winch type equipment as used with the automatic pulling device above, except cables are
exposed above the floor and a hook is attached for car movement. 3
3.9.6.3 Mobile Equipment
On- or off-track car movers such as off-track tractors, trackmobiles and cranes are utilized for moving cars. This equipment
couples to the car and moves each car in and out of the facility and normally requires one or two men for operation. On-track
movers have the advantage of being able to negotiate switches.
4
SECTION 3.10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
There are many wastes generated by this type of facility that must be disposed of, such as car refuse, lubricator pads, wood,
paper grain doors and oil. Applicable codes, appropriate governing bodies and the company’s environmental control engineer
must be consulted for methods of handling.

SECTION 3.11 SUMMARY
a. Spot repair systems are the most efficient way to handle light repairs to freight cars. The more trackage available, the
lower the switching cost. Two to three-and-one-half man hours are generally required per car for repairs. Automatic car
moving equipment requires less manpower to operate than any other type of equipment. Built-in jacking equipment
can normally be justified if the shop works at least 16 hours a day. Track centers should not be less than 26 feet, with 30
feet to 40 feet preferable.
b. For layout and design of existing spot repair facilities refer to Table 6-3-1 and Figure 6-3-1, Figure 6-3-2, Figure 6-3-3,
Figure 6-3-4, Figure 6-3-5, and Figure 6-3-6.
Table 6-3-1. One Spot Car Repair Facilities
Edmunston Cheyenne Hinkle Harvey Saint John Cumberland

New Wyoming Oregon Illinois New Maryland
Item
Brunswick Brunswick
(Figure 6-3-1) (Figure 6-3-2) (Figure 6-3-3) (Figure 6-3-4) (Figure 6-3-5) (Figure 6-3-6)
Year Built 1977 1978 1980 1981 1986 1988
No. of Tracks 2 3 2 2 2 2
Length 168′-0″ 222′-8″ 220′-0″ 180′-0″ 129′-11″ 202′-8″
Width to First Track 20′-8″ 20′-0″ 20′-0″ 15′-0″ 20′-0″ 18′-2″
Center Line of Tracks 25′-0″ 24′-0″ 35′-0″ 30′-0″ 25′-3″ 36′-0″
Height Clearance 26′-0″ ?
Above Rail
Door Opening Width 14′-0″ 14′-2″ 14′-0″ 17′-4″
Door Opening Height 20′-0″ 22′-0″ 20′-0″ ?
Offices 315 SF 1,123 SF 998 SF 1,370 SF
Lunch Room 458 SF 228 SF 571 SF 709 SF
Locker Room 252 SF 265 SF 386 SF 426 SF
Welfare Facilities 400 SF 220 SF 405 SF 1,441 SF
Material Storage 685 SF 500 SF 1,592 SF 2,521 SF
Mechanical Equipment 270 SF 221 SF 588 SF 140 SF
Room
Compressor Room … … … …
Tool Room 78 SF 360 SF 95 SF 548 SF
First Aid Room 105 SF … 141 SF
Meeting Room Lunch Room 157 SF Lunch Room Lunch Room
Heavy Repairs … … … …
Metal Shop 590 SF … 683 SF …
Wood Shop … … … …
Air Brake Room 86 SF … … …
Pipe Shop … … … …
Electrical Shop … … 495 SF …
Shop Area 10,956 SF 21,376 SF 16,500 SF 10,800 SF 21,708 SF 21,708 SF

Figure 6-3-1. Edmunston, N.B.
Figure 6-3-2. Cheyenne, WY

Figure 6-3-3. Hinkle, OR
Figure 6-3-4. Harvey, IL

Figure 6-3-5. Saint John, N.B.

3

Figure 6-3-6. Cumberland, MD

6
Part 4
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities1
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-3

4.1.1 Scope (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-3
4.1.2 Definition (1988) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-3
4.1.3 Classification (1988) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-3
4.2 Site Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-15 1
4.3 Building Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16

4.3.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16
4.4 Equipment and Related Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-19

4.4.1 Pits (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-19 3
4.4.2 Depressed Floor - Raised Rail (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-20
4.4.3 Elevated Platforms (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-21
4.4.4 Jacking Operations (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-21
4.4.5 Drop Tables (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-22
4.4.6 Locomotive Progression Systems (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-22
4.4.7 Truck and Traction Motor Repair and Overhaul (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-23
4.4.8 Material Handling Platform (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-24
4.4.9 Store Room (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-24
4.4.10 Office (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-24
4.4.11 Locker and Toilet Facilities (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-24
4.4.12 Other Facilities (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-25
4.5 Service Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-25

4.5.1 Services Required (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-25
4.5.2 Lubricating Oil Supply (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-25
4.5.3 Lubricating Oil Drainage/Recovery (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-26
4.5.4 Traction Motor Oil (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-26
4.5.5 Compressor Oil (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-26
4.5.6 Used Oil Filters (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-27
4.5.7 Water Suppy Systems (Service and Treated) (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-27
4.5.8 Radiator Water Reclaim System (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-28
1
References Vol. 75, 1974, p. 209; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 84. Rewritten 1988.

4.5.9 Compressed Air (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-28

4.5.10 Locomotive Washing (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-28
4.5.11 General Washing System (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-29
4.5.12 Parts Cleaner (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-29
4.5.13 Electrical Cleaning Solvent (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-29
4.5.14 Welding Gases (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-29
4.5.15 Electrical Welding (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-29
4.5.16 Battery Charging (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-30
4.5.17 Locomotive Toilet Servicing (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-30
4.5.18 Locomotive Deicing (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-30
4.6 Building Superstructure Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-30

4.6.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-30
4.6.2 Floors (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-31
4.6.3 Walls and Roof (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-31
4.6.4 Doors (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-31
4.7 Heating and Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-32

4.7.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-32
4.7.2 Ventilating (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-32
4.7.3 Heating (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-33
4.8 Electrical Lighting and Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-34

4.8.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-34
4.9 Pollution (Noise-Air-Water). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-35

4.9.1 Noise (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-35
4.9.2 Air (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-35
4.9.3 Water (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-35
4.10 Communications and Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-35

4.10.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-35
4.10.2 Internal Communication System (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-36
4.10.3 Data System (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-36
4.10.4 Television System (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-36
4.11 Fire Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-36
4.12 Blue Signal/Flag Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-37
4.13 Storage Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-37
4.14 Track Drip Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-38

Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities
LIST OF FIGURES
6-4-1 Typical Site Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-15

6-4-2 Typical Light Repair Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-16
6-4-3 Typical Heavy Repair Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-17
6-4-4 Typical Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-18
6-4-5 Typical Flow Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-19
6-4-6 Typical Material Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-20
LIST OF TABLES
6-4-1 Locomotive Shop Check List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-5

6-4-2 Locomotive Fueling Facility Design Check List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4-14
SECTION 4.1 INTRODUCTION

1
4.1.1 SCOPE (2012)
The material presented herein is intended to familiarize the engineer and designer with the problems they will encounter and
should consider in the design of a diesel facility.
a. It is not intended to imply that other practices may not be equally acceptable.
3
b. Definition of Light, Medium and Heavy Repair may vary among railroads but should not affect the concepts being
presented.
c. A check list of the facilities and processes necessary for the efficient operation of the diesel repair shop is presented in
Table 6-4-1 as a design guide.
4.1.2 DEFINITION (1988) R(2012)

4
A diesel repair facility constitutes a “facility” designed to arrange an orderly progression of diesel locomotives for repairs,
maintenance, servicing and cleaning as required, and to meet inspection requirements of the manufacturer and governmental
authorities.
4.1.3 CLASSIFICATION (1988) R(2012)
Diesel repair facilities are generally classified as “Heavy Repair,” “Medium Running Repair” and “Light Running Repair and
Servicing.” For typical site plans and flow diagrams refer to Figure 6-4-1, Figure 6-4-2, Figure 6-4-3, Figure 6-4-4, Figure 6-
4-5 and Figure 6-4-6.
4.1.3.1 Heavy Repair
Consists of any work involving truck repair and maintenance, traction motor assembly, dynamic brake grids, etc.

4.1.3.2 Medium Running Repair
Consists of any work involving repair, air reservoir test, brake change outs, repairs to injector, governors, turbos, etc.
4.1.3.3 Light Running Repair and Service
Consists of any work involving oiling, lubricating, testing, minor adjustments and repairs, etc.

Table 6-4-1. Locomotive Shop Check List
Location/Site Criteria
1. City: State:
2. Yard:
3. Zoning Classification:
4. Building Codes and Regulations:
Departmental Contacts
1. Administration
2. Engineering
3. Locomotive Maintenance
4. Communications
5. Supply (materials handling)
6. Maintenance of Way
Site Considerations/Constraints
1. Soil Conditions:
a. Bearing Capacity:
b. Water Table: 1
2. Utility Availability
a. Potable Water
b. Fire Protection
c. Sanitary Sewer
d. Industrial Sewer/Treatment
3
e. Electrical
f. Natural Gas
g. Storm Water
h. Communications
3. Adjacent Tracks
4
4. Adjacent Buildings
5. Site Access - Surface Roads
6. Noise/Air Restrictions
7. Utility Easements/Locations
8. Subsurface conditions (fill material, old foundations, etc.)
Building/Facility Information
1. Preferred Exterior Finishes (Materials/type of construction)
a. Office area
b. Shop
c. Auxilliary Buildings
2. Number of Occupants
a. Office Personnel: male female:

Table 6-4-1. Locomotive Shop Check List (Continued)
b. Shop Personnel
c. Other
3. Space Requirements - Administration
a. Offices: Sizes:
b. Conference Room(s)
c. Training/Class Room(s)
d. Locker Rooms No. of lockers: M: F: Locker Size:
e. Lunch Room
f. Mechanical Room
g. Communications/Computer Room
h. File/Storage Room
i. Toilet Rooms No. male: No. female:
j. Janitors Closet
4. Warehouse/Material Storage
a. Enclosed Size (S.F.)
b. Outside Storage Area (S.F.)
c. Loading Dock Spaces
d. Conveyance (fork lift, conveyor, totes)
5. Shop:
a. Supervisors Office
b. Remote Toilet Room(s) Tool Crib(s):
c. Number of Tracks:
1. Raised Rail (inspection pits)(reference pit section of check list)
a. Depth - top of rail top of floor
b. Access - ramp/stair
c. Track Support
2. Flat Track with or without centerline pit
d. Elevated Platforms (reference platform section of check list)
1. Fork Lift Ramps
2. Stairs
e. Overhead Cranes
1. Spanning Tracks:
2. Capacities:
f. Special Equipment
1. Drop Table: Size: Drop Track: Release Track:
Wheel Storage Location(s):
2. Wheel True Machine:
3. Shim Table:
note that special equipment may be in separate building

6. Auxiliary Buildings/Facilities
a. Pump/Compressor/Boiler House
b. Tank Farm
c. Wheel True Building
d. Industrial Waste Water Treatment Facilities
e. Turn Table/Transfer Table
f. Load Test
g. Wash Rack
h. Service Track
i. Paint Booth/Building
j. Component Rebuild
7. Support and Miscellaneous Functions
a. Parking Lot
1. Pavement Type: Curbing:
2. No. employee No. visitor No. company vehicles
b. Exterior Lighting:
c. Landscaping 1
d. Filter/Trash Compactors
e. Servicing Facility (reference Parts 4 and 16 of this chapter)
1. Fueling
2. Sanding
8. Trackage 3
a. Yard Access
b. Storage/Parking for inbound and outbound power
c. Movements to and from shop
d. Test
e. Material Storage 4
f. Run-around
g. Track pans
1. Location Length
2. Type of pan (steel,fiberglass,HDPE)
h. Blue Flag/Derails
1. Location Type
i. AEI reader: location:
Locomotive Movement
1. Traction Motor Movement Using Locomotive Batteries - Hostler
2. Highway Rail Tractor
3. Cable Progression System

4. Rabbit System Type: Size: Location(s):

Special Equipment
1. Cranes
a. Type (bridge, mono, underslung, jib, staddle)
b. Size/Capacity
c. Number
d. Type of Control
e. Hook Height
f. Span
2. Drop Table
a. Size/Capacity
b. Number of active tracks Location:
c. Release Tracks Location:
d. Auxiliary single axle tops Location:
3. Jacks
a. Type: fixed (in-floor) portable:
b. Size/Capacity
c. Number Location:
4. Washer/Cleaning
a. Type (pressure, chemical, water recirculating)
b. Capacity
c. Number and Locations
d. Hot water Soap
5. Wheel Truing
a. Location
b. Chip Conveyor/Receptable location
c. Manufacturer/Installation Pit
6. Progression System - see equipment mover section
7. Paint Booth/Building
a. Location
b. Size
c. Type
8. High Pressure Washers - parts cleaners
a. Type
b. Location
c. Required services (water, soap, ventilation, etc)

Material Handling
1. Conveyance
a. Fork Lift Capacity Fuel/Power Supply
b. Conveyor
c. Totes
2. Storage – Parts
a. Warehousing Square Footage Height
b. Work Stations
c. Racking Size Type
3. Storage – Tools
a. Location Area Requirement
b. Security/Access
4. Storage - Hazardous
a. Location
b. Material
c. Quantity
Pits
1
1. Depth
2. Type (centerline, raised rail)
3. Drainage
4. Services and Utilities
5. Lighting
3
6. Access
a. Ramp
b. Stair
c. Side
7. Track Supports
4
Platforms
1. Height (above top of rail)
2. Clearance from centerline of track
3. Services required
a. Above the platform Spacing
b. Below the platform Spacing
4. Access
a. Ramp
b. Stair
5. Storage Items Square Foot Loading
6. Material Movement
7. Railing and Protection

Mechanical Services (Piped)

List for each equipment and work station item.
Identify pressure, flow, storage location and valving.
1. Oxygen
2. Acetylene/MAPP
3. Natural Gas
4. Compressed Air
5. Soap
6. Journal/Bearing Oil
7. Compressor Oil
8. Lube Fuel
9. Diesel Oil
10. Used Oil
11. Radiator Water (treatment)
12. Radiator Water Reclaim
13. Raw Water (potable)
14. Hot Water
Electrical Services
List for each equipment and work station items. Identify voltage, amps, and light levels.
1. Welding receptacles
2. Convenience receptacles (tools)
3. Battery Charger receptacle
4. Special Lighting
5. Blue Flag/Light system inside shop
6. Special Equipment
7. Lighting
Building(s) Interior Finishes
1. Offices (identify various spaces/needs)
a. Floors
b. Walls
c. Ceilings
2. Warehouse (identify various spaces/needs)
a. Floors
b. Walls
c. Ceilings
3. Shop (identify various spaces/needs)‘
a. Floors
b. Walls
c. Ceilings

4. Auxiliary Buildings (identify various spaces/needs)

a. Floors
b. Walls
c. Ceilings
Other Building Requirements
1. Security
2. Visual Control From Offices
3. Communications/Data needs
4. Bulletin Boards/Display Cases
5. Fire extinguishers/First Aide Cabinets
6. Emergency Eye Wash/Showers
7. CCTV/BTV
Building Environment
Identify for each space.
1. Lighting levels (varies by need/use)
2. Ventilation (varies by need/use)
3. Air Conditioning (temperature/humidity requirements) 1
4. Heating
a. System type
b. Fuel availability
c. Heat source
d. Distribution system 3
5. Special operations/equipment exhaust requirements
Waste Treatment
1. New or Existing
a. Location
b. Effluent limits 4
c. If existing - adequate capacity
d. Permit limits - if any
Drainage
1. Storm water surface run off
a. Drainage ditch or other surface structure (off or on site)
b. Municipal system
c. Other
2. Sanitary
a. Municipal system
b. On-site treatment
3. Industrial

a. Municipal discharge point

b. On-site treatment or retention
c. Permit
4. Oil Collection
5. Drip Pans
a. Location (inbound/outbound tracks)
Inbound/Outbound Service Area
1. Type of drip collection
a. See drip pan type - trackage section this schedule
b. Track slab
2. Services required (indicate inbound or outbound)
a. Crank case dump - oil collection
b. Washing
c. Inspection
d. Radiator water
e. Lube oil
f. Platforms
g. Canopy
h. Lighting
Miscellaneous
1. Air Quality Issues
a. Non-attainment area
b. Discharge Limits
c. Polluting Emitters (tanks, cleaning equipment, heating equipment, etc.)
2. Hazardous Materials
a. Material MSDS
b. Quantities
c. Storage Location
3. Washing Operation
a. Cleaner/Soap MSDS
b. Type of dispensing equipment
c. Location(s)
d. Hot/Cold/Mix Water
4. Parts Cleaner
a. Type/model
b. Type of fuel
c. Ventilation requirements
d. Drainage requirements
e. Power requirements

f. Cleaner MSDS
g. Location
h. Water requirements
5. AEI Reader - inbound and outbound track

Table 6-4-2. Locomotive Fueling Facility Design Check List
Sizing Criteria:
1. Number and frequency of trains. Time available for servicing.
2. Consist size.
3. Typical locomotive type/size.
4. Adjustments for operations/services required.
5. Track configuration.
Service Requirements:
1. Typical
a. Fuel.
b. Lube oil.
c. Water.
d. Sand.
e. Lighting.
Other Services
1. Toilet dump/cab services.
2. Brake shoe change out.
3. Periodic/trip inspections.
4. Traction motor oil/grease pack.
5. Compressor oil.
6. Oil change.
7. Small/large component change out/repair.
8. Crew change.
9. Car inspections.
Special consideration: distributed power units.
Design considerations:
1. Inspection pit(s) if required.
2. Track pans.
3. Secondary containment.
4. Selected sanding system/sand storage and delivery.
5. Vehicle/personnel access.
6. Personnel welfare buildings.
7. Signalized track.
8. Blue flagging and train movement control.
9. Pump rates.
10. Equipment selected.
11. Access platforms.
12. Available utilities.

Table 6-4-2. Locomotive Fueling Facility Design Check List
13. Site specific characteristics (grades, access, storm water drainage, etc.)
Other Components:
1. Storage - tank farm (fuel, lube, other fluids)
2. Dispensing equipment
3. Unloading equipment. Fuel & lube
4. Pipeline equipment.
5. Truck loading equipment.
6. Tank car unloading rack/equipment.
Figure 6-4-1. Typical Site Plan
When selecting a site for a diesel locomotive repair shop a number of factors will need to be considered.
At a minimum these factors are: traffic flow, sufficient area for the proposed facility and the attendant trackage into and out of
the facility, availability of utilities, site roadway access, relationship to existing (if any) servicing facilities, material storage ,

Figure 6-4-2. Typical Light Repair Facility

bulk fluid storage facilities, ready tracks and administrative or crew buildings. Other factors may be the proximity to non-
railroad buildings that may be impacted by the construction of a facility such as road crossings, wet lands or other habitat areas
and air quality and noise level issues for adjacent properties.
In many instances the location of the diesel locomotive shop may require the need to perform, at a minimum, a Phase 1
environmental investigation, possibly soil borings and soils analysis will be required.
SECTION 4.3 BUILDING ARRANGEMENT
4.3.1 GENERAL (2012)
a. The engineer should be aware that the design requirements may present problems with the building code and fire
officials having jurisdiction in that the size and classification of the building may exceed that allowed under the
building codes they use for granting permits. Early discussions with the authorities concerning the project and what
issues they want addressed by the design can reduce possible delays or redesigns for obtaining building permits.
b. The designer must consider OSHA, NFPA, local building codes and federal regulations when undertaking the design of
the facilities.
c. In designing and planning a diesel locomotive repair shop tracks through the shop should be parallel and run through
the shop where the service requirements and the site facilitate this option.

Figure 6-4-3. Typical Heavy Repair Facility
d. For greater efficiency of operation, the diesel shop should be designed on a production line concept. Where possible 3
there should be separate tracks inside the facility providing options for the various repair requirements of a locomotive.
Ideally locomotives requiring heavy repairs, heavy component replacement or wheel work would not be in “consist”
with those requiring only light or medium repairs. The owner should be able to provide information as to their typical
production rate for the required operations if they requested that the designer determine the size of the shop.
e. If a heavy repair track is part of the design it may be acceptable to use a stub end track due to the time element required
for heavy repair work. 4
f. The size and arrangement of the shop will be dependant on the type of repairs to be done and the number of units to be
serviced (released) per day. The type of work being performed on each track will dictate the rail configuration and
equipment requirements for that track and shop.
g. The design and layout of the shop should incorporate all of the equipment and other functions to support the repair,
servicing and inspection of locomotives. These items may include: overhead cranes, drop tables, wheel true machines,
forklift access, elevated platforms, personnel access, material movement to the work areas, material storage space,
waste removal and fluid dispensing stations.
h. Because of the nature of the work being performed on a heavy repair track the designer will have to work closely with
the user to determine the desired means of accomplishing the work. Typically a heavy repair track will use a 250 ton
overhead crane for lifting a locomotive to replace trucks, fuel tanks or other items. However, this requires a heavy
building structure and in a seismic area may represent a significant design and cost challenge. It may be appropriate to
evaluate fixed or portable floor mounted lift equipment for some functions with lighter overhead cranes (35 ton) to

Figure 6-4-4. Typical Cross Section
support the heavy repair operation. The user will also need to decide on the type of drop table they need, either a full
truck with or without a single axle auxiliary or a single axle drop table.
i. Selection of the overhead crane size(s) will depend upon the work being performed and the size of the components
involved. This will need to be confirmed with the user. Most work done on a light and medium repair track can be
done using a 3 to 5 ton capacity crane, work involving generators possibly a 15 to 20 ton crane, single traction motor
combos require a 10 to 12 ton crane, full truck assemblies require a minimum capacity of 35 tons and locomotive
lifting requires a minimum of a 250 ton crane or tandem 125 ton cranes. A wheel truing operation requires either a
small overhead crane or jib crane for cutter head replacement. The use of auxiliary hoists and type of controls is also an
item for discussion with the user.
j. Light and medium repairs are usually performed either on an elevated rail with elevated platforms or with a centerline
pit. An elevated rail has a depressed floor on the outside of the rails and a centerline pit has the floor on the outside of
the rails typically at the top of rail elevation. Reference Articles 4.4.1, 4.4.2 and 4.4.3 for additional information.
k. Heavy repairs are usually done on flat tracks or possibly with a centerline pit. The pit may or may not need removable
covers. The centerline pit allows access to the underside of a locomotive to permit the personnel to reach components
that must be disconnected prior to lifting a unit off a truck. The heavy repair track may also require in-floor tie downs
for frame straightening or other work in conjunction with a jack. Reference Article 4.4.4 for additional information.
l. Wheel truing operations should be done on a dedicated track. The wheel true machine has special needs. Reference
Article 4.4.8 for additional information.
m. Track centers will vary depending on the classification of the work being done on the tracks, width of any possible
platforms and service equipment access requirements. Typically dimensions vary from 18 feet to 34 feet with most

Figure 6-4-5. Typical Flow Diagram
needs satisfied in the 26 foot to 30 foot range. Drop table and wheel true track have special needs that may not be
consistent with this generality. 3
n. The shop may also require rooms or spaces allocated for: machine shop, combo rebuild, metal shop, battery shop, tool
crib, electrical shop, truck repairs, production supervisor, etc.
o. In locations subject to heavy snow fall, provide adequate areas to deposit plowed snow or provide the means to remove
snow from areas that must be traversed or accessed by service employees.
4
SECTION 4.4 EQUIPMENT AND RELATED FACILITIES
4.4.1 PITS (2012)
Inspection pits, maybe either centerline or raised rail types. The correct depth is usually an item of preference. As a general
rule the top of rail elevation above the pit floor should be between 4’-6” and 4’-8”. This elevation can be varied to suite the
users requirements. The length of the pit should be greater than the overall length of the locomotive or consist being serviced
to allow for personnel access at each end, a minimum of 10 feet is suggested. It is also desirable to have intermediate points of
access for those longer than one locomotive length.
a. The pit rail support system may either be cast in place concrete or structural steel. There are a number of design options
available for the engineer’s consideration and each option, of course, has its advantages. Stem or stub walls provide

Figure 6-4-6. Typical Material Flow Diagram
stability, better rail support and facilitate the support of auxiliary services equipment such as lighting and piping and
can be configured for any reasonable number of side access openings.
b. Pedestals may present stability and long term maintenance issues. These issues can be overcome by the engineer
through proper design. The pedestal design is perceived by the service personnel as providing better air circulation and
a less confined feeling. However, support of lighting and service piping can reduce the access options and require
additional detailing to support and locate these items. The maximum unsupported span of the rail should not exceed 4
feet 6 inches. This span is dependent on the rail weight (section), pedestal design and calculated locomotive loading
and should be verified by the design engineer.
c. The inspection pits can be designed with a number of services. The primary items required in the pit are adequate
lighting followed by convenience power receptacles. In addition a traction motor oil dispensing system and possibly a
crankcase dump system as well as a sliding cell pack serving tray may be desired. The sliding cell pack tray is a simple
device that provides a moving tray suspended between the rails that holds traction motor cell packs (lubricant) in a
position that reduces the effort required by the service technician.
4.4.2 DEPRESSED FLOOR - RAISED RAIL (2012)
The depressed floor for the raised rail places the service personnel in an ergonomic position with respect to the locomotive for
inspection, making a repair to the trucks, brake shoe change out, brake work and other outside the rail work. The elevation of
the floor may vary between 2 feet 6 inches (30 inches) and 3 feet (36 inches) below top of rail of the inspection pit. The floor
should be sloped to drain and it is recommended that a floor sealer be used to facilitate the cleaning of the area as it will
frequently be subjected to spilled petroleum products. The recommended slope is one eighth (1/8) inch per foot. It is also
recommended that ramps for forklift access be provided to facilitate material movement.

4.4.3 ELEVATED PLATFORMS (2012)
a. Elevated service platforms provide a means for service personnel to access the locomotive at or near running board
height. These platforms are typically provided between and adjacent to light and medium service and repair tracks to
provide access to both sides of a locomotive.
b. The elevation of the platform above top of rail can be very crucial. The elevation impacts the relationship between the
servicing personnel and running board height but also the below platform clearance for personnel working in the raised
rail (depressed floor) area. The elevation from top of rail to top of running board varies between the types and models
of locomotives. Running board height can vary between five (5) feet and to more than six (6) feet with the newer
models being taller (5 ft. 9in seeming to be average). It is suggested that the designer determine the predominant model
being serviced by the user prior to setting this dimension. It is preferable for the elevation of the platform to be slightly
lower than that of the locomotive because this facilitates access by service personnel under the locomotive hand rail. If
car body style locomotives are serviced, the platform must be lower than the car body side doors.
c. The platform clearance from center line of track should be a minimum of 5 feet 6 inches. Because the dimensions of
locomotives can change with new models this dimension should be verified to allow a minimum of 6 inches clearance
between the drip line of a locomotive and the edge of the platform.
d. Platforms should be constructed of steel and/or reinforced concrete. The design factors which should be considered
are: amount and density of the material stored on the platform, if any, and the size and capacity of the forklift working
the platform. The surface should be solid to prevent debris from dropping on personnel working be low the platform.
Signage should be posted at each platform denoting the design capacity (PSF) of the platform.
1
e. Platforms should be designed to facilitate distribution of maintenance parts and personnel access.
f. Platforms should include provisions for removable or gated guard rails along the servicing side of the platform. Chain
or cable guards are not acceptable by OSHA. All other areas of the platform are to be provided with a fixed OSHA
standard guard rail system.
g. For platforms requiring access for forklifts a ramp should be provided with a maximum of a 12% slope for access up to 3
the platform and below the platform if there is a depressed floor.
h. Where space is at a premium, material movement may be accomplished by mechanical movers such as cranes,
conveyors or hydraulic lifts.
4.4.3.1 Other Elevated Platforms

4
a. High level platforms and/or fall prevention devices to allow access to the top of locomotives may be requested.
Because of the probable presence of overhead cranes these types of platforms offer a challenge for the designer and a
trade off between crane coverage, side clearance and high level access may need to be evaluated and the impacts
discussed with the user.
b. Portable/ movable platforms may be used in flat track areas where fixed platforms and depressed floors are not present
or on the service platforms. These platforms may require drop down man ways with guardrails for accessing the top of
the locomotive.
4.4.4 JACKING OPERATIONS (2012)
Where the user prefers to use jacks instead of overhead cranes or for operations where a jack is a more feasible solution to a
maintenance operation, the designer will need to provide adequate structural support for this operation. Because the jacking
points on the locomotives vary between the manufacturers and models of locomotives it is recommended that the track slab be
designed for the maximum size locomotive and capacity of the portable jacks. Typically the rail will be embedded in the track

slab to place the top of rail at the top of floor elevation. The jacking points being located opposite of each other on one end of
the locomotive. The minimum width of the track slab should be 10 ft. 6 inches. Often tie downs will be used in conjunction
with locomotive jacks. These tie downs should be recessed below the floor level in the track slab with a removable cover. The
tie downs should be rated for the load they will be subject to during the jacking operation.
4.4.5 DROP TABLES (2012)
Drop tables are used to change out single axle traction motor combos (wheels and motor) or complete trucks. Because the need
to change out full trucks is not frequent the most common drop table is the single axle type. There are two predominant styles
of drop tables and these are mechanical and hydraulic. Table capacity refers to the table tops strength to support a locomotive
moving across the top. Drop tables come in several configurations as follows:
a. Single axle, minimum capacity 50 tons. Requires a drop table pit and a centerline pit to allow maintenance personnel to
access the traction motor power leads. Typically an under the floor passageway is provided for the motor dolly with a
release track. The release position is usually provided with a combo storage area and a 10 ton overhead crane for
moving the removed traction motor combo and its replacement. The table “top” is typically 6 ft. 6 in. long measured
parallel to the track.
b. Two axle truck drop table, minimum capacity 100 tons with a minimum 18 foot long “top”. The release point will
require a heavier crane or other means for moving replacement components. Full truck drop tables may or may not
have an under the floor passage way.
c. Three axle truck drop table, minimum capacity 125 tons, with a minimum 26 foot long “top”. The release point will
require a crane or other means for moving replacement components. Full truck drop tables may or may not have an
under the floor passage way.
d. Combination full truck and single axle drop table, minimum capacity 125 tons, with a minimum 26-foot full truck
“top” and 6 foot 6 inch single axle auxiliary “top” on one end.
e. Full truck drop tables described in b, c and d above must be equipped with locomotive body supports. These must be
of the type that permits the support bar to be moved parallel to the running rail the full length of the drop table top and
extend beyond one end of the top approximately 7 feet 8 inches.
f. Drop table pits may open or closed with an automatic elevating cover at the release point. If there are two active drop
spots the release point should be between the drop tracks. If there are more than two, there is no advantageous position
for the release point.
g. A consolidated drop table combines the drop table and the hoisting mechanism, resulting in a considerable savings in
pit depth. Available only in long top type for dropping complete trucks, they do not lend themselves well to either
multiple track operations or closed pit installations. Capacities are available from 50 tons to 150 tons, and top lengths
from 15 feet to 26 feet.
h. Access in and around the drop point for the workers in critical. The workers need access to the under the locomotive
power leads and connections as well as the traction motor rotating ram. At a minimum they will need a one truck length
centerline pit on each side of the drop location.
4.4.6 LOCOMOTIVE PROGRESSION SYSTEMS (2012)
Where a large number of units must be progressed daily through a shop, it may be desirable to incorporate a mechanized
progression system. There are several methods for providing a progression system. Typical systems employ a cabled winch
type system or an in-floor rabbit system. The progression system should be capable of moving a locomotive from an inbound
position (outside of the building) through the shop to an outbound position (outside of the building).

As an alternative to the progression system some railroads may modify their locomotives to move using the locomotive
battery to energize the traction motors, they may use a mobile car mover (tired vehicle) piece of equipment or use a switch
engine to move the locomotives to and through the shop. Possibly the user may use a combination of methods. The designer
should ascertain what methods will be used in order to accommodate the selected method in the facility design. The following
advantages are inherent in a mechanized progression system:
a. Eliminates the need to dedicate a locomotive and operator.
b. Eliminates the need to remove a unit from train service to work at the shop.
c. Units can be moved in uncoupled progression.
d. Reduces noise and air pollution.
e. Reduces heating and ventilation costs.
The disadvantages are:
a. Greater first cost.
b. There is some difficulty in the installation of the system on raised rail.
c. If a cable system is used there are winch position issues and cable maintenance and safety issues.
1
4.4.7 TRUCK AND TRACTION MOTOR REPAIR AND OVERHAUL (2012)
Because of the nature of the work repairs and overhauls to locomotive trucks and/or traction motors are typically made in an
area somewhat removed from the locomotive service and maintenance areas.
This area should be provided with adequate overhead cranes for parts movement, a washing area with steam or hot water and
detergents, compressed air and possibly lubricant dispensing as well as parts washer units for journals. The cleaning area will 3
be subject to a significant amount of oily waste and mixed solids. The drainage in this area should be designed to intercept the
solids and be treated as an industrial waste. Refer to Section 4.9, Pollution (Noise-Air-Water) for pollution control
considerations. Embedded floor rails for wheel/ motor assemblies should also be provided. The area will need to be designed
to allow fork lifts access and possible heavy trucks for movement of the components into and out of the shop.
Provision should be made to accept shipment and delivery of traction motors and components by either rail or truck and
possibly both. 4
4.4.7.1 Wheel Truing
Wheel truing machines are lathe units or milling machines for turning locomotive wheels without removal from the
locomotive. It is recommended that where possible this operation be made a separate function from the service and repair
operation on a dedicated track(s). Because of the machine cutter head position movement of locomotives over the machine
should be uni-directional and limited to those locomotives being machined.
A wheel true machine typically requires: a substantial installation pit with personnel access, a progression system capable of
movement in both directions, compressed air, an overhead or jib crane for cutter head manipulation and a chip removal system.
Due to of the amount of metal shavings generated by the wheel truing machine a large storage container is required. This can
be a dumpster or rail car. These metal shavings will be very hot when discharged into the holding container. Access for
movement of the container must be provided. In addition the storage area where the container is positioned should be provided
with containment and industrial drainage. If at all possible the chip container should be located external to the building.

As an auxiliary function the user may request a shim table installation to supplement the wheel truing operation. This shim
table provides a means to insert shims in single axle springs for cross leveling purposes. The shim table should have a
minimum capacity of 50 tons and be installed in an in-floor pit with personnel access and compressed air outlets.
4.4.8 MATERIAL HANDLING PLATFORM (2012)
A materials handling platform is often associated with a store or warehouse function supporting the locomotive service and
repair operation. Reference Section 7 for additional information concerning the storage or warehouse space. A platform to
unload trucks and possibly rail cars should be provided adjacent to the locomotive shop. This platform should be designed for
forklifts.
For rail car receiving of materials the recommended dock height above top of rail is 3’-7” (high side) and the edge is 5’-9”
from the centerline of the rail. The rail car unloading spot may need a means to restrain movement of the car during the
loading/unloading process.
For truck docks the height may be between 3’8” and 4’-4”. The dock should be equipped with levelers, locks and lighting.
4.4.9 STORE ROOM (2012)
Repair parts must be readily available. The needs of the store room or warehouse as well as an outside material storage area
should be established early in the design as this is an integral part of the locomotive shop operation. The purchasing and/or
stores department should be consulted for their area requirements for material storage, dock space, employee provisions, office
requirements, security, forklift maintenance and forklift movement. Reference Section 7 for additional information.
4.4.10 OFFICE (2012)
An office area for the locomotive shop supervisory and clerical staff should be located adjacent to the shop area. Space
requirements for this area may include toilet facilities seperate from the shop personnel which should be American with
Disabilities Act (ADA) compliant, meeting rooms, training rooms, and file storage room. The designer will need to obtain user
requirements for office spaces and finishes and the occupancy capacity to determine the area.
There may be a preference for an elevated space with windows overlooking the shop area. This area will need to be provided
with ADA access. Due to fire separation code requirements there my be some difficulty in meeting this performance. An
ancillary in-shop office space for supervisory personnel may satisfy this need. This space will have to be ADA accessible.
4.4.11 LOCKER AND TOILET FACILITIES (2012)
Locker, lunch, toilet and wash facilities are needed for the shop personnel. These facilities should be located so as to be easily
accessible from the shop and from the employee parking area. It is preferable that the shop personnel not be moved through the
office space to access the lunch, locker, toilet rooms or the parking lot.
The primary toilet and wash facilities should be adjacent to the locker rooms. The minimum number of toilet fixtures will be
determined by the building codes and the local authority having jurisdiction. The office/administrative area will require ADA
compliant toilet facilities.
If the facility is significant in size auxiliary toilet and wash facilities may be located in remote areas of the shop.
Finishes need to be very durable and easy to clean. It should be noted there is the possibility of petroleum coated foot wear and
clothing.
The lunch room will need adequate space for seating, vending machines, counter tops, possible reach in coolers for lunch
storage, double bowl sink and storage cabinets.

The plan should incorporate space for bulletin boards, display cases and pay telephones.
Auxiliary drinking and wash fountains may be located in the shop for use by the employee.
4.4.12 OTHER FACILITIES (2012)
The shop may require allocating space for securing tools and tool boxes. This space will normally be portioned off with
limited access and security measures.
Depending on the smoking policy of the user a smokers space or area either in the shop facility or external to the facility may
be required.
SECTION 4.5 SERVICE FACILITIES
4.5.1 SERVICES REQUIRED (2012)
There are a number of services that may be required in a servicing or repair shop. These are: lubricating oil, oil drainage,
traction motor oil, compressor oil, oil changing, anti-freeze, radiator water, soap, compressed air, electrical welding
receptacles, battery charger receptacles, locomotive washing, welding gases, etc. The user should provide a list of services
required and the areas where the services are needed.
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4.5.2 LUBRICATING OIL SUPPLY (2012)
a. Lubricating oil is an important feature of a locomotive servicing and repair facility. “Topping off” or oil changes are a
common practice at these shops. Proper design using modern equipment will contribute to keeping the premises clean
and minimize fire hazards.
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b. Oil dispensing is usually accomplished using hose reels at hose reel stations. These stations consist of a hose reels for
each dispensing fluid used in the shop. The lube oil hose reels are typically located on the elevated platform and are
spring return type with approximately 50 feet of hose and an automatic dispensing nozzle. Dispensing stations should
generally be located on approximately 60 foot centers. Meters may or may not be provided for each hose reel for
measuring the amount of oil dispensed to each locomotive.
c. The character of the lubricating oils will need to be determined to properly design the pump and piping systems. For 4
viscous oils in cold climates it may be necessary to provide heat to the dispensing and storage system. The heating
system may be by electrical heat tracing, recirculation, or some other method. Typically a positive displacement pump
would be used in this type of service. In determining the size and design of the pump system the designer will need to
select a pump rate for each dispensing location and probable maximum number of dispensing locations calling for oil
at one time (diversity). Suggested design parameters are 25 gallons per minute (GPM) per station with a demand for
one hose reel per track calling for oil (i.e. 2 tracks = 50 GPM). If there are a large number of locomotive spots on each
track ( more than three per track), it is recommended that the demand be increased to two (2) per track.
d. Selection of the means to control the oil dispensing system will depend upon the dispensing system design. Generally a
push button pump start controller or a pressure controller/switch/tank will work for a limited number of dispensing
locations. For larger demand systems a circulating system may provide the better option as this will eliminate the short
cycling of pump on-off demands.
e. Reference Section 4.13 concerning storage tank requirements.

4.5.3 LUBRICATING OIL DRAINAGE/RECOVERY (2012)
a. Locomotive shops need a means of draining the locomotive crankcase. There are several methods for accomplishing
this work.
(1) Using a gravity drain system, a collection tank, or other means of containment must be provided that is lower than
the locomotive. Where possible an underground tank should be avoided due to environmental regulations
regarding underground tanks. Depending on the size and location of the tank, a pump system may be needed to
transfer the collected drained oil to a primary storage tank.
(2) Using a pump system with a piping system below the locomotive to transfer the drained oil directly from the
locomotive to a primary storage tank.
(3) Portable tanks that are moved to the locomotive being serviced.
b. The primary drained oil storage tank may be a fixed tank or possibly rail tank cars. Typically, the drained oil is of good
quality and may be recycled, usually to a contracted scavenger. For a rail car operation, a top loading arm assembly
will probably be needed with a means of safe access for operating personnel provided. For a fixed tank, provisions will
need to be made for truck connections. Most scavenger trucks have their own truck mounted pump equipment and the
drained oil system may not require a truck loading system. Reference the Section 4.13 for storage tank information. It
may be desirable to investigate the possible use of recovered oils for heating purposes.
4.5.4 TRACTION MOTOR OIL (2012)
a. Traction motor oil or bearing lubricant is dispensed in small quantities to the traction motor bearing housing located on
each end of the axle. The dispensing equipment should be located low along the inside and outside of an elevated rail
or centerline pit. Typically the outlets can be spaced at approximately 30 foot intervals with a short section of small
diameter hose and a valved spigot on the end. The user should be consulted as to the preferred equipment. As an
option, hose reels below the elevated platform or along the service track may be provided.
b. Traction motor oil is typically a heavy oil and due to the low flow rate that is required, one to three GPM, and location
of the dispensing pipe the system design should be evaluated and sized to dispense at ambient temperatures, if the
location is inside of a building. For locations outside of a building the same considerations as those for the lube oil
system will govern the pump and piping design as well as the method of heating.
c. Reference Section 4.13 for information on storage tanks.
4.5.5 COMPRESSOR OIL (2012)
a. Although not typical, some users may want a piped compressor oil dispensing system. If this is required, the system
will be similar to the lube oil system. However, the nature of the lubricants may be very different and the designer must
determine the characteristics of the compressor oil used before determining the system design parameters. The
dispensing rate will be similar to the lube oil system but the total quantity dispensed will be less and the diversity
should be adjusted to one unit for two tracks.
b. Compressor oil dispensing is usually accomplished using hose reels at hose reel stations. These stations consist of a
hose reel for each dispensing fluid used in the shop. The compressor oil hose reels are located on the elevated platform
and typically are spring return type with approximately 50 feet of hose and an automatic dispensing nozzle. Dispensing
stations may be located on approximately 60 foot centers.
c. Reference Section 4.13 for information on storage tanks.

4.5.6 USED OIL FILTERS (2012)
a. Because of the number of oil changes occurring in the shop and the necessary oil filter replacement a means of draining
and disposing of the filter must be provided. Disposal should be accomplished with a minimum of handling. Typically,
a portable liquid tight container is provided. Service personnel will remove the filter and drop it into the container. The
container will have a means to draw off oil that will leak from the filter elements. This drained oil may be disposed of
into the drained oil capture system or possibly to an industrial sewer. The preference is to the drained oil recovery
system.
b. To reduce the solids volume the user may employ a filter crusher. This equipment usually requires: a solid
base/foundation with drainage to an industrial waste system, electrical power and access for fork lifts and dumpster
trucks.
c. The filter elements are considered a regulated waste requiring compliance with regulations concerning toxic or
hazardous materials. In some instances, the user may have a scavenger or user for this waste product.
4.5.7 WATER SUPPY SYSTEMS (SERVICE AND TREATED) (2012)
a. Treated radiator water is water that may be softened and/or injected with a chemical prior to adding it to a locomotive
cooling system.
b. Treated water may be considered toxic in nature, detrimental to streams and/or municipal sewage plants and may
require a separate drainage system or means of retrieval or recycling. The designer should discuss this issue with the
user and obtain an MSDS sheet on the material from the user to assist in determining regulatory requirements. 1
c. Some users use a prepackaged radiator water chemical tablet that is dropped into the cooling system manually. This
does not normally represent a hazard to be dealt with.
d. The softener capacity (if required) should be selected to provide a minimum of 12 GPM per track. The need for a
softener will have to be determined on a site specific basis.
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e. Radiator water dispensing is usually accomplished using hose reels at hose reel stations. These stations consist of hose
reels for each dispensing fluid used in the shop. The hose reels are located on the elevated platform and typically are
spring return type with approximately 50 feet of hose and an automatic dispensing nozzle. Dispensing stations may be
located on approximately 60 foot centers.
f. The radiator water system will require a back flow preventer to prevent contamination of the potable water system.
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g. Raw (service) water may be either hot or cold and is used for general washing or rinsing, but not drinking.
h. Hose reels or spigots for the raw water system should be located a convenient and numerous locations to accommodate
the general cleaning of the shop floors and locomotive washing.
i. The raw water system may include a soap injection/ proportioning/mixing system and/or hose reel to facilitate the
cleaning operations.
j. The raw (service) water system should also have a back flow preventer providing isolation from the potable water
system.
k. Potable water is supplied to the shop for use for the emergency eye washes and showers, drinking fountains and
sanitary facilities such as wash basins or lavatories.

4.5.8 RADIATOR WATER RECLAIM SYSTEM (2012)
The system for collecting used radiator water may be similar to that used to collect drained oil from a locomotive. The used
radiator water is typically collected and then pumped to a surge or holding tank. The water then may go to a skimming basin.
After skimming, the water either goes directly to a mixing tank for addition of chemicals or is pumped through a filters system
and then to the mixing tank. The mixing tank is necessary in order to bring the reclaimed water chemical treatment back to
recommended levels. The reclaimed reconditioned water is then sent to a storage tank for future use in locomotives.
4.5.9 COMPRESSED AIR (2012)
Compressed air outlets and hose reels should be provided at convenient intervals about the shop, above and below the elevated
platform, in the drop table pit and wheel true pit.
In sizing the air compressors , piping and air reservoir system, the designer should as a minimum assume 20 cubic feet per
minute (CFM) per locomotive spot inside the shop plus the air requirements of any air operated equipment and air dryer
requirements.
The compressed air system should be provided with an air dryer and each air tool station should have an oiler and a one way
venting quick connection coupling. The selection of the air dryer will be dependant on several criteria: ambient conditions at
the shop location, exposure of piping to ambient conditions and energy costs.
The compressor(s) will typically be located away from the shop in a compressor building, pump house or as an out of doors
installation.
It may be desirable to investigate the use of the rejected heat from the compressors for use in space heating.
4.5.10 LOCOMOTIVE WASHING (2012)
There are generally two types of locomotive washing operations that may be performed at a locomotive shop. They are: full
wash of the locomotive body (exterior) and truck and spot washing of running boards and engine compartments.
a. Locomotive washing of the exterior body and truck is usually performed in a separate building with automated
equipment. Reference Part 12, Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility for a description of this operation.
In cold climates, it may be necessary to provide a heated facility or a location and equipment inside the repair shop for
manual washing operations.
b. Spot washing of the running boards and engine compartment may be performed at the repair shop. Provisions to
perform this operation on each track in the facility will require water, either hot or cold or possibly both, cleaner/ soap
dispensing and an adequate collection and drainage system.
c. Due to the potential for petroleum products and grit associated with the cleaning operation the drainage may have to be
routed to the industrial treatment plant. The cleaners/ soap may present a challenge for the treatment plant, therefore it
should be determined if the treatment plant has the ability to accept the cleaners/ soaps used.
d. In some areas, the local municipality may accept the drainage from the wash operation if the grit is captured. This may
require the construction of a settling basin, grit trap or interceptor on the drain line prior to the municipal connection.
e. The designer should determine if the owner has preferences for: type of wash system, manufacturer or soaps to be
used.
f. The system may simply consist of totes or drums of cleaner manually dispensed and applied or the system may include
dedicated tanks, pumps, dispensing/ mixing equipment, foamers, water, hose reels and possibly a recycling option.

4.5.11 GENERAL WASHING SYSTEM (2012)
Provision should be made for general cleaning of the facility using water and cleaners/soaps for the floor, pits and platforms.
The designer should determine whether or not the owner wants cleanser/ soap dispensers or hot water for the general cleaning
operations and design to these requirements.
Connections for the water and possibly cleaner/soap dispensers should be located in several convenient places to reduce the
use of long hoses or snagging problems.
4.5.12 PARTS CLEANER (2012)
Parts cleaning equipment may be used in the traction motor repair operation, as well as for other repair operations. The
designer should determine the need for these cleaning areas, the types of equipment the owner will specify, location(s) and the
connection needs of the equipment. Typically, the use of a parts cleaner will generate a significant amount of oily waste that
will need to be considered in the design of the installation.
The type of equipment, water or solvent based, will need to be determined to properly design the installation needs. This
design should take into consideration: floor coatings, industrial drainage, possible curbing of the area and ventilation.
4.5.13 ELECTRICAL CLEANING SOLVENT (2012)
If a combustible product is used, ensure that the area is enclosed, well ventilated with explosion proof electrical and
mechanical equipment. Depending on the quantities of solvent involved a fire rated storage space may be required for the
cleaner material. If a vapor degreasing system is used, provide adequate ventilation in accordance with the manufacturers 1
recommendations. The ventilation of the solvent based cleaner may require special permits or equipment to satisfy the air
quality. The disposal of the solvent may be a regulated as a hazardous material. A careful review of the local code
requirements should be made for this type of activity.
4.5.14 WELDING GASES (2012)

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A typical requirement at a repair shop is the ability to cut off damaged small parts from a locomotive. This is usually done
using a cutting torch.
The decision to install a central piped welding gas distribution system may have a significant impact upon the occupancy and
fire rating of the building. An evaluation of the building codes pertaining to the site of the locomotive repair shop and an
opinion from the permitting authority is recommended.
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The design of a welding gas distribution system will depend on several items: gases being used, quantities and method of
storage. Typical welding gas systems consist of oxygen in combination with acetylene, MAPP or natural gas. Acetylene burns
at a higher temperature than either MAPP or natural gas thereby using less fuel and being faster but has a higher cost.
Acetylene can be provided by manifolding a number of tanks together for a central system or a dual tank portable system may
be used. MAPP gas requires provision for a larger storage vessel. Natural gas is typically piped off the local supply.
If a central location is provided for a manifold of gas bottles, the area should be well ventilated, have a roof, security fence and
a rigid frame with safety chains for holding the bottles upright and in place. Proper signage must be provided warning of the
hazardous nature of the storage area.
4.5.15 ELECTRICAL WELDING (2012)
Locomotive repair shops need a large number of electrical welding outlets located about the shop. The location of welding
receptacles will typically coincide with the locations of the hose reel racks and be spaced along heavy repair tracks at frequent
intervals to reduce the distance from the receptacle to the work spot.

4.5.16 BATTERY CHARGING (2012)
Battery charging receptacles are usually located on the elevated platform and mounted on or adjacent to the hose reel racks.
The use of a centralized battery charging station or individual portable battery chargers will need to be determined.
4.5.17 LOCOMOTIVE TOILET SERVICING (2012)
Although it is not typical to service the locomotive toilets at the repair shop, one of the operations that may be performed is the
“dumping” of the locomotive toilet and refilling the toilet chemical tank. There are several methods for accomplishing the
“dumping” task: the use of a “honey wagon”, a wheeled container with appropriate fittings, an in-floor system with
appropriate fittings for the drain hose and a vacuum system. All of these systems are discharged to a sanitary sewer. It is
recommended that the designer obtain the material safety data sheet for the toilet chemical to verify that the chemical may be
discharged to the local municipal system.
In addition to dumping the toilet the means to add a toilet chemical to the holding tank may be required. This can be done
using a pump system with its attendant hose reel or a dispensing location for filling a container for the employee to fill the
holding tank. A locomotive may only require 3 to 5 gallons of toilet chemical.
4.5.18 LOCOMOTIVE DEICING (2012)
In extremely cold weather conditions icing or freeze up of units may occur. Provision for thawing out the locomotive may be
desirable.
Deicing the locomotive may be accomplished by using steam, fixed or portable infrared heating units, hot water, raw (service)
water or by the shops heating system. Proper ventilation of the water vapor generated by the deicing operation should be
considered. When considering the design parameters of a deicing system the thermal mass of the locomotive will need to be
considered.
A frozen locomotive may have “dumped” its cooling water. Warming the engine block up should be done gradually to prevent
cracking. This can be accomplished using hot or tepid water or raw (service) water that is passed through the radiator cooling
system until the engine block temperature is raised to an above the freezing temperature. Provisions will have to be made for
collection and disposal of the water passing through the system as well as any heater for the water provided. The decision of
using hot/warm water versus a raw (service) at ambient temperature water will depend on the owners time demand.
SECTION 4.6 BUILDING SUPERSTRUCTURE DETAILS
4.6.1 GENERAL (2012)
Early in the design stage of a locomotive repair shop, the engineer/architect should consult with the environmental, building
and fire officials having jurisdiction to obtain information on their requirements and classification of the facility. There will be
differences in the requirements between jurisdictions. What involvement each jurisdiction requires will be an important point
to determine.
Due to the size and nature of the repair facility the codes officials may have demands that need to be addressed early on in the
design. A code analysis should be performed at the earliest stage of design in order to determine any special requirements that
may affect the building design. Once an analysis has been completed it is recommended that a meeting be held with local
officials to determine what if any additional requirements will be imposed upon the work.

4.6.2 FLOORS (2012)
The design of the floor should consider the operation and equipment loading on the floor. Items to consider are:
– Jacking spots or a continuous jacking pad may be required.
– The track may be mounted on a track slab that is not part of the general floor system.
– Heavy forklift and/or mobile car mover equipment may traverse the floor.
– Progression equipment provisions, anchor points and foundations.
– Anchors or hold downs may be required to work in conjunction with the jacking operation.
– The floors should be sloped to provide positive drainage for washing and spill collection.
– The floors should have a sealer that is resistant to floor cleaners and petroleum products.
– Provide an anti-slip treatment.
– Provide safety striping for walking aisles, trip hazards, fall hazards and equipment clearances.
– Provide chemically resistant water stopping and joint sealants at construction joints.
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– Provide safety striping and wording to indicate “jacking limits”.
4.6.3 WALLS AND ROOF (2012)
The building structure should be constructed of non-combustible materials.
It is recommended that the lower portion of a building wall be constructed of durable material, such as concrete to protect the 3
building from forklifts, material handling, etc. The height of this “wainscot” should not be less than four (4 ) feet high with a
metal liner or other durable material above that to at least a height of eight (8) feet to ten (10) feet above the floor.
The interior of the building structure should be painted a light reflective color to enhance the lighting of the shop.
Interior surfaces should be selected for ease in maintenance and cleaning and if possible materials with sound deadening
properties is also recommended. 4
A sloping roof is recommended. Although flat roofs are an option, they may represent a possible increase in maintenance. The
roof should be provided with a means of access for roof mounted equipment servicing, preferably without the need to use
ladders or lift equipment.
Consideration should be given to providing skylights or wall translucent panels/windows to enhance day lighting of the shop.
Sound deadening for the walls of the welfare spaces (administrative, lunch, locker areas) should be considered to reduce the
noise in these areas from locomotives idling or passing by the facility on exterior tracks.
4.6.4 DOORS (2012)
Locomotive entrance doors should be a minimum of 14 feet wide by 18 feet high. Owner clearance regulations should be
reviewed to verify their requirements. Locomotive entrance doors should be provided with power operators. Consideration for
the use of high speed and/or impact resistant doors is recommended.

Overhead doors for forklifts or delivery trucks may be of a smaller size and located to provide access to the shop and the
warehouse or material storage space and are separate from the locomotive access doors.
All man doors should have a sidelight for safety reasons, where feasible, and be configured to prevent exiting personnel from
walking onto a track or traffic way. The door may need a stoop and/or provided with guard railing to provide this protection.
The fire rating of the wall that a door is installed in must be considered in door selection. The codes will provide information
on the required fire rating of the door and glass as well as opening size for emergency exiting.
SECTION 4.7 HEATING AND VENTILATION
4.7.1 GENERAL (2012)
For the welfare (administrative, lunch and locker spaces) area standard practices are acceptable. Local energy codes should be
reviewed and complied with to the extent that they address the buildings particular needs. Attention to the location for outside
air intakes is recommended due to the possibility of capturing locomotive exhaust fumes from nearby idling or passing
locomotives.
Heating and ventilation of locomotive repair shops pose a significant challenge to the designer. Very few shops will require
air-conditioning. The administrative and locker areas will probably require heating and air conditioning. The welfare areas
should be on separate systems from the shop area(s).
It is strongly recommended that locomotive engines not be operated in the shop. The owner will have to be consulted on this
issue to determine if this is anticipated and the probable locations, durations and types of locomotives that may be operated in
the building. If locomotives are allowed to run in the building the owner needs to understand that this represents a significant
first cost and long term operating cost to the facility. The diesel exhaust fumes represent a health hazard, a fire hazard with
residue build up and a cleaning/ maintenance issue as it coats the underside of the roof and exhaust fan blades.
If diesel engines are allowed to operate inside the shop facility at large, this situation will require ventilation and make-up air
systems. This issue can be addressed by use of some type of progression or mover system.
Aside from the air quality issues an operating locomotive engine will generate a large amount of heat that will possibly be a
discomfort to the work force, especially in warmer climates or during summer months.
4.7.2 VENTILATING (2012)
Prior to designing the heating and ventilation system for the shop area the operating practices the owner intends to use for the
shop must be determined. This will permit the designer to calculate the impacts the operation of a locomotive engine may have
on the capacity requirements of the systems.
There are two currently accepted methods for handling diesel emissions in a repair shop. These are dilution and local capture
by hoods. There are other emerging and maturing technologies that may provide additional design options. These other options
include demand controlled local systems and direct capture methods.
a. Dilution ventilation is usually employed when high ceilings, overhead cranes or other obstructions preclude the use of
hoods. With dilution ventilating, the total volume of space to be exchanged should be as small as possible. Normally
six (6) air changes per hour will provide adequate dilution for locomotives that are idled in the shop at less than 350
rpm. This ventilation rate will permit recovery if a short run at a higher speed is done on individual or multi-unit
consists. The temperature stratification is a very important consideration because most diesel engine emissions are
denser than the ambient air and drop towards the floor once they lose a 40 degree differential from the ambient air

temperature. With the introduction of dilution air, the dilution air must be either tempered or introduced into the shop at
a low elevation to ensure the emissions are not cooled before they can be captured and removed by high sidewall or
roof mounted ventilation equipment. In cold climates, this poses a comfort problem for the work force that must work
around and under the locomotive unless the make-up air is tempered prior to distribution in the building. Tempered low
level dilution air discharged into the work area will help alleviate some worker discomfort. In warm climates, the
differential in temperature is quickly lost, hence dilution ventilation is a less desirable solution unless prevailing winds
are reasonably strong and frequent. The use of a low discharge point for make-up air with a high sidewall or roof
mounted exhaust system will also facilitate removal of the emissions. When exhaust emissions cool, they tend to curl
over and around the top of the locomotive and be ingested through the radiator cooling intakes, further compounding
the problem of capture and removal. Generally dilution systems are less sensitive to locomotive placement and offer
more flexibility when accommodating overhead cranes or other obstructions. However, they require large volumes of
make-up air and have a high energy cost of operation.
b. Capture hoods are more difficult to position and represent an interference with overhead cranes or other structures but
they can reduce the exhaust volume, the make-up air requirement and operating costs.
(1) In the design of capture hoods for diesel emissions at or near the point of generation, care must be taken to
ascertain the physical location of the stacks of the different types of locomotives and their location on the shop
floor to co-ordinate clearances and operations with other services and equipment. The radiator cooling fans can
cause turbulence and disrupt the capture of emissions when operating. The exhaust capacity of the hood should
also consider: exhaust velocity, exhaust volume (at anticipated engine operating rates) and radiator fan impact on
the air volume entering the hood. The hood entrance velocity should be at least twice the locomotive exhaust
discharge velocity, which becomes impractical at higher throttle settings. If the hood is located some distance from
the locomotive stack, the system takes on the characteristics of a dilution ventilation system Locomotives cannot
be subjected to any significant increase in backpressure imposed by hoods or dust collection systems, hence any
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hood configuration should have large, unrestricted cross sections that duplicates a free air discharge. In the design
of capture and containment hoods, occupational safety and railroad clearance regulations should be reviewed.
(2) In the design of mechanical ventilation systems, long duct runs and numerous turns should be avoided since they
become collection surfaces for the oily carbon residues from diesel emissions that eventually increase the risk of
fire. In the design of the duct work and ventilation fans, adequate provision should be made for access panels and 3
doors at any in-duct installations for ease of cleaning this carbon residue. In specifying fan drives, every effort
should be made to keep the fan motor out of the contaminated air stream. Typically this is accomplished using a
belt drive system. Fan bearings should also be checked for suitability with the higher temperatures and chemical
composition of the contaminated air stream that it will experience in this service.
For those “no smoking” shops (locomotive engines are not allowed to run) the need for ventilation is greatly reduced to that
needed for ventilation for summer cooling and worker comfort. For both the shop and the welfare areas the minimum 4
ventilation rate should be determined by using recommendations in the latest version of ASHRAE 62.
It is also suggested that the designer should reference ASHRAE 2007 Applications Handbook section 13.23 for additional
information.
4.7.3 HEATING (2012)
The selection of the heating fuel for the building will depend upon several factors. These factors are: availability, cost and size
of the shop and heating load. The use of fixed or portable heating equipment will depend upon the size of the shop and the
climate the shop is located in. In some instances the use of recovered oils as a fuel source may be feasible for all or part of the
heating requirement.
In addition to the fresh air introduced into the building to replace that for locomotive exhaust ventilation, make-up air may also
be used for space heating when large volumes of make-up air are continuously required. Where the make-up air units need not
be operated continuously, it may be economically justifiable to provide supplemental space heating to offset natural building

heat losses. A supplemental system may be a single or composite system which might include: under floor warm air, in-floor
hydronic, fin tube or coils, unit heaters, infra-red, furnaces or other systems. The fuel source should be selected on cost of fuel
and availability. Air to air heat exchangers to recover heat from the exhausted air may be feasible provided the exhausted air is
not heavily laden with contaminants that may foul the heat exchanger.
a. In shops with operating locomotive engines the use of direct –fired gas equipment may present a problem with
contaminated combustion air. A piped or ducted out side combustion air in-take may be needed.
b. Besides direct-fired equipment (gas or oil) other options include steam, hot water or electric.
c. Due to large door openings in the shop there can be significant heat loss during the movement of locomotives into and
out of the facility. This condition will have to be considered in sizing the heating system and determining a recovery
time for the movement of locomotives in severe weather.
d. In cold climates where the locomotive is brought in at ambient temperature, the effect of the large cold mass of the
locomotive should be considered in sizing the heating capacity of the equipment.
SECTION 4.8 ELECTRICAL LIGHTING AND POWER SUPPLY
4.8.1 GENERAL (2012)
a. This will not go into detail as to specific requirements because these are usually dictated by the local code, availability,
equipment requirements and other project specific needs. The user may also have internal electrical design standards
that may govern, if they meet or exceed code requirements.
b. Specific requirements for outlet locations, lighting types and location are user related and vary between facilities and
users. These requirements may not be less than the building codes minimum requirements.
c. For lighting of inspection pits various types and configurations may be used. It is recommended that the designer
consult with the user to determine if the user has preferences or specific input into the type of lighting and
configuration to be used. Due to washing operations and the fluids dispensed the lighting units should be rated for the
materials and conditions it will be subject to.
d. Generally pit lighting is provided for safety purposes and not as task lighting. Convenience receptacles (waterproof)
should be provided inside the pit. The selection and placement of receptacles may be dictated by local code
interpretations.
e. For exterior lighting requirements the designer is referred to AREMA Chapter 33, Part 10 for information.
f. The various areas of a locomotive repair facility have differing light level requirements. The best source of information
for the design of the lighting is the Illumination Engineers (IES) Handbook. There are a number of factors to be
considered in the determination of the light levels and lighting selection. Several of these considerations are: type of
activity, characteristics of the space, light loss factors and dirt depreciation.
The following list of recommended light levels represents minimum levels suggested by the IES Lighting Handbook.
Office area: category D, 20-30-50 foot-candles
Service area, inspection pit: category E, 50-75-100 foot-candles

Locker room, warehouse, storage rooms and general spaces: category C, 10-15-20 foot-candles
SECTION 4.9 POLLUTION (NOISE-AIR-WATER)
4.9.1 NOISE (2012)
Noise pollution can be difficult to deal with. If a new shop is constructed in a location where a shop was not previously located
the designer may have to consider impacts on adjoining property and possibly design a method to reduce noise pollution as it
impacts the adjacent property owners. A particular shop function that may create discomfort or raise the objections of the
adjacent property owners is if a load test area is to be provided. If a load test facility is to be provided a means to buffer or
diminish the sound will probably be required.
The factors associated with noise are:
a. Frequency of the sound
b. Sound level or decibels
c. Duration time (per hour/day)
d. When does the exposure occur during a working day 1

e. Distance for noise source
4.9.2 AIR (2012)
Diesel locomotive effluents are under increasing stringent review by public authorities. Quantitative data on emissions from
locomotive engines, chemical cleaners, welding operations, product storage tank through put (lube oil, traction motor oil,
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diesel fuel, etc.), heating equipment and all other sources of possible air pollution must be collected and evaluated to determine
compliance with local allowable limits.
4.9.3 WATER (2012)
Industrial wastes generated by locomotive shop operations such as oils, corrosion inhibitor, detergents, etc., as well as run off 4
from locomotive parking areas must be considered for treatment in pollution abatement facilities whether discharging to a
stream, municipal sewer, landfill or incinerator. The engineer must consult with Federal, State and Local regulators to
determine the permitting requirements or limitations so that these requirements or limitations may be incorporated into the
design.
SECTION 4.10 COMMUNICATIONS AND DATA
4.10.1 GENERAL (2012)
This category represents the area where the technology is undergoing significant advancements and changing needs. Users are
automating and computerizing operations with a need for flexibility to alter or replace systems and cabling as new technology
or other capabilities become available and are adopted by the user.

The engineer should consult with the user and determine what provision needs to be made in the design for their
communications and data requirements as well as who will be responsible for the design and installation of the equipment and
cabling.
This chapter will limit its comments to general non-specific items only.
4.10.2 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM (2012)
A means to provide communications between the office or supervisory personnel and shop areas is necessary. The means of
communication may consist of a loud speaker paging/ announcement system with speakers located throughout the shop and
surrounding work areas. This may be a wired or wireless communications system.
An internal telephone system will allow the workers to communicate with the office area, warehouse or other portions of the
shop without having to visit the area in person in order to communicate their needs or situation.
4.10.2.1 Public Telephone System
The shop facility will need a connection to the public telephone system as well as connection to the user’s internal
communications system if the user has one.
The shops common areas such as the lunch room may need to have a public pay phone connection.
4.10.3 DATA SYSTEM (2012)
Many users now include computerized locomotive and repair tracking systems as well as parts inventory ordering. The user
will require data systems for the shop, office areas, warehouse and possibly on the service tracks as well. The designer should
consult with the owner on their information systems formats and equipment selections to ensure compatibility.
4.10.4 TELEVISION SYSTEM (2012)
The owner may or may not use an internal television system for communicating with the employees, tele-meetings,
external/internal viewing for locomotive movement control and security. The designer should determine what needs the owner
might have. The owner may use land based cabling or satellite systems. If they use a satellite system provision for roof
mounted equipment may be required.
SECTION 4.11 FIRE PROTECTION
There are essentially two separate fire systems associated with the repair shop, the exterior and the interior systems. Typically
the local fire official will provide information concerning what criteria they require to provide acceptable fire protection.
The current building codes require that all building, with few and minor exceptions, will have sprinkler systems. An unheated
building in a cold climate will need a dry system. In warm climate areas or in a heated building a wet system is recommended.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) provides the design guidelines for sprinkler systems, however it is
suggested that the local fire official be consulted concerning this item to determine if they have adopted local changes or
requirements not in the NFPA manual.
The exterior fire protection system usually consists of a series of hydrants and fire department connections. The required
design flow is usually dictated by the local fire authority and the NFPA manuals. A determination of the local conditions and
location of existing water supplies will be needed prior to designing and sizing the water distribution system. Depending on

the site the existing water supply distribution system may be municipal or owned by the railroad. If the system is being
connected to a municipal water supply the location of connection points, metering, back flow prevention and flow
requirements will have to be coordinated with the water authority or municipality.
It is desirable for the water supply to be “looped” as opposed to a “dead end” single pipe system. The “looping” of the system
typically allows for the use of smaller diameter pipe sizes, has less pressure drop, greater flow and is less susceptible to total
failure than a single pipe “dead end” system. The distribution system will have to comply with the performance parameters
provided by the local fire official.
One other area that will have to be addressed in connection with the fire protection component is in the development of the site
plan. The site plan must provide for access by fire and rescue personnel and equipment. A means of access to the facility that
is not obstructed by locomotives or other equipment is desirable. In addition the emergency personnel and equipment must be
able to get to the fire hydrant and have access around the building(s).
SECTION 4.12 BLUE SIGNAL/FLAG PROTECTION
Regulations governing locomotive worker protection can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 49 part 218
“blue signal protection of workers”.
It is typical for the various railroads to adopt a company standard or method of instituting these regulations. The designer
should request information from the owner as to what their company standard/method or policy is in regard to worker 1
protection.
Generally speaking the blue signal system provides protection to the worker. The blue signals control the movement of railway
equipment. If the blue signal is shown, a piece of equipment may not be moved. If there is an amber or other colored signal the
locomotive may be moved and workers should not be on, over or below the locomotive. The removal of the blue signal may be
accompanied by an audible signal as well. The signals must be located in places that are easily observed by the workers and
easily associated with the track it is controlling. It is typical for the blue signal system may be interlinked with de-rails and/or 3
track switches to provide the required worker protection.
SECTION 4.13 STORAGE TANKS

4
The sizing of storage tanks depends on a number of factors among these are: anticipated daily consumption or collection,
company standards for inventory “capacity”, availability of the material, method of delivery and transportation cost.
It is generally recommended that the size of the storage tank accommodate the size (capacity) of the means of delivery (truck,
tank car, etc.) plus a safety factor to account for the delay between ordering the material and delivery. The typical tank truck
will have an approximate capacity of 6,000 to7,000 gallons and a tank car of 12,000 to 19,000 gallons. It is not unusual to be
assessed a surcharge for not taking an entire load from a truck if it is not compartmented. Some trucks have as many as 3
internal compartments that separate the products being transported.
If the products are reasonably available a capacity equal to a 10 to 14 day supply and/or a tank capacity of at least 8000 to
10,000 gallons is recommended.
Tanks are fabricated to several standards. Factory fabricated tanks are normally constructed per UL142 and field erected tanks
are constructed according to API 650. Installation of all tankage must conform to NFPA 30 and local ordinances.

API 653 and UL 142 tanks can be constructed as double walled tanks and as such it may be possible, with proper design, to
eliminate the constructed secondary containment requirements. However, API 650 tanks can’t avoid the constructed secondary
containment requirement as NFPA does not accept this approach for containment for API field erect tanks.
NFPA provides information on the requirements for over fill prevention and set point conditions. API and UL tank standards
provide information on the sizing and location of the inlets, outlets and vent sizing for their tanks.
The designer should check local ordinances and building codes for requirements that must be met in order to install storage
tanks in the involved jurisdiction.
The design of the tank site must include a method for containment, storm water segregation industrial waste disposal and tank
truck and/or tank car facilities for loading and unloading. The owner and designer must determine whether or not to use the
truck mounted equipment for loading and unloading of tank trucks or provide pumps and piping systems for the various fluids.
Tank cars will need a pump and piping system as well as access platform(s) and a dedicated track for this use.
SECTION 4.14 TRACK DRIP COLLECTION
In areas where locomotives are typically parked for servicing and storage outside of the shop provision for drip collection
should be provided. The drip collection system can be of either a pan or monolithic system. There are pros and cons to be
considered with each type.
The pan systems can be either a top of tie or under rail type. The top of tie systems material of construction can be steel,
HDPE, fiberglass or concrete. These systems usually use an under track drainage pipe to collect the dripped or spilled
products. The top of tie type of system needs to be reviewed for the consequence of a plugged drain. Will a plugged drain
result in leakage into the ballast structure? If so, secondary containment with a french drain system may be required. These top
of tie pan systems should be provided with poured concrete walk ways with edge flashing and non-slip cross walks.
With an under the rail monolithic type system, which is usually constructed of reinforced concrete, secondary containment
may not be required but attention must be paid to the design of water stopped joints with fuel resistant material and fuel
resistant caulks as well as concrete coatings to seal the surface. The monolithic type collection system can also be constructed,
if desired, with the top surface equal to the top of rail. The top of rail design allows for non-restricted movement of vehicles
and personnel across the area but it has minimum spill containment capacity and requires additional drainage inlets outside
and between the rails. With both the under the rail and top of rail monolithic systems a tie structure is not needed.
For all collection systems the drainage piping should be provided with a sand/grit interceptor(s) because the dirt and
locomotive sand that finds its way into the drains is reported to be the number one problem of all railroads at these locations.

6
Part 5
Energy Conservation and Audits1
— 1991 —
FOREWORD
This part was prepared to present a comprehensive approach towards energy conservation in railway buildings and shop
facilities, not only from a technical point of view but from a railroad management perspective as well. This report, being
somewhat technical in nature, relates useful information for division operating and corporate management personnel and local
shop superintendents. Principles outlined in this report can be applied equally by those who formulate shop policies as well as
those who are responsible for maintaining offices and shop operations.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-2 3
5.1.1 Scope (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-2
5.2 Elements of Energy Conservation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-3

5.2.1 General (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-3
5.3 Strategies and Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-4

5.3.1 Strategy (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-4
5.3.2 Economics (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-4
5.4 Advances in Energy Cost Savings for Railway Buildings and Shop Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.4.1 Utility Monitoring and Reporting Operations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.4.2 Optimizing Electrical Demand (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.4.3 Small Scale Cogenerational Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.4.4 Boiler Optimization (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.4.5 Microcomputer Applications (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-5
5.5 Types of Audits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-6

5.5.1 Definition (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-6
5.5.2 Cost/Opportunities (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-6
5.5.3 Categories (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-6
1
References, Vol. 92, 1991, p. 58.

5.6 Organization of Railroad Energy Management Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-7

5.6.1 Auditor Qualifications (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-7
5.6.2 Record Collection (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-7
5.7 Audit Survey Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-8

5.7.1 Scope (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-8
5.7.2 Measuring Railway Building and Facility Shop Losses (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-8
5.7.3 Measuring Electrical Systems (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-8
5.7.4 Temperature Measuring Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-9
5.7.5 Surface Pyrometer (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-9
5.7.6 Psychrometer (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-9
5.7.7 Portable Electronic Thermometer (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-9
5.7.8 Boiler Test Kit (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-10
5.7.9 Measuring Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-10
5.8 Justification of Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-11

5.8.1 Life-cycle Costing (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-11
5.9 Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-13
5.10 Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-14
LIST OF TABLES
6-5-1 Example Walkthrough Audit of a Railroad Office Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-13

6-5-2 Energy Savings Checklist (Space Conditioning: Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning). . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5-14
5.1.1 SCOPE (1991)
a. Railway buildings and shop facilities of the past were designed and constructed, primarily, on the basis on initial costs
and not operating costs. This has resulted in a large inventory of railroad buildings which, by today’s standards will
utilize many of the new techniques and systems which lead to maximized energy efficiency. Conservation or saving of
energy in railroad shops, offices and ancillary buildings has become a very real concern for railroad management.
b. It has now become more practical than ever to reach beyond the obvious energy saving strategies. New energy cost
reduction technologies, in their infancy over the last decade, have now become commonplace, cost effective and
readily applicable to most railway buildings and shop facilities.
c. Energy conservation involves all employees. Principles contained in this Part can be applied equally by those who are
charged with the responsibility to formulate energy reports, building audits, and by those who are responsible for
maintaining and operating railway buildings and shop facilities.

Energy Conservation and Audits
d. Energy auditing of railway buildings and shop facilities makes good business sense in today’s energy conscious
environment. A systematic auditing program to reduce energy costs requires knowledge of how to do an effective
energy audit. Since the energy conservation field has expanded, it has brought with it new products and helpful testing
instrumentation for performing successful energy audits.
SECTION 5.2 ELEMENTS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION PROGRAM
5.2.1 GENERAL (1991)
a. No railroad company is stronger than the commitment of senior management or the resources allocated to it.
Implementation of this type of audit program is usually carried out either by an energy manager (coordinator) or by an
energy committee.
b. The initial survey for energy losses at a railroad facility can be performed quite adequately by a walk-through visual
inspection. This kind of audit will uncover numerous opportunities for energy conservation. Some savings can be
achieved through routine maintenance and operational adjustments; others require capital expenditures.
(1) Major examples of typical energy saving opportunities in and around railroad facilities are leaking steam and
compressed-air lines, shop personnel taping or wedging air valves open, uninsulated steam lines, open doors and
windows, overheated storehouses, and improper operation of ventilation systems.
1
(2) Energy savings cannot be achieved until the source is identified where it is being used and when and where it is
being wasted.
c. In an energy saving program, we must review the energy saving opportunities and establish an order of priority in
handling opportunities based on cost, savings, and ease of implementation. Corrective implementation can then be
considered. Ask the following questions:
3
(1) What savings can be anticipated?
(2) What goals would be realistic?
d. Most railroads report reduction in energy use due to energy conservation efforts in the 10-30% range. These savings
are usually the result, not of specialized technical changes, but of ordinary modifications in routine maintenance and
operational adjustments directed at “plugging the facility leaks.” 4
e. The final stage of an energy saving program consists of educating railroad employees. Educating can take many forms:
literature to inform employees on energy saving practices in the office, shop, and other yard facilities. Some railroads
may use stickers, posters, signs, etc. Consequently, they should be used randomly. Motivation at this stage is to
demonstrate company support for a solid energy savings program and to initiate it as a vital part of the railroad’s daily
business.

SECTION 5.3 STRATEGIES AND ECONOMICS
5.3.1 STRATEGY (1991)
a. Conservation or saving of energy does not automatically take place. Senior management must be strongly committed
and genuinely interested. Management must be persistent in their commitment to conserve and must communicate this
commitment. Finally, energy monitoring must be built into the checks and balances at each facility. It must be
constantly monitored and the managers held accountable for its use.
b. A program should be devised to meet all energy conserving needs whether it be routine or on an emergency basis. This
program should contain, as a minimum, the following points:
(1) Develop and implement strategies.
(2) Assure continuity of office or shop facility operations.
(3) Develop and maintain an energy profile for each office or shop facility.
(4) Monitor energy supply and costs.
(5) Manage conservation programs.
(6) Measure energy usage.
(7) Stay abreast of changing technologies.
(8) Implement financial payback analysis program.
c. Further savings will have to come through strategies in areas such as building operations, better insulating materials
and prudent use of utilities. Such savings are produced through better building design and maximum control of utility
and HVAC systems.
5.3.2 ECONOMICS (1991)
a. The primary function of building insulation is to reduce the loss of energy from a surface operating at a temperature
other than ambient. The economic use of building insulation is to reduce overall operating cost. In determining the
most economic design for an insulating system, two or more insulating materials may be evaluated for least cost for a
given thermal performance.
b. In any railroad building or shop facility being investigated for retrofit and for any energy saving opportunities, it is
desirable to analyze the past utility bills as a basis against which projected savings in energy usage can be evaluated.
Utility data is also helpful in validating the method of calculating energy usage. If the calculations match closely the
actual energy usage, then projections of energy savings resulting from any proposed modifications can have a high
degree of reliability.
c. The growing complexity of mechanical and electrical building systems has made computer, microprocessor and
automated energy management systems (EMS) essential in more and more railway buildings and shop facilities. With
larger and more complex buildings today, the need for automatic centralized building control and optimized energy
management has increased.
d. As we enter the 1990’s and beyond, more elaborate building EMS systems approach one central control serving fire
suppression systems; fire alarms; supervising and controlling security systems; operating computer, data monitoring
and audio communications equipment; HVAC operation and control; and closed-circuit television and center command
systems.

SECTION 5.4 ADVANCES IN ENERGY COST SAVINGS FOR RAILWAY BUILDINGS

AND SHOP FACILITIES
5.4.1 UTILITY MONITORING AND REPORTING OPERATIONS (1991)
A well organized facility monitoring and reporting system allows the engineer to determine where energy is going, identifies
the larger users and decides which areas are likely to obtain the greater benefits from energy saving efforts.
5.4.2 OPTIMIZING ELECTRICAL DEMAND (1991)
Some railroad facilities use on-site power to reduce operating costs. This is accomplished through peak-shaving which calls
for the application of generator power to selected loads that are shed from the normal utility supply. This results in lower
demand for power from the utility by cutting power peaks during selected 15 minute or 30 minute intervals.
5.4.3 SMALL SCALE COGENERATIONAL SYSTEMS (1991)
a. “Small Scale” cogeneration units are defined as 15-500 KW’s. The key to this size system is to utilize both heat and
power. Power can be in the form of mechanical shaft power or, with the aid of a generator, electricity. Packaged
cogeneration systems may become a major energy industry, according to studies prepared for the Department of
Energy. These systems are most attractive in areas where high electricity rates exist, or have relatively low natural gas
prices.
b. Types of cogeneration systems available: 1

(1) Internal Combustion Engines.
(2) Organic Ranking Cycle.
(3) Stream Ranking Cycle.

3
5.4.4 BOILER OPTIMIZATION (1991)
a. There are a number of energy saving applications that can be implemented to improve most small boiler installations.
b. Improvements can be the installation of heat recovery equipment, turbulators, condensate recovery equipment, high
energy burners and furnace pressure controls.
4
5.4.5 MICROCOMPUTER APPLICATIONS (1991)
The microcomputer can help to manage energy costs in various ways:
a. Verification and analysis of utility billing.
b. Calculations of Btu’s from kwh, therms, pounds of steam, gallons of oil, etc.
c. Calculation of Energy utilization Index in Btu’s/Square Foot/Year.
d. Graphic analysis of utility billing.
e. Life Cycle Costing (LCC) of energy saving opportunities.
f. Building energy analyses.

g. Simulation studies.
SECTION 5.5 TYPES OF AUDITS
5.5.1 DEFINITION (1991)
The simplest definition for an energy audit is as follows: An energy audit serves the purpose of identifying where railway
buildings or shop facilities use energy and identifies energy saving opportunities.
5.5.2 COST/OPPORTUNITIES (1991)
There is a direct relationship to the cost of the audit (amount of data collected and analyzed) and the number of energy saving
opportunities to be found.
a. A first differentiation is made between cost of the audit which determines the type of audit to be used.
b. The second differentiation is made between the type of facility. For example, a building audit may emphasize the
railway office building envelope, lighting, HVAC requirements. On the other hand, an audit of a mechanical shop
facility may emphasize the process requirements (i.e. welding, grinding, sanding, steam cleaning, wheel dismounting,
etc.).
5.5.3 CATEGORIES (1991)
Generally, energy audits fall into three categories or types, namely, Walk-Through, Mini-Audit and Maxi-Audit.
5.5.3.1 Walk Through
This type of audit is the least costly, can be performed on the Division level and identifies preliminary energy savings (Section
5.9, Appendix A). A visual inspection of railway buildings or shop facilities is made to determine maintenance and operational
energy saving opportunities plus collection of information to determine the need for a more detailed energy audit.
5.5.3.2 Mini-Audit
This type of audit requires various tests and measurements to quantify energy usage and coinciding losses to determine the
economics for improvements.
5.5.3.3 Maxi-Audit
This type of audit goes one step beyond that of the mini-audit. It contains an evaluation of how much energy is used for each
function such as shop lighting, processes, etc. It also requires a model analysis, such as computer simulations, to determine the
energy use patterns and predictions on a year-round basis. This approach takes into account such variables as local weather
data.

SECTION 5.6 ORGANIZATION OF RAILROAD ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
5.6.1 AUDITOR QUALIFICATIONS (1991)
a. The auditor should have an engineering degree and be trained in the following areas:
(1) Heating, ventilating and air conditioning installation and design work;
(2) Building operations, including operation of the environmental systems;
(3) Design of the building systems which are to be modified;
(4) Be familiar with HVAC System balancing, testing and adjusting procedures.
b. The auditor should possess a working knowledge of the National Energy Conservation Act of 1978 and subsequent
amendments as it relates to energy auditing. He should be familiar with other provisions of the Act to include grants,
standards, loans, and energy efficiency labeling of industrial equipment.
5.6.2 RECORD COLLECTION (1991)
a. The first step in progressing through an audit program and applying energy conservation principles is to establish a
direction and decide where in your buildings or shop facilities to look for potential energy saving opportunities (ESOs).
This requires accurate records. The purpose of this reference is to introduce some record keeping techniques that will
apply to railway buildings and shop facilities. 1
b. Maintaining records of energy is essential to energy conservation. As an energy saving program evolves, the kinds of
records kept and the information they impart will become increasingly refined and specific. Information indicating
building or shopwide energy consumption is needed. The Accounting Department on most railroads will probably have
these figures or be able to collect them. If practicable, arrange for compilation of data from the past three years. This
will provide a useful basis on which to show building and shop facility trends in energy consumption.
3
c. Suggested forms for compiling initial records of energy use can be found in most energy reference books. From bills
paid for utilities, such as electricity, gas, and oil, one can find the quantities of each fuel or form of energy used.
Ultimately, what is needed is a summary of total building or shop energy use. To construct such a summary, one must
first convert all the energy quantities to a common unit. The Btu is the preferred choice.
d. Basically the primary assignment with this unit (Btu) is to find three to five major energy saving opportunities in the 4
railway offices or shops that demonstrate the need for, and the benefits of, an energy saving program. It is important to
understand that the objective in this survey is to identify the ESOs that offer the greatest potential for saving energy. At
this point, the auditor is not expected to be able to positively identify all energy saving opportunities. We are, however,
concerned instead with identifying those ESOs that we believe have the greatest potential and warrant further study.
e. Assisting in the search of ESOs, refer to the checklist in Section 5.10, Appendix B, categorized on the basis of end use
(i.e. boilers, compressed air systems) rather than energy source (oil, gas, electricity). This will enable us to focus on
one process or operation during the survey before moving to the next. This list of possible ESOs is not intended to be
complete but to serve as an incentive in searching for major Btu losses. National Bureau of Standards Handbook 115
(EPIC) also has a comparable checklist that may serve a similar purpose during an audit.

SECTION 5.7 AUDIT SURVEY INSTRUMENTATION
5.7.1 SCOPE (1991)
To complete an energy audit survey it is necessary to clarify energy usage and coinciding losses. To illustrate, various types of
instruments can aid in the energy audit survey.
5.7.2 MEASURING RAILWAY BUILDING AND FACILITY SHOP LOSSES (1991)
a. Infrared (IR) energy exists naturally and can be measured by remote heat-sensing equipment. Lightweight portable
infrared systems are available to help determine energy losses. In essence, the infrared scanning device is a diagnostic
tool which can be used to determine building or shop facility heat losses.
b. An energy scan of the building or shop facility can be made through an aerial survey using infrared equipment. Several
companies offer aerial scan services. Aerial scans can determine underground pipe leaks, hot gas discharges, pipeline
leaks, etc.
5.7.3 MEASURING ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS (1991)
The ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, power factor meter and footcandle meter are usually required to do an electrical survey.
5.7.3.1 Ammeters
a. To measure electrical currents, ammeters are used. Generally, for most audits, alternating currents are measured.
Ammeters used in audits are portable and are easily attached and removed.
b. Ammeters supply direct measurements of electrical current which are one of the parameters needed to calculate
electrical energy. The second parameter required to calculate energy is voltage, and this unit is measured by a
voltmeter.
5.7.3.2 Voltmeter
There are several types of electrical meters which read voltage or current. A voltmeter measures the difference in electrical
potential between two points in an electrical circuit.
5.7.3.3 Wattmeter
The portable wattmeter can be used to indicate by direct reading electrical energy in watts. It can also be calculated by
measuring voltage, current and the angle between them (power factor angle).
5.7.3.4 Footcandle Meters
Footcandle meters measure illumination in units of footcandles through a light-sensitive barrier layer of cells contained within
them. They are usually pocket size and portable and are meant to be used as field instruments to survey levels of illumination.
Footcandle meters differ from conventional photographic lightmeters in that they are color and cosine corrected.

5.7.4 TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS (1991)
a. Maximizing system performance, knowledge of the temperature of a fluid, surface, etc., is essential.
b. Temperature measuring instruments such as thermometers can be used in an energy audit. The type of thermometer to
be used is usually dictated by cost, durability, and application.
c. Air-conditioning, ventilation and hot-water service applications (temperature ranges 50°F to 250°F) require a
multipurpose portable battery-operated thermometer. Three separate probe devices are usually provided to measure
liquid, air or surface temperatures.
d. In the case of boiler and oven stacks (1000°F), a dial thermometer is required. Thermocouples are used for
measurements above 1000°F.
5.7.5 SURFACE PYROMETER (1991)
a. Surface pyrometers are instruments which measure the temperature of surfaces. They are somewhat more complex
than other temperature instruments because their probe must make intimate contact with the surface being measured.
b. Surface pyrometers help in assessing heat losses through walls and also for testing steam traps.
c. They are divided into two classes: low-temperature (up to 250°F) and high-temperature (up to 600-700°F). Low-
temperature units are usually part of multipurpose thermometer kits. High-temperature units are more specialized.
1
d. There are also noncontact pyrometers which measure infrared radiation from surfaces in terms of temperature. These
are suitable for general work and also for measuring surfaces which are visually but not physically accessible.
e. A more specialized instrument is the optical pyrometer. This is for high-temperature work (above 1500°F) because it
measures the temperature of bodies which are incandescent because of their temperature.
5.7.6 PSYCHROMETER (1991) 3
a. Psychrometers are instruments which measure relative humidity based on the relation of the dry-bulb temperature and
the wet-bulb temperature.
b. Relative humidity is of prime importance in HVAC and drying operations. Recording psychrometer instruments are
also available. 4
5.7.7 PORTABLE ELECTRONIC THERMOMETER (1991)
a. Portable electronic thermometers are adaptable temperature measurement tools. The battery-powered basic
thermometers, when housed in a carrying case, are suitable for industrial uses.
b. Pocket-size digital, battery-operated thermometers are convenient for spot checks or where a number of rapid
temperature readings are taken.

5.7.8 BOILER TEST KIT (1991)
a. Boiler test kits contain the following:
• CO2 Gas Analyzer.
• O2 Gas Analyzer.
• Inclined Monometer.
• CO Gas Analyzer.
b. The purpose of the components of the kit is to help evaluate fireside boiler operation. Good combustion usually means
high carbon dioxide (CO2), low oxygen (O2), and little or no track of carbon monoxide (CO).
(1) The Fyrite type gas analyzer differs from the Orsat apparatus in that it is more limited in application and less
accurate. The chief advantages of the Fyrite are that it is simple and easy to use and is inexpensive. This device is
used many times in an energy audit. Three readings using the Fyrite analyzer should be made and the results
averaged.
(2) The draft gage is used to measure pressure. It can be a pocket type, or the inclined monometer type with test kit.
(3) To measure combustion completeness the smoke detector is used. Smoke is unburned carbon which wastes fuel,
causes air pollution and fouls heat-exchanger surfaces. To use the instrument, a measured volume of flue gas is
drawn through filter paper with the probe. The smoke spot is compared visually with a standard scale and a
measure of smoke density is determined.
(4) The combustion electronic analyzer permits fast, close adjustments. The unit contains digital displays. A standard
sample assembly with probe allows for stack measurements through a single stack or breaching hole.
5.7.9 MEASURING HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC) (1991)
5.7.9.1 Air Velocity Measurement
a. Smoke pellets – Limited use and low cost.
b. Aneometer (deflecting vane) – good indication of air movement with acceptable order of accuracy.
c. Aneometer (revolving vane) – good indicator of air movement with acceptable accuracy.
d. Pitot tube – A standard air measurement device with good levels of accuracy.
e. Impact tube – usually packaged air flow meter kits, complete with various jets for testing ducts, grills, open areas, etc.
f. Heated thermocouple – these units are sensitive, accurate and expensive.

5.7.9.2 Temperature Measurement
The temperature devices most commonly used are as follows:
a. Glass thermometers – considered to be the most useful of temperature measuring instruments – accurate, convenient,
but fragile.
b. Resistance thermometers – considered to be very useful for A/C testing. Accuracy is good, reliable and convenient to
use.
c. Thermocouples – similar to resistance thermometers, but do not require battery power source.
d. Pressure bulb thermometers – more suitable for permanent installation. An accurate instrument.
e. Thermographs – used for recording room or space temperature and gives a chart indicating variances over a week’s
time. Considered reasonably accurate with low cost.
5.7.9.3 Pressure Measurement (Absolute and Differential)
Common devices used for measuring pressure in HVAC applications are as follows:
a. Draft gages – can be portable and used for either direct pressure or pressure differential.
b. Manometer – can be portable. Used for direct pressure reading and with pitot tubes for air flows.
1
c. Swing Vane gages – can be portable. Usually used for air flow.
d. Bourdon tube gages – very useful for measuring all forms of system fluid pressures from 5 psi up.
5.7.9.4 Humidity Measurement

3
Common devices used for humidity measurement are psychrometers. Basically these are wet and dry bulb thermometers. They
can be fixed on a portable stand or mounted in a frame with a handle for revolving in air. Costs are low and they are convenient
to use.
4
SECTION 5.8 JUSTIFICATION OF PROGRAM
5.8.1 LIFE-CYCLE COSTING (1991)
a. An important aspect of the audit program is to quantify the cost savings that are most likely to be realized through the
investment in an energy savings opportunity. To justify the energy investment cost, a knowledge of life-cycle costing is
required.
b. The life-cycle cost analysis evaluates the total owning and operating cost. It takes into account the “time value” of
money and can incorporate fuel cost escalation into economic modeling. This approach is used to evaluate competitive
systems. In other words, the life-cycle cost analysis considers the cost over the life of the system rather than just the
first or initial costs.
c. To compare energy savings, it is necessary to convert all cash flow for each measure to an equivalent base. The life-
cycle cost analysis takes into account the “time value” of money, thus a dollar in hand today is more valuable than one

received at some time in the future. This is why time value must be placed on all incoming and outgoing cash flows. To
convert cash from one time to another, any of the six commonly accepted standard interest factors can be used.
d. Interest factors can be determined from computer programs and interest tables.
e. Three most commonly used methods in life-cycle costing are the annual cost, present worth and rate-of-return analysis.
(1) In the present worth method a minimum rate of return (i) is stipulated. All future expenditures are converted to
present values using the interest factors. The alternative with lowest effective first cost will be most desirable.
(2) A similar procedure will be implemented in the annual cost method. The difference is that the first cost is
converted to an annual expenditure. The alternative with lowest effective annual cost is the most desirable.
(3) In the rate-of-return method, generally, a trial-and-error procedure is required. Interpolation from the interest
tables can determine what rate of return (i) will give an interest factor which will make the overall cash flow
balance. The rate-of-return analysis gives a good indication of the overall ranking of separate alternates.
(4) The effect of escalation in fuel costs can greatly impact the final decisions. When an annual cost grows at a steady
rate, it may be treated as a gradient and the Gradient Present Worth Factor can be used.
(5) When life-cycle costing is used to compare several alternatives the differences between costs are important. For
example, if one alternate forces additional preventative or recurring maintenance or an operating expense to occur,
then these factors as well as energy costs need to be considered. Remember, what was previously expended for the
item to be replaced is irrelevant. The only factor to be considered is whether the new cost can be justified based on
the projected savings over its useful life.
f. Simple payback analysis is sometimes used instead of the methods previously identified. The simple payback is
defined as initial investment divided by annualized savings after taxes. The simple payback method does not take into
account the effect of interest or escalation rate.
(1) Since the payback period is relatively simple to calculate and due to the fact railroads wish to recover their
investment as rapidly as possible the payback method is more commonly accepted.
(2) Simple payback should be used in conjunction with other decision making tools. When used by itself it may result
in choosing less profitable investments which yield high initial returns over shorter periods as compared with more
profitable investments which provide profits over longer periods of time.

SECTION 5.9 APPENDIX A
Table 6-5-1. Example Walkthrough Audit of a Railroad Office Building
Conducting an Effective Walk-Through Energy Audit

1. The Building Structure
2. The Electrical System
3. The Mechanical System
4. The Domestic Hot Water System
5. The Process Loads
Determining the Effect of Weather on your Building’s Energy Usage
1. Monthly Temperature
2. Heating Degree Hours
3. Cooling Degree Hours
4. Total Equivalent Temperature:
a. For Roofs
b. For Walls
c. Direct Solar and Diffused Sky Radiation for Single Common Glass
d. Monthly Extreme Temperature
1
e. Sky Cover
Collecting Data on your Building; its Construction, Occupancy Profile, Electrical,
Gas and Hot Water Usage
1. Building Description
2. Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer
3. Occupancy Load
3
4. Lighting Load
5. Electric Motor Load
6. Domestic Water Heating Load
7. Process Loads
8. Utility Usage 4
An Overview of Building Mechanical Systems
1. Energy Source
2. Energy Conversion Equipment
3. Mechanical Delivery System
Calculating Energy Usage
1. Climatological Data
2. Data Collection
3. Annual Energy Usage
Calculating Peak Energy Demand
Peak Demand
Identifying Retrofit and Energy–Saving Opportunities

SECTION 5.10 APPENDIX B
Table 6-5-2. Energy Savings Checklist

(Space Conditioning: Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning)
Temperature Level
1. Turn heat down to 65–85°F during the day, and 60°F at night and on weekends.
2. Use minimum heat in storehouses.
3. Turn heat down to 50°F in unused or uninhabitable areas.
4. Turn heat on later than usual each day.
5. Lower lunchroom temperature when not in use.
6. Use humidifiers to improve employee comfort at lower temperatures.
7. Use enthalpy controls or economizer cycle to recirculate inside air or use outside air, thus minimizing the cooling load in
air conditioned areas.
8. Shut down air conditioning at night and restart just before next startup.
9. Do not cool area lower than the maximum temperature required for its occupancy.
10. Install night setback controls on existing heating and cooling equipment.
Air Leakage
1. Reduce temperatures in highly ventilated areas.
2. Ensure that all outside doors are self-closing.
3. Keep doors to unheated or uncooled areas closed.
4. Close loading dock doors not in use.
5. Use dock curtains when unloading delivery trucks.
6. Use air curtains at doors that must remain open.
7. Eliminate unused roof openings or abandoned stacks.
8. Isolate areas requiring high ventilation rates.
9. Install revolving doors or vestibules at entrances.
10. Reduce ventilating air.
11. Repair loose, damaged, blocked, or collapsed ductwork.
HVAC Systems Considerations
1. Keep heaters and return-air grills clear of obstructions.
2. Redesign heating system for better control and more efficiency.
3. Pull drapes, blinds, or shades at sundown to cut heat loss.
4. Make maximum use of the sun for heating and lighting.
5. Rearrange office furniture so that desks and chairs are close to heating.
6. Consider infrared or other spot heaters in small areas where general heating can be reduced.
7. Partition or temporarily close off underutilized floor space.
8. Clean heating and cooling heat-exchange coils and fans regularly.
9. Reduce makeup air during the day.
10. Eliminate all makeup air at night.
11. Cycle ventilation equipment during the day.


(Space Conditioning: Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning) (Continued)
HVAC Systems Considerations (Continued)

12. Rearrange office furniture in drafty areas or install baffles to eliminate drafts.
13. Clean or replace air filters regularly.
14. Zone cooling equipment so that greater flexibility may be realized by turning off unneeded equipment.
15. Minimize space-conditioned areas by consolidating manufacturing operations.
16. Spot-heat and spot-cool only where work stations in an area are the only locations that need heating or cooling.
17. Reduce ceiling heights if possible.
18. Replace loose or worn belts.
Temperature Controls
1. Seal or install key-operated thermostats to prevent adjustment by unauthorized personnel.
2. Install clock thermostats or timers to control heating cycle.
3. Seal ventilation controls to prevent unauthorized adjustments.
4. Turn on ventilation later than usual each day.
5. Turn off cooling equipment before end of day’s operations.
6. Clean and maintain filters and controls to maintain peak efficiency of operation.
Heat Transfer – Excessive Gain or Loss 1
1. Inspect and repair insulation, weatherstripping, and caulking.
2. Install additional insulation, especially on ceilings and walls.
3. Investigate more or better pipe and duct insulation in unheated areas.
4. Cover windows with plastic sheet or film.
5. Install storm windows. 3
6. Cover all or a portion of windows with insulating materials and/or wall panels.
7. Install insulating glass in windows.
8. Cool buildings by the use of roof-mounted water spray systems.
9. Provide ventilation in built-up roof areas or flood flat roofs with water where practical.
10. Control solar gain and loss to reduce cooling and heating requirements. 4
11. Use heat-recovery methods on exhausts – waste heat, heat of light, heat-recovery wheels, heat pipes, and so on.
12. Install sunscreens to reduce sun load on glass exposures.
Personnel Factors
1. Prohibit use of individual space heaters without specific authorization.
2. Instruct employees to dress warmly in winter.
3. Relax dress codes where appropriate.
4. Prohibit or curtail smoking in areas where ventilation has been reduced.
5. Provide new smoking areas where there is adequate ventilation.


Lighting – How To Improve Lighting Efficiency

1. Clean walls and ceilings to improve reflectivity.
2. Repaint dark surfaces with paints having higher reflectances.
3. Replace light-transmitting plastics that have yellowed with glass or acrylic plastic.
4. Clean light fixtures regularly.
5. Replace nonventilated fixtures with ventilated ones.
6. Use air-return fixtures, which result in cooler lamps and more efficient. (In summary, this practice reduces air
conditioning load.)
7. Deenergize some light fixtures.
8. Remove lamps and ballasts where appropriate.
9. Use lower wattage lamps where appropriate.
10. Replace incandescent lamps with more efficient fluorescent, mercury vapor, or sodium-vapor lamps.
11. Reduce indoor mounting heights where lighting levels can be maintained and number of fixtures reduced.
12. Maximize the efficient use of energy through group lamp replacement and proper maintenance of lighting fixtures.
When to Save Lighting Energy
1. Turn off lights not in use. Install reminder plates that are available for switch plates.
2. Mark panels and switches so that guards can monitor lights.
3. Turn off parking-area lights after last shift.
4. Provide separate and convenient switches for areas that have different use patterns.
5. Install photoelectric controls on lights (decorative, sign, safety) that must remain on all night.
6. Where to Save Lighting Energy
7. Restrict parking to specific lots so lights can be kept off in unused lots.
8. Put timed shut off switches on lights in closed-off areas.
9. Reduce lighting in material storage areas except where required for production, safety, and security.
10. Reduce lighting levels in corridor.
11. Improve local lighting so that overall lighting can be reduced accordingly.
12. Remove desk lamps where overhead lighting systems are sufficient.
13. Rearrange office furniture so that desks and chairs are close to sunlight.
14. Make maximum use of the sun for heating (in winter) and for lighting by opening blinds or drapes on bright days.
15. Transfer lighting heat from the warm interior of a building to the cooler perimeter (in winter).
General Electrical – Equipment Suggestions
1. Deenergize excess transformer capacity whenever practical.
2. Clean transformer heat-exchanger surfaces.
3. Shift loads to maximize the use of transformer capacity.
4. Take unused transformers off line to reduce transformer losses.


General Electrical – Equipment Suggestions (Continued)
5. Investigate scheduling the use of power to reduce demand charge.

6. Reduce power demand by charging forklift batteries, heating water, making ice, etc., during the night (or other off-peak
hours).
7. Install demand-control devices where practical.
8. Use the most efficient equipment first; then use less efficient equipment, as needed, for peak manufacturing periods.
9. Use automatic controls so that production equipment operates only when needed.
10. Turn off production equipment when not in use.
11. Replace grossly oversized motors, since motors operate more efficiently near rated capacity and with a better power
factor.
12. Use motors with a high power factor.
13. Check power factor of equipment and install capacitors as close to the equipment as practical.
14. Check for blown fuses on existing capacitor banks.
15. Use synchronous motors where practical to increase power factor.
16. Adjust drive belts.
17. Reduce driveshaft lengths. 1
18. Check for loose connections on fuse buses, bus ducts, motors, and other electricity- distribution components to reduce
system losses.
19. Provide adequate wiring to reduce losses in electricity-distribution systems.
20. Maintain switch gear and wiring to reduce losses.
21. Bundle or twist open conductors (where they have good insulation) to reduce reactive losses.
22. Practice good maintenance.
3
Process Equipment Combustion
1. Check windbox pressure.
2. Check fuel pressure (for oil- or gas-fired units).
3. Check excess air for operating conditions, such that air supplied is sufficient for complete combustion but not in
excessive amounts (which would waste energy). 4
4. Maintain, repair, or replace inefficient burners.
Heat Loss through Structure
1. Check closure of furnace doors and other openings. On balanced-draft boilers, check for a draft of 0.1 in H2O in furnace,
thus keeping air leakage into furnace at a minimum.
2. On pressurized boilers, check for leakage of hot gases from furnace.
3. Repair furnace lining.
4. Inspect insulation for periodic maintenance.
5. Schedule work to reduce heatup and cooldown periods.
6. Reduce holding temperature during idle time.


Heat Recovery from Combustion Gases

1. Check temperature of flue gases dumped into the atmosphere.
2. Investigate the feasibility of using the hot flue gases to preheat the combustion air through a heat exchanger.
3. Investigate the feasibility of using energy in the hot flue gases to provide steam, hot water, or hot air for other office or
shop uses.
Process-Heat-Distribution Systems
1. Insulate steam, steam-condensate, and hot-water lines.
2. Repair leaks in lines, valves, and steam traps.
3. Shut off or remove unused lines.
4. Use plastic spheres on hot liquids in open-top tanks.
5. Determine efficient “hold” temperatures on process tanks for nights and over weekends.
6. Reduce temperature of processing fluids, where practical.
7. Eliminate heat treating if it is a marginal operation, and subcontract the work.
8. Meter consumption on a regular basis to identify unusual charges.
Energy Recovery from Heat-Rejection Processes
Check that cooling towers or evaporative coolers are not drawing air from railroad buildings or shop facilities during heating
season.
Exhausts over Vats, Tanks, Grinders, and Other Operations
1. Turn off process exhausts when operation is off.
2. Schedule work so process exhausts are used less.
3. Improve the efficiency of exhaust systems by redesigning hoods.
4. Substitute less toxic chemicals so that fewer air changes are required.
5. Transfer heat from exhaust air to makeup air, if practical.
6. Install covers over vats and tanks.
Compressed-Air Systems
1. Locate and repair all compressed-air. (An ultrasonic leak detector can be used.)
2. Operate at the lowest required air pressure.
3. Eliminate the use of compressed air for cooling equipment or personnel.
4. Survey air tools and spray equipment; upgrade to reduce usage of compressed air.
5. Study the feasibility of using heat from the aftercooler for supplementing the plant space heat.
Scheduling
1. Turn off machinery, test equipment, ovens, and the like when not in use.
2. Unplug soldering irons and other small tools whenever practical.
3. Use submetering to monitor power usage within certain areas of the office or shop.
4. Reschedule work to minimize use of motors and fans.


Water Heating
1. Reduce water use where possible.
2. Reduce hot-water thermostat setting to the lowest acceptable temperatures.
3. Size water heater and number of heating units to match hot-water requirements.
4. Place water heater close to point of use.
5. Insulate water heaters, storage tanks, and pipelines.
6. Use recoverable waste heat and tempering tanks to preheat water. (Waste hot water is a source of waste heat.)
7. Reduce power demand by heating and storing water at night, off peak, using automatic controls.
8. Eliminate hot-water circulation systems where possible.
9. Repair leaks in hot-water. Consider automatic-cutoff faucets.
10. Repair leaks in hot-water lines.
11. Separate hot-water systems from each other.
12. Clean and flush water heaters periodically.
General
1. Eliminate weekend overtime.
2. Limit overtime to specific nights. 1
3. Reschedule janitorial services for regular hours.
4. Appoint energy monitors in all office or shop areas.
5. Train security guards and night watchmen to recognize and report wasteful energy use.
6. Emphasize energy-consumption requirements in product components make-or-buy studies.
3


6
Part 6
Locomotive Sanding Facilities
— 2011 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-2

6.1.1 General (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-2
6.1.2 Engineered Safety Provisions (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-2
6.2 Sanding Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-3 1

6.2.1 Capacity (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-3
6.2.2 General Platform Layout (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-3
6.2.3 Storage (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-4
6.2.4 Unloading (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-5
6.2.5 Transfer From Storage to Servicing Tanks (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-5
3
6.3 System Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-6
6.3.1 Gravity Overhead Systems (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-6
6.3.2 Gantry Crane Systems (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-8
6.3.3 Pneumatic Conveying Systems (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-9
6.4 Sanding Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-12

6.4.1 Air Supply System (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-12
6.4.2 Air Dryers (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-14
6.4.3 Piping System (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-15
6.4.4 Sand Cocks (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-15
6.4.5 Nozzles (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-15
6.4.6 Electrical (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-16
6.4.7 Lighting (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-16
6.4.8 Automation and Instrumentation (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-16
6.5 Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-17

6.5.1 Waste Sand (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-17
6.5.2 Air Quality (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-17
6.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-18

6.6.1 Codes (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-18
6.6.2 Publications (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-19

LIST OF FIGURES
6-6-1 Typical Locomotive Sanding System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-19

6-6-2 Overhead Gravity Sand Tower System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-20
6-6-3 Gantry Crane Sanding System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-21
6-6-4 Dual Pneumatic Conveying Sand System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6-22
6.1.1 GENERAL (2011)
a. The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) requires that locomotives have sanders that deposit sand on each rail in
front of the first power operated wheel (49CFR229.131). Locomotive sand storage boxes are usually filled in the
locomotive service areas of a yard. Sand dispensing systems are often integrated with the fueling facility or diesel
repair facility. Many types of systems are available for storing and dispensing sand to the locomotive. Location and
capacity requirements for sanding facilities should be considered along with safety and environmental factors when
selecting or designing new or reconditioned sanding facilities.
b. In general, sand is received and stored, then transported to the dispensing point by gravity or pneumatic conveying
methods. Three types of systems available to accomplish this: 1) sanding tower, 2) gantry crane, and 3) pneumatic
conveying system. Combinations of these three systems are also possible.
c. The type of sand used will dictate, to a point, the type of sand facility to be installed. The type of sand used is specified
by the individual railroads, and usually depends on local availability. The designer should verify the type of sand used.
Recycled materials, including glass, as well as dust suppression chemicals may be in use, and the system must be
designed to accommodate them. Delivery time and availability are important and must be determined independently
for each yard.
d. Locomotive sand storage boxes vary in capacity. Sand boxes for freight locomotives range from 40 – 60 cubic feet.
Passenger and commuter locomotives range from 20 – 50 cubic feet. Switcher locomotives typically range from 10 –
30 cubic feet in capacity. The capacity required should be determined based on the type of equipment used at each
location.
6.1.2 ENGINEERED SAFETY PROVISIONS (2011)
a. Sand systems should be designed and built in accordance with all applicable workplace safety requirements as well as
any requirements of the owner that are more stringent than applicable codes.
b. General issues that should be considered in sanding system installations include fall protection, safe access, electrical
hazards, and platform slip, trip, and fall hazards.
c. Many sanding systems require the operator to climb on top of the locomotive sand tank for inspection and filling. In all
cases, the operator must climb onto the locomotive to inspect the level of sand in the sand tank. With some systems,
the operator must also climb onto the locomotive sand tank to connect the fill hose. This can be complicated by
adverse weather conditions.
d. Access to towers and silos should be provided with caged ladders equipped with a lockout device on the bottom of the
cage to prevent unauthorized access. Platforms on towers and silos should be framed of steel or aluminum with open

grating used for a slip-resistant walk surface. Platforms should include handrails that, as a minimum, comply with
OSHA requirements. On the tops of towers and silos where the installation of grating may be impractical, slip-
resistant coatings should be applied.
e. All systems should be designed with either integral fall protection or a platform with railing to access the locomotive
sand chambers.
f. Pits used to unload sand from rail cars or trucks present unique hazards. Designers should consider pits to be confined
spaces and accommodate them as such. Amenities that can minimize the hazard include adequately sized access
points. Pits should be watertight, but they should also include a generous drain to a grit chamber and industrial
wastewater treatment system. Pits inevitably fill with runoff from groundwater, storm water, wash water, or snowmelt.
Pits should also include adequate lighting with multiple fixtures as well as proper venting to minimize the buildup of
hazardous fumes.
SECTION 6.2 SANDING FACILITY
6.2.1 CAPACITY (2011)
a. The number of locomotives serviced per day, the amount of sand required for an average locomotive fill operation, and
historical data on the amounts of sand used, will help determine the amount of storage required as well as the capacity
of the distribution points. Locomotives in mountainous areas generally require more sand at servicing facilities. Some 1
yards only need to fill the lead locomotive sand box, while other facilities service all locomotives in a consist.
b. Other issues that can determine required capacity include delivery distance, cost, quantity of sand deliveries, lead time
for delivery after an order is placed, delivery methods (truck or railcar), and unload methods (mechanical, gravity,
pneumatic).
6.2.2 GENERAL PLATFORM LAYOUT (2011) 3
a. Knowledge of common consist arrangements in a yard can help determine the configuration and size of a system.
Multiple spot sanding systems should provide full coverage of all anticipated consist configurations without the need
to re-spot a consist.
b. If space is available, the sanding and fueling spots should be on the same track, but no closer than 50 feet. This 4
configuration allows operations to be performed quickly and in sequence without fouling one another.
c. Single sand tower installations can be located at one end of the service platform or on a separate track. If the tower is
located at the end of a service track, care should be taken to position the tower so that consists do not require re-
spotting for sand filling after receiving fuel and other services.
d. Gantry crane systems can be located along a service platform if space permits, or inside a locomotive servicing shop.
e. Pneumatic systems include distribution stations, which are generally arranged on the platform between other services
such as fueling, lube oil, and water. Distribution stations should be spaced out adequately to provide full coverage of
the sanding platform.
f. Storage silos can be located away from the distribution points if a conveyance method is in place to move the sand
from storage to distribution.

g. Storage silos should be located adjacent to the delivery track if sand is delivered by rail. If sand is delivered by truck,
access into and out of the silo area should be considered. Minimize the crossing of tracks by delivery trucks and avoid
fouling of track by the truck or operator during the unload process. Consider the truck turning radius when designing
access to the silo.
h. For railcar unloading, the unload track should be arranged to cause minimal interference with the movement of trains
and locomotives through the yard. It should be an independent track used only for that purpose.
6.2.3 STORAGE (2011)
a. The sand requirement at a location is an important factor affecting storage capacity. Availability of the material should
also be considered when determining storage capacity.
b. Condensation can be a potential problem when bulk dry sand is stored in large quantities where turnover is slow and
humidity is high. Under such conditions, the sand tends to take up moisture, resulting in an unsatisfactory condition
for flowing. Where sand turnover is frequent, absorption of moisture is not a serious problem. Consider installation of
a dry air purge system in humid climates.
c. For truck-fed gravity silo systems (delivered sand blown up to the silo in dilute phase by truck) the silo should have at
least two weeks of sand remaining when the sand order is placed. The silo should be larger than the volume of a
delivery truck (and trailer where appropriate) to allow space for delivery prior to depleting the sand supply in the tower.
Orders should be based on peak usage and delivery time. Silo capacity should include at least one week buffer time in
case complications arise with sand delivery.
d. Concrete or steel storage tanks render satisfactory service for dry sand.
e. The service tank at track side is generally constructed of steel and mounted on a steel column or is an integral part of
the sand storage silo, at a suitable elevation to permit loading sand into locomotive sand boxes by gravity through pipe
and hose connections. Capacities of 5 to 10 tons are satisfactory for these latter tanks, with the size determined by the
quantity of sand handled.
f. The tank should be equipped with approved signals to indicate when the tank is full and when the point of depletion is
approaching. Storage tanks should include level sensors to indicate full and empty states. Low alarm points should be
placed to allow ample time for sand delivery to the site. High alarm points should be placed to allow time for the fill
process to be shut down.
g. Equipment is available to transfer sand automatically from the dry storage tank to the overhead smaller servicing tank.
This eliminates the necessity to assign labor to keep sufficient sand in the servicing tank or to delay locomotive sanding
because of insufficient sand in the servicing tank. The importance of the operation should determine whether such a
refinement is justifiable.
h. Transfer from storage to service tanks is handled by installing the dry sand storage tank at an elevation sufficient to
permit the sand to discharge by gravity into an elevating tank for distribution to the servicing tanks. This operation can
be handled automatically, thus reducing labor costs.
i. Dry sand storage tanks can be fitted with dry air purge systems to maintain sand integrity, where appropriate. These
systems bleed dry air (to a dew point of -40°F) into the headspace of the tank to keep the moisture level down.
j. Storage tanks should contain manways and internal ladders for tank maintenance. Manways should be hinged and
provide access if sand begins to clump.
k. Below grade storage vaults and pits are not generally used for storage but rather for railcar unloading and placement of
transfer equipment.

l. Storage tanks should provide proper air venting during fill procedures, as well as air intake during sand discharge.
Tank airspace inbreathing and outbreathing should be considered during temperature changes.
m. The movement of sand from the storage silo may be impeded by common bulk material storage problems including
arching, bridging, clinging, and rat-holing. Storage tanks with cone bottoms and bottom discharge points could include
a means to get the sand flowing should any of these problems occur. Methods may include mechanical ramming
devices that impact the side of the tank, sonic devices, and air sweep or air infusion devices that inject air between the
tank sidewall and the stored material.
6.2.4 UNLOADING (2011)
a. Sand is delivered by truck or railcar. Verify the requirements of each location.
b. If air is used to elevate the dry sand, the elevated tank used in such an arrangement should be equipped with an
appropriately sized air release at its top to relieve the air as the tank fills with sand. Service tanks into which sand is
loaded by air should be equipped with approved dust arrestors to release the air and retain the dust within the tank.
c. Sand should not be unloaded in the open environment during wet weather.
d. Dilute phase conveyance systems are generally used by delivery trucks to blow sand into elevated storage tanks by
means of on-board blowers. Verify the maximum conveyance distance and height with local delivery companies.
Distance from the truck to the silo tower determines unload time. Unload time is crucial, because the delivery truck
and/or hose may foul a track during delivery. If neither track may be fouled for the delivery time, the fill pipe may be
routed to the outside of the sanding tracks. 1
e. Fill alarms must give the truck operator enough time to shut off the sand supply. If a control valve shuts off sand flow
to the tower, as opposed to the operator shutting off the sand supply, the operator must manually remove the sand
remaining in the delivery hose. Therefore, operators prefer alarms that notify the truck operator when the silo is nearly
full.
f. The availability of sand delivery trucks and distance to the source must be considered when determining whether sand 3
delivery trucks are the proper method of sand delivery and what volume of sand silo to specify.
6.2.5 TRANSFER FROM STORAGE TO SERVICING TANKS (2011)
6.2.5.1 General
a. Because sand is generally stored in a storage silo away from the dispensing tower or tank, a method must be employed
4
to transfer the sand from storage to the point of use.
b. If a sanding facility consists of a single gravity sand tower, direct fill lines can be used to transfer sand from the
vendor’s truck directly to the storage tank on the sand tower. A transporter can also be used to convey sand from
storage to a single gravity sand tower.
c. If a sanding facility consists of multiple gravity sand towers, a convenient method must be employed to fill the towers
with sand. Where space and geometry allow, direct fill lines can be used to transfer sand from the vendor’s truck
directly to the storage tank on each sand tower. More commonly, a storage silo and transporter are required to transfer
sand to each tower on the platform. The storage silo feeds by gravity into a pressurized transporter. Level controls in
the individual sand towers determine when the transporter should convey sand.
d. In gantry crane systems, the storage silo is generally placed near the platform so that the gantry crane can travel to the
storage silo. The gantry crane hopper receives sand from the storage silo by gravity. This necessitates storing the sand
at an elevation higher than the gantry crane.

6.2.5.2 Gravity Transfer
a. If gravity is used to transfer sand from storage to the distribution point, then the storage silo must be higher than the
receiving tank. Care should be taken to design the pipe that conveys the sand at a slope greater than the angle of repose
for the type of sand being used.
6.2.5.3 Pneumatic Transfer
a. Sand can be transferred from storage to distribution pneumatically. A common arrangement is a transfer or transport
tank (also known as a blow tank or sand pump) located underneath the storage silo. Sand enters the transport tank from
the silo by gravity. The transport tank is pressurized, and the sand is conveyed to the distribution point(s).
b. The nozzles for a simple transfer tank arrangement include a sand inlet, vent, pressurization and sand outlet. The inlet
and vent valves are opened and the outlet and pressurization valves are closed during filling. The valve positions are
reversed to transfer sand. A valve is usually not needed on the sand outlet because sand flow can be stopped by simply
isolating the pressure.
c. Due mainly to differences in sand flow velocities, dilute phase systems generate more wear on system components.
Dilute phase velocities range from 1,000 to 3,000 feet per minute and dense phase velocity is nearly 100 feet per
minute. Dilute phase systems are typically more complex, but dense phase flow can be difficult to control and is
susceptible to clogging. Dense phase flow typically requires higher pressure and may require varied pressure if
multiple receiving tanks and varying distances are used.
6.2.5.4 Mechanical Transfer
a. Mechanical means such as bucket elevators and conveyors can be used to elevate sand from lower storage points to
higher distribution or storage silos. Mechanical systems generally require more maintenance due to the movement of
parts.
SECTION 6.3 SYSTEM TYPES
6.3.1 GRAVITY OVERHEAD SYSTEMS (2011)
6.3.1.1 General
a. Gravity sand systems utilize gravity to transfer sand from an elevated distribution point to the locomotive sand box.
These include single spot towers located between two tracks, single spot towers that straddle a single track, systems
that employ multiple towers along a platform, and gantry crane type systems.
b. Height is the primary distinguishing attribute of gravity overhead systems. Care must be taken while maintaining
equipment on top of the towers. Hoists or winches may be located outside the handrail. In order to provide a safe
working environment for maintenance workers, thought should be given to mounting equipment outside the handrail
on retractable arms that can be rotated back inside the handrail for inspection and maintenance.
c. Gravity sand towers should be equipped with load arrest systems to prevent the uncontrolled descent of a dispensing
arm in case of a broken arm support. The load arrest system should be sized for the load of the arm plus any impact
load. Care should be taken to design the entire load arrest system for a similar capacity. This could include the
mounting brackets, load arrestor, and any additional cables or connections.

d. Occasionally moisture causes the sand in towers to clump, and maintenance personnel must climb the sand tower to
clear the blockage. This usually requires the personnel to climb 20 to 30 feet up the tower and break the sand loose
through an access port.
6.3.1.2 Sand Tower System
a. Sanding towers are a common method of filling locomotive sand tanks. Sand is delivered to the tower and fed to a
storage silo above and adjacent to the tracks. An arm is lowered, a valve opened, and sand flows by gravity down the
inclined arm to the locomotive tank. When the tank reaches the full level, the valve is closed and the arm retracted.
b. Single spot towers located between the tracks generally consist of a lower support constructed of rolled steel topped by
a storage tank constructed of rolled steel. Because the tower is located between the tracks, care must be taken to
minimize the exposure to the clearance envelope for each track. This results in a tall and relatively narrow storage
tank.
c. Single spot towers that straddle a single track generally consist of a structural steel support frame erected to hold a
large storage tank constructed of rolled steel. Because the tower straddles the track, the tank can be much wider and
shorter to achieve the same capacities provided by a tower located between the tracks. Care must be taken to minimize
the exposure to the clearance envelope for the track being served as well as any adjacent tracks.
6.3.1.3 Design Considerations
a. Gravity dispensing lines should be not less than 2½-inch pipe leading at an angle of 45 degrees from the overhead
servicing tank to the sanding platform. These pipes should not encroach on the clearance lines. These delivery pipes
are generally supported on posts above the platform or from the tower.
1
b. Valves should be placed in the gravity dispensing lines at the service tank connection so that sand can be shut off when
necessary to work on the delivery pipe, hose or nozzle. Suitable lines should be provided for reaching top sand boxes
on certain types of switcher locomotives.
c. The flow of the sand must be controlled to prevent spillage at the sand box where it is loaded. Various types of nozzles 3
are available. Care should be exercised to obtain a weatherproof unit. The size of the nozzle should be given
consideration to be sure it will fit into the sand box.
d. Swivel connections should be used at the transition from the fixed dispensing pipe extending from the storage tank to
the dispensing line that feeds the locomotive. The connection used is typically a swivel valve or bucket valve. These
valves allow the upper pipe to remain fixed while allowing the lower pipe to move both vertically and horizontally.
4
e. Directional changes of pipe should be accomplished with wye or tee connections to permit cleaning or rodding of the
line in case of stoppage.
f. Level controls should be included on the sand tower or storage tank. At a minimum, the levels to be monitored include
high level, low level, and low-low level. The most reliable controls are generally diaphragm switches energized by the
pressure of the sand or paddle switches that are raised or lowered by the changing sand level. At the location of the
level controls, deflector plates should be installed on the interior of the tank above the flanges to minimize the effect of
the sand overhead load on the controls themselves.
g. A cleanout hatch, generally 24 inches in diameter, should be located in the cone of the tank. This will allow the
removal of the entire tank of sand if it gets wet.
h. The swivel valve or bucket valve can be a susceptible point for moisture to infiltrate the tank. Consideration should be
given to shrouding the valve in a flexible impermeable boot that will prevent the introduction of moisture into the
valve.

i. A manway should be located on top of the storage tank to allow access to the interior of the tank for maintenance of
equipment and troubleshooting. The tank should be equipped with a fixed ladder on the inside shell of the tank directly
below the access point.
j. The fill pipe for the storage tank should be routed through the underside of the cone core and to the top of the storage
tank. At the underside of the top of the storage tank, a replaceable wear plate should be installed to minimize wear on
the tank.
k. Where the dispensing arms are raised and lowered, a yoke should be employed to limit the arms’ horizontal movement.
The yoke also serves to guide the arm back up into the final at-rest position.
l. The vertical position of the arm can be adjusted with cable winches, chain hoists, hydraulics, pneumatics, or counter
weights. Counterweights can be considered to aid in vertical placement of arms however hydraulics and pneumatics
provide maximum control over the arms’ movements. Hydraulics and pneumatics provide maximum control over the
arms’ movements but can be expensive and require more maintenance. The most common method to raise and lower
arms is the use of cable wire winches or chain hoists. Where chain hoists are used, a receptacle should be included to
accept the chain as the arm is retracted. The receptacle will prevent the retracted chain from being blown by the wind
and becoming entangled with or damaging other equipment. The receptacle should have a perforated bottom that is
strong enough to hold the chain but also to allow rain or snow to drain out.
m. The horizontal position of the arms is generally adjusted manually by the operator on the locomotive. Hydraulic and
pneumatic systems are available to adjust the arms horizontally.
6.3.2 GANTRY CRANE SYSTEMS (2011)
6.3.2.1 General
a. Power supply is an area of concern for gantry crane systems. Inside a shop or covered service area, the gantry rides on
an overhead rail and is powered using bridge conductors routed along the crane runway. Outdoor gantry systems that
travel on a rail installed at grade are powered by a cable mounted on a retractable cable drum. Care should be taken to
not run over the cable when relocating the gantry.
b. Gantry crane sand system operators must be aware of the activities in the shop or on the floor below them. Designers
should consider the inclusion of a gantry movement warning system that would consist of an enunciator and light to
warn shop or platform employees of the potential hazard.
c. Sand gantries can consist of freestanding structures that traverse a set of rails embedded in a platform or floor. More
commonly, a superstructure is constructed along the length of the shop or servicing platform. A set of crane rails is
installed on top of the superstructure and the sand gantry traverses this rail.
d. Sand is delivered to a bulk storage silo that may be some distance from the track(s) where the locomotive sanding is to
take place. Sand is delivered to the storage silo mechanically or pneumatically. When the storage silo has sufficient
sand available, it is pneumatically conveyed from the base of the storage silo to a surge hopper located above the
gantry system at one end of the track. Sand from the surge hopper is fed by gravity to a transfer hopper on the gantry
system. An operator monitors and controls operations from a control station on the overhead system.
e. When the transfer hopper on the gantry is full from the surge hopper, the operator moves the unit to a position above a
fill hatch. The gantry system has movement in the longitudinal and transverse axes, which allows the operator to
position the fill spout above any of the sand boxes on a locomotive. The hatch is opened and the fill hose is inserted.
The fill valve opens and the hopper fills. When the hopper is full, the fill hose is retracted and the gantry moved to the
next location.

a. The connection between the surge hopper and the transfer hopper should be as waterproof as possible. If rainwater and
snowmelt infiltrate the transfer hopper, it can cause the sand to clump and clog.
6.3.3 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS (2011)
6.3.3.1 General
a. Pneumatic systems use compressed air to transfer sand from storage to distribution and then to the locomotive sand
box. Compared to gravity flow systems, pneumatic sand conveying systems introduce increased system pressures,
potentially higher sand velocities from dispensing systems, increased wear on system components, periodic venting,
and modified dispensing equipment.
b. Common arrangements include a storage silo with a transport tank below it, multiple distribution stations along the
service platform, and sand dispensing wands. Compressed air and a venting system are also required.
c. Sand is initially stored in an elevated sand storage silo directly above a transfer tank. When the transfer tank is empty,
the valve between the silo and the transfer tank opens. The vent line valve also opens, and the transfer tank is allowed
to vent while sand is gravity fed to the transfer tank. The transfer tank is at atmospheric pressure during the fill
process. The silo is allowed to vent through a filter located directly on top of the silo or is hard piped to the venting
system.
d. When the transfer tank is full, the valve between the silo and transfer tank closes. The transfer tank is then pressurized. 1
The material being conveyed is extruded from the bottom of the tank into the conveying line. Some transfer tank
systems add supplemental air at the exit of the transfer tank to break the extrusion into discrete plugs or pistons. The
conveying mode in these systems is known as pulsed-piston or plug flow.
e. Sand is conveyed to distribution tanks located on the service platform. Single- or multiple-tank arrangements can be
used. When the distribution tank is full, it is isolated from the system and pressurized.
3
f. Sand is dispensed from the distribution tanks to the locomotive sand box through a hose and sand fill wand. The
operator lifts the wand into position and places the end of the wand into the sand fill nozzle. A valve at the base of the
wand is opened and sand is dispensed into the sand box.
g. In some systems, sand is stored in a silo and then conveyed by a transfer tank to other smaller dispensing silos located
along the service track. Each dispensing silo is equipped with a filter vent and a proprietary transfer tank beneath.
Sand is conveyed from the transfer tanks to the locomotive sand boxes. Multiple dispensing silos, transfer tanks, and 4
filters may drive up capital and maintenance costs.
h. Venting air from the storage silo, transfer tank, and distribution tanks is generally piped to a bag house.
i. Boosters are commonly used to inject air into the conveying line at regular intervals to help move the sand along.
j. Safety considerations related to pressure are similar to other industrial processes and include noise, system leakage or
failure, and isolation during maintenance.
k. The amount and source of pressure required for a pneumatic conveying system depends upon the type and phase of
sand flow: dilute, plug, or dense phase. Generally, pressure requirements range from 10 psig for disbursed phase up to
150 psig for long-range dense phase flow. Pipe runs in long-range systems typically do not exceed 1000 feet.

l. Sources of noise in pressurized systems include air compressor and air drier mechanical noise, air flow associated with
high velocities, possible vibrations or harmonics, venting operations, and leaks. Hearing protection notices should be
posted near such sources.
m. Due to the inherent abrasion associated with sand flow, wear of internal components may be exacerbated. Aggressive
system inspection and maintenance is warranted. Thicker pipe walls (schedule 80 or greater) can minimize wear.
System design should include manual valves to isolate maintenance areas from pressurized parts of the system. The
process should be designed to allow for periods of complete depressurization while minimizing the impact on
dispensing schedules.
n. Dispensing and venting cycles typically release dust that must be captured and collected. If the dispensing method
requires close monitoring by the operator, respiratory protective equipment should be considered. Increased dispensing
velocities can increase the amount of dust generated at the end of the nozzle.
o. Dispensing equipment such as nozzles and hoses are handled differently than in gravity systems. Wands, nozzles and
hoses are usually filled with sand, and lift-assisting devices such as pulleys, booms or balancers should be considered.
6.3.3.2 Types of Flow
a. Pneumatic transfer systems use pressure as the motive force to move sand from one tank to another. The mode of sand
flow can be characterized by defining sand phases as dilute, dense or intermediate. In the dilute phase, sand grains
behave independently of each other and are dispersed in air. In the dense phase, sand grains are relatively compact and
remain in contact with and experience little motion relative to each other. In the intermediate phase, grains remain
mostly in contact but relative flow between grains exists. The mode of flow is determined by the amount of motive
pressure applied in the transfer tank and the point of application of the pressurized air.
b. In a typical dilute phase system, pressure is applied on the transfer tank and air is injected into the outlet nozzle of the
tank. The required transfer tank pressure is that which will cause flow into the outlet nozzle. Once in the outlet nozzle,
the sand becomes entrained by the air injected into the nozzle. The sand travels in dilute phase at a relatively high
velocity in the transfer piping. The required injection pressure needs to generate a sufficiently high velocity in the
transfer piping to keep the sand entrained.
c. In a typical dense phase system, the transfer tank pressure provides the sole motive force to push the sand through the
transfer piping. Sand is essentially extruded through the transfer tank outlet nozzle and a dense phase is maintained.
The required transfer tank pressure needs to overcome the friction of the sand against the pipe walls. In dense phase
flow, the air flow rate is roughly proportional to the sand flow rate.
d. To reduce friction, air can be cyclically pulsed into the sand to create shorter plugs of sand. The pressurized air gap
between each plug generated by the pulse provides motive force to the upstream plug.
e. Intermediate phase flow is caused by conditions that allow sand to settle along the bottom of the transfer piping while
air flows at a higher velocity above the sand. The air interacts with the surface of the settled sand to create a rippled
flow. This condition can be developed using air velocities below that required for dilute phase so that sand settles. It
can also be developed near the downstream end of a dense phase system as the motive air expands into the vented
receiving tank.
a. Elevating tanks should be of the approved unfired pressure type with suitable valves for admitting sand and air. The
tank should be fitted with a relief cock to release pressure after the elevating operation when the sand handling is
controlled manually.

b. All pressure tanks, including transport tanks and distribution tanks, should be designed and fabricated in accordance
with ASME Section VIII, Pressure Vessels. All pressure tanks should include appropriate overpressure relief and
protection.
c. If transport tanks contain internal pipe, consider a flanged connection inside the tank for easier replacement of worn
internal piping.
d. Consider using oversized threaded connections at points where valves connect sand wand hoses to the distribution
tanks. Small valves require replacement as they wear out. If oversized connections are used, the reducing bushing will
wear out before the tank fitting. It is generally easier to replace the bushing than to repair the tank.
e. Where necessary to use sand shutoff cocks in an elevating line to change the flow of sand from one servicing tank to
another, cocks that are rugged in design and material should be selected to prevent rapid wear by the sand.
f. Items to consider when selecting valve operators include personnel needs, level of desired automation, durability in an
abrasive environment, cycle times, and the availability of power or compressed air for automated valves. Manual
valves are adequate for small, non-complex systems. As complexity increases, automation can improve efficiency.
g. Evaluate actuator size or bulkiness to ease overhead installation and maintenance in areas with interfering piping and
equipment. Select valve and actuator combinations that minimize the intrusion of sand and dust into moving parts.
h. Do not tie pneumatic operator supply lines into the distribution tank air supply lines. The pressure fluctuations in the
system will cause valve operator drift and can lead to failure.
i. To reduce wear on system components, the minimum air pressure that can be used to move sand is desirable.
1
Therefore, it is desirable to place an air-reducing valve in the air supply line. Selection of the operating pressure for a
sand transfer or distribution tank should be based primarily on producing the optimum sand flow rate.
j. Dry sand can be moved through 2-1/2-in pipe for horizontal distances up to 300 feet at 70 lb air pressure. Sand can be
transferred several hundred feet in 2-1/2-in pipe using transfer tank pressures between 50 and 100 psi.
3
k. Sand dispensing rates from distribution tanks should support the shortest on-station time for a consist with nearly
empty sanding bins. Thirty minutes is a typical time for a rapid turnaround of locomotive servicing. In this case, each
bin would need to be filled at a rate of approximately 1.5 cfm of sand. If one dispensing hose cannot provide this flow,
the platform should be arranged so that multiple hoses can reach one bin. Equipment handling should not inhibit the
efficient filling of bins.
l. Sand transfer rates to distribution tanks should support the successive arrival of consists onto a service platform. 4
m. In dilute phase systems, pressures are generally less than 30 psi. In dense phase systems, pressures range from 25 to
more than 100 psi. System design should allow for a range of possible pressure control set points so that field
calibration can be used.
n. Depending upon dispensing hose configuration at the distribution tank, a small pressure increase can significantly
increase flow due to the transition from restricted dense phase flow to intermediate phase flow. Further moderate
increases in pressure can cause a transition to dilute phase, generating significant air flow from the hose and causing
handling problems. Thus, a narrow range of operating pressures can occur.
o. The pressurized air supply to a transfer or distribution tank can be controlled based on pressure or volumetric flow rate.
Constant-value control (i.e., constant pressure or flow) is usually applied. Variable pressure or flow control is
uncommon.

p. Constant pressure control should be applied to tanks from which the discharge configuration is constant. For example,
a distribution tank with multiple, identical distribution hoses would produce a nearly constant sand flow rate for a
given pressure regardless of the number of hoses being used at one time.
q. Pressure can be controlled manually using a globe or other type of manual valve, a pressure regulating valve, or an
automatic valve that responds to a pressure switch or pressure gauge.
r. A critical flow orifice can be used to create constant flow. For a given inlet pressure and orifice diameter, there is an
associated outlet pressure below which flow is constant. This type of control should be considered where the discharge
configuration varies, such as a transfer tank that provides sand to distribution tanks at different distances. The closer
tank would require less pressure than the more distant tank. The critical flow orifice would allow for increased pressure
to generate the same air and sand flow rate.
s. Distribution tanks and sand silos should contain level instruments. The type depends on the level of system
automation. Paddle-wheel and tuning-fork bulk material sensors are generally used.
SECTION 6.4 SANDING COMPONENTS
6.4.1 AIR SUPPLY SYSTEM (2011)
6.4.1.1 Air Requirements
a. Dry Air Bleed System: Dry air (to a dewpoint of –40°F) can be continuously bled into sand storage tanks and gravity
silos at a rate of 1-2 CFM as appropriate. This should keep the headspace in the tank dry preventing condensation on
the inside walls of the tank which leads to clumping.
b. Bag House Air: Bag houses for sand towers can be the “rapper” (mechanical shaker) or reverse pulse jet type. The
reverse pulse jet cleans the bags better than the rapper type but requires air to clear the bags. Air used for bag houses
should also be dry air.
6.4.1.2 Air Pressure
a. The minimum air pressure that can be used to move sand is desirable, as lower pressures materially reduce the wear in
the pipe. Therefore, it is desirable to place an air reducing valve in the air supply line and cut the pressure to the
minimum required to move the sand.
b. Dry sand can be moved through 2-1/2 inches pipe for horizontal distances up to 300 feet at 70 lb air pressure.
6.4.1.3 Compressor Systems
a. Several components of a compressed air system are critical to a properly functioning system. These include the
compressor, intercooler, aftercooler, moisture separator, filters, receivers, and air dryer. The air compressors and their
critical components are available in multiple configurations, including lubricated or oil-free, single-stage or multi-
stage, and air-cooled or water-cooled.
b. Lubricated systems allow traces of lubricant to enter the air stream, as it is present in the compression chamber. An air-
oil separator should be included on these units to minimize the oil carryover in the air stream. Oil-free systems should
be used when the system cannot tolerate lubricant, as the lubricant is isolated from the compression chamber and is
used primarily for bearing lubrication.

c. Single-stage units consisting of one compressing element or multiple compressing elements acting in parallel are best
suited for pressures of 60 psi or less and airflow below 300 CFM. Large compression ratios in single-stage units may
result in excessive discharge temperatures that result in power loss and decreased compressor efficiency. These losses
may be reduced or eliminated using a multi-stage unit, which consists of two or more compressing elements working in
series, as the discharge air is cooled by an intercooler between the compression stages. Multi-stage units are more
desirable when pressures and flows exceed 100 psi and 300 CFM.
d. Air-cooled compressors and oil coolers require ventilation air for proper operation. Water-cooled compressors require
water of an adequate quantity and pressure.
e. Reciprocating air compressors are positive-displacement compressors capable of delivering up to approximately 6,000
CFM. Reciprocating units are appropriate for base load or partial load applications.
f. Rotary air compressors are positive-displacement compressors well suited for high-pressure applications, typically
125-250 psi. Several types of rotary compressors are available, with the most common being the oil-lubricated helical
screw. This type of compressor may deliver up to 3,000 CFM, and uses air- or water-cooled oil coolers. The oil-free
helical screw may deliver up to 12,000 CFM and is air- or water-cooled. The last type of rotary compressor is the oil-
free rotary lobe, which is available up to 500 CFM and is also air- or water-cooled. Rotary compressors are best suited
for continuous duty applications.
g. Centrifugal air compressors are dynamic compressors that use a rotating impeller to increase the air pressure. They can
deliver very high volumes of air at relatively low pressures up to approximately 125 psi, are water-cooled and oil-free,
as the running gear lubrication is sealed off from the air stream. Centrifugal compressors should be used for
continuous duty applications.
1
h. The cooling system is essential to proper system operation. Compressor oil removes some heat, even more in
lubricated compressors because the oil is in the compression chamber. Multi-stage air compressors are equipped with
intercoolers to reduce the discharge air temperature between stages of compression. Compressor systems typically
include an aftercooler and moisture separator. The aftercooler can be air- or water-cooled. The aftercooler lowers the
compressed air temperature to within approximately 20°F of the ambient temperature, condensing the water vapor in
the air into liquid. A solenoid-operated moisture separator, composed of a tank and water trap, should be installed with 3
the aftercooler to remove this condensate.
i. Air quality is important to compressor performance as well as downstream components. Particulates can be abrasive
to working parts, resulting in wear on the compressor, and ultimately poor system performance. Intake filters are
required to prevent these abrasives from entering the compressor. They should be sized to adequately handle the inlet
CFM of the compressor. Dry filters with a minimum removal efficiency of 99 percent for particles 10 microns and
larger are usually used for reciprocating and rotary compressors. Two-stage dry filters that provide 99 percent removal 4
efficiency for particles larger than 0.3 microns can be used for centrifugal compressors.
j. Moisture and oil carryover can be detrimental to the downstream components, especially the air dryer. A coalescing
filter should be used prior to the air dryer to prevent these particles from entering. Coalescing filters have efficiencies
ranging from 99.98 percent at 0.1-micron particle size to 99.9999 percent at 0.01 micron. The maximum pressure drop
is normally around 10 psi, with a maximum wetted pressure drop of 3 to 3.5 psi. Service life for these filters is 6 to 12
months and up to 5 years for high-performance filters. Coalescing filters should have a high-quality automatic
condensate drain.
k. Particulates from the air dryer may be added to the air stream during the air drying process. Thus, a particulate filter
should be installed downstream of the air dryer. Particulate filters have a nominal efficiency of 99.95 percent at 1-
micron particle size and an initial pressure drop of 1 psi. They should have a differential pressure indicator to evaluate
the condition of the filter element.
l. A properly sized air receiver should be installed downstream of the compressor if the compressor does not run
continuously or has constant blow off. The air receiver helps stabilize system pressure, separates moisture and oil

carryover, and stores pressurized air in high-demand systems, preventing frequent loading and unloading of the
compressor. For compressors using standard induction-duty motors, the air receiver should be sized to prevent the
compressor from cycling too often. Compressor manufacturers typically recommend limiting the compressor from
cycling more than seven times per hour to prevent the induction motor from burning out. The receiver should be
provided with an automatic condensate drain.
m. All compressor systems should be protected against high temperatures, freezing temperatures, high pressure, low oil
pressure, and excessive vibration. Protection against these events should be provided by alarms, automatic unloading,
automatic start/shutdown, and a manual reset.
6.4.1.4 Compressor Building Considerations
a. Adequate ventilation should be provided to rooms housing air compressors and air dryers to prevent room temperatures
from exceeding 105°F, as well as to accommodate the air compressor load.
b. Outside air intakes should be located at least 6 feet above the ground to prevent intake of outside contaminants.
Ideally, exhaust ducts should be located from the exhaust fans above or in the vicinity of the major heat sources in the
building, including the air compressor, to directly remove the heat from the room. Air from the air-cooled aftercooler
may also be directly ducted from the building to remove compressor heat during summertime applications. During the
winter, the heat from the aftercooler may be used to provide space heating. This may be accomplished by locating a
control damper in the exhaust duct that will open to the room when the temperature is low.
6.4.2 AIR DRYERS (2011)
a. Air leaving the compressor is saturated with water, and any further drop in temperature causes the water vapor in the
air to condense. Air dryers are used to remove the majority of moisture left in the air stream, thus reducing the
dewpoint temperature of the air. Air dryers are rated based on pressure dewpoint performance for standard conditions,
which typically include inlet air flow, 100°F inlet temperature, 100 psi operating pressure, 100°F maximum ambient
temperature for air-cooled units, 85°F cooling water temperature for water-cooled units, and 5 psi maximum pressure
drop. Dryer sizing should be adjusted for deviations from the standard rating conditions. Refrigerated and desiccant
are the two main types of air dryers most often used in compressed air systems.
b. Refrigerated air dryers are condensation types that use a refrigeration process to produce dewpoint temperatures in the
range of 33 to 39°F. Refrigerated air dryers cannot produce dewpoint temperatures below 33°F because the condensed
moisture could freeze on the coils. Thus, they are better served where the entire air system is located within a warm
environment. Refrigerated dryers are available as direct expansion (non-cycling) and cycling.
c. The refrigeration compressor runs continuously on a direct expansion dryer, regardless of the load on the dryer, and
should be used only for constant airflow applications.
d. Cycling dryers use an intermediate fluid to cool the air, which is in turn cooled by the refrigerant. The refrigeration
compressor shuts down until the fluid temperature reaches a temperature requiring cooling. Cycling dryers are ideal
for systems with varying airflow and temperature.
e. Desiccant dryers are adsorption-type dryers that use desiccant materials, typically silica gel or activated alumina, to
absorb the moisture in the air until they are saturated, after which the material is regenerated by purging with dry air or
adding heat. Desiccant dryers typically have two vessels filled with the desiccant material, one operating in the air
drying mode and the other undergoing regeneration. Desiccant dryers can produce dewpoint temperatures down to -
40°F, or may extend to -100°F when silica gel is combined with activated alumina desiccant material, making such
systems ideal in cold weather environments.

f. Heatless desiccant dryers use purge air to regenerate the desiccant material. They provide consistent pressure
dewpoints while minimizing maintenance and maximizing desiccant life. However, the use of purge air requires the
compressor to deliver excess flow, as much as 15% of the inlet flow.
g. When the compressor cannot supply this excess flow, a heated dryer should be used. Heated desiccant dryers types
available include internally heated, externally heated, blower purge, and heat of compression. Internally and externally
heated dryers use a heater and low-rate purge to regenerate the desiccant. The blower purge system uses a heater and
small blower rather than the compressed air for desiccant regeneration. In a heat-of-compression process, the hot
compressed air is used for regeneration; this process is ideal for oil-free systems.
6.4.3 PIPING SYSTEM (2011)
a. A slide gate valve is generally used between the sand silo and transport tank. The valve can include an automated
operator.
b. Valves and pipelines in pneumatic systems conveying sand are generally 2½ inches in diameter. Pipe is generally
schedule 80, ASTM A53, seamless.
c. Rubber-lined pinch valves should be used at distribution tank isolation points for both the vent line and the fill line.
Use of quarter-turn valves such as ball valves and plug valves should be discouraged regardless of materials of
construction, as the high wear characteristics of the sand can cause high valve failure rates.
d. Sand handled under air pressure is abrasive to the pipe carrier. For such lines, flanged pipe is preferable. The pipe
ends should butt at connections so that absolutely no space exists between them that could permit cutting action to 1
begin and wear down the pipe to a point where it enters the fitting.
e. At points in the line where sharp bends are necessary, either a heavy tee or a wye connection should be used with a
blind flange fastened to the dead end of the fitting. This forms a pocket that fills with sand for deflection purposes. It
has been determined that where the direction of flow is changed, the ricochet of sand just beyond the fitting causes
greater wear there than elsewhere in the pipe. It is good practice to introduce a flanged replacement pipe section not
less than 18 inches long immediately beyond the tee or wye fittings. All pipes should be installed to allow access for 3
replacement.
f. Certain conditions may require placing a section of elevating pipe to offset some obstacle, or space may permit a long-
radius curve in the change of direction. Specially manufactured hose is available for such locations, and in some
installations such hose has outlasted pipe. If such material is used, the life of the hose will be extended if it is rotated a
quarter turn at regular intervals.
4
g. All pressure components of a system, including tanks and piping, should contain appropriately ranged pressure
indicators. Pressure drops in tanks may indicate a leaking valve. Pressure increases in the system may indicate a
system blockage.
6.4.4 SAND COCKS (2011)
a. Where necessary to use sand shutoff cocks in an elevating line to change the flow of sand from one servicing tank to
another, care should be exercised in selecting a suitable cock, as these units will quickly be worn by the sand if they are
not rugged enough in design and material.
6.4.5 NOZZLES (2011)
a. Control of flow of sand is desirable to avoid spillage at the sand box where it is loaded. Various types of nozzles are
available. Care should be exercised to obtain a weather proof unit. The size of the nozzle should be given consideration
to be sure it will fit into the sand box.

b. Sand wands are generally constructed of aluminum because it is lighter than steel and has good wear characteristics.
c. A tool balancer can be used to help lift and store the sand wand and hose assembly.
a. All equipment and materials and the design, construction, installation, and application thereof shall comply with all
applicable provisions of the National Electrical Code (NEC), the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), and any
applicable Federal, state, and local ordinances, rules and regulations.
b. Electrical instruments and sensors shall be connected to 24VDC or 120 VAC as required by instrument type.
c. Normal convenience outlets should use 120 VAC.
d. Panel boards shall supply 120 VAC or 480 VAC depending on the loads served.
e. Control cabinets where no 480 VAC is required shall at a minimum be fed from a 120 VAC panel board with the
capability to provide 120 VAC and/or 24 VDC to instrumentation.
6.4.7 LIGHTING (2011)
a. Suitable lighting should be provided at the sanding platform if night servicing is required.
b. A minimum of 40 foot-candles is required for nighttime work.
c. General lighting requirements should include enclosures complete with gaskets to form weatherproof assembly, and
low temperature ballasts, with reliable starting to 0°F.
6.4.8 AUTOMATION AND INSTRUMENTATION (2011)
a. Simple, compact manual systems can be controlled and operated with pressure gauges and manually operated valves.
Compact systems allow the operator to remain in the vicinity of all components to observe and control with little or no
automation.
b. Where operators need to monitor or control remote system components, limited automation should be considered.
Remote reading gauges and automatic valves with pushbuttons can assist a limited operating crew. Programmable
logic controllers (PLC) may not be necessary, and conventional relay and contact control should suffice.
c. As systems become more complex and cover more facility area, a PLC can improve efficiency. Because sanding
system operation and control is based on discrete inputs, PLC complexity is based on the absolute number of inputs
and outputs. A multiple distribution tank pneumatic system can have an I/O count of more than one hundred.
d. Instrumentation and control necessary to support complex sanding systems can include timing devices, valve position
feedback, level detectors, pressure transmitters and gauges, pressure switches, dew point indicators, and compressed
air system monitoring.
e. Pressure transmitters and pressure monitoring at multiple locations within the system should be strongly considered.
Pressure is a good overall indication of system performance. High pressures may indicate system clogging, and low
pressure may reveal rat-holing or an empty tank with a malfunctioning low-level switch. Because system pressure set
points may need adjustment or calibration during initial startup, continuously variable pressure signal input to a PLC
will allow for programming set points. Otherwise, manual adjustment of pressure switches would be required.

SECTION 6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
6.5.1 WASTE SAND (2011)
a. Sand spillage is associated with all sanding systems, especially around sand towers, sand unload points, and sand
dispensing points. Facility design should incorporate ways to minimize the amount of sand spilled. Old equipment
that is prone to leakage should be replaced.
b. Waste sand can damage or impede the performance of storm water and industrial wastewater systems; consequently,
large amounts of sand should not enter any of these systems. An adequately sized grit chamber should be installed on
industrial wastewater lines at the platform.
c. Large amounts of spilled sand should be removed either by shovel or machine. Sand should not be washed down
platform drains. Sand should be cleaned up promptly to avoid slip and fall hazards.
6.5.2 AIR QUALITY (2011)
6.5.2.1 General
a. Many air pollution agencies require permits for equipment with the potential to emit particulate matter. Potential
sources of particulate matter at a sanding facility are tank venting points, system venting points such as bag houses, and
the locomotive sand box fill point.
b. Typically it is necessary to contact only the local agency to determine whether a permit is required. Air quality 1
regulations typically exempt certain equipment or conditions from permit requirements. Before contacting the agency,
it is important to estimate the amount of particulate matter that may be released from the sources.
6.5.2.2 Tank/Silo Venting
a. Tanks should never vent directly to atmosphere.

3
b. Tanks can be connected to the system vent piping. Care should be taken to accurately account for system backpressure
on the vent piping and/or the tank venting device.
c. Tanks can utilize individual vent filters or bag houses. The air is filtered as it leaves the tank. Filters and bin vents are
generally located on top of the tank or bin. Filtering devices on each tank cause less waste, but they can be more
expensive and require more maintenance than centralized venting systems. 4
6.5.2.3 System Venting
a. In pneumatic systems, sand is dispensed or transported to other tanks by pressurizing the dispensing or transporter
tank. To refill the tanks, the pressure in the tank must be reduced so that the upstream, pressurized source of sand can
flow into the tank. To release the pressure, tanks are typically vented to atmosphere via a dust collecting system.
Venting system configurations consist of a tank nozzle, vent valve, and a length of piping to route the vented air and
dust to the dust collector.
b. Depressurization rates from pressurized tanks depend upon initial pressure, pipe diameters, valve size and whether
flow control devices are used. The volume of air released is a function of the initial pressure in the tank, the total
volume of the empty tank, and the volume of sand in the tank when the tank is vented. Sand volume consists of roughly
50% void space.
c. Venting pipe is generally subjected to less wear than sand piping, and schedule 40 carbon steel piping is adequate.

6.5.2.4 Bag House Venting
a. Air is vented to the atmosphere during tank depressurization and sand conveyance and distribution. The vented air
contains entrained dust, which may be considered a polluting particulate. Some methods for capturing and collecting
dust include the use of bin vents, dust collectors or bag houses, or cyclone separators. The devices can be mounted on
top of tanks or silos so that the captured dust falls into the tank or silo. Alternatively, free-standing devices contain a
hopper to collect the dust, which can be periodically emptied to a roll-off box, drum, or other container for transport to
a dust disposal site.
b. The characteristics of dust generated in typical railroad sanding systems are compatible with dust removal processes in
a bag house. The main component of a bag house is the fabric, cloth or membrane used to filter the dust particles from
the stream of air flowing through the fabric’s pores. The fabric is typically assembled into bags to increase the surface
area of fabric that can be contained in the house. Tubular structures (e.g., mesh, cage, or perforated pipe) support the
bags against collapse.
c. Systems that operate at atmospheric or low pressure may require an exhaust fan to pull the dust from the system. Bag
house fans are usually located on the downstream side of the bags, thus pulling the dust to the fabric.
d. As dust is collected, it adheres to and builds up on the bag, clogging the vent pathway. The dust can be removed using
a reverse-flow pulse of air or mechanical agitation. Pulses are applied cyclically, and agitation can be applied cyclically
or continuously. The dust removed from the outside of the bag falls into a hopper or the tank or silo onto which the bag
house is mounted.
SECTION 6.6 REFERENCES
6.6.1 CODES (2011)
a. ASME B19.1, Safety Standards for Air Compressor Systems, and ASME B19.3, Safety Standards for Compressors for
Process Industries, both discuss safety standards for the construction, installation, operation and maintenance of air and
gas compression equipment.
b. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII address the rules of safety for design, fabrication and inspection
of pressure vessels.
c. OSHA Standard 1910.95, Occupational Noise Exposure.
d. Atmospheric Storage Tanks: The design of bulk storage tanks is not covered by any U.S. standards or codes.
However, the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) has a useful publication entitled Useful Information on the
Design of Steel Bins and Silos, which suggests potentially relevant design standards and codes.
e. Pressure Vessels: All pressure tanks, including transport tanks and distribution tanks, should be designed and
fabricated in accordance with ASME Section VIII, Pressure Vessels.
f. Tank Venting: Although American Petroleum Institute (API) standards do not apply to bulk storage tanks, API 2000,
Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks, can provide a useful design guide for venting requirements.
g. ASME B31.1, Power Piping.
h. ASHRAE

6.6.2 PUBLICATIONS (2011)
a. Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide by David Mills, 1990, University Press, Cambridge. A good source of pneumatic
conveying theory, as well as data on the flow of sand.
b. “Pneumatic Points to Ponder…,” by Paul E. Solt, Powder and Bulk Engineering Magazine, CSC Publishing. Reprints
of numerous articles can be purchased. Solt covers many aspects of pneumatic conveying.
c. Useful Information on the Design of Steel Bins and Silos, by John R. Buzek, 1989, the American Iron and Steel
Institute. Contains useful design criteria for the design of bulk storage tanks.
d. Pressure Vessel Design Handbook, by Henry H. Bednar, 1986, Krieger Publishing Company. Useful guide for pressure
vessel considerations.
Figure 6-6-1. Typical Locomotive Sanding System

Figure 6-6-2. Overhead Gravity Sand Tower System

3
Figure 6-6-3. Gantry Crane Sanding System

Figure 6-6-4. Dual Pneumatic Conveying Sand System

Part 7
Design Criteria for
Railway Materials Management Facilities
6
— 1999 —
FOREWORD
Railway materials management facilities are warehouses which feature the latest in technology and materials management 1
controls to provide the most cost effective method for storing, shipping, receiving, and controlling railway supplies and
materials.
The intent of this chapter is to provide general guidelines and recommendations for the development and design of a typical
materials management facilities. The design criteria excludes any description or recommendation on the materials
management aspect of the operation, such as computerized inventory control, automated storage and retrieval systems or other
furnishings which are commercially available from a variety of manufacturers and specialists. 3
There are a number of variables to consider before initiating a building design for a railway materials management facility.
Site selection most often is not in the control of the designer and must be properly assessed for effective ingress and egress,
utilization, available public utility services and expandability, if necessary.
Once these parameters have been resolved, the designer should become thoroughly familiar with the local governing building
codes. By performing an analysis of the local building code, the designer can determine the following:
• Allowable building size based upon building construction type (i.e. exposed steel, concrete, etc.).
• Maximum allowable increase in building size for such things as the addition of sprinkler systems, fire
protection coatings, etc..
• Other special requirements such as welfare facility requirements, ventilation and special requirements
necessary for certain types of stored materials.
• Handicapped accessibility.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 Site Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-2

7.1.1 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-2
7.2 Functional Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-3

7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-3
7.2.2 Environmental Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-4
7.2.3 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-5
7.2.4 Office, Welfare and Building Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-5
7.2.5 Battery-Charging Area or Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-5
7.2.6 Fuel Operated Lift Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-5
7.3 Fire Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-6

7.3.1 Flammable and Hazardous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-6
7.4 Exterior Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7-6
7.1.1 LOCATION
The location of the proposed facility and available land area will weigh heavily on the important design decisions that must be
made. For instance, depending on where the building is to be located (i.e. railroad yard, industrial area, urban setting)
accessibility to the site may be limited to only one street in the area due to weight restrictions. Similarly, local government
bodies may require improvements to the local street for ingress and egress.
Public utility accessibility must also be considered in development of the site in those areas where such utilities are available.
In areas where public utilities such as sewer and water are not available, soil testing may definitely be a prerequisite to the
planning process and may force radical changes in the design of septic systems in order to protect potable water supplies.
In some localities, ordinances may exist requiring specific percentages of land area be dedicated for green space or require
special landscaping features such as berms to separate the proposed facility from adjacent properties. Likewise local
ordinances may require specific areas be dedicated to either detention, and/or retention areas and in some cases both.
Parking requirements and circulation within the site are critical matters to be considered. In most, if not all communities, set
aside space for handicap accessibility must be provided. In addition, many communities require parking based upon the total
square foot area of the building rather than actual employee/visitor need and this type of requirement must be dealt with early
on in the project development.
Circulation is equally important to the effective utilization of the site. Truck traffic, storage space and loading and unloading of
materials for either internal and/or external storage must be considered, as well as, rail access and the number of tracks
required to serve the facility.
Finally, site planning must also take into consideration the need for future expansion either of the building and/or open storage
space.

Design Criteria for Railway Materials Management Facilities
7.2.1 GENERAL
There are four basic planning goals to be addressed in the functional planning of material handling facility. These basic
planning goals are: a) adequate and efficient office space; b) organized storage space; e) material receiving area, and; d)
material shipping area. Each of these areas must recognize the need for effective and efficient work flow.
In addition to the planning goals mentioned above the decision to build a new Material Distribution center must be based
primarily on sound economics taking into consideration the following important considerations:
(1) The total annual volume of shipments to main shops, running shops and line points. This volume must be
examined in terms of cost, weight and frequency of service.
(2) The percentage of total annual weight shipped to each railway shop and line point.
(3) The various sources of material supply and/or manufacturer.
(4) Location of and service levels required for the user.
Since the primary purpose of the building will be to store materials for distribution throughout the system, a floor plan must be
developed which provides for adequate uniform storage and aisle space. Any proposed structural scheme must be planned
around these considerations in order to meet this criteria. In considering storage space, it is essential to know how materials
are planned to be stored such as pelletized material, bulk materials, bin storage and shelf storage. Transporting these materials 1
either into their respective inventory locations or to remove same for distribution purposes will require an understanding of the
methods to be employed for this purpose such as lift trucks (either manually driven or by automated system); overhead crane,
and; manual placement and retrieval. Aisle space for each of these activities will require different space considerations. As
storage and circulation problems become resolved a structural system can then be developed to address these needs.
The following guidelines should be considered before beginning the actual layout:
3
(1) Will or should an automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS) be implemented? A higher stacking and storage
arrangement will result in less land required for future expansion than with standard storage space.
Higher floor loads will, however, require close floor level tolerances.
(2) A rack supported roof may be an attractive option instead of erecting columns in the warehouse where floor space
is valuable. There is, however, a disadvantage in this approach since there is no flexibility in changing or moving 4
the racks.
(3) Intermediate density storage systems are also available which are based upon people and/or computer pick.
Dock space for both rail and truck shipping and receiving will be determined on the volume of material expected
to flow through the facility.
Rail loading and unloading may be either inside or outside of the building. If more than one track is planned to serve the
building the orientation for the track to the building will be critical. If a single track is planned to serve the building, access to
the cars for removal and placement of materials is easily obtained from one side. However, when two tracks are to be
provided, access to cars spotted on these tracks should be provided from both sides. Consideration should be given to one track
being utilized for outgoing material and the other for incoming material. This arrangement may affect how truck shipping and
receiving is also orientated to the building.
In addition, consideration should be given to the following criteria:

(1) If a spur or additional trackage for rail traffic is needed, where is the most advantageous location for it to be
constructed?
(2) Is it intended to load and unload rail inside or outside of the building? In either case, the size of the rail car and the
clearances inside and outside the building respectively should be considered. The height and the width of the doors
for rail cars entering the building or along the siding can then be determined accordingly. The same considerations
must be given to a parallel loading dock with a canopy over one or two tracks.
For truck dock areas, the following guidelines should be considered:
(1) The total number of truck bays needed.
(2) The kind and size of doors to be installed.
(3) Recommended dock height.
NOTE: The installation of automatic dock levelers would be advantageous to accommodate the variations in trailer
floor heights.
(4) Sufficient yard space or street frontage for easy maneuvering of tractor-trailers.
(5) The location of the building in relation to the main roadway.
(6) Controlled access.
Within the storage area proper other considerations should also be made such as the following:
(a) Soil conditions beneath the floor and whether or not a more solid base must be provided.
(b) Amount and type of traffic that will be handled.
(c) Abrasion resistance of the floor, including the finished floor surface treatment.
Other factors influencing the design are initial cost versus maintenance cost; dust control; durability, and; adequate reinforcing
to support intended loads and possible overloading.
7.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
Heating and ventilation of the warehouse area will be important. A comfortable working environment must be provided and
these requirements will vary according to each respective geographic location. In northern climates, the interior ambient
temperatures should be a minimum of 60 degrees F at a minus 10 degrees. However, a lower interior temperature may be
desirable for other reasons but in no case should the temperature be below 40 degrees F at a minus 10 degree F in order to
protect sprinkler piping and valuable stored materials easily damaged by freezing temperatures.
Insulating the building envelop will aid in minimizing the required heating and provide year round comfort. For maximum
summer comfort, it will be necessary to provide mechanical ventilation with noticeable air movement in the work areas. In
warehouse areas where dust is not a problem, it may be advantageous to install ceiling fans for year round comfort and energy
savings.
In warmer climates, even greater comfort may be achieved by adding spray cooling over the roof area. This method of cooling
can reduce the roof surface temperature several degrees thereby reducing ceiling radiation inside the building.

Design Criteria for Railway Materials Management Facilities
7.2.3 LIGHTING
Automated storage and retrieval systems do not require high level lighting in the storage areas except for maintenance
purposes. Man aboard stock picking machines have an integral lighting system for the operator and can reduce the required
amount of lighting needed along the aisles areas.
Due to the variables of automation selection of lighting requirements will be dependent upon how the facility is to be used and
actual needs.
7.2.4 OFFICE, WELFARE AND BUILDING SERVICES
Planning of the facility must also take into consideration adequate office space for the administrative staff. The office area will
require some permanent type office areas while the remainder of the office space should remain open space. Use of moveable
office partitions should be considered in cases where privacy is a concern or when seeking to compartmentalize department
areas.
If major computer hardware is to be located within the facility, it should be segregated from the main office area. This area
will require certain other features which will not be common to the general office. Those features to be considered are raised
computer floor, HVAC systems, lighting, telephone and fire suppression systems.
Employee welfare areas should be provided for in the storage area in order to minimize employee travel time to and from these
facilities. Washroom facilities for both male and female employees plus vending space should be considered in the planning
process. Primary welfare areas for lockers, toilets and shower space (if required by local and/or state code) can be provided
for in a central area either away from or above the storage area and preferably closer to the main office area. Lunchroom and 1
vending space can also be provided adjacent to these facilities.
Building services such as electrical and mechanical should be consolidated into a single area if possible with access to this
space both from within the building, as well as, from outside.
Further information and useful guidelines for the design of the general office area can be obtained in the AREMA Manual for
Railway Engineering, Chapter 7, Part 7. 3
7.2.5 BATTERY-CHARGING AREA OR ROOM
Battery powered materials handling equipment is common in modern distribution centers and require an area or room for daily
battery charging. The battery-charging room must be well ventilated since acid fumes are present in high concentration levels
in the air and act as asphyxiants. The location and layout of the battery charging room should allow for the installation of an 4
exhaust hood arrangement over the battery charging area. The battery chargers should be selected on the basis of the size of
batteries to be charged. Individual chargers are normally installed for each powered fork lift truck. The battery charging room
or area must have floor drains, acid traps and separators installed in the floor where batteries are being cleaned.
For safety reasons an emergency eye wash unit must be installed in the battery room near the working area even though
employees charging the batteries may be wearing protective clothing and goggles.
7.2.6 FUEL OPERATED LIFT TRUCKS
Powered lift trucks using gasoline, propane, and other flammable fuels are often used inside warehouses. Proper ventilation is
necessary to alleviate the buildup of CO and other noxious or poisonous fumes. The basic design ventilation rates for fuel
powered lift trucks can be found in the Manual of Recommended Practice, Industrial Ventilation, American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists. The operation of fuel operated lift trucks inside buildings may also be covered under
federal, state and local codes.

For environmental reasons, it is recommended that gasoline powered fork lift trucks or other types of gasoline powered
vehicles be prohibited to operate inside the Material Distribution Center.
SECTION 7.3 FIRE PROTECTION
The storage of railway materials covers a broad range of non-combustible and combustible commodities. For public safety
and insurance purposes proper fire protection means must be provided for the building and its contents, including the storage
of gases, chemicals, paints and other flammable liquids. Sprinkler systems and other fire protection systems appropriate to the
area must be designed in accordance to the latest local codes, NFPA codes and guidelines.
7.3.1 FLAMMABLE AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Flammable and/or hazardous materials should be identified and stored separately from regular materials. Holding areas and
disposal of hazardous materials or waste must meet all codes and regulations of the local Environmental authorities.
SECTION 7.4 EXTERIOR STORAGE
Outside storage space shall be of sufficient size to allow for materials storage. This space shall take into consideration the
need for open storage space as well as secured storage space as specified for the material being stored. Consideration shall
also be given to materials that must be stored in designated containment areas. Vehicular access to these areas must be
available as well as the possibility of off-loading from rail cars.

6
Part 8
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations1
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-3

8.1.1 General (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-3
8.1.2 Types of Stations (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-3
8.2 Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-4 1

8.2.1 Selection (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-4
8.2.2 Station Development (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-4

8.3.2 Intercity Passenger Stations (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-7 3
8.3.3 Commuter Stations (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-11
8.3.4 Intermodal Stations (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-14
8.3.5 Combination Freight and Passenger Stations (2001) R(2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-14
8.3.6 Historic Buildings (2001) R (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-14
8.4 Building Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-16

8.4.1 General (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-16
8.4.2 Interior Finishes (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-16
8.4.3 Structural Types (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-16
8.5 Mechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-17

8.5.1 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-17
8.5.2 Plumbing (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-17
8.6 Electrical Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-18

8.6.1 Lighting (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-18
8.6.2 Power (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-18
8.6.3 Escalators/Elevators (2001) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-19
8.6.4 Train Information Systems (2001) R(2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-19
8.6.5 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) (2001) R(2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-19
8.6.6 Communications Support (2001) R(2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-20
1 References, Vol. 76, 1975, p. 185; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 18.

Building and Support Facilities
8.7 Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-20

8.7.1 General (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-20
8.7.2 Platform Dimensions (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-22
8.7.3 Platform Access (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-24
8.7.4 Platform Lighting (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-25
8.8 Station and Platform Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-25
8.9 Passenger Train Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-32

8.9.1 General (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-32
8.9.2 Yard Site Considerations (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-33
8.9.3 Yard Activities (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-35
8.9.4 Yard Mechanical Systems (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-36
8.9.5 Yard Electrical Systems (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-37
LIST OF FIGURES
6-8-1 Intercity Ticket Counter Layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-12

6-8-2 Bus Loading Dock Layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-15
6-8-3 Platform Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-23
6-8-4 Intercity Station 300 PHP - Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-26
6-8-5 Intercity Station 300 PHP - Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-27
6-8-6 Communter Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-28
6-8-7 Intermodal Passenger Station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-28
6-8-8 Commuter Passenger Station - Example 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-29
LIST OF TABLES
6-8-1 Parking and Curb Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-5

6-8-2 Passenger Service Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-8
6-8-3 Interior Space Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-8
6-8-4 Illumination Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-18
6-8-5 Rolling Stock Interfaces with Station Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8-22

Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations
8.1.1 GENERAL (2011)
a. A passenger station comprises the building(s), site access, parking, tracks, platforms, and all appurtenances necessary
to conduct transportation. The following portions of this Section will provide the guidelines for developing a
comprehensive station design program. This Part is focused upon rail facilities that are part of the “general system of
railroad transportation” and are regulated by the federal government. They may also be applied to other rail transit
projects with modificaitions to suit the local conditions.
b. Various government agencies and/or public supported corporations have for the most part, assumed providing
passenger services in North America. Service is provided over existing-freight railroad lines and/or lines owned by the
local government agency or public supported corporation. As a result, the local government agency or public
supported corporation funds new passenger station facilities. The facilities are distinct from those facilities required
for freight operations.
c. Traditionally, railway stations have served as a gateway of commerce into and out of a community and as the
origin/destination source of passenger traffic. In the early 1900’s, during the peak of private railway station
construction, the railway station was viewed, in some cases, as a marketing tool and in other cases as a source of pride
and identity to the community.
By the late 1990’s, many of the privately built railway stations have been demolished and/or utilized for purposes
unrelated to railroad transportation. Of those early 1900 stations that remain in use, many have been restored to their
earlier grandeur while others have simply been reasonably maintained. Overall, however, two new station types have 1
appeared. These are the suburban/commuter stations, and long distance, intercity rail stations, which are often built
with funds from a designated national rail passenger carrier or a combination of public-private funding as part of mixed
use of developments.
Of the two new types of stations mentioned above, most have rail carrier established design criteria to be followed.
When outside parties become involved, modifications to a design program are required to incorporate other site and
building functions. 3
d. In addition to the basic rail passenger station building and platforms, terminal stations often require train servicing
yards and facilities that are integral to the operation of the station. This part incorporates design criteria previously
found in Chapter 14 for passenger yards and facilities.
8.1.2 TYPES OF STATIONS (2011) 4

Stations are classified (as follows) by the type of transportation services offered:
a. Intercity. Service generally characterized by travel distances in excess of 100 miles by passengers who journey less
frequently than once a week and usually require personal services such as checked baggage, on-board food, and, in
some cases, reservations for seats or sleeping accommodations.
b. Suburban/Commuter. Service characterized by travel distances less than 100 miles on a repetitive daily schedule,
which is usually oriented in one direction during the morning and evening hours.
c. Intermodal. Service characterized by a combination of Intercity and/or Suburban/Commuter rail service plus
additional public transportation modes, such as long distance and local bus routes, marine ferry service, heavy/light rail
rapid transit, airport ground access, and centralized private auto parking.

SECTION 8.2 SITE
8.2.1 SELECTION (2012)
Factors affecting the selection of a station site include passenger convenience, availability of land, access to mainline tracks,
access to local streets and roads, mass transit, utility services, favorable soil conditions, suitable zoning, and visibility. In
selecting a station site, efforts should be made to avoid sites within interlockings limits or with extensive communication pole
lines that may result in costly signal-related relocations. Care should also be taken to identify longitudinal utility easements
such as fiber-optic cables and ducts, petroleum and high pressure gas mains, and electric power transmission lines, as
relocation or mitigation costs can often exceed the value of the station facilities.
8.2.2 STATION DEVELOPMENT (2011)
8.2.2.1 Parking
a. The most land intensive requirement for a new railroad station is parking. Parking for passengers and/or “meeters and
greeters” must be convenient to the station. Where convenient parking is in short supply nearest the station, parking
may have to be controlled to ensure space turnover and/or availability.
b. The number of parking spaces to be provided at each station will vary according to the type of station (i.e., commuter
vs. intercity) being considered. For instance, intercity passenger station parking provisions will generally be governed
by local building codes and/or ordinances. Commuter station parking, on the other hand, will be determined on the
basis of a large percentage of inbound passengers during the peak hour(s) travel period.
c. In designing a parking facility, adequate space should be provided to permit expansion of the parking facility should
ridership increase and to accommodate storm water detention requirements where appropriate. Planning should
include adequate land area for these detention requirements to meet the initial size of the lot including any planned or
anticipated expansion. These detention areas, in many cases, may serve as buffer strips and/or means to accommodate
any green space requirements.
d. Provisions for employee parking must be made. These provisions must be consistent with existing labor agreements,
past practice, and functional needs. Parking should be situated in a manner that will discourage passengers from
utilizing the employee spaces. Assignment of employee spaces should not preempt the most convenient passenger
spaces adjacent to the station. In determining the number of employee spaces required, approximately 150 percent of
the largest shift should be provided to allow arriving employees to park before the others have left.
8.2.2.2 Roadways
a. Access to the station building should be unimpeded to permit late arriving passengers to quickly reach drop off
locations in front of the building. Onsite roadway systems should establish a counterclockwise circulation pattern in
front of the station building. Onsite roadways should be a minimum of 20 feet wide and 30 feet wide in front of the
station building in order to permit passing of double parked or tailed out vehicles in the passenger drop off area.
Roadway radii should not be less than AASHTO recommended standards for 40 foot buses.
b. Curb length for the drop off area should be as shown in Table 6-8-1. Where curb length exceeds the station frontage by
200%, a separate arriving and departing area with a loading island in front of the station building should be provided.
c. Onsite roadways should be configured to permit recirculation without leaving the station property when the peak hour
passenger count exceeds 150. This will permit a driver to drop a passenger off then proceed to the parking area.
Conversely, a driver can remove a parked car from the parking area to pick up an arriving passenger at the station curb.

8.2.2.3 Building Location
a. Locating the station building onsite can be affected by a number of factors. These factors can be such things as the
length of platform, location of “at-grade” pedestrian crossing, visibility of the station from the public right-of-way, and
primary street accessibility. Preferably, the station should be situated in a manner that is visible to the public from a
distance of 500 feet when approaching the station from a public sidewalk and/or street.
b. Platform access from the station may be attained directly or by means of grade separated passenger access. For “at-
grade” access to passenger platforms, stations may need to be located to coincide with public grade crossings, which
will permit the positioning of trains on the inner tracks without cutting off access to the outermost tracks. In situations
such as this, it may be necessary to establish drop off curb areas and parking beyond the station building.
c. When grade separated access to the platform(s) is employed, the station can be located at any point along the platform.
However, the most desirable position would be at the center of the platform. Access to the platform should be in both
directions. A grade separation may be by tunnel under the tracks or overhead bridge. The latter is usually more costly
due to the increased vertical distance that must be accommodated, especially with ADA compliant access.
Table 6-8-1. Parking and Curb Requirements

(All units are number of spaces unless noted otherwise.)
Curb Length Drop Off Short Term Daily Long Term Vacant Land For
Location
in Feet 5-15 Min. 1-2 Hrs. 2-12 Hrs. 12+ Hrs. Expansion
Intercity
1
Rural or
Suburban 0.8 (PHP) 5% PHP 10% PHP — 60% DAP
Location PHP < 100
100%
Downtown 30% DAP
1.2 (PHP) 30% PHP 20% PHP —
Location (Note 1)
Express and 3
— — PHP + 20 — — —
Mail Delivery
Commuter
Suburban 50%-80% DAP
1.2 (PHP) 20% PHP — — 50% DAP
Location (Note 2)
Downtown
0.8 (PHP) 5% PHP 10% PHP — — — 4
Location
Note 1: Off-site commercial parking within 300 yards of station entrance may be applied to this requirement provided it is
available at reasonable hours before and after train times.
Note 2: Contingent upon residential density in three-quarters of a mile of the station and the availability of feeder public
transit.
Key:
(DAP) = Daily Average Passenger
(PHP) = Peak Hour Passenger
d. When passenger stations must be constructed on sites that have substantial overhead utilities, an attempt should be
made to have these utilities relocated and buried, as part of the station project.

8.2.2.4 Landscaping and Signage
a. Sufficient land area must be set aside for greenspace, as required by most local codes, ordinances, and/or other
regulations. Greenspaces, in most cases, can include retention sites. If no requirements exist regarding greenspace
allocations, provisions should be made to allow for landscaping. In some locales, garden clubs may request approval
to maintain certain designated plots.
In general, landscaping should be the type and size of ground cover that requires low maintenance. Evergreens are
preferable to deciduous trees to reduce grounds maintenance. Care should be taken, when locating evergreens and/or
shrubs near intersections and/or crosswalks, not to obstruct line of sight for drivers approaching these areas.
b. Traffic signage, which is located on site, should conform to the Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices, as
modified. Some city, state, and/or local provinces may have additional requirements or other standards to be used as
well. This subject should be carefully investigated.
c. Identification and directional signage, located on site, must conform to local codes and ordinances. Signs should be
fabricated to a uniform graphic standard featuring bold typefaces of a character size adequate for the speed of the
approaching reader. Good contrast, such as light colored characters against a dark background are easiest to read.
Signage located at the entry to the property should be illuminated. Non-illuminated signs should be fabricated with
reflective-type background and characters for easiest reading.
8.2.2.5 Station Tracks
a. The track layout at any station should be designed to accommodate the planned schedule of trains stopping at that
station, trains passing through it, sections combining or splitting, special cars on or off, locomotive changes, delayed
trains, special movements, and future increases in traffic. The track layout should not be solely designed around a
specific timetable, since train schedules can be altered very quickly.
b. Sufficient throat tracks should be provided to permit at least two simultaneous parallel movements. The track layout
should be sufficiently flexible to provide for complete interchange of routes. A ratio of three station tracks to one throat
track should be adequate if the throat is properly designed.
c. The track layout should be designed with the length between turnouts as required for the proper signal indications and
necessary clearances for operation of track circuits so that a system of fixed signals or interlocking may be installed
whenever desired without restricting the use of any of the routes or the necessity of additional track changes. If the
station tracks are situated off of the mainline, then adequate tail track length should be provided to allow switching
without fouling the mainline.
d. The number of station tracks should be determined by the schedule of trains and switching desired; allowances for
delayed or special trains, schedules changes, and future expansion; layover time and the proximity of the passenger
yard; track lengths available; and the type of operation used. Servicing may be performed in the station when a
maintenance facility is not available. Major stations may also require a set-out track for private rail cars or mail and
express operations.
e. The track length is determined by the size of the train consists operated, the maximum platform length available, and
allowances for flexibility in the assignment of tracks for the longest trains.
f. Through track stations are preferred to stub stations from an operational standpoint. Loop tracks are preferable to wyes
and generally expedite service at terminal points when push-pull or multiple unit equipment is not used.
g. Freight or industry connections on the station approach tracks or on lines within or adjacent to the terminal zones
should be so arranged as to avoid or minimize interference with passenger train traffic. When a passenger yard is
constructed to support a terminal station, the track configuration between the station tracks and the yard tracks should
allow for the easy movement of train consists with a minimum of conflicts with mainline train operations.

h. It is generally acceptable at stations where dwell time is less than 10 minutes to provide platforms adjacent to the main
line trackage. Where other activities such as train section splits or passenger car inspection and servicing occur, a
separate station track is usually preferred. When train consists are stored in the station for extended periods, HEP
standby power and yard air may be required and the location of these facilities should be established so as not to block
access to platforms by passengers.
i. Adequate track centers should be provided for the safe performance of these other station activities. State railway
clearance regulations should be consulted to determine minimum dimensions to obstructions and structures. Where
passengers may be inclined to cross tracks at unauthorized locations, the installation of intertrack fencing should be
evaluated.
a. In general, the layout of a station must carefully consider passenger circulation as well as the movement of supplies
and location of equipment. All of these elements must be thoughtfully planned in order to maximize the efficiency of
the workspaces and convenience of the passenger. Careful thought must also be given to safety for the passenger as
well as the employee. Stations facilities should be arranged in order of need to the arriving passenger. Walking
distances should be kept as low as possible and when peak hour passenger counts exceed 300, consideration should be
given to separating inbound and outbound passengers’ conflicting lines of travel. 1
b. Intercity and commuter passenger needs differ significantly, as illustrated in Table 6-8-2. If at all possible, intercity
and commuter passengers should be separated either by duplicating facilities, directing commuters away from and
around intercity waiting areas and ticketing locations or through separate concourses on different levels.
c. All new station construction and major renovation work will require provisions be made for handicap accessibility. In
the USA refer to Part IV, Department of Transportation, 49CFR Parts 27, 37, and 38 (for stations) and 28 CFR Part 36 3
(for commercial facilities).
d. Distinctive architectural design and uniform graphics can be an effective marketing tool. Consideration should be
given to standardized architectural elements that can be applied to all stations on the transportation system.
Standardization can be an effective method of reducing design costs as well as overall maintenance costs.
e. Where a passenger station is but one tenant located with many other commercial enterprises, careful consideration 4
should be given to the accessibility of the station space, especially during noncommercial hours. A passenger station
that is buried within a multi-use occupancy may cause confusion to the infrequent traveler. Access routes to the station
and boarding areas should be direct and convenient. Ideally, a passenger should be able to reach a ticketing counter
and/or information area within 100 feet after entering the building.
8.3.2 INTERCITY PASSENGER STATIONS (2011)
a. Space requirements for the various rooms and spaces in a passenger station are shown in Table 6-8-3. The values
shown are typical and adjustment may be necessary based upon local operating conditions as justified in the design
criteria. Local climatic conditions may also influence the amount of indoor space provided for passenger operations.
b. Waiting room sizes may vary by geographic location. Square foot areas are often dictated by local codes, ordinances
and/or regulations and these should be checked for applicable requirements.

Table 6-8-2. Passenger Service Characteristics
Inter-City Commuter
• Frequently a stranger. • Generally familiar with the station after first
trip.
• Occasionally is not used to travel.
• Is self-reliant.
• Often uncertain in movement.
• Definite and brisk in movement.
• Sometimes elderly or infirm and often
accompanied by children. • Active and mature.
• Generally carrying baggage. • No luggage other than small briefcase.
• Occupies more space on platforms and for • Moves promptly from train to exit.
longer average time.
• Requires no aid and wants none.
• Requires waiting room, toilets, ticket sellers,
concession, and vending services. • Requires ticket seller infrequently to purchase
multi-ride ticket.
c. Restroom areas should be provided in all stations. For intercity stations, local codes, ordinances, and/or regulations
will govern the number of fixtures to be provided. In commuter stations, it is generally acceptable to provide one
restroom each for male and female use. Each restroom may contain one fixture each of the appropriate type.
Table 6-8-3. Interior Space Requirements
Inter-City
Function Area Unit Inter-City Downtown Commuter Downtown
Suburban or Rural
Seating EA. 0.70 × PHP 0.70 × (PHP+V) 0.10 × PHP
Ticket Queue L.F. 15 Max. 10 Max. 15 Max.
Ticket Positions P/Hr. 25-35 (Note 1) 25 55
Baggage Claim (Note 2)
Frontage L.F. 25/150 Pass. 10/100 Pass. None
Claim Area S.F. 50/150 Pass. 40/100 Pass. None
Baggage Make-up
Storage PCS. 0.10 × PHP 0.15 × PHP None
Sort S.F. 0.015/Yrly. 200/100 Pass. None
Boarding Gate (Note 3)
Queue L.F. 30 15 35
Area S.F. 6 × PHP 3 × PHP 9 × PHP
Station Services
Office S.F. 200 + (1 × PHP) 150 + (2 × PHP) 200

Table 6-8-3. Interior Space Requirements (Continued)
Inter-City
Function Area Unit Inter-City Downtown Commuter Downtown
Suburban or Rural
Note 1: Number of ticket transactions per hour - varies with type of train service offered and whether advance reservations
are required. Also the number of credit/check vs. cash payments will affect the transaction rate. In larger stations,
separate windows for different types of transactions can keep the total number of positions reasonable. For
commuter operations, the peak is established during the first and last days of the month as opposed to the daily
ridership. For inter-city passengers, it is assumed that 25% of the PHP is pre-ticketed and does not require ticket
counter service.
Note 2: Number of passengers - based upon PHP detraining with checked baggage. Under 100 passengers, baggage should
be dispensed manually without self-claim.
Note 3: PHP is the maximum number per gate.
Key: PHP= Peak Hour Passenger
V = Visitors with passengers
Pass. = Number of Passengers (using the specific service)
Yrly. = Yearly
d. Corridor width in any station will be governed by local codes, ordinances and/or regulations.
8.3.2.1 Waiting Room
A waiting area is a place where passengers wait for trains prior to queuing or proceeding to the platform. Waiting areas are
normally located away from the primary travel path between the ticket counter and the boarding areas. Passengers going
1
directly from the station entrance or ticket counter should not have to disturb passengers seated in the waiting area. Seating
units should be modular and arranged in clusters.
In large stations, separate waiting areas can be provided off of the primary travel paths between ticket counters and boarding
areas. In these locations, furnishings should be provided to enhance the comfort of the passenger. Some larger stations also
provide semi-private lounge areas for first class and premium status frequent travelers. Such faciltiies are usually located in a 3
location convenient to doors or gates to platforms.
8.3.2.2 Concourses
Concourses are areas where passengers walk to and from trains and where passengers queue in anticipation of boarding trains.
In large stations there may be several concourses, particularly if arriving and departing passengers are separated. Where
boarding gates for many tracks are employed, the concourse must have adequate depth and length to hold approximately 75 4
percent of the normal peak passenger count for each train. Concourse size may be controlled through use of passenger
information systems that do not post track and/or gate numbers until the train is ready to board, discouraging long queues in
front of boarding gates.
Concourse width should be a minimum of 15 feet in order to accommodate passengers carrying luggage and/or pushing carts.
Local codes, ordinances and/or regulations, however, should be reviewed to confirm allowable minimum requirements.
Concourses which are to be lined with or are lined with concessions or other services must contain additional width in order to
maintain an unobstructed walkway in the middle of the concourse.
Where concourses are more than 150 feet in length, graphics should be installed to repeat destination messages in bold, clear
typefaces that will not require the passenger to stop or slow down in the travel path. Video display units should not be placed
in the center of concourse travel paths, if at all possible, in order to avoid passengers stopping and/or slowing to read
information.

8.3.2.3 Ticketing
Ticketing areas will vary according to the size, location, and other activities being conducted within the station. The following
criteria are applicable as noted:
a. The ticket area should have an appropriate number of window positions available in order to keep ticket queue waiting
time to no more than five minutes during normal times and no more than eight minutes during peak times. When more
than three positions are operated, consideration should be given to a single serpentine line so that passengers are served
on a first come, first served basis.
If specialized train services are offered, a separate window position(s) may be required to give expedited service to
these passengers.
Average transaction time to ticket a passenger will vary from 1 minute for reserved coach travel to four minutes for
multi-segment reserved travel. Ticketing transaction time will increase by at least 90 seconds when credit card
transactions are handled.
Use of automatic ticketing terminals if installed can reduce the number of staffed positions. A machine can process an
average of 12-15 transactions per hour.
b. A ticket sales counter area is illustrated in Figure 6-8-1 showing recommended distances between the counter and the
backwall. The ticket counter should be designed in standard modules that will permit flexibility. If possible, an
information position should be located at the most accessible end of the ticket counter in order to permit sales agents to
provide this service during slack periods of business. This position can also serve as an overflow ticketing position
during peak periods.
c. Where security considerations mandate the use of ticket counter glazing for personnel protection, vertical speaking
slots should be provided. Passenger checking of baggage should be accomplished at the ticket counter to expedite the
movement of passengers through the pre-boarding process.
d. The ticketing area will require a back office for agents to handle their administrative duties out of sight of the
passenger. A storage room for spare forms, a safe for money and ticket stock, and an area for placement of
communications, teleprinters and computer reservations equipment should be provided. It may be desirable to provide
a combination coatroom/lunchroom and toilets for ticketing employees. The ticket back office should be the most
secure area in the station with access closely controlled.
8.3.2.4 Baggage Facilities
Baggage facilities will vary in size according to the number of pieces of baggage arriving and/or departing per train. The
following criteria are applicable:
a. The movement of outbound baggage from the ticket counter to the baggage make-up area may be manual or automated
depending upon the distance and baggage quantities involved. Baggage checked within three to four hours prior to
train departure should be placed in a secure baggage holding area.
Bulk users of package services should deliver their loads directly to the baggage room via an outside door. A truck
dock type arrangement would be appropriate when significant amounts of bulk shipments are processed through the
baggage facility.
The baggage facility should contain space for the storage of unclaimed baggage as well as the storage of carts and
baggage tractor(s).

b. Inbound baggage from a train may be dispensed on the platform at the station building when the quantity of baggage is
small. When the platform claim is not used, a dutch door separating the baggage facility from the ticket queue area can
be effectively useful.
In larger stations, a self-claim baggage facility should be provided to expedite passenger service. Where the number of
pieces of luggage is between 30 and 50, a simple stainless steel gravity rack will suffice. A wall separating the baggage
claim area from the baggage room should be provided in order to block off viewing back into the baggage room. When
arriving baggage is above 50 pieces per train, an automated conveyor self-claim device should be provided with
claiming frontage as shown in Table 6-8-3.
8.3.2.5 Restrooms
Public restrooms should be provided according to local codes, ordinances and/or regulations. Restrooms should be located in
the line of sight of the ticket counter in order to permit employees to monitor and exercise control over access, if necessary.
8.3.2.6 Support Facilities
Other administrative support services may be required in the station such as on-board services, commissary, locomotive and
car repair staff, train operations, and security. In large stations where the peak hour passenger count exceeds 300, a passenger
service area within the baggage claim area is recommended. Support facilities, however, will vary according to station size,
location of the station or line, and other ancillary facilities available. A site specific design criteria document should be
developed for larger stations to identify the requirements of the support facilities. These facilities should be broken down into
public access and secure areas. Security and access controls along with appropriate signage should be specified.
Vending areas in stations should be grouped into a singular area in order to maintain cleanliness and to concentrate plumbing,
1
mechanical and electrical services into a singular area.
If concessions are included in the station design, the concession areas require roughed in utilities to support tenant leasehold
improvements.
8.3.3 COMMUTER STATIONS (2011) 3

Commuter stations differ significantly from intercity train stations in a number of ways. Depending on a number of factors,
commuter stations can be a building and/or a simple open and/or enclosed shelter.
8.3.3.1 Waiting Room
Generally, commuter passengers will use a waiting room during inclement weather or when it is extremely hot and the waiting 4
room is air conditioned. The size of the waiting room will be dependent upon the peak passenger load in a 15 minute period.
Local building codes, ordinances and regulations will then stipulate the square foot area to be provided for each passenger.
Waiting room furnishings should be hard, durable, utilitarian-type furniture, which can be safely secured to the floor or walls.
Waiting rooms may be locked during periods when the station agent is not present.
In terminal facilities, commuter waiting rooms can be relatively small, since most commuters will time their arrival at the
station close to train departure time. Earlier arrivals will board their trains rather than sit in waiting areas.
8.3.3.2 Ticketing Facilities
In commuter stations ticketing is generally handled through the station agent’s office, located at one end of the station. The
office should be large enough to accommodate a desk, ticket counter with ticket window and storage cabinet. The ticket
window should be equipped with a rolling shutter door and lock for use when the ticket agent is not present.

Figure 6-8-1. Intercity Ticket Counter Layout

In some commuter service corridors, vending machines issue tickets. Also, proof of payment systems may be used and the
station platforms may be part of the paid area of the system. Where these systems are employed, provisions must be made for
vending/cancellation machines at the entrance to the platforms from the station building and/or at any other access point to the
platform.
In terminal facilities, ticketing areas should be separated from intercity ticketing areas. Commuter ticketing will not require
baggage check-in modules nor any extensive computerized issuing machinery. At least six ticket window spaces will be
necessary for end of month ticket purchases and one additional window for information and lost and found use.
8.3.3.3 Restroom Facilities
Restroom facilities within commuter stations are generally minimal. Separate restroom facilities may be provided for males
and females or a single restroom may be provided. It is recommended that the local building code, ordinances and/or
regulations be consulted to determine the type and size of restroom facilities to be provided.
Commuter restroom facilities may be defined as “agent use only”, in some cases. When public access is required by local
code, ordinance and/or regulation, the station agent should have control over use of the facilities.
In terminal facilities, no additional spaces are required for commuter use. Consult local code books, ordinances and/or
regulations for determination of facilities to be provided, if any.
8.3.3.4 Support Facilities
In commuter stations a mechanical equipment room and janitor’s closet will be needed. Separate space to accommodate
concessions can be provided but care should be taken to avoid disrupting passenger flows and/or passenger waiting space.
1
In terminal facilities space will be required for lost and found articles, Stationmaster’s Office (to operate Train Information
Systems), storage lockers, employee locker rooms, janitor’s closets, supply rooms and storage areas. In addition, shop space
will also be needed for mechanical personnel assigned to the station.
Concession space may also be desired. These spaces should not be located in a manner that will constrict and/or disrupt the 3
function of the station.
8.3.3.5 Concourses
These are areas within major stations, which direct passengers to and from the platforms to the street. Concourses must be
wide enough to rapidly convey the hundreds of commuters that unload simultaneously. When concessions front on the
concourses, five feet of concourse width in front of each establishment must be subtracted from the effective width of the 4
concourse. In planning travel paths through a commuter station, care should be exercised to avoid conflicting travel paths of
major groups of passengers. In many instances, routing large numbers of passengers on a more circuitous route to avoid
conflicts will provide faster ingress and egress. Concourses, which provide queue space at track gates, must be widened to
permit other passengers to pass. Graphics in the concourses should use bold characters with the least amount of wording
possible. The use of graphic symbols and color coding are also effective means of conveying information without causing the
stranger to stop or slow down to read messages. Where video display units are used, these should be mounted out of the main
stream of travel to preclude obstructing the concourse passage. Where vending machines and control gates are used, the
station must be designed with paid and non-paid concourses. Adequate queuing space must be provided on both sides of the
control gates. If escalators are employed, the impacts of having one of the devices out of service for maintenance should be
considered in sizing the concourse areas near the escalators and alternate stairs and ramps.
8.3.3.6 Graphic and Advertising Standards
In developing a major commuter station, clear graphic and advertising standards should be established early to ensure
concessionaires do not erect uncoordinated signage that makes essential directional signage ineffective. A uniform graphics
band in the station will assist passengers in finding the services and transportation facilities desired.

8.3.4 INTERMODAL STATIONS (2001) R(2011)
a. Intermodal stations are effective in promoting use of public transport since they reduce the time lost transferring from
one mode of travel to another. Each carrier participating in an intermodal station benefits from the potential increased
revenue resulting from connecting traffic plus reduced operating expenses by sharing common facilities such as the
waiting room, restrooms, parking, and building maintenance personnel. Each carrier rarely imposes a peak passenger
hour at the exact same moment as the others; consequently, adequate capacity should exist in a station.
b. An effective intermodal station unifies all transit options in a manner that permits the passenger to move easily from
one mode of transport to another. The station peak hour passenger count should be determined by superimposing all
carrier loads. The common circulation concourse or waiting room should have a unified graphics band to direct
passengers to their respective carriers and concession preferences. In larger stations, each carrier may have its
individual waiting area immediately adjacent to the departure point of the transit vehicles.
c. The majority of intermodal stations involve transfers between some type of rail carrier or bus operator. Rail services,
in many areas, have interline agreements with bus companies that permit passengers to travel on a through ticket and
on intercity routes with through checked baggage. Where intercity service is provided, the intermodal station should
have service corridors connecting the rail and bus baggage rooms to facilitate the transfer to luggage and other
materials. Bus companies generally will have individual standards for loading docks. However, Figure 6-8-2 shows a
45 degree configuration. Right hand loading should be employed whenever possible. City transit buses may load on a
scalloped curb platform with a tail out condition. A typical platform configuration is shown in Figure 6-8-2.
d. Other types of intermodal stations may be planned but it is not possible to cover every conceivable combination in this
Chapter. The principles of handling passengers are similar regardless of mode.
8.3.5 COMBINATION FREIGHT AND PASSENGER STATIONS (2001) R(2011)
a. In developing the scope of work for a combination freight and passenger station, it is important to recognize that each
facility may be operating at different hours and some degree of separation and isolation is desirable. Access to the
passenger portion of the station should be very prominent, when compared to the freight agency, to preclude rail
passengers from entering the freight office.
b. As with the other types of stations, the using departments should itemize their requirements on a design criteria
questionnaire. The designer should then apply the needs independently at first, then seek to identify those project
elements that are common and can be shared to reduce capital and operating costs.
8.3.6 HISTORIC BUILDINGS (2001) R (2011)
Buildings, which have been listed on the National Register of Historic Buildings, must be maintained with the same general
exterior appearance. Benefits of reusing such older stations are public recognition of the railroad station location and
community pride. When a developer acquires a railroad station for rehabilitation, the transportation areas in the station should
either be tastefully restored or modernized as much as possible. It is possible to aesthetically combine modern materials with
historic buildings for an attractive and functional station facility.

3
Figure 6-8-2. Bus Loading Dock Layouts

SECTION 8.4 BUILDING SYSTEMS
8.4.1 GENERAL (2001) R(2011)
a. The exterior appearance of a rail passenger station should be attractive, fit into the community it serves, and convey a
sense of permanence. The use of distinctive architectural elements in all stations of a transportation system can serve
as a marketing tool, promote public recognition, and be a source of community pride.
Exterior materials such as masonry, precast concrete, stone or similar hard durable products should be used. Windows
and doors should be made of high quality commercial grade storefront elements. Where metal and wood panels are
employed, they should be kept away from the grade line to prevent corrosion and rot.
b. The selection of exterior finishes should result in low maintenance costs by using only materials that do not require
work at less than eight year cycles. Where platform canopies are employed, the exterior finishes of the station should
be utilized to whatever extent possible in order to create a unified appearance.
A good rule of thumb would be to employ no more than three types of exterior materials.
c. In order to minimize solar heat gains, overhangs above windows will help to reduce air conditioning loads. Also, the
selection of glass type for windows and doors can also contribute to energy savings. However, glazing may be more a
function of geographic location and climate conditions.
8.4.2 INTERIOR FINISHES (2001) R(2011)
a. Public and employee spaces in station buildings should be constructed of hard durable surfaces that reduce
maintenance, are vandal resistant, and still maintain an attractive appearance. Walls within the station should utilize, if
possible, the masonry of the exterior wall, painted concrete block, glazed block, and/or plastic laminated wall products.
b. Floor finishes can be quarry tile, terrazzo or terrazzo epoxy tile. In non-public areas, the floors can be treated concrete
floors. Ceilings can be of a variety of materials depending on the architectural look desired. In public areas as well as
in non-public areas, ceilings will have to meet building code requirements or regulations. When suspended ceilings are
employed, access to the ceiling space should be provided.
c. If gypsum wallboard is used in the station, it should be backed up with plywood to prevent puncturing. In restroom
areas, partitions should be constructed of masonry, if possible. In large intercity stations, consideration should be given
to utilizing softer finishes in order to control noise and to enhance the comfort of the passenger. Carpeting should also
be considered for use in waiting room areas.
d. In commuter stations, wall finishes should be of a hard durable surface and vandal resistant. Floors can be treated
concrete, terrazzo, and/or terrazzo epoxy tile. Ceilings can be lay-in acoustic metal tile or gypsum board.
e. In non-public spaces, commercial office finishes may be used. Baggage areas and storeroom walls can be painted
concrete block or metal stud partitions. In baggage areas, a plywood wainscot should be utilized if a metal stud and
gypsum wallboard is used for partitions.
8.4.3 STRUCTURAL TYPES (2001) R(2011)
a. The type of construction will be influenced by the size and location of the station building. Small stations may utilize
exterior bearing walls with clear span joists, or pre-engineered building systems. Larger stations will likely employ
structural steel or reinforced concrete frames.
In selecting a structural system, the station designer and structural engineer should collaborate on the most economical
structural system possible to complement the intended design. In addition, the structural system employed should

allow for expansion of the station in the future, if necessary. If expansion occurs, it will most likely be parallel to the
railroad tracks. Areas most likely to require expansion in a station are the waiting room, baggage room, and ticket
counter area.
Interior columns and bearing walls should be placed such that they do not limit expansion.
b. Design loads for floors and roofs will be dictated by local codes and/or regulations.
SECTION 8.5 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
8.5.1 HEATING, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING (2001) R(2011)
a. Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems can be supplied in a variety of forms in order to meet the
desired design needs. Prepackaged systems and/or individual equipment may be utilized based upon the size of the
areas to be served. The optimum choice would dictate that the system be highly energy efficient, provide low cost
operation, and be easily maintained. Consideration should be given to purchasing the same type of equipment for each
station, in order to minimize maintenance parts and standardizing service.
b. Before designing an HVAC system, the designer should review local building codes and/or regulations for specific
requirements. Assistance in sizing system requirements can be found in the American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning (ASHRAC) handbook. 1
c. When designing the heating and air conditioning system, consideration should be given to establishing zone control of
the system. Each area served would then be controlled by individual thermostats. Thermostats should be tamper-proof
and key-controlled, in order to avoid having numerous individuals attempting to adjust the thermostat to meet their
own individual criteria.
d. Ventilation can be provided by introducing make-up air into the primary air handling equipment. When food 3
preparation areas are present, adequate tempered make-up air will be necessary in order to replace exhaust hood air.
Restrooms will require independent exhaust air systems. Outside air intakes should be located away from railroad
tracks and roadways in order to avoid sucking in exhaust fumes from locomotives and motor vehicles.
8.5.2 PLUMBING (2001) R(2011)

4
a. Sanitary facilities located within a station must be sized in accordance with local building code requirements and/or
regulations. Where possible, restrooms should be placed back to back with a common pipe chase in order to minimize
cost. The size of the chase should consider future maintenance. Also, piping should be run in pipe chassis wherever
possible and accessible clean outs provided.
b. Fixtures selected for use in the station should be of the highest commercial grade. Hot water heaters should be located
near the fixtures being served, but not accessible to the public.
c. In some stations, it may be necessary to have two water systems: one system, providing potable water, to service public
facilities; a second system, providing service water, to service equipment needs and possible train service watering. In
these cases, it is important to consult local building codes and/or regulations concerning preventive devices that must
be provided. When train service watering is required, refer to Chapter 14, Yards and Terminals for the requirements
for train watering systems.

SECTION 8.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
8.6.1 LIGHTING (2001) R(2011)
a. Illumination levels are shown in Table 6-8-4. These values are typical and may have to be adjusted to suit local
conditions, codes, and/or regulations. Where values are not shown, the recommendations of the Illumination
Engineering Society should be followed. Lighting levels on boarding platforms are discussed in Chapter 14 Yards and
Terminals.
Table 6-8-4. Illumination Levels
Exterior Interior
Around entire periphery of building Waiting Areas 20–30 fc
25 feet from exterior walls: 5 fc. Restrooms 30 fc
Increase level to 10 fc at Primary public entrances.
Ticket Sales 100 fc
Ticket Back Office 100 fc
Corridors 20 fc
Stairways and Elevators 20 fc
Baggage Sort Area (Bag Room) 50 fc
Baggage Storage (Bag Room) 20 fc
Baggage Claim Area 50 fc
General Clerical Offices 75 fc
Crew and Locker Rooms 20 fc
Storage Areas (Any Dept.) 10–20 fc
Public and Employee Lounges 10–20 fc
Other areas not specified unless shown to be higher in 20 fc
IES Handbook.
Note 1: Where ranges are shown, lighting should be adjusted to tasks performed in specific portions of the space. A balance
between light sources, i.e. incandescent accent lighting with HID or fluorescent general lighting, can provide a
pleasing environment without significantly increasing overall wattage per square foot. Indirect lighting in lounges
and portions of waiting areas can also be effective at providing a comfortable environment.
b. The control of lighting should be accomplished from the ticket office. In waiting rooms, fixtures should be alternately
wired to permit a 50% reduction of lighting levels during periods when natural lighting is available. Platform lighting
should be controlled from the ticket office.
c. Efficient light sources should be used. Where ceiling heights are less than 12 feet, fluorescent lamps should be used.
Where ceiling heights exceed 12 feet, color corrected HID lamps should be used.
8.6.2 POWER (2001) R(2011)
a. The general distribution scheme for power will be dictated by the service available from the utility company and the
maximum connected load. Most railroad stations require electric service reflective of commercial businesses of like
size. The location of power distribution equipment should be placed in an accessible location in the station. In small
buildings, this can be in the baggage room. In larger stations, a separate electric distribution room and/or transformer
vault may be necessary. All electrical work should be designed and installed in accordance with local codes and
electric utility company rules.

b. Where train standby power is required to serve passenger cars on the station tracks, a significant increase in electric
service will be required. Refer to Chapter 14 Yards and Terminals for details on 480 volt and 220 volt train standby
power.
c. Since most railroad stations are classified as places of public assembly, emergency lighting for the evacuation of the
building in the event of power failure is often required. The use of unitary nickel-cadmium or lead acid battery packs
strategically placed around the building will provide at least 30 minutes of light. Where a large number of units are
required, consideration should be given to a central bank of lead-acid batteries.
d. Tractors and small vehicles used in the station are often electrically powered. Provisions for charging batteries should
be made. If batteries are lead-acid types, provisions for positive ventilation should be coordinated with the mechanical
designer.
8.6.3 ESCALATORS/ELEVATORS (2001) R(2011)
a. Elevators should be installed in multi-level stations and/or where multi-level areas cannot be reached by ADA
compliant ramps. Elevator cab size should be sufficient to accommodate wheelchair access. The entire elevator
installation must meet current ADA requirements. When elevators are used in a station, consideration must be given to
service interruptions required for routine inspection and service. Elevators used to move baggage between levels
should be of sufficient size to accommodate baggage carts. Local building codes and/or regulations should be
consulted for specific requirements.
b. Escalators used in stations should be sized to meet peak passenger loads. Escalators should be located adjacent to
stairways serving the same levels. 1
8.6.4 TRAIN INFORMATION SYSTEMS (2001) R(2011)
a. Public address systems should be provided to make announcements of train arrivals and departures. Speakers should
be low power types, closely spaced to reduce reverberation. The microphone locations should be at the ticket counter,
information counter, and in the boarding areas. Where multiple platforms are constructed, consideration to zoning the
PA system to permit targeted announcements should be made. In intermodal stations, a common public address system 3
should be provided with all carriers having access to make announcements in the common areas of the station. One
method to accomplish this is the use of telephone tone access input to the PA amplifier.
b. The display of train arrival and departure information should be accomplished using annunciation boards or video
display units (CRTs). In small stations, manually operated menu or slat board behind the ticket counter is adequate. In
larger stations, a central display system manipulated by the stationmaster or a computer microprocessor can display the
same information at many locations throughout the station. Newer computer based systems can also synthesize speech
4
for train announcements.
8.6.5 CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV) (2001) R(2011)
In some passenger station locations, CCTV may be useful for crowd management as well as security. Within the station,
CCTV can be used to cover public waiting areas, stairways, corridors and ticket window locations. CCTV can also be used to
monitor parking lots and passenger drop-off points.
Monitors can be installed in the ticket agent’s office and in the local police station and railroad security office if necessary.
Each monitor should be equipped and/or linked to a recording device capable of recording events on demand 24 hours per day.

8.6.6 COMMUNICATIONS SUPPORT (2001) R(2011)
a. A raceway system for installation of telephone wiring should be designed into the station building. Raceways should
be routed to a telephone backboard in accordance with phone company requirements. In addition to the business
phones, the raceway system should also include public telephones, data lines to modems, and special occupant phone
services such as motel/hotel reservation centers and car rental concessions. If a large number of tenants are located in
the station building, consideration must be given to a private exchange or electronic switching unit to provide phone
services from the local phone company service point to the individual tenant. If private railway telephone systems are
routed through the building, adequate space for frame rooms and wiring routes must be provided. Private railway
communications systems often employ microwave or fiber-optic transmission equipment. Adequate space and support
facilities such as emergency standby power and ventilation should be considered.
b. If any of the personnel in the station require a radio base station, consideration should be given to the installation of an
antenna mast on the roof of the station with a standard electrical weatherhead. This mast will preclude later cutting and
patching of new roofing by personnel not experienced as roofing mechanics.
SECTION 8.7 PLATFORMS
8.7.1 GENERAL (2011)
A platform is a structure or area adjacent to tracks for passenger boarding or alighting. On single track lines, platforms are
provided on the same side of the track as the station building. In commuter territories where no station may exist, the platform
is located nearest to public access and parking. On single track lines, platforms are generally located on the “inbound” side of
the track which would allow for a second track to be built in the future.
a. In planning a passenger station it is important to devise a coordinated arrangement between the track layout and the
station proper which will, at reasonable cost, provide maximum convenience, expedition, and economy in rendering all
the platform services. Particularly at high traffic stations, it is extremely desirable that baggage, mail and express
trucks shall not ordinarily have to traverse or occupy platform space being used for the accommodation of passengers.
Determination of the type of platform (i.e. combined or separate trucking and passenger) best suited to a particular
situation is dependent upon the character and volume of the various kinds of traffic handled, the type of station (i.e.
stub, through or loop), the location and type of approaches to the platforms for the various kinds of traffic, the relation
of the various approaches to each other, the relative lengths of platforms and trains, space available for station track
and platform development, and the method of operation. Because there are so many variables involved, final
conclusion as to the best arrangement can only be reached with a thorough study.
b. For a high traffic intercity through station, with track level below or above the station floor level, combined platforms
could be installed sufficient in length to permit berthing the passenger carrying cars in the center zone leaving the end
zones clear for trucking. Passengers would reach or leave the platforms via ramps, stairways or escalators at the middle
third of the platforms; and trucks would reach or leave the platforms by elevators or ramps, at or near the ends
connected with subway runways and assembly areas. If platforms cannot be built to such length or if two trains are
regularly berthed on the same track simultaneously, interference between passengers and trucking will result and the
installation of separate platforms may be justified.
c. For a high traffic intercity stub station, with tracks at the same level as the station floor, combined platforms could also
be installed. Provision should be made for all trucks to reach or leave the station platforms near the outer ends, via
elevators or ramps connecting with subway facilities. In the event that baggage, mail or express cars would normally
be placed against the station side of the stub then consideration should be given to provide separate unloading areas to
minimize passenger interference and improve aesthetics.

d. In either case, if platform elevators are used, an alternate access should be designed for use in the event of elevator
failure.
e. Suburban service stations generally do not handle freight so are normally designed with platforms between pairs of
tracks with elevator service then limited to elderly or handicapped patrons.
f. For light traffic stations where both passenger and truck movements will be relatively light and train arrivals and
departures will occur mostly at separate intervals, a careful predetermination of the balance between investment and
advantage may be required to decide whether or not grade separation is justified, either for passengers or for trucks,
and which method of rendering the platform services is to be selected.
g. Combined passenger and trucking platforms should be at least 20 feet in width, assuming a row of canopy columns
located in the center of the platform. Passenger platforms shall vary in width at stations with relatively light traffic or
where train arrivals and departures occur at separate intervals. This width varies between 10 to 15 feet.
h. Exclusive passenger platforms should have a minimum width of 17 feet, which is sufficient to accommodate the
passengers from one arriving train, one line of travel for passengers to a departing train, and a row of columns in the
center of the platform. This width will normally meet all requirements for through passenger train operation, as it is
seldom necessary to berth two arriving trains simultaneously at the same platform.
i. Exclusive trucking platforms without columns should have a minimum width of 11 feet to permit two trucks to pass.
Where the volume of trucking is sufficient to justify three lanes, a minimum of 16 feet should be provided to avoid
blocking the platform when two trucks are serving cars on opposite sides. If columns are necessary, platform widths
should be increased accordingly and columns located so as not to interfere with trucking lanes.
1
j. In combined passenger and trucking platforms in through stations, it is desirable to have a clear width of approximately
6 feet on one side of the stairs to permit trucking operations past the stairs.
k. Generally the platform is placed 8 inches above the adjacent top of rail. In stations where a large number of passengers
must be handled quickly, the relation of platform to floor height should be considered to expedite the handling of
passengers. However, high platforms interfere to some extent with switching and inspection of equipment. 3
l. In a through station, the placement on the platform of the approach to the concourse has a bearing on the required
capacity of the approach. If it is located at the end of the platform, the concentration will be but one-half as intense as if
it is located at the middle of the platform, although the duration of the maximum intensity of congestion will be much
less in the latter case. If a double approach is located at the center, the intensity of the concentration will be the same as
in the first case, and the duration of the maximum intensity of congestion will be the same as in the second case.
4
m. Canopies should be considered for any exposed platforms. If funds do not allow full coverage, then canopies should be
used where most of the waiting is expected to occur. Canopies should be architecturally integrated into the station
building design through the use of common fascia materials and color schemes.
n. Platform graphics should divide the platform into boarding sectors of two to three cars each. Sectors should be
identified with alphabetical characters to avoid confusion with track numbers.
o. Tactile strips must be located along the edge of platform adjacent to the tracks. In high speed rail territory other
measures may be necessary to prohibit passengers from standing too close to the edge of platform. All access points to
the platform must consider these restrictions.
Platforms should be located on tangent track whenever possible in order to provide the train crew with a full view of the
passengers, and to allow the passengers a view of oncoming trains. When curved platforms are unavoidable, a limitation of
1o40’ of curvature or one inch in elevation of outer rail is desirable. If curvature or elevation of the outside rail exceeds this
limit alternative platform locations should be considered. Also, platforms should be located clear of switches and outside of
signaled areas of an interlocking.

Table 6-8-5. Rolling Stock Interfaces with Station Platforms

Platform Platform
Car Floor
Car Type/Manufacturer(s) Edge from Height Door Locations Notes
ATR
C/L ATR
Bombardier (UTDC Design) 5’-1” 2’-1” Lowest level @ Doors have exterior step at 17”
0’-8”
Car has three levels Note 2 lowest level third points ATR.
Kawasaki (MBTA or LIRR)
5’-7” 4’-0” to 4’-3” 4’-2’ Ends above truck Note 1
Car has three levels
Kawasaki (MARC/VRE) 5’-7” 4’-0” to 4’-3” 4’-2’ and Ends above truck
and lowest level @ Note 1
Car has three levels 5’-1” 0’-8” 1’-6” third points
Single Level (multiple builders) 5’-1” 0’-8” Some Bombardier and Alstom
4’-2” to 4’-3” Car ends with traps Comet series also have center
Also includes heritage era cars 5’-7” 4’-0” to 4’-3” doors. Note 1
New York Single Level EMU 5’-7” 4’-0” to 4’-3” 4’-2” to 4’-3” Quarter points Note 1
Single Level EMU 5’-1” 0’-8” Some car series also have
4’-2” to 4’-3” Car ends with traps
(Montreal, Shore Shore) 5’-7” 4’-0” to 4’-3” center doors. Note 1
Superliner, Surfliner, & Cal Car Lowest level @
5’-1”
derivatives 0’-8” 1’-5” center or third
Note 2 points
Car has two levels
Gallery EMU (Chicago METRA) 5’-7” 4’-0” 4’-2” Center and ends
Gallery Cars (multiple builders and
5’-1” 0’-8” 3’-10” Center
operators)
Doors are plug design –
ACELA High Speed Trainset 5’-7” 4’-0” 4’-2” Ends above truck adequate clearance for door to
move out and slide is required.
At one end; on- Articulated with carbody units
TALGO Trainset 5’-1” 0’-8” 2’-2”
board folding step approx. 43’ long.
Note 1: On tangent track in passenger only terminals with maximum allowable speed 20 mph or less, the platform edge from track C/L may be reduced from
5’-7” to 5’-4” . Platforms on curves require specific study to accommodate car overhang, dynamic clearances, track superelevation, and vision sightlines.
Refer to AREMA Chapter 28 and APTA SS-C&S-003-98 for guidance.
Note 2: In California on some BNSF routes, this dimension may have to be increased to 5”-4” to clear some locomotive pilots.
Note 3: In all locations, the clearance rules of the operating railroad shall govern—this chart is for planning purposes only.
Platforms should be located on tangent track whenever possible in order to provide the train crew with a full view of the
passengers, and to allow the passengers a view of oncoming trains. When curved platforms are unavoidable, a limitation of
1o40’ of curvature or one inch in elevation of outer rail is desirable. If curvature or elevation of the outside rail exceeds this
limit alternative platform locations should be considered. Also, platforms should be located clear of switches and outside of
signaled areas of an interlocking.
8.7.2 PLATFORM DIMENSIONS (2011)
Platform lengths are based upon car length, plus number of cars and a margin of 40 feet for braking. Actual platform lengths
will vary according to site constraints and train operational requirements. Platforms will vary in length depending on the
service being provided and whether or not the station is served by either diesel or electric type motive power. Minimum
platform lengths may vary from 210 lineal feet in length (3 cars for diesel, 2 cars for electric) to 890 lineal feet (11 cars for
diesel). Along some lines platform lengths may be longer. Long-distance intercity trains may require platforms of 1550 lineal
feet to accommodate an eighteen car train with two locomotives.

Platforms are also defined as high level platforms, low level platforms, side platforms and island platforms. Each platform
type is also governed by minimum standard platform dimensions such as shown in the following chart and the types of
passenger equipment serving the station. When multiple carriers or types of rolling stock are used, selection of the platform
style and dimensions may have to be a compromise in order to adequately and safely board passengers.
Minimum Standard Platform Dimensions

Low Level Platforms 8” above top of rail
5’-6” from centerline of adjacent track to edge of platform
High Level Platforms 4’-3-1/2” above top of rail
5’-7” from centerline of adjacent track to edge of platform
Side Platform Width Minimum 10’-0”
Island Platform Width Minimum 15’-0”
NOTE: Minimums may vary according to individual railroad standards, state and/or regulatory requirements.
Figure 6-8-3. Platform Dimensions
For additional information regarding setback requirements for such things as buildings, shelters, columns and platform
furniture refer to Chapter 28 Clearances of this manual.

Platform fencing and guardrails should be located along the back side of the platform where there is a vertical drop of 30
inches or greater, or where active freight tracks are located behind a platform, where there is a sloped embankment and/or at
any location deemed unsafe. Care must be exercised to review state clearance regulations to insure that fencing does not
impose a hazard to railroad employees performing switching or train inspection activities.
8.7.3 PLATFORM ACCESS (2011)
To facilitate movement of passengers, platforms should be situated considering the location of the station, shelters, parking
areas and points of public access. When platforms are located near existing roadways and grade crossings, interruption of
traffic at crossing gates should be minimized if at all possible, and boarding trains across active tracks is to be avoided.
Appropriate signage should be provided to identify the station and direct passengers to parking areas, pickup locations and
other helpful information. Refer to Article 8.2.2.4 for additional signage information.
a. When passenger platforms are placed above or below station floor elevations, access to the platforms should be by
steps, ramps, elevators, or escalators. The placement of these should be carefully planned to be convenient for the
passenger and baggage handling.
b. Escalators have a maximum carrying capacity of approximately 5000 passengers per hour for 32 inches width and
8000 passengers per hour for 48 inches.
c. Stairways should be a minimum of 48 inches wide using a maximum tread riser of 7 inches complying with ADA and
local code requirements. At non-terminal stations, arriving and departing passengers will often be using the stairways
at the same time which necessitates double width or multiple stairs to handle the up and down flows simultaneously.
d. Ramps provide ideal means for movement of passengers to and from station platforms if they can be so installed as not
to increase materially the distance traveled by passengers, nor materially decrease the space on the station platform
available for the accommodation of trains. Good results can be accomplished in many cases by the use of both
stairways and ramps. Ramps are preferred over elevators from a maintenance perspective.
e. Under normal conditions, passenger elevators are not recommended as a primary approach to individual passenger
platforms. They are required as a supplement to stairways for the use by handicapped and elderly patrons. If only one
elevator is installed, an alternate accessible path needs to be identified, perhaps under the supervision of an employee,
to allow the disabled and mobility impaired to access the platform.
f. In large passenger stations where trains operate in both directions through the station, baggage elevators are desirable
at both ends of combined passenger and trucking platforms to reduce the interference between trucking operations and
passengers. If handling baggage and passengers on the same elevator is required, a “hospital cab’ elevator should be
considered.
g. Ramps are a very desirable means of providing vertical transportation for trucking operations, if the design of the
station is such as to permit their installation without a material sacrifice in space. Ramp gradients in excess of 8% are
not recommended. The ramp surface should be finished with an abrasive or nonskid material. The minimum clear
width which should be considered for trucking ramps designed to accommodate one line of traffic is 6 feet, and for two
lines of traffic is 11 feet.
h. Grade crossings may be used in light traffic stations for platform access. They should be located for the convenience of
the passengers, baggage handling and commissary services. For best results, the crossing should be located adjacent to
the entrance/exit locations of the station building. Platform extremities are best crossing locations for baggage handling
and commissary services. If the platform is raised then allowances must be made to reduce the platform height near the
crossing location. Care should be used in selecting crossing material for passenger use to avoid tripping hazards and
problems with luggage carts.

i. Use of automatic fare collection or any type of barrier control system requires advance planning of locations to ensure
that the designed capacity of the platform access is not reduced materially. Throughput values of gates can be obtained
from the proposed manufacturer.
j. Street approaches should receive particular attention in station planning to provide convenient access and sufficient
capacity but bypassing areas of traffic congestion. Separate routes should be provided so that pedestrian traffic and
vehicular traffic can be safely and expeditiously handled. Ample accommodation for vehicles handling mail, baggage,
and express should be provided in a manner that will not impede the free movement of busses, automobiles and
pedestrian traffic on the public approach to the station.
8.7.4 PLATFORM LIGHTING (2011)
Platform lighting is essential to safety and security at station facilities. When platforms are properly illuminated it will
enhance station safety as well as its security. Passengers will perceive greater security when platforms are properly
illuminated and such illumination will provide for increased safety of the passengers as they board and deboard trains.
Illumination levels need not be uniform and should average 1.5 fc with the lowest level of illumination not dropping below .5
fc.
Fixtures used for platform lighting should be waterproof and vandal resistant. Fixtures should preferably be pole mounted or
canopy mounted, with captive fasteners on lenses and refractors. In selecting pole heights and placing lighting standards,
consideration should be given to a safe method of relamping and servicing the fixtures without having to remove adjacent
tracks from service. Platform lighting should standardize the type and wattage of lamps to minimize maintenance cost. Use of
48-inch or longer fluorescent lamps on platforms should be avoided. If train schedules result in lengthy periods with no public
use of the platform, consideration should be given to reducing the lighting to a “security” mode by switching off 40-60% of 1
fixtures during these periods of inactivity.
Wiring for platform fixtures should be run underground PVC raceways and in conduit above grade. All wiring should be
copper and conform to requirements of the National Electric Code and local codes and ordinances. In electrified territory, all
exposed metal should be bonded as directed by the railroad electric traction requirements.
Platform lighting should be situated in a manner to illuminate station identification signage to enable passenger to identify 3
their stops from inside the train.
For added safety and security closed circuit television cameras can be installed along the platform. Effective use of the
cameras at night will be dependent upon the level of illumination on the platform. When closed circuit television is used for
added safety and security monitors should be installed in the local police department as well as railroad security office.
Monitors should be accompanied by recording devices capable of recording any incident on command 24 hours per day. Prior
to deploying video surveillance, the railroad law department and the risk management department should be consulted 4
regarding local privacy regulations and liability exposure.
SECTION 8.8 STATION AND PLATFORM EXAMPLES
The following are examples of stations and platform types used in North America.

Figure 6-8-4. Intercity Station 300 PHP - Example 1
Figure 6-8-5. Intercity Station 300 PHP - Example 2
Figure 6-8-6. Communter Station
Figure 6-8-7. Intermodal Passenger Station

Figure 6-8-8. Commuter Passenger Station - Example 1
SECTION 8.9 PASSENGER TRAIN YARDS
8.9.1 GENERAL (2011)
a. It is desirable that a single coach yard and its associated facilities for train storage, car inspection, repairing, cleaning,
toilet servicing, potable watering and stocking be an integral feature of every large passenger terminal, whether or not
more than one railway is accommodated. It is definitely preferable to have all coach switching performed by and under
full control of the terminal management either as a joint operation or as a separate company. Separate facilities may be
provided for particular trains or types of equipment, although the servicing of all passenger train equipment in a single
yard is preferable.
b. The location of a coach yard should be determined by the economic balance among the following factors:
• Available sites.
• Land values.
• Cost of construction.
• Convenience to the station and other facilities.
• Nearby utilities.
• Cost of moving equipment between station, coach yard and enginehouse.
• Possible need for future expansion.
c. The capacity required in a coach yard depends upon:
• Peak number of cars and train consists to be handled.
• Type of equipment.
• Level of maintenance.
• Duration of equipment layover.
• Frequency of cleaning.
d. The ability to secure the proposed yard against trespassers to reduce theft and vandalism should be considered. In
some instances, the Transportation Security Administration may have requirements to protect a rail equipment storage
yard.
e. Adequate parking for should be provided for employees assigned to the yard. Parking should be situated to minimize
crossing of tracks, especially yard leads, and allow a short walk to the reporting location. If Train and Engine crews
also report to the yard, then additional security should be considered to protect vehicles during extended absences. In
sizing parking facilities, the number of spaces should be based upon the most populous shift plus 50% of the next most
populous shift to allow for overlap of working hours. Local building codes often specify parking requirements upon
the total number of employees but most railroad yard facilities operate two or three shifts, hence an adjusted value
should be established with the local code enforcement officials. In extremely cold climates, parking spots designated
for company vehicles may require engine block heater outlets.

8.9.2 YARD SITE CONSIDERATIONS (2011)
8.9.2.1 Tracks
a. There are two general types of coach yard layouts: Stub track and through track. There is also an intermediate type
made up of through tracks, but operated generally as two systems of stub tracks. Operation is most efficient in a system
of double-ended tracks. In designing the yard ladders, parallel leads into and out of the yard or a ladder at each end of
the yard should be considered to avoid having the entire yard inaccessible in the event of a derailment.
b. Tracks of equal length and equal to the length of the longest trains give greatest operating efficiency.
c. An alternating spacing of 30 feet/20 feet between track centers is desirable for tracks on which servicing work is done.
This allows service vehicles to pass each other on the wide platform and utilities to be centralized on the narrow
platform. Where platforms between tracks are obstructed by supports to overhead service lines, brake shoe racks or
above-platform service outlets, such obstructions should be located off center of platforms to provide a wider
passageway on one side. Obstructions may require increasing the track centers to allow service vehicles to clear.
Obstructions must be located so that they do not foul minimum State clearance requirements. Utility equipment should
be placed on the narrow platform at convenient locations.
d. Tracks used for storage of extra cars do not require particularly wide spacing or any special car servicing features other
than utilities necessary to support the car’s equipment while idle.
e. Tracks with wide centers are usually arranged in groups at the leads to facilitate switching. Auxiliary leads and tail
tracks of ample length should be provided. 1
f. Curvature of tracks should not be less than 450 feet radius through turnouts or otherwise. Make-up tracks should be as
straight as practicable to afford long sight lines for operating crews.
g. Tracks should be placed on as nearly a level gradient as possible to prevent roll-outs. If the yard will be on a grade, the
yard ladder should incorporate a split-point derail or stub ended switching lead to prevent equipment escaping the yard
onto the mainline. 3
h. A wye or loop track should be provided for turning equipment. Movements on a loop track are more expeditious for
turning entire trains. A wye is effective for turning single cars or locomotives.
i. Only light or running repairs are normally made in a service yard. Cars needing additional work are usually switched to
a Car Shop or Rip Track. The facility should however be capable of performing the mandatory FRA Daily Inspection.
4
j. Yards must be well drained. Extensive use of geotextile fabric under turnouts and sub-surface perforated piping in
ladder areas will provide for a more reliable operation over its life-cycle.
k. Roadways should connect all areas of the yard to the platforms and outside entry. Multiple access paths may be
provided to avoid equipment blocking crossings. Roadways designated as fire lanes should be designed so that the
turning radius restrictions of local fire department trucks are considered.
l. In the interests of cleanliness, sanitation, and possible reduced maintenance expense; consideration should be given to
track construction calling for rails supported by longitudinal concrete slabs with paving between slabs to present a
completely paved area which can be washed. Such construction is especially desirable for tracks at commissary
platforms or on which diners are restocked.

8.9.2.2 Yard Platforms
a. Platforms should be placed between all tracks on which cars are to be inspected and/or serviced. In instances where
site width does not permit platforms between every track, tracks may be paired with alternating a 20 feet wide service
platform and 3 feet wide employee walking surface.
b. Platform construction preferably should be of concrete, crowned not less than 3/16 inch to the foot. The width will vary
with the track centers but should be at least 10 feet for utility platforms and 20 feet for service vehicle platforms. The
edge of a platform adjacent to a track constructed with ties and ballast usually is placed level with top of rail and
approximately 5 feet from the center of the track. If any service lines are to be carried below the surface, the platform
should provide for adequate manholes or other entry. Longitudal perforated drain pipe should be installed at the face of
the platform curb at the top of the sub-ballast to carry away storm water. Transverse yard drains with cleanouts should
intercept the longitudinal platform drains every 400-600 feet depending upon the slope of the yard tracks.
c. Crossings should be located where equipment will not likely be parked and preferably outside blue flag/derail
protection areas. Public crossings should be adequately marked. Care should be used to avoid placing crossings
adjacent to structures that will limit sight lines causing “blind” crossings. If at all possible, crossings should not be
placed through switch points. In heavy snow areas, markers may be placed alongside crossings to identify the limits of
the crossing material. Plastic, asphalt, wooden, and rubber crossings are suitable except in locomotive areas where
special consideration must be made due to the oil drippings.
d. In designing yard platform configurations in regions receiving routine snowfalls, consideration should be given to
plowing patterns and designated snow storage areas that do not hinder the operation of the yard nor create safety
hazards with blocked drainage or sightlines.
8.9.2.3 Repair Pits
a. Where underneath inspection of standing cars is desired, one or more pits equal in length to the longest train may be
justified. These may be combination inspection and repair pits depending on their location in the yard. If underneath
inspection of cars in motion is desired, a short pit located on the yard lead or the mechanical washer track may be used.
Where rails are elevated above adjacent paved areas, inspection and repair work will be facilitated to some extent,
especially under conditions of heavy snow, but such elevation will make ramps in platform paving necessary at fire and
service roadways which cross the yard.
b. Pit construction preferably should be of concrete. The rails can rest directly on the concrete walls without plates and
cushions, and be anchored in place by bolted down rail clips; however, better results will generally be experienced with
rails installed on bearing plates and cushions. The pit should be well drained and equipped with recessed flood lights
for general lighting and receptacles for service lights and small tools. If loco sand may accumulate in the pit, drains
should be equipped with a sand trap to keep the drain piping from being blocked.
c. Where all inbound trains pass over a single pit for inspection, other tracks should be provided for servicing and repair
work. Work performed at such a single pit should be confined to inspection only. Such pits require side access to allow
escape should a train be located on the pit and may be subject to confined space regulations depending upon the
distance to the exit path.
d. Where servicing and light repair work is done on an inspection pit, several tracks, each with a full length pit may be
required, the number depending on the number and schedule of the trains to be serviced and the length of time required
to service each train. A multiple track pit arrangement should provide for several wheel drop pits with jacking pads so
spaced that several wheels can be dropped simultaneously on any given track with a minimum of car spotting. Each
track should also be provided with the other facilities for the complete servicing of cars, such as paved platforms,
service outlets for water, air, steam and electricity, and an adequate drainage system.
e. An average depth of pits for car inspection and light repairs of about 2′-9″ below the top of running rails on the field
side and 4’-6” to 5’-6” in the gauge of the track will provide good working space below cars.

f. Concrete jacking pads should be provided along car repair track pits. The pads should be built integrally with the track
pit walls and extend laterally each side a minimum of 6 feet, from the center of the track, and for a sufficient distance
along the track each way from the drop pits to provide proper jacking space. On track pits assigned to repair work only,
continuous jacking pads extending the full length of the pit are desirable.
g. An inside width of 3 feet for repair pits will provide a ledge for jacking or blocking on the inner side of rails.
h. A jacking pad, at least one car in length and continuous between rails for center jacking, is sometimes provided beyond
the repair pit on one or more repair tracks.
i. Consideration should be given to covering at least a portion of the area devoted to car servicing and repair work. The
protection afforded by a building with at least semi-covered sides, preferably of fire resistant construction, will reduce
the expense of conditioning trains and expedite repair work under unfavorable weather conditions. Complete housing
of pits on tracks assigned to repair work is desirable, but at repair pits where wheels are changed or truck work is
performed the housing should be at least sufficient to cover a car spotted either way over the wheel drop pits and
provide a passageway at end of car. The extent to the enclosure and heating should depend on the severity of the
climate. Snow melting devices should be considered if the pit is located outdoors or in an area that might be receiving
equipment with impacted snow.
j. Side entrances to pits should be provided at sufficient intervals to allow quick evacuation if necessary.
8.9.3 YARD ACTIVITIES (2011)
a. Train servicing requirements include car washing, cleaning, light repairs, and stocking. If a mechanical washer is 1
employed, it should be located on a lead after a wye or loop track, but before the servicing yard, with access to all
servicing tracks. Care must be taken in selection of a car washer site as the slow moving trains will block crossings and
switches for long periods of time. Adequate drip space should be provided following the washer. The platform and
utilities sections further describe requirements for cleaning, light repairs and stocking.
b. Car repair facilities’ requirements include drop tables, wheel storage, jacks, and craft shops. Ideally the car repair shop
should be located so that individual cars can be easily removed from trains, repaired and returned to consists with a 3
minimum of switching.
c. Locomotive service facilities may also be provided. Passenger locomotives require much the same facilities as freight
locomotives. The engine house is best located on the end of the yard that corresponds with the end of the trains that are
most likely to receive locomotives.
d. Locomotive repair facilities may also be provided. Passenger locomotives may have head-end power units that must 4
also be maintained. An in-truck wheel truing facility is great advantage over individual sets being replaced by drop
tables.
e. Commissary facilities will depend on the type of food service but, if provided, should be located away from the main
yard due to the high volume of outside truck traffic. Paved roadways and service walks within the yard should connect
the commissary to the yard platforms to allow for the transportation of supplies to the specific cars in a train requiring
servicing.
f. A parts-supply warehouse and purchasing office on site will speed repairs and allow for bulk purchases of materials.
g. Administrative offices including Mechanical, Engineering, Transportation, Security, Personnel, Training, Safety and a
Dispensary should also be located convenient to work locations. Employee amenities such as locker rooms, showers,
restrooms, and lunch rooms should be located convenient to work locations. A yardmaster tower with a good view of
the facility is an advantage to operations.

h. A Maintenance of Way Building and secure store area for track materials should be provided on-site to house track,
facility, and vehicle maintenance. Consideration must be given in some locales to snow removal operations, salt
storage, and snow dumping areas.
i. Adequate areas to handle refuse should be provided. Consideration should be given to using compactors to reduce
volume and eliminate wind-borne debris.
j. Adequate fire protection devices should be incorporated including hydrants, stand pipes, sprinklers, smoke detectors,
centralized alarms, and extinguishers as required by local code and the railroad risk management officials. If the yard
is electrified, fire protection must be integrated with the power dispatcher and power removal procedures to prevent
injury.
8.9.4 YARD MECHANICAL SYSTEMS (2011)
In designing yard utilities, utility corridors should be established for the various services with frequent manholes, handholes,
access pits or for transverse runs across a yard, a utility tunnel. If the yard is electrified,care should be taken to isolate piping
to prevent corrosion. Longitudal pipe runs should not be installed under tracks or at shallow angles that would require removal
of track to make repairs. Pipes carrying liquids or gases under pressure may require a structural sleeve as specified by the
railroad.
a. Compressed air connections should be provided at all tracks where the method of operation or servicing requires that
an air brake test be made while the train is standing without locomotive attached. Air pressure should be between 120
and 140 lb and be delivered through 1-1/2 connection with appropriate control and bleed valves. Compressed air may
also be used for cleaning and portable tools. If used in this manner, connections of 3/4 inch size should be distributed as
needed so that no more than 100 feet of hose is normally necessary. Tool outlets should be provided with a regulator to
reduce pressure to match tool working pressures. Yard air mains should be equipped with condensate drains.
b. Natural gas may be used for building heating. Pipe routing should be shown on site plans and the pipe identified at
convenient intervals. Appropriate measures should be taken to ensure that if a pipe is ruptured the utility involved can
be notified as soon as possible. These measures would include ready availability of pipe plans, utility phone contacts,
and easy accessibility to shut off valves.
c. At yards or stations where train equipment may be watered, hydrants spaced two car lengths apart, preferably serving
two tracks, should be provided. Where station dwell time is short, hydrants may be spaced for every car. Water service
should be distributed so that no more than 100 feet of hose is necessary to reach a car. Water hydrants in yards are
usually placed on alternating platforms allowing service vehicles an unobstructed path on non-utility platforms. Freeze
protection should be applied where necessary. If backflow preventers are required, a heated cabinet is preferable. A
potable connection of 1 inch size should be provided for car watering and a minimum 3/4 inch non-potable connection
may be used for washing purposes. By looping and interconnecting water pipes, a better flow pattern can be a
achieved. Adequate control valves should be installed to allow sections to be taken out of service without affecting all
operations. All potable water equipment used to service rail equipment used in interstate service must also be
approved by the US Publlic Health Service.
d. Adequate drainage should be provided to drain track structures, catch paved area runoff, and collect roof drainage.
Where necessary, piping should be separated to allow for treatment of polluted wastes. Sanitary drainage should be
kept separate until delivered to city facilities, if available.
e. Pipe lines may be installed for fuel oil, lube oil, sand, cleaners, foam, and other specialized products. These and all
other pipe lines should be identified at adequate intervals. A spill prevention plan is usually necessary for such
installation.

8.9.5 YARD ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS (2011)
a. Adequate power supply should be designed to handle current needs with at least 50% available for expansion, if
anticipated. Building supply of 480V/277V is common along with 208V/120V systems. Where required, head end
train standby should be provided at the end of the platform corresponding to the end of the train not subject to
switching. Modern North American systems provide 480V 3φ standby for train power in accordance with APTA HEP
Standards. HEP points of connection are sized for 400, 800, or 1200 amperes depending upon train consist length. See
Chapter 33 for more information. Convenience outlets of 120V may be provided where necessary such that cord
lengths do not exceed 200 feet. Electric vehicle charging stands should be located so as not to disrupt operations while
vehicle is being charged. Emergency platform standby power systems should be considered for critical loads. Some
railroads provide a standby power connection that is supplied by a locomotive HEP generator. Yard power should be
distributed from unit substations installed in locations near the heaviest loads and not subject to damage in the event of
a train derailment. If located near a yard ladder, substations should be protected with crashwalls or earthen berms. In
yards that are electrified, a complete bonding plan for exposed metal components should be developed taking into
consideration the voltage of the traction power and the degree of electrification risk to personnel.
b. Platform lighting should be provided at an average minimum 10 fc level. Walkways, entrances and signage should be
lit at an appropriate level taking into consideration adjacent lighting and security requirements. Many yards use high
mast lighting to avoid clearance conflicts within the body of the yard or in the ladder areas.
c. Yard lighting should be provided where work at night is common or security is desired. A 5 foot candle minimum will
generally provide acceptable night lighting. Lights should be mounted as high as possible to reduce shadowing
between cars. High pressure sodium lighting is currently the most energy efficient source although it does alter color
perception. Mercury vapor or metal halide lighting should be used if color perception is important. 1
d. Public address, intercom, talk-back, and message tube systems may be included in yards. Public address systems
should be provided to reach all station areas including the platforms. Microphones or telephone deluxe paging may be
used to initiate announcements. By designing such facilities in advance, wires can be installed underground avoiding
weather and vehicle contact. Particular care should be used when determining control and terminal locations to avoid
conflicts between operating hours of those locations and other users. Spare ducts should be provided in all duct banks,
where possible, for future expansion. Telephone service should be provided as needed. A trunking capability of at least 3
three times current use should be requested to ensure easy future expansion, if anticipated. Consideration should be
given to interconnecting telephone and other company communication systems to allow for faster information flow.
Platform jacks may be provided to permit the connection of train telephone systems.
e. Adequate conduit should be provided in buildings to carry radio antenna wires to the roof. As the FCC limits the
number of broadcast stations in a close area, consideration should be given to remote base stations when needed. Radio
antennas should be located so as not to detract from the facility but allow clear coverage to the entire site. See 4
Article 8.6.6.b for roof penetration information.
f. Signal, fare control, computer, fire, security, and alarm systems should be designed carefully in advance of
construction on a master plan to avoid overhead wires and afterthought appearances. Video cameras can be used for
security, car observation, drawbridge control, and to improve existing sight lines. Since they require power, an
adequate source must be identified before locations are committed. Signal systems, when present, should be interfaced
with yard operations to avoid excessive radio or intercom use.


6
Part 9
Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way
Equipment Repair Shops1
— 1995 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-2 1

9.1.1 Foreword (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-2
9.1.2 Scope and Purpose (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-2
9.1.3 Operations (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-3
9.1.4 Location (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-3
9.1.5 Organization (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-3
9.1.6 Design Considerations (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-3
3
9.2 Machine Maintenance Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4
9.2.1 Small Machines Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4
9.2.2 Medium Machines Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4
9.2.3 Large Machines Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4
9.2.4 General (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-4
9.3 Other Workshop Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5

9.3.1 General (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5
9.3.2 Paint Shop (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5
9.3.3 Carpentry Shop (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-5
9.3.4 Motor Car Repair (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-6
9.3.5 Shop Equipment Repair and Maintenance (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-6
9.3.6 Engine Rebuild Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-6
9.3.7 Machine Shop (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-7
9.3.8 Hydraulic Repair (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-7
9.3.9 Electrical Machine Repair Area (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-7
9.3.10 Steel Fabrication, Welding and Sheet Metal Shop (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-7
9.3.11 Electronic Equipment Room (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8
9.3.12 Wash Bay (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8
9.3.13 Test Bay (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8
1
References, Vol. 96, p. 35.

9.4 Machine and Material Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8

9.4.1 General (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-8
9.5 Support Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9

9.5.1 Office (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9
9.5.2 Special Requirements (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9
9.5.3 Lunch and Locker Rooms (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9
9.5.4 Toilet Facilities (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-9
9.5.5 Tool Room (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-10
9.5.6 Materials Management Area (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-10
9.5.7 Flammable Storage (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-10
9.5.8 First Aid Room (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-10
9.5.9 Typical Facility Arrangements (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-10
LIST OF FIGURES
6-9-1 Site Plan, Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Memphis, TN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-11

6-9-2 Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Memphis, TN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-12
6-9-3 Site Plan, Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Charlotte, NC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-13
6-9-4 Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Charlotte, NC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-14
6-9-5 Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – North Bay, Ont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9-15
9.1.1 FOREWORD (1995)
a. A maintenance-of-way equipment repair complex provides a facility for the overhauling, rebuilding and modifying of
railway machines, work equipment and specialized power tools, which are used in maintenance-of-way operations.
b. The shop may also be used to directly support field operations with the supply of parts and technical expertise.
9.1.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE (1995)
a. The purpose of these criteria is to provide a description and layout of facilities for a centralized work equipment shop
and to recommend equipment service areas. Figure 6-9-1 through Figure 6-9-5 are shown as an aid in visualizing
typical repair shops and the layout of equipment and service areas.
b. Heating, lighting, plumbing and other incidental mechanical items would be a part of these buildings; however, they
are not included in these criteria.

Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way of Equipment Repair Shops
9.1.3 OPERATIONS (1995)
a. The major operations performed in a centralized maintenance-of-way repair complex are dismantling, cleaning,
repairing, reassembling, quality control, testing and painting of overhauled machines.
b. These operations are supported by other incidental services, such as carpentry, steel fabricating, forging, welding,
hydraulic component repair, testing, etc., in order to make it possible to perform minor repairs to small tools, as well as
major overhauls to self-powered equipment.
9.1.4 LOCATION (1995)
a. For small or medium size railways, the location of a centralized work equipment shop should be as close to the center
of the railroad as practical, with consideration being given to the availability of suitable land, rail service, available
manpower, housing, etc.
b. For large railroads, a network of two or three shops may be required. Considerations that would determine the shop
network and locations are:
• cost of movement of equipment to the shops;
• travel and support cost for field inspection and repairs;
• savings from consolidation of the spare parts inventory;
• land values and building construction costs, including conversion costs if existing buildings can be used. 1
c. Depending on the methodology used for track maintenance, it may be desirable to locate the shop adjacent to the yard
where “work trains” are assembled. In this case, adjacent storage and facilities are required for boarding cars, spare
parts cars, and flat cars to transport machines to the work site.
9.1.5 ORGANIZATION (1995)

3
a. The shop is normally a part of the engineering department and operates under the jurisdiction of the chief engineer,
with the superintendent of work equipment as the immediate supervisor.
b. On a large railroad the superintendent and staff will operate an organization of 200 employees, more or less, of various
crafts.
c. On a small railroad fewer employees are required to perform the necessary operations; however, the organization 4
would remain essentially the same.
9.1.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (1995)

a. The scope of the shop functions. These may vary considerably from one railway to another, and in addition to on track
maintenance-of-way equipment, might include maintenance of:
• Non-rail equipment: bulldozers, diggers, rubber tired cranes and tractors.
• Hy-rail trucks and equipment.
• Boarding cars.
• Track geometry testing cars and equipment.
• Hand held power tools.

b. The operating plan for the railway’s track maintenance activity. This may be an all year operation, or may be a seasonal
activity with the equipment receiving detailed inspection, repair and overhaul at the shop during the winter period.
c. The extent of contracting out for repair or overhaul of components and sub assemblies.
d. The split of field and shop maintenance and repair activities, and the support to the field activities given from the shop.
e. The mix of equipment in the railway’s fleet. In general, on track maintenance-of-way equipment falls into the
following categories.
(1) Small machines, dimensions not exceeding 10 feet, weight less than 7,000 lb. Adzes, spike pullers, spikers, tie
drillers are examples of this category of machines
(2) Medium machines, up to 35 feet long and 60,000 lb weight. Most tampers, ballast regulators, scarifiers, tie cranes
and tie inserters are in this category.
(3) Large machines. These may be up to 200 feet long and 160 tons weight. Large tamping machines, large ballast
compactors and multi-function machines such as rail changeout machines and ballast undercutters/cleaners are
examples of this category.
(4) Small and medium machines normally travel to the work site on flat cars. Large machines can usually travel at 50
mph or faster using their own traction power, or be incorporated in a train consist.
SECTION 9.2 MACHINE MAINTENANCE AREA
9.2.1 SMALL MACHINES AREA (1995)
a. Direct rail access is desirable but machines may be lifted off of the track for maintenance. Short lengths of rail
embedded in the floor may be provided for the work locations. Pits are not required, and a flat floor is desirable for
maximum flexibility in the use of this area. A 10 ton crane should cover this area.
b. Jib cranes of 2 ton capacity may be used at each work location but shop operating procedures must deal with the risk of
conflict between the shop overall craneage and the jib cranes.
9.2.2 MEDIUM MACHINES AREA (1995)
Direct rail access is required. Pits should be provided between the rails for a proportion, generally less than 50% of the tracks
in this area, depending on the requirements of the machines to be maintained. 30 ton cranes with 10 ton auxiliary hoists should
cover this area. Jib cranes as in Article 9.2.1 may also be provided.
9.2.3 LARGE MACHINES AREA (1995)
Direct rail access is essential. Pits should be provided between the rails and pedestal track 2′-0″ – 2′-6″ above the floor may be
considered, depending on the type of equipment being maintained. 50 ton overhead craneage with 20 ton synchronized jacks is
also desirable. Jib cranes as in Article 9.2.1 may also be provided.
9.2.4 GENERAL (1995)
a. Minimum crane hook height should be 30 feet to allow one machine to be lifted over another.

b. Tracks should be at 20 feet centers adjacent to columns and 25 feet between columns to allow for fork lift truck
movement down a center aisle.
c. The floor loading should be sufficient to allow use of boiler synchronized jacking.
d. Compressed air, (100 CFM) 110V AC electricity and 480/575V AC outlets for electric arc welding should be provided
throughout this area.
e. Piped in lubrication systems engine/hydraulic oil, grease and engine coolant, with hoses on self reeling drums are
desirable in these areas, together with waste oil and water systems. Distribution systems may also be considered for
Oxygen and cutting/welding gases.
f. Exhaust ventilation at each machine spot is essential. This may take the form of an outlet to which a large diameter
hose may be attached or exhaust hose reels. Four, five or six inch diameter hoses may be required depending on the
engine size.
SECTION 9.3 OTHER WORKSHOP AREAS
9.3.1 GENERAL (1995)
The requirements of these areas are stated, but the necessity of some of the areas will depend on the railways’ policy for 1
contracting out of repair and overhaul of components and subassemblies. The requirement for component or subassembly
repair shops should be based upon Economic Level of Repair Analyses for all repairables, with consideration given to the
quantity to be repaired, transportation cost, inventory costs, repair times, setup costs, including shop space, tools and test
equipment, training and quality. Also, for smaller facilities, many of the functions of these shops will be combined into general
workshop areas. The sizes of the areas when given indicate typical sizes of single function shops, as they might be found in a
large facility.
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9.3.2 PAINT SHOP (1995)
a. Machines, when repaired, are painted and stenciled in this shop. It should be equipped with a pit to allow painting the
underside of machines.
b. The painting should be performed in a booth of sufficient size to accommodate, within reason, the largest piece of 4
equipment expected to be repainted plus space to work around the machine. The shop should also have air filtration
equipment to capture the paint fog to prevent its being exhausted into the atmosphere.
c. A sprinkler or fire-suppression system, explosion-proof lighting, heating and ventilating equipment should be
provided, as required by local codes and regulatory agencies.
d. It is desirable that the paint shop should have an exterior wall.
9.3.3 CARPENTRY SHOP (1995)
a. All wooden assemblies for roadway machines and work equipment are fabricated, or repaired in this area, including
repairs to wooden portions of motorcar decks.
b. All boxes and crates are made in this area for items requiring them, and wooden shields installed on windshield glasses
to protect them from vandalism during shipment.

c. All replacement of glass and repairs to seats and canvas items are made in this area, which should contain a canvas
rack, large cutting table and an industrial type sewing machine.
d. Minimum size of a separate Carpentry Shop would be 400 square feet.
9.3.4 MOTOR CAR REPAIR (1995)
a. In this area motor cars are stripped, repaired and reassembled. Area should be equipped with a single dry pedestal
grinder, solvent vat, test stands, work bench and hydraulic press.
b. Minimum size of a separate Motor Car Repair Shop would be 50 feet by 30 feet.
9.3.5 SHOP EQUIPMENT REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE (1995)

a. This area should have adequate work benches and material storage bins for the maintenance machinist in charge of
repairs to shop machines, cranes, power plant and other terminal facilities.
b. The area should be equipped for storage of small items and components from work in progress. Major components
should be stored within the stores.
c. Electrical assemblies from light plant and electric welders, electric power tools, etc., would be repaired in this area.
d. Minimum size of this area would be 400 square feet.
9.3.6 ENGINE REBUILD AREA (1995)

a. All large gasoline and diesel engines are stripped repaired, reassembled, and such items as carburetors, fuel pumps, and
air cleaners are rebuilt in this area.
b. Machine work is performed in this shop, such as reboring cylinders, line boring of main bearings, grinding and fitting
of pistons, fitting and applying wrist pins, facing of valve seats, grinding of valves, and reassembling block and
internal engine parts.
c. One and two cylinder air-cooled engines, rail saws, small light plant and other such items are repaired and tested in this
area on an engine test-out stand.
d. A 50 ton hydraulic press and engine rebuilding stands should be provided to facilitate the handling of engine units
while they are undergoing repairs and testing.
e. A separate area is required for the testing of large gasoline and diesel engines on engine dynamometer test stands and
fine adjustments made before engines are released from the shop. Engines should be broken in at full operating RPMs
for approximately four hours before being taken off the test stands. For small/medium size engines, dynamometer
capacity of 100–200 hp is required. Large machines may require 500 hp. Noise insulation is essential for this area. An
external fuel tank with a fuel supply to this area is desirable.
f. Noise and air pollution are important factors in the design of this area, which must be in compliance with local codes
and regulatory agencies.

9.3.7 MACHINE SHOP (1995)
This shop should be equipped with various types and sizes of lathes, boring mills, drill presses, grinders, milling machines,
hydraulic press with capability of handling any and all types of machine work required by centralized work equipment shop. A
typical size for this shop would be 1,500 square feet.
9.3.8 HYDRAULIC REPAIR (1995)
a. Hydraulic assemblies and component parts removed from machines should be held in the stores. Work orders should
be generated for those that are repairable and these sent to the Hydraulic Repair Area or a contractor.
b. The Hydraulic Repair Area should be easy to clean so that dust will be kept to a minimum.
c. This area should be equipped with a hydraulic test stand on which rebuilt assemblies can be tested before they are
released for reinstallation on the individual machines undergoing repair, or placed in the hydraulic unit storage area.
d. Hydraulic hoses used in connection with repairs to the equipment throughout the entire complex may be fabricated in
this area. The area should be equipped with adequate hose and fitting storage bins, band saw, hydraulic press, drill
press, grinders, a hose cut-off machine and hose fitting application machine.
e. A typical size for this shop in a large facility would be 1,500 square feet.
9.3.9 ELECTRICAL MACHINE REPAIR AREA (1995)

1
a. Provision may be made for the rebuilding of all electric vibrator motors and main tamping generators from track
maintainers and tamping power jacks. The area should have an overhead trolley system to allow the motors and
generators to be stripped, reassembled and tested on an “assembly line” basis.
b. Provision should be made for hydraulic presses, double dry grinders, stator coil cutter and sandblast cabinet for
cleaning stator housings after the coils have been removed.
3
c. A vibrator motor test stand should be provided that will permit several motors to be tested simultaneously.
d. If rewinding of electrical machines is contemplated, space should be provided for a large and small insulation cutter,
insulation folder, coil winder drives, coil taping machine, stator hold stands and an approved type furnace for removal
of insulations from scrap stator coils.
4
e. Provision should be made for vacuum impregnation of rewound stator, armatures and field windings.
f. A typical size for this facility would be 600 square feet.
9.3.10 STEEL FABRICATION, WELDING AND SHEET METAL SHOP (1995)
a. Space should be provided for use as a repair and test area for all types of radiators and fuel tanks. A cleaning and test
vat should provided.
b. Adjustable booths should be provided for steel fabrication or repair of assemblies. Individual 5 feet high canvas or
plastic shields should completely surround each booth to protect other employees from the electric flash created by
wire fed welders.
c. Space should be allocated for storage racks for bar steel, sheet steel, angle iron and pipe.
d. An electronic eye semi-automatic shape cutting machine may be located in this shop.

e. A large heating furnace and a machinist welding booth if tamping tools are reclaimed in-house may also be located in
this shop.
f. A forge, metal shear and hole punching machines, a large and small hammer, double dry grinder, welding booths,
exhaust ducting, normalizing furnace, and other equipment and storage areas, may be located in this area. This area
should be covered by an overhead crane of 5 ton capacity.
g. A typical size for this shop would be 1,500 square feet.
9.3.11 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT ROOM (1995)
a. This area is provided for the testing of electronic modules, cards, etc., to assess whether they are defective, before
sending them to a contractor or doing the repair in-house.
b. Clean room conditions are required with non-absorbent finishes to wall and flooring and a filtered air supply.
c. Depending on the equipment being tested, various test voltages will be required. Particular consideration needs to be
given to electrical safety as local code provisions may not cover the circumstance experienced in test rooms.
d. The area should be securely locked and access only allowed to designated personnel.
9.3.12 WASH BAY (1995)
A wash bay is required for cleaning of machines prior to maintenance. This should have a depressed floor and center pits to
facilitate access. A packaged boiler unit and plug-in locations for a wash wand should be provided.
9.3.13 TEST BAY (1995)
In northern climates a test bay is desirable. The test bay is a length of ballasted track in a covered, partially heated area. It is
used for functional testing of overhauled machines, such as tampers, tie inserts, spikers, etc. In southern climates a length of
track adjacent to the building may be used.
SECTION 9.4 MACHINE AND MATERIAL HANDLING
9.4.1 GENERAL (1995)
a. An off-loading ramp should be provided to remove machines from flat cars. Entrance to shop tracks may be provided
by switches or a traverser. It is impractical to construct a traverser to handle very large machines, so these should be
provided with dedicated tracks to the facilities they would use.
b. In cold climates, an off-loading gantry to unload and transport machines into the shop should be considered in view of
the difficulty of starting engines and possibility of damage to hydraulic equipment at low temperature.
c. Within the shops, large machines must be moved on rail tracks. Medium and small machines may be moved using
overhead cranes.
d. It is not expected that an automated materials handling system can be justified for this type of shop.
e. Internal materials handling should be by:

• Tow tractor and trailer for items up to 50 lbs weight.
• Forklift or overhead crane for larger items.
SECTION 9.5 SUPPORT AREAS
9.5.1 OFFICE (1995)
a. Offices will be required for:
• shop supervisors.
• stores supervisors and clerical personnel.
• shop manager.
• general office personnel.
b. These offices should comply with Part 2, Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings. Noise insulation may be
necessary for offices abutting shop floor operations.
9.5.2 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS (1995) 1

a. Shop Supervisors’ Offices should be adjacent to the shop floor area and have a door and a window with a serving hatch
into the shop floor area. Space should be provided for storage of drawings and equipment manufacturers’ technical
information.
b. The stores office should be adjacent to and open direct to the stores area.
3
c. If possible, the Shop Supervisors’ and Stores Office should have direct access to the General Office area.
d. Direct access should not be provided between the Office Reception Area and the Shop Floor.
e. A Conference Room should be provided.
f. A training room should be provided with video facilities and room for storage of training materials. For smaller shops, 4
this may be combined with the Conference or Lunch Room.
9.5.3 LUNCH AND LOCKER ROOMS (1995)
Lunch and Locker room facilities should be provided as required by applicable codes, and provision should also be made for
lunch tables and vending machines. The lunch room should have outside windows.
9.5.4 TOILET FACILITIES (1995)
a. Toilet facilities and water coolers should be provided for shop forces at centralized locations to minimize the away-
from-workstation time.
b. The number of fixtures required is governed by applicable codes and will vary depending on the location.

9.5.5 TOOL ROOM (1995)
A tool room with required security is necessary and should stock all power and hand tools used throughout the various areas. It
should be located adjacent to the store serving hatch to permit issue of tools by stores personnel at time of low demand.
9.5.6 MATERIALS MANAGEMENT AREA (1995)
a. The Store area should be located as near as possible to the center areas of the Workshop areas.
b. Proper attention should be given to providing adequate security.
c. The Stores should have a serving hatch, a personnel door and a forklift truck door adjacent to each other and forming
the only communication to Workshop areas.
d. An external Reception/Dispatch area should be provided with:
• at least one truck dock.
• provision for delivery in light vans.
• a loading/unloading dock for rail cars and parts cars.
e. An analysis of the optimum method of storage and distribution around the shop should be done before design of the
Stores area. However, it is expected that only very large facilities would be able to justify automated picking systems.
Provision should normally be made for small bin, shelving and pallet racking storage.
9.5.7 FLAMMABLE STORAGE (1995)
a. Flammable materials should be stored in a room on the outside of the main building. An open, secure storage area may
also be required for bottled gases, flammable or toxic materials.
b. Particular attention should be given to this area with regard to insurance requirements and local fire regulations.
c. A sprinkler system or fire-suppression system may be necessary.
9.5.8 FIRST AID ROOM (1995)
A first aid room and eye wash facilities are required, according to local regulations, codes, and agreements.
9.5.9 TYPICAL FACILITY ARRANGEMENTS (1995)
a. In view of the many different design considerations, there is no universal ideal solution and these facilities need to be
tailored to the specific requirements of the railway. Figure 6-9-1 and Figure 6-9-2 show site and building plans for
purpose-built shops for a class 1 railway. Figure 6-9-3 and Figure 6-9-4 show site and building plans for a major
extension of a facility. Figure 6-9-5 shows the building layout for the shop of a smaller railway.
b. In many cases, an existing building is converted for use as a maintenance-of-way equipment repair shop. In
considering buildings for this conversion, the most important factor is the provision of sufficient overhead
cranes.

Figure 6-9-1. Site Plan, Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Memphis, TN

Figure 6-9-2. Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Memphis, TN

Figure 6-9-3. Site Plan, Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Charlotte, NC

1

Figure 6-9-4. Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – Charlotte, NC

Figure 6-9-5. Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Shop – North Bay, Ont.

3


6
Part 10
Design Criteria for Observation Towers
— 2002 —
FOREWORD
An observation tower is an elevated structure from which supervisory personnel can visually supervise yard crews and yard
engine operations. Observation towers are located in classification yards, intermodal facilities, auto loading/unloading
facilities and coach yards.
The observation tower permits the yardmaster not only to visually supervise yard crews but also to develop greater switching
efficiency through better switch crew utilization. Towers are generally located at the switching end or lead end of the yard for
rail operations and near the middle of the yard for other types of facilities. 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2

10.1.1 Site Consideration (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2
10.2 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2

10.2.1 General (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-2
10.3 Tower Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-3

10.3.1 General Construction Materials (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-3
10.3.2 Mechanical and Electrical Facilities and Equipment (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-4
10.4 Special Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5

10.4.1 Tower Size (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5
10.4.2 Tower Roof Overhang (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5
10.4.3 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5
10.4.4 Tower Furnishings (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5
10.4.5 Towers (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-5

LIST OF FIGURES
6-10-1 Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-6

6-10-2 Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-7
6-10-3 Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-8
6-10-4 Prefabricated Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-9
6-10-5 Tower Constructed as Part of Coach Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-10
6-10-6 Automobile Mixing Center Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-11
6-10-7 Typical Glass Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10-12
10.1.1 SITE CONSIDERATION (2002)
a. The primary function of the observation tower is to observe yard operations and to better supervise switching
operations. Location of the observation tower is a very important consideration. The optimum height from the top of
rail or pavement to the observation tower floor is generally 30 to 40 feet for rail operations and 15 to 25 feet at other
locations. The site location for the yard tower should be determined by the track geometry of the particular yard
location. As a rule, the tower should be 50 feet back from the switching lead to permit observation of switching
operations, and at the centerline of the classification tracks to permit maximum observation down the line of
classification tracks. Towers for other types of operation should be located near the center of the operation for good
observation of the entire facility.
b. Many rail yards are located within urban areas and are bisected by overhead structures carrying vehicular traffic.
These structures often make it difficult to determine the appropriate height and location for the construction of a tower.
In these cases, it may be advantageous to secure a bucket truck with a high reach boom and with the local operating
supervisor determine both an appropriate height and location for the tower based upon actual observation. Once a
location and height have been agreed upon the tower floor height can then be determined by actual field measurement.
SECTION 10.2 TYPES
10.2.1 GENERAL (2002)
a. Observation towers may be constructed as independent structures, as a part of a multi-story building, or as an addition
to an already existing building.
b. Independent towers are purely functional structures, and economic considerations generally dictate that they be
constructed of the most economical materials available. The size, height and location as well as other considerations
may also contribute to the choice of materials selected for the tower construction.
c. When constructed as a part of a new facility and/or an addition to an already existing building, the choice of materials
used to construct the tower may be dictated by the building that will support the tower. In any event the location of the
tower under these circumstances is extremely important to the effectiveness of the tower itself.

SECTION 10.3 TOWER CONSTRUCTION
10.3.1 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS (2002)
a. The construction and aesthetics of the overall building structure will determine materials used in the construction of a
tower. Lightweight, fire resistive, standard components should be used at all times. Material types to be considered for
the construction of an observation tower should be structural steel, aluminum tube framing, masonry, concrete,
standard window wall components, and metal flooring and roof decking materials.
Interior finishes and materials chosen need to recognize that acoustical treatment must be of the utmost consideration,
since the tower will contain large areas of reflective surfaces and equipment such as printers and radios which will
(may) generate significant noise levels. Consequently, carpeting may be better suited than vinyl tile on the floor and
acoustic tile ceilings may be more effective than ordinary dry wall ceilings. Wall coverings as well also need to be
considered.
b. State, provincial, local, ANSI, and ADA codes and regulations will require the inclusion of an elevator in the design of
the tower in order to accommodate handicap accessibility. Stairways leading to the tower floor level may be interior
and/or exterior. However, local codes may require that the tower floor be served by at least two stairways. Interior
stairways may be concrete filled metal pan stairways while exterior stairs should be open metal stairways with open
grating type treads.
c. Glazing should be located only on the faces of the tower where yard operations are to be observed. This is usually on
three tower walls with the fourth wall used for a toilet room, service panels, heating/cooling equipment and other
essential services. 1
The lower and upper glass line should be dictated by line of sight. The lower glass line should be as close to the floor
as possible, allowing sufficient space for heating baseboard units, service outlets, conduit, etc. The upper glass line
should be located above the eye line for a 95th percentile man who is standing. In most cases, points of observation are
all below eye level in the yard and glass above this point is unnecessary and will help to reduce sun glare and sky
brightness.
3
Use of thermal break frames with thermopane or triple pane glazing with low E glass for all observation windows will
reduce solar gain, heat loss and help to eliminate the possibility of condensation and fogging of the glass surface.
Glare reducing glass is not recommended for use in observation towers. This type of glass reduces night visibility at a
time when visibility is most critical. Additional heat gain that may result from not using this type of glass can be
compensated for during the day by providing increased air conditioning.
4
Tower glazing may be installed vertically or sloped. Use of sloped glazing does have some disadvantages even though
it is used widely. Sloped glazing places additional stress on the glass making the glass more susceptible to cracking
which is especially true of insulating glass. Sloped glazing also tends to reflect the overhead lighting and to increase
distortion and reduce vision as the sight line passes through a greater thickness and density of glass.
Where vehicle bridges are close by and/or a history of shootings is present at the site, it may be prudent to consider
bulletproof glazing on those sides of the tower most vulnerable to these types of incidents.
d. For observation towers the maximum standard size sash should be used. Use of vertical mullions is not a problem;
however, care should be taken not to locate mullions in the center of critical viewing areas. Corner columns can create
a visual problem and should be avoided. Use of sealed corner glazing should be used rather than mullions at corners.
Use of vertical pivoted sash for towers is desirable since this type of sash would permit window washing from the
inside of the tower. If fixed sash is used, a catwalk should be provided for washing windows.

10.3.2 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT (2002)
a. Towers whether independent structures or an integral part of another structure should have easily accessible toilet
facilities. The number and type of fixtures to be provided should be derived from the local building code and/or
regulations. The toilet facility(ies) must also be ADA compliant.
In independent towers, toilets should preferably be accessible to personnel at the observation level. Additional
facilities may be included at a lower level to accommodate other personnel. Towers located in other types of buildings
should be equipped with at least one toilet or facilities in the immediate vicinity of the tower itself.
Water and drain lines serving towers should be well insulated and in some cases equipped with heat tracing in order to
prevent freezing. Water supply lines, drain lines and interior downspouts located in pipe chases on outside walls in
cold climates should be insulated and heat traced in order to prevent freezing.
Drain lines should be equipped with cleanouts that are easily accessible. All plumbing shall meet state and local codes.
b. Towers should be adequately heated, ventilated and air-conditioned. Ventilation requirements should be in accordance
with current ASHRAE recommendations.
Heating and air conditioning systems should be provided which will adequately heat and cool the tower. Special
consideration must be given to the exposure factor and the large amount of glass area within the tower.
Almost any type of fuel and heating system can be used for heating the tower. Electric heating is particularly suited to
independent tower structures. Heating can be combined with cooling in rooftop units and/or unit heaters if adequate
wall space is available. Baseboard heating is also suitable if through wall package air conditioning units are
considered.
Use of economizer cycles should be considered in the air conditioning design. However, careful consideration should
be given to its effect on humidity control.
c. The tower electrical system design must conform to the latest edition of the National Electrical Code, state or local
code. The designer should make use of products which are tested and certified by qualified and recognized testing
laboratories such as the Underwriters Laboratory (U.L.).
Conduits, raceways, boxes, conductors and feeders should be sized according to current requirements along with
additional capacity for the addition of equipment. Spare conduits should be considered for future use.
A standby system should be provided as a backup for vital equipment and/or computer systems. In addition, surge
protection should be utilized where appropriate (computer equipment) and should conform to NEC Article 280.
Communication equipment should be powered through dedicated circuits and have an emergency backup power
system. This emergency power system could be a UPS system, generator and/or secondary utility company power
source.
Communication, telephone and any large electrical equipment items should be located either below the main floor
level of the tower or in a separate well-ventilated room and in some cases air conditioned space.
Design of the interior tower lighting must take into consideration any adjustment and/or flexibility needed to produce
the most ideal conditions possible in order to carry out outside observance tasks at all times of the day or night and in
all types of weather.
Appropriate general lighting must be provided as well as spot or individual shielded lighting for reading panels,
consoles, switch lists, etc. Lighting fixture rheostats should be installed on all general lighting to furnish the required
contrast between inside and outside natural lighting conditions.

Outside yard lighting must be designed and located in conjunction with the tower design and location in order to avoid
blinding the tower occupant and augment his task.
SECTION 10.4 SPECIAL FEATURES
10.4.1 TOWER SIZE (2002)
a. The actual tower size will be determined on the basis of the number of employees who will be in the observation
portion of the tower during a work shift, and; the amount and size of consoles, cabinets, CCTV monitors, and type of
radio equipment used in this area.
Adequate if not minimal space must be provided around the equipment to either repair and/or replace that equipment
without totally disrupting operations. Location of the equipment in a manner that will not impair in any way the
maximum visibility factor.
10.4.2 TOWER ROOF OVERHANG (2002)
a. Towers should be constructed with adequate roof overhang in order to reduce sun glare, sky brightness and heat
transfer. In some cases, installation of venetian blinds and/or transparent solar screens may be necessary in order to
reduce glare.
1
10.4.3 CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV) (2002)
a. CCTV has been used for the supervision of yards associated with maintenance facilities where the accessibility of the
yard supervisor to the rest of the management team may override the desirability of direct line of sight observation of
the yard. It may also be used where shop and yard supervisory functions are the responsibility of the same person.
3
CCTV may also be used to extend the area that may be observed from an observation tower, particularly when
observation of critical areas may be obstructed by physical features such as bridges. If and when CCTV is used to
extend the vision of the yard from the tower, care should be taken to ensure visibility of the CCTV monitor under all
conditions of natural and artificial lighting.
10.4.4 TOWER FURNISHINGS (2002)

4
a. Countertop work areas specifically designed for the tower area work stations are particularly advantageous over
standard office type furniture. Cabinetry can be constructed beneath the countertop to meet the needs of each work
station. Drawers for files, paperwork and supplies can be provided along with specially designed computer monitor
niches and keyboard sliding trays.
The use of counter type work stations will help to consolidate staff and provide free movement for supervisors within
the observation area. Countertop surfaces should have a matte type finish in order to reduce glare during the day and
light reflection at night.
10.4.5 TOWERS (2002)
a. The following figures are examples of details used for various tower arrangements along with floor plans and
elevations of tower facilities.

Figure 6-10-1. Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample A

Figure 6-10-2. Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample B

Figure 6-10-3. Tower Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings – Sample C

Figure 6-10-4. Prefabricated Tower

Figure 6-10-5. Tower Constructed as Part of Coach Shop

Figure 6-10-6. Automobile Mixing Center Facility

Figure 6-10-7. Typical Glass Sections

6
Part 11
Design Criteria for CTC Centers1
— 1991 —
FOREWORD
A centralized dispatching facility houses Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) equipment and the personnel to operate and
maintain it. In its broadest sense, CTC is the control center of a transportation network. It monitors, directs, and controls all
train operations, while keeping in almost constant communication with every activity in its territory. We will be mainly
concerned with the building that houses this “Nerve Center.”
Basic design preparation begins with ascertaining the proposed method of operation of the particular facility. A detailed design
program must be prepared with major input from the Operations, Signal and Communications Departments. Since the 1
communication network required is very extensive, it is often decided to include other functions at this location. These other
functions may include crew management, locomotive dispatching and car distribution. These departments provide design
criteria in the development of the design program.
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11.1 Site Considerations (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-2
11.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-2

11.2.1 Control Consoles (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-2
11.2.2 Overview Displays (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-3
11.2.3 Auxiliary Functions (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-3

11.3.1 Supervisory Offices (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.2 Relay Racks and Computer Equipment (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.3 Service Spaces (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.4 Dispatcher Location (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.5 Locker Facilities (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.6 Lunch Room (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.3.7 Smoking Area (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
1

11.4 Support Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4

11.4.1 Lighting (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-4
11.4.2 Communications (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.4.3 HVAC Systems (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.4.4 Fire Protection (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.4.5 Wiring Spaces (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.4.6 Uninterruptible Power Supply (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.5 Room Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5

11.5.1 Console Room (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-5
11.5.2 Computer and Technician’s Room (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-6
11.5.3 UPS and Battery Room (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-6
11.5.4 Offices (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11-6
SECTION 11.1 SITE CONSIDERATIONS (1991)
The facility location is determined by the particular circumstances of the territory to be served and the signal communication
systems to be used. A sophisticated data link may permit the facility to be far removed. A simpler arrangement using cable
connections may require that the facility be within a prescribed distance. The concerns relative to location must include
availability of an ultra reliable power supply, soil stability, highway accessibility, protectable area, adequate parking space,
drainage, sanitary sewer and water systems.
SECTION 11.2 EQUIPMENT
11.2.1 CONTROL CONSOLES (1991)
Control consoles may be hardwired pushbutton, stylus select device CRT, or keypad CRT or any combination of those types.
11.2.1.1 Hardwired Pushbutton
This rather conventional system is best described as one large console (or several smaller consoles) which present a schematic
of the territory to be controlled, with pushbuttons located at strategic points on the schematic which define the entrance and
exit locations used for route control. In addition there exists a separate matrix of unit lever type switches (either toggle or lever
type) which can force switch position in the NX mode, and provide unit lever capability.
11.2.1.2 Stylus Select Device CRT
This term applies to a color monitor with an SSD overlay on the face of the monitor which responds to either pressure or the
intersection of infrared light beams which produce a signal to activate a device. Each CRT presents a schematic or a portion of
the territory to be controlled. Sensitized areas called “Poke points” are located at strategic places on the schematic. These
“Poke points” are poked with a stylus in order to effect NX control. Since only a portion of the controlled territory can be
displayed on a CRT, a “Search and scroll” function is necessary to first “Call up” the location to be controlled. An alternative
to the “Search and scroll” technique is to have a bank of CRT’s in sufficient number to cover the entire controlled territory.

Design Criteria for CTC Centers
11.2.1.3 Keypad/CRT
This term applies to a color monitor which is linked to a function type keypad device which is used to enter entrance/exit type
commands for route control. The CRT presents a schematic of a portion of the territory to be controlled, and as commands are
entered on the keypad the CRT dynamically indicates field conditions. A “Search and scroll” function is also necessary with
this system.
11.2.2 OVERVIEW DISPLAYS (1991)
Overview displays include the following types multiple CRT’s, mneumonic wallboards and projected overviews.
11.2.2.1 Multiple CRT’s
These provide only a limited overview in that they cannot be read from a distance. They are usually clustered around each
dispatcher, with each screen showing a particular territory.
11.2.2.2 Hardwired Mnemonic Wallboards
These are either a mosaic or phenolic type schematic display of the controlled territory which employs lighted track segments,
and defines switch and signal indications by use of colored light bulbs.
11.2.2.3 Projected Overview
This system uses a series of projection units to project the schematic of the controlled territory on a series of large screens. 1
Dynamic indications of switch, signal and train status are conveyed through the use of colors, changes of color and also shapes
and images of field apparatus. Projection can be from front or rear.
11.2.3 AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS (1991)
Auxiliary functions which may be performed at this same location are listed in the following.
3
a. Crew calling/dispatching.
b. Passenger information systems.
c. Telecommunications control.
d. Motive power control and assignments.

4
e. Hot box monitoring.
f. Television train consist monitoring if the facility is in a yard location.
g. Facility security.

11.3.1 SUPERVISORY OFFICES (1991)
Supervisory offices will include private offices for the chief and assistant chief dispatchers frequently overlooking the
dispatchers and the display.
11.3.2 RELAY RACKS AND COMPUTER EQUIPMENT (1991)
Relay racks and computer equipment should be housed in computer room environment space. Close control of temperature
and humidity combined with a relatively dust free atmosphere ensures optimum operation and life for electronic gear.
11.3.3 SERVICE SPACES (1991)
Service spaces should include a technician’s room for minor repairs and equipment monitoring. Wall display systems require
sufficient space behind the display to permit service and adjustment of the equipment.
11.3.4 DISPATCHER LOCATION (1991)
The location within the building of the dispatchers space ideally is in the central core since this space should be without
windows and be well insulated thermally and sonically. The electronic equipment and associated power conditioning units are
best located remote from the dispatchers for isolation of the noise and heat generated by this gear.
11.3.5 LOCKER FACILITIES (1991)
Locker facilities for each individual should be provided in a space easily accessible to the dispatching theater.
11.3.6 LUNCH ROOM (1991)
Lunch room with microwave ovens, refrigerator, kitchen sink, coffee maker, storage cabinets and vending machines is
required.
11.3.7 SMOKING AREA (1991)
Smoking lounge may be required if the theater area is made a non-smoking area as recommended.
SECTION 11.4 SUPPORT SYSTEMS
11.4.1 LIGHTING (1991)
Lighting is required to be of low intensity for general area with hidden light source to minimize reflections. Dimmer control of
general lighting is essential. Task lighting must be tightly controlled beams with dimmer control of intensity. The use of
indirect lighting with long life low maintenance sources is most practical in the dispatchers room. Lighting in the other spaces
has no special requirement although use of long life low maintenance sources is very practical to minimize security risk of
frequent required service.

Design Criteria for CTC Centers
11.4.2 COMMUNICATIONS (1991)
Communications by the dispatchers creates certain acoustical problems which require a compromise. Radio contact with trains
usually brings a noisy atmosphere into the space with a great deal of cross talk and some static. Headphones are a solution to
the problem but that affects the viability of alarm sounds used in conjunction with the overview display.
11.4.3 HVAC SYSTEMS (1991)
HVAC systems in the computer and technician spaces should be the computer room type with a downflow air distribution
using the access floor space as a supply air plenum. Conditions in this space should be designed to 72 FDB and 50% relative
humidity. Systems in the dispatcher area should be designed to normal office standards with zone control to permit some
individual temperature control. Draft conditions in these areas must be carefully controlled since these individuals must
remain at fixed positions for extended time periods. Fresh air supply should be brought in through the HVAC equipment and
filtered to limit dust. Adequate exhaust and some air purification through activated carbon filters should be given
consideration in the design. Redundant HVAC equipment is essential for both reliable operation and for routine maintenance
of equipment during system operation since downtime is not available.
Fire protection is an absolute requirement with the detection system being of paramount importance. Halon fire suppression is
the current best system for electronic equipment areas. Individual ABC extinguishers should be provided at each console and
in service spaces. Water sprinkler systems should be avoided if the code permits, since the equipment being protected will
usually be destroyed by the water damage. Ionization type detectors should be installed using a cross zone plan to trigger halon
discharge. An annunciator panel with mimic board should be installed to indicate actual location of any sensor in alarm. Abort 1
switches to prevent an unnecessary halon discharge should be provided in a central location.
11.4.5 WIRING SPACES (1991)
Wiring spaces and routes to consoles and displays from the computer should be through a raised access floor system. Signal
and communication cable should enter the building through a splicing chamber. If the entrance is remote from the computer 3
room, an access floor route is preferred for cable runs. Lacking an access floor system cable horizontal runs should be in
oversized cable tray run overhead. Power wiring should be shielded cable or in metal conduit.
11.4.6 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (1991)
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is required for computers and communications as well as any other critical real time
process being powered by the electrical system. Redundant power supplies are essential to reliable operation and may consist 4
of standby generators, batteries and multiple primary power sources from the utility company. A typical UPS system should
have 20 minutes of battery backup with an emergency generator sized to carry the battery charger, air conditioning and
lighting systems. The fuel storage supply should be capable of sustaining full load generator operation for a three day
minimum.
SECTION 11.5 ROOM FINISHES
11.5.1 CONSOLE ROOM (1991)
The console room or dispatchers space should have acoustical absorption on all surfaces; e.g. anti-static carpet tiles over raised
access floor, carpet or sound soak type material on walls and acoustical ceiling tile. Non-reflective colors should be considered
for all surfaces to reduce glare.

11.5.2 COMPUTER AND TECHNICIAN’S ROOM (1991)
The computer room and technician’s room should have hard smooth non-dusting surfaces; e.g. laminated plastic tiles for
raised access floor, painted or vinyl covered dry wall and vapor barrier ceilings. Sub floor must be sealed against dusting and
vapor dispersion.
11.5.3 UPS AND BATTERY ROOM (1991)
The UPS and battery room should have light colored acid resistant finishes on the floor and walls.
11.5.4 OFFICES (1991)
The offices need no special finishes although the sound absorption wall and ceiling treatments in the dispatchers room are
frequently carried over into the offices.

6
Part 12
Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility1
— 1979 —
FOREWORD
A locomotive washing facility provides functions for the washing of locomotive exteriors for safety, inspection, appearance
and FRA requirements. In addition it may provide for the cleaning of cabs and engine compartments for line haul and local
use.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2

12.1.1 Scope and Purpose (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2 3
12.1.2 Operations (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2
12.1.3 Location (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2
12.2 Washing Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2

12.2.1 Typical Facility Arrangement (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-2
12.2.2 Washing System (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-3
12.2.3 Washer Building (1979). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-3
12.2.4 Drip/Clean-up Area (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-5
12.2.5 Service Equipment (Support Area) (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-5
LIST OF FIGURES
6-12-1 Locomotive Washing Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12-4
1
References, Vol. 79, 1978, p. 281. Adopted 1979.

a. The purpose of these criteria is to provide a layout and description for a locomotive washing facility and necessary
support functions. Figure 6-12-1 is shown as visual aid in depicting a “Typical” layout of work areas and a schematic
of supporting utilities.
b. Environmental aspects of final wastewater disposal will be a necessary part of this project; however, it is not included
in any detail in this report.
12.1.2 OPERATIONS (1979)
a. Typical progression through a wash facility involves high-pressure pre-clean (pre-wet in certain climates), wash, rinse,
and outbound drip (blow-dry in certain climates), hand-wash and touch-up operations.
b. This straight line process flow is supported by necessary mechanical functions utilizing chemical tanks, pumps, piping,
clarifiers, brushes (if required), dryers, etc.
12.1.3 LOCATION (1979)
a. Generally, washing capability is desirable at every diesel locomotive service area; however, it is only at the major
servicing complexes that large, automated systems are economically justified.
b. The washing facility should be located adjacent to the service platform for minimum manpower usage; it may be
located directly ahead or behind the service platform depending on the operation. An ideal layout would be a linear
arrangement with service (fueling) area, washing facilities, and ready tracks.
c. Because of the desired linear configuration, available property may present a problem in obtaining a reasonable layout
for the optimum number of consists in various stages of the flow line without doubling back. Length accommodating
four to six locomotives is recommended.
d. The washing facilities should be located somewhat remote from adjacent properties as there is always a possibility of
overspray if wind conditions are unfavorable. The facilities should be positioned or shielded so that vapors, chemicals,
odors, etc., would not interfere with railroad personnel, equipment or any operation in its vicinity.
SECTION 12.2 WASHING FACILITY
12.2.1 TYPICAL FACILITY ARRANGEMENT (1979)
a. The facility, as indicated on Figure 6-12-1, is comprised of four main functions or areas.
b. Area 1 is the inbound storage area. This is generally open but may have to be partially enclosed and heated if climate is
severe. The length is determined by the number of locomotives to be moved into position for washing. The number of
tracks required is also dependent on the volume of units to be washed as well as the number of tracks at the service
area. This area requires nothing special in the way of roadbed or utilities as it is only short term storage with no work
activities. If this area is located behind the service area, some consideration may be given to an impervious surface for
containing any spillage.

Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility
c. Area 2 is the washing area. It could be an open area for small manual washing but generally an enclosed open-ended
building is desirable for larger facilities. Because of the configuration of the diesel units, a chemical spray system is the
most feasible type of arrangement; however, mechanical brushes under certain circumstances could be used. A low-
volume high-pressure water, one-spot-type washing building could be as short as 80 feet but for a high-volume
continuous operation, a shelter of 200 feet would be required to contain the pre-wet/pre-clean, acid wash, alkaline
wash, chemical rinse, final rinse and drying operations.
d. Area 3 is the drip area for locomotives after the washing has been completed. This area is generally open but would
have to be enclosed and heated for severe climates. The drip area should be equipped with medium pressure hot
water/soap or steam/soap hoses for manual spot cleaning of surfaces not properly cleaned.
e. Area 4 is the support area, containing equipment, tanks, separator, etc. This area is specifically for the washer facility.
The unusable waste water is piped to a central yard treatment plant.
12.2.2 WASHING SYSTEM (1979)
a. The first phase of the washing system is a high pressure pre-clean (pre-wet) wash to remove some of the loose material
as well as cool down hot metal in summer or warm pre-clean to remove snow and prevent freezing in winter.
b. The second phase is the acid wash.
c. The third phase is the alkaline wash.
d. The fourth phase is the chemical rinse.

1
e. The fifth phase is the final rinse. This rinse is recycled for use as a pre-clean.
f. Rate of movement of units through the washer is critical in relation to the spacing of the spray arches to achieve
chemical manufacturer’s recommended dwell time. The speed of the diesel units could vary from 50 to 150 feet per
minute depending on chemical combination used.
g. There are several acid/alkaline cleaning agent combinations on the market that are satisfactory. The type selected 3
would depend on availability, frequency of washing and adaptability to be neutralized into an acceptable waste
material for final treatment and disposal.
h. Spray arms and nozzles are mounted independently of building structures. The nozzles should be positioned to provide
proper clearance and avoid spraying into exhaust stack and through louvers.
i. Various types of sensing devices or other controls are available to activate the numerous sprays during the washing
4
cycle. These include track mounted switching devices, radio control, electric eyes, etc.
12.2.3 WASHER BUILDING (1979)
a. Concrete track slabs with acid-resistant treatment should be provided full length of the washing area with a minimum
30-foot treated approach slab. The rails should be sufficiently elevated to allow the various cleaning/rinse agents to
freely pass under. All track fastenings should be corrosive resistant.
b. The entire floor should be properly sloped, curbed and drained to provide for proper waste collection. All concrete
surfaces should be coated with an acid/alkaline resisting material to preclude severe deterioration.
c. The building structure may be precast or poured acid/alkaline-resisting concrete, pole construction with plastic
sheathing or standard steel prefabricated building provided the exterior panels are of a fiberglass plastic material or
factory precoated with long life synthetic enamel. An acid-resisting coating shall be field applied to the structural
frame and any other exposed steel. All fasteners shall be stainless steel.

Figure 6-12-1. Locomotive Washing Facility

Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility
d. Piping should be acid/alkaline-resisting PVC plastic. For long spans and/or pressure requirements fiberglass pipe
should be used and properly supported.
e. Lighting of a minimum of 30 foot candles at floor should be provided. This may be achieved by roof and/or side lights
and interior illumination.
f. Sufficient roof type ventilators should be provided over the tracks to prevent buildup of fumes. If a portion of inbound
storage and drip/clean-up area is enclosed for climatic conditions, a greater emphasis should be placed on ventilation,
including make-up air.
12.2.4 DRIP/CLEAN-UP AREA (1979)
a. Properly drained and treated concrete track slabs should be provided full length of drip area for ease of “touch up”
cleaning of undercarriage. Cab and engine compartment cleaning may also be performed here.
b. Utilities required for finish washing are 175 psi hot water at 180 degrees F or steam with separate supply of detergent
so that hot soapy water or clear water (steam) may be used at will. Pole-mounted hose reels should be installed to
facilitate operation.
c. Overhead lighting of 20 foot candles should be satisfactory for night-time operations. Spaced poles between tracks
would be satisfactory for both lighting and running overhead piping. Pipe trenches should be avoided in this wet area.
All piping should be protected against freezing.
d. In severe climates, it may be necessary to enclose the drip/clean-up area. The diesel units would be cleaned and 1
actually dried before moving outdoors. The enclosure would be well insulated and heated. Ventilation is important
when units are standing at idle until dry.
12.2.5 SERVICE EQUIPMENT (SUPPORT AREA) (1979)
a. Provide building adjacent to washer building to house necessary chemical, preclean and rinse water tanks and pumps
as well as heaters and electrical switch gear to provide power for equipment and lighting. 3
b. If available water is of poor quality, consideration should be given to a water conditioning system so that the mixed
chemical cleaning and rinse will be most effective.
c. Recycling of waste water should be given consideration. The cost of a recycling plant with necessary filters and
equipment should be evaluated against the type of chemical used, the availability of water and the availability of a
waste disposal system. The final rinse can be recycled easily for pre-wash, but the acid/alkaline wash and chemical
4
rinse would require more treatment depending on the final pH result.
d. Final liquid/solid waste disposal requires a holding sump with pipeline to acceptable treatment plant.


6
Part 13
Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance,
Repair and Servicing Facilities
— 2003 —
FOREWORD
a. Passenger rail (coach)/locomotive maintenance, repair and servicing facilities are designed to serve both commuter and
inter-city passenger rail needs. These facilities are used to maintain, repair, and service whole train consists
(locomotives included) and/or individual passenger train equipment only, such as, commuter coaches, inter-city 1
coaches, diners, and baggage cars.
b. Part 13 has been prepared to provide guidelines on the variety of needs which must be addressed in order to service a
fleet of passenger rail equipment.
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS

13.1.1 Location (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-2
13.1.2 Code Requirements (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3
13.1.3 Parking (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3
13.1.4 Landscaping (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3
13.1.5 Remodeling/Expansion (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3

13.2.2 Train Configurations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-3
13.2.3 Building Configuration (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-4
13.3 Special Requirements – Coach Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-5

13.3.2 Staff and Administration Facilities (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-5
13.3.3 Crew Facilities (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-5
13.3.4 Commissary (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-6

13.3.5 Stores (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-6

13.3.6 Craft Shops (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-6
13.3.7 Maintenance and Repair Areas (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-6
13.4 Special Requirements – Combined Coach Locomotive Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-7

13.4.1 General Considerations (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-7
13.4.2 Coach Shop (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-7
13.4.3 Locomotive Shop (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-7
13.5 Special Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-8

13.5.1 Paint Spray Booths (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-8
13.6 Structural Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-9

13.6.1 Coach Shop and/or Locomotive Shop (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-9
13.7 Mechanical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-9

13.7.1 Coach Shop (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-9
13.7.2 Locomotive Shop (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-10
13.8 Electrical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-10

13.8.1 General (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-10
13.9 Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-11

13.9.1 General (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13-11
13.1.1 LOCATION (2003)
a. The preferred site location would be reasonably close to the terminus of the service being provided. This can vary
according to the type of service. For instance, inter-city passenger trains would require maintenance, repair and
servicing facilities at the terminating points of the services. On the other hand, commuter rail maintenance, repair and
servicing would ideally be located at the end point of service where the greatest amount of layover time is available.
b. On commuter rail lines with multiple service routes maintenance, repair and servicing facilities may not be practical or
cost efficient. In these cases, one primary daytime facility may be more practical.
c. Maintenance, repair and servicing facilities ideally are all located on the same site and within the same building.
However, in many cases, this may not be possible due to site constraints or the existing infrastructure of the railroad
providing the service.
d. In the event that a new site has been selected for a new maintenance, repair and servicing facility it will be necessary to
coordinate the yard layout with the actual location of the facility. Chapter 14, Part 6, Passenger Facilities of the
AREMA Manual should be consulted for more detailed information on the requirements for the yard.

Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and Servicing Facilities
13.1.2 CODE REQUIREMENTS (2003)
Zoning requirements as well as building code requirements will become a major consideration in the design of the facility.
Fire and life safety issues including sanitary requirements may have a strong influence on the type of construction materials
used and allowable square foot area of the building itself. It is strongly recommended that these requirements be researched
thoroughly before proceeding into design. ADA requirements will need to be addressed as well.
13.1.3 PARKING (2003)
In many locales, required parking spaces are determined by the classification type of building as determined by the local
building code and/or zoning ordinance. Sufficient parking must be provided where multiple shifts are worked, including
handicap parking.
Many communities have local ordinances governing landscape requirements for various types of buildings and/or zoning
districts. These requirements are seldom negotiated and must be taken into consideration in the overall development of the
site.
13.1.5 REMODELING/EXPANSION (2003)
Facilities which are being remodeled and/or expanded may fall under all of the above requirements due to the proposed nature
of the work. It will be of extreme importance to the project to research all of the above particulars in order to determine what 1
effect, if any, these types of requirements have on the project.

3
a. Facilities must be designed to accommodate the specific features of the equipment to be maintained, repaired and/or
serviced. In addition, the design of the facility must also recognize the railroad’s servicing and maintenance practices.
b. Overall, the type of facility to be designed can vary significantly. For instance, some railroads may choose to maintain
an entire consist (locomotive(s) plus cars) intact, while another railroad may maintain cars in one area of the facility
4
and locomotives in another area.
c. Electric operated equipment will require a facility which will differ from either a coach shop or combined coach shop
and diesel service facility.
13.2.2 TRAIN CONFIGURATIONS (2003)
a. Train configurations can vary significantly according to the type of service being provided. To illustrate this point, the
following consist combinations are presented:
(1) Locomotive + auxiliary power vehicle + passenger cars.
(2) Locomotive + auxiliary power vehicle + passenger cars + cab car.
(3) Locomotive (capable of supplying electrical hotel power) + passenger cars.

(4) Locomotive (capable of supplying electrical hotel power) + passenger cars + cab car.
(5) Locomotive + passenger cars + locomotive (locomotives capable of supplying hotel power).
(6) Locomotive + passenger cars + auxiliary power and control vehicle.
(7) One or more self-propelled rail diesel cars.
(8) One or more electric multiple units. Each electrical multiple unit may consist of one or more passenger cars semi-
permanently coupled.
b. Recognizing the above possible combinations, the following table has been prepared to identify the typical maximum
train lengths:
Typical Maximum Train Lengths

Long Distance Trains Commuter Trains Rail Diesel Cars Electric Multiple Unit
Trains
Locomotive Cars Locomotive Cars Locomotive Cars Locomotive Cars
3 20 2 10 - <6 - 10
13.2.3 BUILDING CONFIGURATION (2003)
The size of the building will vary according to the nature of the maintenance, repair and servicing to be performed. Other
factors will also influence the building size and may in some cases require separate facilities. Questions which must be
addressed early on in the design process are as follows:
• What administrative activities will be conducted in the facility and will they be centralized and/or dispersed?
• Will crew facilities be required?
• Will a commissary be needed?
• Will trains be totally serviced within the building (fueling and sanding facilities need to be on the same track as the
consist being serviced)?
• What form of maintenance will be performed, light or heavy maintenance of cars/locomotives?
• Will inspection and heavy maintenance of locomotives be performed in the building?
• Is a paint spray booth required?
• How much space must be devoted to stores? Any special requirements?
• What types of workshops will be required and will they be enclosed and/or open?
• Occupancy load and employee welfare facilities to be provided.
• ADA requirements.

SECTION 13.3 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS – COACH SHOP
a. Once all of the above factors have been explored, there should be a reasonable estimate of the amount of space required
in order to house the proposed work activity.
b. Actual space requirements will be determined by five basic guidelines:
• Nature of the work to be performed.
• Nature of the space required.
• Need for enclosures and/or privacy.
• Accessibility.
• Allowance for expansion.
Each of the above issues must be addressed for each railroad department/craft to be located within the building.
13.3.2 STAFF AND ADMINISTRATION FACILITIES (2003)
a. Office facilities to accommodate the administrative function of the facility will be necessary. It may also be necessary 1
to accommodate other departments as well. The number of private offices, meeting rooms, size of the open office
space (or cubicles) to be provided and amount of storage and copying space must be determined. In addition, adequate
space must be allocated for employee welfare facilities and training areas.
b. In general, 250 to 350 square feet of office space is generally allocated to individual management personnel while 120
to 200 square feet is allocated to office personnel, or according to the railroad’s standard.
3
c. Duplicating equipment and telecommunications equipment generally require additional space and should be provided
for accordingly. File space and storage space for records, drawings, paper supplies, etc., will also require additional
space beyond the standard square foot allocation for office spaces.
13.3.3 CREW FACILITIES (2003)

4
a. In some locales, train crews may access their trains at the facility. The facility therefore may require accommodations
for the crews. If such a requirement is necessary, the facility may have to provide space for:
• Booking in facilities
• Office
• Locker rooms
• Washroom facilities and showers
• Bedrooms
b. Should such accommodations be required within the facility, it will be essential to minimize noise impacts on the crew
quarters. Also, the accessibility to the crew quarters should be controlled and accessibility to the train storage area
convenient.

13.3.4 COMMISSARY (2003)
a. If long distance inter-city trains are to be maintained, serviced and/or repaired at the facility, it may be necessary to
provide commissary space for the storage of mattresses, linens, cutlery, food and other supplies for these trains.
b. Accessibility to the commissary by roadway will be critical since considerable truck traffic to and from the commissary
by suppliers will be common. Roadways serving the commissary should, if at all possible, avoid rail crossings in the
yard.
13.3.5 STORES (2003)
a. An interior, as well as an exterior stores area, will likely be needed for the facility. The stores area should include
sufficient space to accommodate an office for the clerks, tool crib for specialized tools and/or test equipment, bulk
storage space, and bin storage. Toilet facilities can be provided in this area. Facilities must be handicap accessible.
b. The entire stores area should be secured and have controlled access. Dock space for off truck loading and unloading
must be provided. In the bulk storage area, aisle space should be provided to allow for use of a fork lift truck.
In the event that the stores area encompasses two floors, a freight elevator should be provided which will accommodate
a lift truck.
13.3.6 CRAFT SHOPS (2003)
a. Craft shop space will vary according to the tasks being performed in each particular shop area. Overall, the craft shop
space is generally located in a large open area and easily accessible to the repair tracks within the building.
b. Movement of assembled material, furnishings and/or equipment between the shop area and the cars within the shop is
critical and sufficient aisle space must be allocated for this type of movement in addition to the workspace provided.
c. Air brake shop space will generally be enclosed and access into the space by man doors. The shop space must be
sufficient to accommodate work benches, parts, and test equipment. Double doors used to access the space are
desirable. An outside truck door may also be required.
d. Welding areas within the shop should be confined to a single area and somewhat shielded from the rest of the open
shop space.
13.3.7 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR AREAS (2003)
a. Maintenance and repair areas are going to vary according to the type of operation planned for the particular facility.
For instance, will car inspections be performed in the yard or will the consist be pulled or pushed through the facility.
If the latter is the case, then how many tracks must be provided and how should the track pits be configured? Will
wheel change outs be performed on the same track or on a separate track? Will car renewal/overhaul tracks be
required? Will a track be needed for major collision/damage repair? All of these factors will weigh heavily on the total
tracks within the building and their orientation to the shop area.
b. The size of the area should not only be large enough to accommodate the number of tracks required, but also must
include space for clearances, walkways, work areas and cantenary supports, if necessary. The length of the shop area
will be dependent on either the consist size to be accommodated or the number of cars to be worked on per track, at any
time. In addition to these factors, the designer must also take into consideration the following other factors:
• Crosswalks outside the shop have a recommended width of 26’-3” (7.88M).
• Crosswalks at each interior end wall have a minimum recommended width of 16’-5” (4.94M).

• Crosswalks between cars and/or consists be at least 6’-7” wide (2M).
• Full pit depth clearance beyond the last car or end of consist should be 3’-3” (0.97M).
• Recommended center to center track distance is 24’-0” (7.2M).
c. Overhead cranes are also a necessity for these shops and are generally located over renewal/overhaul tracks and
collision/damage tracks. The size of the overhead crane will vary according to the equipment to be handled. The crane
should be able to operate from one end of the shop to the other end. A pendant control system is most suitable for this
type operation.
In shops where catenary is involved an analysis of the proposed operation should be performed in order to assess the
extent of the catenary in the shop.
d. Pits are required for inspection tracks and running repair track (RIP Track). These pits may vary in width. Pits may be
center pit only (located between rails) or center pit plus side pits (rails extend over length of pit on post supports).
e. In shops where car lifts are to be built-in, pits may still be required for some portion of the operation. When lifts are
employed, access to the car interior may be necessary and raised walkways adjacent to each car side will be required.
These walkway structures must also be able to accommodate ground floor access to the car interiors when the car or
consist is not elevated.
For shops where electric traction systems are worked on, elevated platforms will be required in order to access roof
mounted electrical equipment, such as pantographs. These elevated platforms may be fixed and/or mobile.
1
SECTION 13.4 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS – COMBINED COACH LOCOMOTIVE SHOP
13.4.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS (2003) 3

a. Coach shops can also be combined with locomotive shops. As referred to in Article 13.3.7 the number of tracks to be
provided will also determine how the shop is to be operated. In some combined coach and locomotive maintenance,
repair and servicing facilities, entire consists are brought into the shop, inspected, cleaned, and serviced on one or more
tracks. Heavier repairs are conducted on other tracks that will require the disassembly of the consist. In these cases,
coaches would be repaired on one or more tracks, while locomotives would be repaired separate on their own tracks.
4
b. In other types of combined coach and locomotive maintenance, repair and servicing shop consists are disassembled
before entering the shop. Coaches are attended to on certain designated tracks while locomotives are serviced in
another area of the building separated from the coach shop.
13.4.2 COACH SHOP (2003)
a. The special requirements for the coach shop are very similar to those outlined in Section 13.3.
13.4.3 LOCOMOTIVE SHOP (2003)
a. Locomotive shops are generally constructed with raised work platforms and pits below the running rails. The running
rails are supported on piers or posts/pedestals over the length of the pits. The locomotive shop must be equipped to do
the following:
• Change out locomotive wheel sets and traction motors.

• Change out trucks.
• Change out RDC engine and transmissions (if applicable).
• Change out locomotive power units.
• Change out steam generators (if applicable).
• Wreck repairs.
• Major on-site engine repairs.
• Change out of major components.
• Toilet waste tank emptying system.
• Lubrication systems and service water.
b. Aside from the track area, the locomotive shop must have sufficient craft space to work on various components of the
locomotive. This space will vary in size depending upon how much repair work is contracted out. In either case
provisions should be made for welding, electrical, and mechanical type repairs. In addition, sufficient space must be
allocated for truck and wheel storage and removal. A drop table will be required for truck removal. Refer to
Chapter 6, Part 4, Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities for more detailed information on locomotive shop design
criteria.
c. An overhead crane will be required in the locomotive shop. The size of the overhead crane may vary depending on its
intended use. Generally the size of the crane will be from 10 to 50 tons with an auxiliary hook with a three-ton
capacity. If an entire locomotive is to be lifted a 250-ton crane will be required.
SECTION 13.5 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT
13.5.1 PAINT SPRAY BOOTHS (2003)
a. In some facilities, paint spray booths are an integral part of the overall maintenance program, particularly where large
fleets are involved. These paint spray booths are housed in a completely separate portion of the building. Most
building codes classify paint spray areas as hazardous use areas and, as such, require a higher building construction
classification than the rest of the shop building.
b. Paint spray operations are generally located at the end of major overhaul tracks, since this is usually the last step of a
car renewal project. The paint spray area must be adequately sized to accommodate the car to be painted, the out to out
width of the paint spray booth, traveling rails for the booth and aisle space for personnel circulation and material
movement. Vertically the paint spray area must be able to accommodate the highest car in the fleet plus the overall
height of the booth and exhaust hood(s). Additional ventilation may be required for this area. Adequate space must be
allocated to accommodate all ventilation requirements.

13.6.1 COACH SHOP AND/OR LOCOMOTIVE SHOP (2003)
a. In the shop area, as well as the stores area, the floors should be designed to accommodate wheel loads from forklift
trucks, in addition to any material they may be carrying. Equipment loads from drills, presses, cutting machines, jib
cranes, and tie down for frame straightening should also be included.
b. In the stores area, concentrated loads from materials stored on pallets, in boxes or on shelves or bin storage should be
considered.
c. In the track areas, special track slab designs will be required and must include provisions for jacking a car above its
truck assembly and holding the car in place for an indefinite period of time. These jacking locations should be
anticipated to be at any location along the entire length of track inside of the shop.
d. In addition to the track slab design, consideration should also be given to truck and/or wheel removal pits and any
special foundations needed to support the truck/wheel removal equipment.
e. In the track areas, columns should be designed to accommodate the maximum length of free space girder, to allow for
an unobstructed ground floor work area. In addition, these same columns must be able to support the additional loads
from the overhead crane, along with the overhead roof loads.
1
SECTION 13.7 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS
13.7.1 COACH SHOP (2003)
a. An ample compressed air supply will be a necessity for the shop. A compressor of sufficient capacity will be needed 3
along with a dryer filter and compressed air reservoir tank. Compressed air lines will be needed throughout the craft
shop area. It is recommended that these airlines be run overhead with drops at designated workstations. Drops should
be equipped with quick coupling connections, shut-off valves, and drips.
b. Service water in the craft shop area may not be required, however, in the event service water is desired at certain work
stations it must be separate from the potable water system.
4
c. Adequate heating and ventilation systems will be necessary in the craft shop area. Heating should be supplied to
provide a minimum 60 degrees at minus 10 degrees below zero. Ventilation shall comply with the local building
codes. Areas of the craft shop requiring special ventilation would be the welding shop area.
d. In the track areas, compressed air lines should be extended down the overhead crane columns and through trenches
between tracks. At the overhead crane columns quick-coupling connections should be provided along with shut-off
valves and drips. Compressed air lines located in trenches between the tracks should have a shut off valve at the start
of its longitudinal run between tracks and at least every 100 feet. The compressed air line should be pitched to a low
point at the end of its run and a drip provided. Quick coupling connections should be located every 50 feet in the
trench. At each coupling connection a shut off valve should be supplied.
e. Service water drops for the shop and equipment cleanup should be provided at every other overhead crane column.
Each service drop should have a gate valve installed to control the flow of water. Hose connections can be either quick
couplers or ordinary hose bibbs. If ordinary hose bibbs are used gate valves will not be necessary.

f. Service trenches will be needed between tracks in order to provide air and service water to the workstations in the shop.
These same service trenches may also be used for drainage purposes as well. The trenches will need to be pitched and
grit collection will be a necessity. Open gratings covering the trenches will allow for run off of snow, ice, rainwater
and ordinary shop clean up.
g. In shops where coaches are being serviced in a consist, it would be necessary to provide for toilet dumps, service water
for cleaning crews and potable water for refilling of on-board drinking and passenger use.
13.7.2 LOCOMOTIVE SHOP (2003)
a. In the locomotive shop, a toilet dump station may be required if not provided for outside of the building. Aside from
this possible need, the locomotives will be spotted along the length of track at workstations. Fore and aft of the
locomotive, walkways will be lower, allowing for maintenance personnel to move from one side to the other of the
locomotive.
b. At each work station, compressed air and quick coupling outlets will need to be provided at the working platform level
and in the service/inspection pit. Each outlet should also include a shut off valve.
c. Each workstation should also be equipped to supply journal oil, diesel engine lubricating oil, and coolant supplies. A
lubricant oil recovery system will also be necessary.
d. Above each workstation an effective exhaust system must be provided in order to remove exhaust fumes from the work
area.
e. In the service pits, leaking sand and grease from the locomotive will cause drain lines to clog if no measures are taken
to intercept this sand and grease before it enters into the drainpipe. An effective grit collection system will be
necessary.
f. At only one workstation, a drop table must be provided in order to allow for the change out of a truck assembly. This
drop table assembly may be on one or more tracks.
g. When locomotives are brought into a combined service and maintenance line, where the consist is intact, no drop table
assembly would be required on that track. Truck assemblies would best be removed on a separate track.
SECTION 13.8 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS
13.8.1 GENERAL (2003)
a. Electrical power supplies will be required throughout the facility. These power supplies will be in the form of ordinary
120V to as much as 480V. Power supply receptacles for portable lighting, tools, and coach power will be needed.
These receptacles will need to be located according to the planned operation of the shop and individual workstation
needs.
b. Sufficient lighting throughout the building will be necessary in order to provide a conducive working atmosphere.
c. Battery charging systems may be required at some facilities and should be accommodated in a room separated from the
workstations.

d. Consideration should be given to the installation of an audible and visual warning system to alert the personnel within
the facility of rail movement. Such a warning system is particularly important where overhead catenaries are located
inside of the facility in order to warn personnel that the catenary is "hot” or about to be energized.
SECTION 13.9 ILLUSTRATIONS
13.9.1 GENERAL (2003)
a. The following illustrations indicate the variety of shop types typically found on many railroads today.


6
Part 14
Roofing Systems Descriptions and Recommenda-
tions for Selection1
— 2010 —
FOREWORD
The purpose of this section is to describe various roofing systems, the known advantages as well as to point out potential
disadvantages of the component materials of these various systems, so that a better understanding of their performance
characteristics is available to assist in the selection of an appropriate roofing system. Emphasis will be on the more recently 1
developed systems abilities to overcome the problems inherent with the more traditional systems they are attempting to
replace.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-2

14.1.1 Developments in Roofing (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-2
14.1.2 Cost and Energy Concerns (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-3
14.2 Selecting a System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-3

14.2.1 General Design Considerations (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-3
14.2.2 Wind Design Considerations (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-4
14.2.3 Roof Insulation Considerations (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-4
14.3 Roofing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-4

14.3.1 General Comments (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-4
14.3.2 Built-Up Roofing Systems (BUR) (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-5
14.3.3 Single-Ply Roofing Systems (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-13
14.3.4 Liquid Roof Coating Systems (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-18
14.3.5 Metal Roofing Systems (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-19
14.3.6 Shingle Roofing Systems (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-22
14.3.7 Tile Roofing System (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-26
1

14.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-29

14.4.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-29
LIST OF TABLES
6-14-1 Modified Bitumen Roofing Comparison Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-10

6-14-2 Differences Between Metal Roof Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-20
6-14-3 Comparison of Roofing Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-31
6-14-4 Roofing Inspection Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14-33
14.1.1 DEVELOPMENTS IN ROOFING (2010)
The forces acting on shelter from nature have not changed. The materials, systems, shelter designs, and construction methods
have varying degrees of success. Systems to provide shelter from rain have been at the forefront of this lack of success. A
leaking shelter is hard to ignore and the need for shelter was a constant. Shelters had to be improvised from available
materials. As the size of these shelters increased, the ‘roof’ became a necessary element of design. Until the discovery of
coal-tar, and the materials’ aversion to water was noticed, attempts at coverings (roofing) to shelter from rain were temporary
at best. Coal-tar was both a sealant and an adhesive. With improvements to the handling and application methods, coal-tar has
remained a major component of low slope roofing systems into the 20th century. It still has a few adherents but due to health,
safety and more recently environmental concerns, there are only limited sources for manufactured products and applicators.
The replacement for coal-tar began with the advent of the petroleum age. Petroleum refining sludge (asphalt) was found to
have most of the desired properties of coal-tar and the supply was inexpensive and abundant.
Most modern membrane and synthetic fabricated shingle systems incorporate some form of asphalt as the water barrier.
Various methods of establishing a continuous roof surface covering have been developed. Flood coating led to roll roofing
membranes to reinforce, maintain uniform thickness, and ease the application. Roll form (felts) applied in multi-layer
membranes became the staple low-slope system for over 100-years and is still in use today. This system relies on heated
asphalt, applied by mopping, between the plies as the water barrier. The felts, while impregnated with asphalt, are only the
reinforcement to form the assembly into a membrane. We see the reversal of this relationship of felt to mopping with the
entrance of modified bitumen membranes.
The introduction of polymers, plastics and rubber into roofing technology has produced a number of attempts at reducing the
roofing cover to a single ply. Very large sheets are possible, but the requirement for seams is still present and the various
methods incorporated into the systems are dependent upon the material and on-the-job conditions. Inconsistent performance
of the seaming has created problems with most of these systems and a resistance to their use for some projects. With some
systems, there are also issues concerning attachment to the deck and wind resistance.
Systems advantages and disadvantages will be addressed in Table 6-14-1 and Table 6-14-3.

Roofing Systems Descriptions and Recommendations for Selection
14.1.2 COST AND ENERGY CONCERNS (2010)
a. In the last fifty years major changes have taken place. More new roofing systems have appeared in the last twenty
years than over the last century. With rising prices, manufacturers attempted to produce products less prone to
application errors, simplify their systems and reduce the installation labor. With the requirement for insulation roof
deck, surfaces became lightweight and flexible. Roof shapes, profiles and uses became complicated. Environmental
requirements restricted the use of some products. A number of these innovations were not successful and hindered
development of some of the systems that are now coming into use.
b. Polymer modification of bitumens and their impregnation into roofing felts has produced a successful new multi-layer
membrane available from most of the recognized manufacturers. The same will probably be true with the single-ply
systems when the seam and attachment issues are resolved. Polymer modified plastics are also being developed in the
shingle industry. These products have the ability to simulate other materials traditionally considered for shingle
roofing, but at a substantially lower cost.
SECTION 14.2 SELECTING A SYSTEM
14.2.1 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2010)
a. When selecting a roofing system, in addition to reviewing the manufacturer’s recommendations and specifications,
consider the following: 1
(1) Building code, Factory Mutual (FM) Approvals, Underwriters Laboratories (UL), or other performance or
insurance-agency requirements for a membrane roofing system in the Project’s geographical location.
(2) Height and profile of the roof above ground level, and the height of the parapet, when applicable.
(3) The requirements for terminations and perimeter edges that must resist wind uplift and expansion/contraction. 3
Consider effects at points of contact between roofing membrane and exposed metal items.
(4) Type of roof deck over which the membrane roofing system will be installed and it’s structural capacity, especially
if almost flat or if flat and retaining water.
(5) Expansion and contraction control within the roof deck. Stresses from structural deck or parapet movement can
seriously damage stiff membrane roofing systems. For some roofing systems, area dividers may be required in the
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roofing membrane itself to supplement roof structure expansion joints.
(6) Roof slopes for positive drainage and how the slope will be achieved. Sloping the structure or using tapered
insulation or a combination of both are in common use. A minimum of 1/4 inch per 12 inches (1:48) is usually
required for built-up asphalt and modified bituminous membrane roofing systems. The International Building
Code (IBC) mandates this minimum slope.
(7) Total insulation thickness and how many layers will be required. Review the thermal characteristics of the
building design and provide a system to meet the required insulation value of the roof-ceiling assembly.
Determine the required thermal resistance for the roof insulation, and choose the type of insulation that will be
used.
(8) Determine whether a vapor retarder will be required. Consult manufacturers of the roofing types under
consideration for their requirements. Consider the selection of material and the location of vapor retarder and
whether the function of the vapor retarder will be compromised by penetrating fasteners.

(9) Consider wind resistance requirements and whether insulation will be loosely laid, mechanically fastened, or
adhered, and the roof deck considerations posed by these choices.
(10) Building and Roof aesthetics.
(11) Roof access for delivery and storage of materials.
(12) Locations and maintenance of roof-mounted HVAC and electrical equipment. Consider the frequency of access
and the maintenance loadings on the roof. Consider the design of equipment curbs and supports that provide a
way of maintaining and replacing the membrane roofing systems, and the requirement for crickets to prevent
ponding.
(13) Special as-built conditions that the membrane roofing system must endure, include protection from exposure to
chemicals, grease, oil and other contaminants, or selection of a system resistant to these materials.
(14) Type of generic membrane roofing system: a conventional roof with the roofing membrane installed over
insulation, or protected membrane roofing with insulation and ballast installed over the roofing membrane. Gravel
ballast is no longer permitted by codes for most high-wind locations and is no longer the preferred surface coating
with the advent of factory surfaced cap sheets.
14.2.2 WIND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2010)
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL) has conducted wind resistance testing (UL 580) which may be applied to built-up roofing
(BUR) systems. The classifications range from Class 15 (15 mph) through Class 90 (90 mph). Factory Mutual (FM) has also
evaluated a number of BUR systems for both fire-resistance and wind-uplift performance.
14.2.3 ROOF INSULATION CONSIDERATIONS (2010)
Many roofing systems are applied directly to the thermal insulation or the thermal insulation is a part of the roofing system
assembly and installed by the roofing contractor.
SECTION 14.3 ROOFING SYSTEMS
14.3.1 GENERAL COMMENTS (2010)
a. Providing buildings with a watertight roof covering is the primary function of a roofing system. The aesthetics of the
system may also be a factor in the final selection. Roofing systems are expected to be durable, strong and resistant to
climate, weathering and expected structural movement, maintaining their integrity for 10, 15, 20 years or longer
without failure. Manufacturer of the roofing systems under consideration should be consulted as to special conditions
and the appropriate use of the system(s).
b. The following sections cover a number of roofing system types, their components and their application methods. With
this information and a thorough investigation with the system manufacturer a choice can be made as to the best
application for a successful and durable roof.
c. Some information contained in this “Roofing Systems Descriptions and Recommendations for Selection” section, has
been sourced from the evaluations by the American Institute of Architects (AIA) as exclusively published and
distributed under license by Architectural Computer Services, Inc. (ARCOM) for the AIA.

14.3.2 BUILT-UP ROOFING SYSTEMS (BUR) (2010)
a. Hot-applied BUR membranes consist of multiple layers of hot-applied asphalt or coal-tar pitch alternating with several
ply sheets that combine to produce a weatherproof roofing membrane. Roofing asphalt is the bitumen that primarily
renders water-resisting properties to a built-up asphalt roofing membrane; coal-tar pitch is the bitumen that primarily
renders water-resisting properties to a built-up coal-tar roofing membrane. Ply sheets supply membrane reinforcement
to either roofing membrane. The term bitumen is defined in ASTM D 1079 which includes both asphalt and coal-tar.
b. Components of a BUR system may include substrate boards, vapor retarders, roof insulation, cover boards, insulation
adhesives and fasteners, and other accessories. Many BUR manufacturers require the use of either their own roof
insulations and fasteners or a limited range of acceptable products. Because above-deck roof insulations form an
integral part of the BUR system, code acceptance and manufacturers’ warranties may be based on the use of these
products.
c. A hybrid asphalt BUR system with a base of shingled multiple asphalt ply sheets set in moppings of hot roofing asphalt
and capped with one or two modified bituminous plies has been offered by several manufacturers.
d. Potential health, safety and environmental risks associated with hot roofing asphalt have been recognized and are now
regulated by OSHA. The fume particulate values for hot asphalt are expected to decrease thereby further limiting its
use. Equipment to minimize the release of fumes has been developed but restrictions and some hazard remain.
e. Vapor retarders should be considered only in roofing systems that have insulation sandwiched between the roof deck
and the roofing membrane. Their purpose is to prevent water-vapor migration from a building interior into the roofing
system. Water vapor should be permitted to escape into the building where it can be eliminated by the HVAC system. 1
An analysis of the vapor drive and location of the dew point should precede the decision for a vapor retarder.
14.3.2.1 Roof Decks
a. BUR roofing systems may be installed on roof decks of normal-weight, structural lightweight concrete, and steel deck
with or without a thermal barrier or substrate board. Other generally considered nailable roof decks include structural-
use wood panels, cementitious wood-fiber planks, and light-weight insulating concrete. 3
b. Concrete is usually required to cure and lose moisture for a minimum of 28 days and be dry and free of contaminants,
dust, debris, and dirt. Priming may be required when setting insulation with asphalt. Compatibility of adhesives or
asphalt with curing compounds should be established if adhering components of the roofing system to the concrete.
The type of concrete finish, usually a wood float finish or better, should also be established. If adhering roofing
components, a smoother finish may be needed.
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c. Insulating concrete, structural-use wood panel, poured gypsum decks, cementitious wood-fiber plank decks, and steel
decks less than 0.030 inch (76mm) thick may require fastener pullout testing before acceptance by the roofing system
manufacturer. Fully adhered roofing systems usually require a mechanically attached insulation layer or base sheet
over these roof decks.
d. The use of wood-based structural panel or wood board decks as a substrate for a roof cover needs careful review,
particularly when roof insulation is placed under the deck instead of between the deck and BUR membrane. This
practice is more common in the western U.S. than elsewhere. Consult the roofing system manufacturer’s product
information for precautions because a minimum wood deck thickness of 3/4 inch (19mm) may be required. Typically
a mechanically fastened slip sheet of sheathing paper is required beneath the BUR membrane since the wood deck will
expand and contract. When a Class A rating of the deck and roof construction is desired, a separation layer of roof
insulation or a thermal-barrier product may be needed.
e. Roof expansion or contraction joints have been designed to accommodate roof deck structural movement. Typical
applications include deck-to-deck, deck-to-parapet, curb-to-curb, and curb-to-parapet joints. BUR roofing usually
terminates against these expansion joints. If the spacing of expansion joints within the structure is too great, area

dividers may be used to limit thermal stresses causing ruptures within the BUR system. The stiff BUR membranes
benefit most from area dividers, usually back-to-back raised curbs of wood.
14.3.2.2 Coal-Tar (BUR)
a. Coal-tar built-up roofing (BUR) systems are suitable for flat or minimally sloped roofs or roofs designed for water
cooling, water retaining, or restricted drainage. A feature of coal-tar BUR membranes is their water-resistance. A
coal-tar BUR system that is designed to be continuously wet or water covered in service will demand great attention
and detailing at flashings and terminations. The manufacturers of coal-tar products should be consulted for any special
recommendations.
b. Roof Slope: Although the International Building Code (IBC) mandates a minimum roof slope of 1/4 inch per 12
inches (1:48), special exclusions may permit lower slopes for coal-tar BUR. Verify slope limits of authorities having
jurisdiction. Traditionally, coal-tar BUR roof slopes do not exceed 1/8 inch per 12 inches (1:96); verify acceptability
of steeper slopes with BUR manufacturer. Coal-tar never cures or sets and remains forever plastic. In time, the coal-
tar will flow to low spots in the roof or even over the edge if not contained.
c. For water-retaining roofs, it is advisable to specify a flood test to detect leakage in the membrane and, more important,
at flashings and terminations. The structural design of the roof deck should account for any additional loads.
d. The use of hot roofing asphalt as an adhesive in coal-tar roofing for base sheets, roof insulation, and base flashings is
recognized as a well-established industry practice. Coal-tar pitch is used with ply sheets to build up the remainder of
the roofing membrane.
e. Coal-Tar BUR Components
(1) Roofing ply sheets, along with hot coal-tar pitch between plies, create a coal-tar BUR membrane. Several ply
sheets, set in hot coal-tar pitch, are required to build up a water-resistant roofing membrane and add strength and
rigidity to the membrane.
(a) The most common ply sheet used is the traditional, coal-tar-saturated, organic-fiber felt complying with
ASTM D 227 or glass-fiber felt complying with ASTM D 4990. Compared to organic felts, glass-fiber felts
add strength to the roofing membrane.
(b) Manufacturers offer a variation of the all-organic-felt or all-coal-tar-impregnated, glass-fiber, built-up

membrane. A roofing membrane may be built up of three organic-fiber felt plies, with or without a base
sheet, and finished with a lapped finish ply of coal-tar-impregnated, glass-fiber felt.
(2) The ply count tallies the number of ply-felt courses, and the total weight of the membrane is a measure of the
quantity of the material used. The base sheet is included in the ply count, but sheathing paper is not. Aggregate
surfacing embedded in a flood coat does not count as a ply. Three- and four-ply, built-up coal-tar roofs
predominate; five-ply systems are used on occasion. Two-ply, low-slope coal-tar BUR systems are rarely used
because they are not considered durable, weatherproof and watertight.
(3) Surfacings:
(a) Cap sheets are not used to surface coal-tar BUR membranes. Coal-tar BUR systems require an aggregate
surfacing to protect the BUR from UV exposure, assist in reducing surface flame spread, reduce roof surface
temperatures, add weight to counteract wind-uplift forces, and provide some protection of the roof from foot
and construction traffic.
(b) There are no smooth-surfaced, coal-tar BUR membranes. Coatings, familiar to specifiers of asphalt BUR, are
not used over coal-tar BUR membranes. However, coatings will be required over smooth-surfaced
bituminous flashings.

(4) Compatibility: Coal-tar pitch and asphalt should not be mixed. Separate heating kettles are necessary on a project.
Although generally incompatible, contact of asphaltic products such as flashings with coal-tar BUR has always
occurred. It is also common, and often more economical to build up the foundation components of a BUR system
with asphaltic products. Vapor retarders of glass-fiber or organic felts, base sheets, and, where appropriate, roof
insulation may be laid in hot roofing asphalt. If using hot roofing asphalt over a concrete deck or parapet, an
asphaltic primer is needed.
(5) Base flashings form an integral part of a BUR membrane and, as one of the most vulnerable area of a BUR system,
are a major source of roof leakage. The stress induced at the junction of roof decks from differential movement of
parapets or walls may be enough to tear the weaker ply sheets that were used in the past. This problem has been
reduced by the use of modified bituminous flashings.
f. Due to health, safety and environmental concerns, coal-tar built-up roofs should only be considered for extreme
conditions when the unique properties of coal-tar cannot be duplicated with other systems. Such a situation could be a
water-retaining or ponded water roof.
14.3.2.3 Asphalt Bitumen (BUR)
a. Ply Sheets: Glass-fiber sheets add moisture-resisting properties and improve the strength of the BUR system. Glass-
fiber ply sheets are now almost universally used in hot-applied asphalt BUR systems. Organic ply sheets are no
longer considered for asphalt BUR and only used with coal-tar BUR.
b. The ply count tallies the number of ply-felt courses, and the total weight of the membrane is a measure of the quantity
of the material used. The base sheet is included in the ply count, but sheathing paper is not. Aggregate surfacing
embedded in a flood coat does not count as a ply. Three- and four-ply, built-up coal-tar roofs predominate; five-ply
1
systems are used on occasion. Two-ply, low-slope coal-tar BUR systems are rarely used because they are not
considered durable, weatherproof and watertight. Note that it is the bitumen between the plies which provides the
waterproofing – more plies equals more bitumen.
c. Roofing asphalt can be used over a variety of slopes and in many climatic conditions because its softening point can be
varied through oxidation. The lowest softening point appropriate for the slope and anticipated temperature ranges of 3
the roofing membrane is used to give roofing the highest degree of self-healing. BUR systems are increasingly
limiting roofing asphalt to ASTM D 312, Types III and IV. The following are some considerations in the use of roofing
asphalt in BUR:
d. In general, the maximum surface temperature of a sun-heated roof will be higher if the roofing membrane is placed
over the roof insulation rather than directly on the deck; it will be lower if aggregate surfacing is light rather than dark.
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(1) For hot regions of the U.S., particularly in the Southwest, roofing asphalt with a softening point of one level higher
than necessary, e.g., Type IV rather than Type III, might be used.
(2) Nailing ply felts offers some resistance to roofing membrane slippage as roof slope increases beyond 1 inch in 12
inches (1:12). Backnailing requirements differ among roofing systems manufacturers but The National Roofing
Contractors Association (NRCA) has set nailer strip spacings for insulated decks. Nailer strips fastened to the
deck at appropriate intervals also act as insulation stops for insulated roof decks.
(3) On sloping roofs, the weight of the flood coat should not exceed the amount recommended by the roofing system
manufacturer. If a greater amount of roofing asphalt is needed for optimum aggregate adhesion, the flood coat
might be applied in two parts to produce a double-pour aggregate surfacing.
(4) Asphalt oxidizes with age. Oxidation increases the softening point of the asphalt, which reduces its tendency to
slip.

(5) Coal-tar pitch and asphalt should not be mixed. Separate heating kettles are required if both bitumens are used on
a project.
(6) Styrene-Ethylene-Butylene-Styrene- (SEBS) Modified Asphalt: In addition to traditional roofing asphalt, SEBS-
modified mopping asphalt is available. SEBS-modified asphalt may be specified according to ASTM D 6152, a
product standard that establishes a number of physical requirements for this material. ASTM D 6152 includes
properties for tensile elongation, low-temperature flexibility, and elastic recovery not found in ASTM D 312. This
asphalt should be considered when extreme substrate movement is anticipated. Although heating requirements
and slope guidelines have evolved over many years for traditional roofing asphalt, they have not for SEBS-
modified asphalt. Consult system manufacturers who offer it for written usage recommendations when specifying
this material. The equiviscous temperature (EVT) concept used with traditional hot roofing asphalt may not apply.
ASTM D 6152 does not include slope considerations.
(7) Surfacings: BUR systems require protection to prevent surface deterioration of the asphalt caused by UV
radiation and heat. Surfacings enhance the prospects of a BUR system qualifying for Class A fire-test exposure.
Factory-finished composition asphalt cap sheets with a surfacing of mineral granules need no added protection,
but their use is limited to milder climates in western and southern U.S. Smooth membranes rely on reflective roof
coating systems or opaque aggregate surfacing to lower surface temperatures and to screen UV radiation.
(8) Roof Coatings: Predominant roof coatings include aluminum-pigmented asphalts, emulsified asphalts, and liquid-
applied acrylics. Roof coatings are considered easy to apply but require periodic maintenance and recoating,
particularly when a fire-test exposure rating must be maintained. Roofing system manufacturers do not
recommend glaze coating with hot roofing asphalt before applying roof coatings, except for the stripping-in area
that surrounds roof drains where a glaze coating over a smooth-surfaced roof may be required.
(9) Base flashings form an integral part of a BUR membrane and, as one of the most vulnerable areas of a BUR
system, are a major source of roof leakage. The stress induced at the junction of roof decks from differential
movement of parapets or walls may be enough to tear the weaker ply sheets that were used in the past. This
problem has been reduced by the use of modified bituminous flashings that have now replaced the earlier
generation composition flashings.
(10) AAP (atactic polypropylene polymer) and SBS (styrene-butadiene-sytrene) modified bituminous flashings are
now standard and typically required for extended manufacturer’s warranties. Developed for terminating modified
bituminous membrane roofing systems, these flashings generally perform better than composition flashings.
Depending on the polymer modifier, APP- or SBS-modified bituminous flashings may be applied by torch
welding, solid moppings of hot roofing asphalt, or cold adhesive or roofing cement.
(11) ASTM’s material standards have been developed for APP- and SBS-modified bituminous sheets used in roofing
systems. A series of product standards distinguishes these sheets when used as base flashings in BUR systems by
their different reinforcements: polyester, glass fiber, and a combination layer of polyester and glass fiber.
14.3.2.4 Modified Bitumen Roofing
a. Modified bitumen roofing membranes are built-up using factory-produced roofing sheets as manufactured from
proprietary formulations of roofing asphalt, polymer modifiers, glass and/or polyester reinforcements, and, when
specified, UV protective surfacings. The dominant polymer modifiers are atactic-polypropylene (APP) and styrene-
butadiene-styrene (SBS). Factory-applied surfacings include ceramic-coated or slate granules and metal or polymer
foils. The metal foil surfaced sheets are also utilized in flashings and are warranted as part of the roofing system.
Modified bitumen sheets are thicker and heavier than asphalt sheets. Modified sheets, modified base or intermediate
plies range from minimums of 87 to 134 mils (2.2 to 3.4mm) in thickness and 60 to 96 pounds per square (2.9 to 4.7
kg/m2) in weight. The range for cap sheets is minimum 95 to 154 mils (2.4 to 3.9mm) in thickness and 75 to 143
pounds (3.6 to 7.0 kg/m2 ) in weight.

(1) APP is a thermoplastic material that plasticizes asphalt and has rheological properties different from SBS-
modified asphalt. The thermoplastic nature of the modifier increases the softening point of asphalt from 90 to 300
degrees F (32 to 149 degrees C). APP is a durable material that imparts good weatherability and resistance to UV
exposure to the product and the toughness of APP can provide the product with more tensile strength than SBS,
depending on the roof temperature.
(2) SBS is a thermoplastic rubber polymer that rubberizes the asphalt when uniformly dispersed within the batch.
SBS increases flexibility over a wider temperature range than APP. SBS-modified asphalt has excellent
elongation and recovery properties and remains flexible at temperatures below minus 10 degrees F (minus 23
degrees C). Adding SBS polymer to asphalt flux can increase the softening point from approximately 90 to 260
degrees F (32 to 127 degrees C). SBS is preferred over APP in most climates because it has low-temperature
flexibility and elongation.
(3) Reinforcements: An important component of modified bituminous membrane roofing is reinforcement, which is
normally placed near the center of the membrane. Reinforcing fabric may be placed in the upper half of the
membrane for torch-applied membranes and in the middle or lower half for hot-roofing-asphalt-applied
membranes. The most common fiber reinforcements used in modified bituminous membranes are glass-fiber and
polyester mats, and combinations of both. The characteristics of each may be summarized as follows:
(a) Polyester is a polymer with high elongation even at low temperatures. Nonwoven polyester mats impart
enhanced toughness and puncture resistance to the modified bituminous membrane. Consisting of synthetic
polymers, polyester reinforcements can be manufactured to yield a variety of tensile properties.
(b) Glass fiber, a woven or nonwoven, generally enhances tensile strength and provides the modified bituminous
membrane with a variety of load/strain characteristics. Glass fibers impart limited puncture resistance and
1
may restrict elongation of the modified bitumen. Glass-fiber reinforcements may improve external fire
resistance, weatherability, and dimensional stability of the modified bituminous membrane.
(c) Combinations of polyester and glass-fiber mats may be used by some roofing manufacturers, and different
manufacturing processes are used to achieve these combinations: reinforcing mats may be laminated; a dual
carrier using two distinct reinforcing mats may be used; or a single polyester and glass-fiber mat, which is 3
produced from continuous glass-fiber filaments, may be embedded into a nonwoven polyester mat.
Combinations of reinforcements provide some beneficial characteristics and some limitations of each fiber
type.
(4) Protective surfacings are recommended for APP- and SBS-modified bituminous membranes to protect them from
UV exposure that will eventually lead to roofing membrane breakdown. Factory-applied protective surfacings are
preferred and available. 4
b. The following Table 6-14-1, compares the APP- and SBS-modifiers. Note the SBS advantage in elongation (1000%
with full recovery vs. 200% with no recovery if the elongation exceeds 10%) and the serviceability range which
indicates performance in more realistic conditions. There are 22 manufacturers of SBS polymer modified products and
17 manufacturers of APP polymer modified products. There are 13 of these companies producing both polymers and
only 3 companies producing only APP polymer. Based on the companies involved and their marketing of modified
roofing systems the SBS polymer is the more widely used of the two. Information in the Table also is supportive of
this. APP polymer systems may have a3place in applications where there is no potential for movement.

Table 6-14-1. Modified Bitumen Roofing Comparison Highlights

SBS and APP
Comparison SBS APP
Polymer Type Thermoplastic Elastomer Thermoplastic
Specifically engineered A randomly oriented plastic

synthetic rubber that polymer originally a by-product
incorporates high temperature of polypropylene. Now supplied
characteristics of plastic with from APP processors.
elasticity of rubber.
Use in Modified Bitumen Proper mixing of 10-15% Requires 20-30% by weight in
Roofing polymer by weight into a compatible asphalt to plasticize
compatible asphalt yields an the compound
elastomer compound
Typical Physical Properties in Low Temp Flex: -22° to -5° Low Temp Flex: 14° to 32°
Asphalt Blend
Softening Point: 230° to 270° F Softening Point: 245° to 300° F
100% elongation with full Max 200% elongation. No

recovery (elastic) recovery beyond approximately
10% elongation (plastic)
Serviceability Range 290° F (-20° to 270° F) 285° F (15° to 300° F)
Surfacing Factory applied granules or Generally must be field coated
metal foil. SBS has excellent to avoid direct UV exposure.
adhesive properties and retains Granule surfaced sheets are
granules if manufactured available.
properly.
Reinforcing A properly formulated SBS APP modified bitumen has
compound is versatile enough to limited elasticity and thus
incorporate most any of the requires heavy reinforcing
reinforcing types available materials such as non-woven
today. polyesters or woven glass.
Application SBS can be applied with hot APP is generally torched. There
asphalt, cold adhesive, torch or is limited use of cold adhesive,
self adhesive. but the overlaps are always
torch adhered. Self-adhesive
products are available
Comments The SBS modified bitumen Summer and winter blends are
blend is better suited for the available from some suppliers
range of temperatures found in because some blends aren’t
all climates, and lightweight, suited for year-round
dimensionally stable carriers application.
can be incorporated into SBS
products. SBS also offers a
variety of application techniques
to fit the situation.

c. The larger modified bitumen roofing system manufacturers have engaged both UL and FM Global to test their systems
for external fire resistance and wind uplift resistance.
(1) FM Global has elevated, by testing, a number of modified bituminous membrane roofing systems for both fire-
resistance and wind-uplift performance. Systems meeting requirements of these tests may be used on
noncombustible decks. Membrane systems that have been tested to comply with “FM Approvals’ Windstorm
Resistance Classification” of 1 – 60 (60 mph winds) through 1 – 180 (180 mph winds), or greater are available.
Wind loads resulting from calculations using the ASCE/SE17 as referenced by the IBC, or local authorities having
jurisdiction mandates should be used in making the selection of a modified bitumen membrane roofing system.
FM Global testing approval also includes design requirements for roof deck securement and all above deck
roofing components including insulation and fasteners.
(2) UL has recently introduced wind-uplift testing similar to FM Approvals’ wind-uplift test. These tests also include
the modified bitumen roofing membrane, insulation, fasteners and deck.
(3) Both FM Global and UL approvals require a strict adherence to the listed components. Variation from the
standard will void the approval. The contractor cannot make any interpretation to permit variation.
d. Modified Bituminous Membrane Roofing Components
(1) Base sheets are typically required with modified bituminous membrane roofing systems. Base sheets are usually
fastened to nailable decks and adhered with asphalt over insulated or concrete decks. Applied singly or as two
lapped sheets, the base sheet also serves to secure the roofing membrane, to support and cushion the roofing
membrane from a rough or irregular deck, and to provide a strong first ply to the roofing membrane. A modified
bituminous roofing membrane should be separated from a noninsulated wood or nailable roof deck. Separation is
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usually achieved by a mechanically fastened, rosin-sized sheathing paper but may also be achieved with a
mechanically fastened layer of rigid insulation. Rosin-sizes sheathing paper is used alone or in combination with
an additional base sheet when the base sheet is too porous to prevent asphalt migration and when required by the
roofing membrane manufacturer. Rosin-sized sheathing paper is mechanically fastened to the deck. It does not
count as a base sheet course when counting number of base sheets.
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(2) Venting base sheets, which typically have a coarse texture on the underside to provide a lateral pathway for
venting moisture vapor, may be required over substrates such as lightweight insulating concrete decks or re-
covered roofing systems that can contain moisture. Smooth, vapor-retarding, base sheets may also be used for
venting the substrate by using mechanical fastening or spot or strip mopping of hot roofing asphalt to provide a
vapor path that is not blocked by asphalt between the underside of the base sheet and substrate. Proprietary, vapor-
retarding, venting base sheets, applied foil-face down over lightweight insulating concrete decks or existing
modified bituminous roofing, may also be available. 4
(3) Hot roofing asphalt is used as the traditional waterproofing medium or as an adhesive, if needed , for base sheets
or roof insulation in that portion of the roofing system underlying the modified bituminous roofing membrane
itself. Asphalt used in modified bituminous membranes will be partially oxidized or distilled and is chosen by the
roofing system manufacturer for compatibility with the modifying polymer, to achieve desired physical properties.
The role of hot roofing asphalt changes to an adhesive in SBS-modified bituminous roofing membranes. APP-
modified bituminous roofing membranes are not applied in hot roofing asphalt. SBS-modified bituminous roofing
membranes require roofing asphalt to be heated to at least 425 degrees F (218 degrees C) at the point of
application. Many manufacturers require the use of their own or a compatible ASTM D 312, Type IV roofing
asphalt.
(4) Styrene-Ethylene-Butylene-Styrene (SEBS) Modified Asphalt: Besides traditional roofing asphalt, SEBS-
modified mopping asphalt is available. SEBS-modified asphalt may be specified according to ASTM D 6152, a
product standard that establishes a number of physical requirements for this material. ASTM D 6152 includes
properties for tensile elongation, low-temperature flexibility, and elastic recovery. Heating requirements and slope
guidelines for traditional roofing asphalt have evolved over many years, but not for SEBS-modified asphalt.

Consult blenders of this product, usually the roofing system manufacturers, for written usage recommendations
when specifying this material. The equiviscous temperature concept used with traditional hot roofing asphalt may
not apply. ASTM D 6152 does not include slope considerations.
(5) Surfacings:
(a) SBS-modified bituminous membrane roofing systems require protection to prevent surface deterioration of
the asphalt caused by UV radiation and heat. Surfacings enhance the prospects of a roofing system qualifying
for Class A fire-test exposure. Factory-surfaced granulated cap sheets with a surfacing of ceramic-coated
mineral or slate granules need no added protection. Smooth SBS-modified bituminous membrane roofing
systems are field surfaced with aggregate set in a flood coat of hot roofing asphalt or are given a field-applied
roof coating.
(b) APP-modified bituminous membrane roofing systems may be installed with a smooth surface for field
application of a roof coating or as factory-surfaced granulated cap sheets. Smooth membranes rely on
reflective roof coating systems or opaque aggregate surfacing to lower surface temperatures and to screen UV
radiation.
(6) Roof coatings are used with smooth-finished, modified bituminous roofing systems. Predominant roof coatings
include aluminum-pigmented asphalts, emulsified asphalts, and liquid-applied acrylics. Roof coatings are
considered easy to apply but require periodic maintenance and recoating, particularly when a fire-test exposure
rating must be maintained.
(7) Base flashings form an integral part of a modified bituminous membrane roofing system and, as one of the most
vulnerable areas of a roofing system, can become a major source of roof leakage. The use of modified bituminous
sheet flashings, reinforced where applicable with one or more glass-fiber ply backer sheets to resist stresses
induced at the junction of roof decks from differential movement of parapets or walls, has been successful.
(8) APP- and SBS-modified bituminous base flashings, depending on the polymer modifier, may be applied by torch
welding, by solid moppings of hot roofing asphalt, or by cold adhesive or roofing cement.
(9) A hybrid modified bituminous roofing membrane consists of an intermediate built-up roofing membrane of glass-
fiber base-ply sheets combined with one or two top plies of modified bituminous roofing membrane. Usually two
or three base-ply sheets are used, installed the same as a built-up roof with base-ply sheets shingled and set in hot
roofing asphalt.
e. Membrane Installation
(1) The installation of an APP- or SBS- modified bituminous roofing membrane bears some resemblance to the
installation of a built-up roofing membrane. Some manufacturers offer a single modified bituminous roofing
membrane sheet as the membrane roofing installed directly over a nonnailable, noninsulated, primed concrete
deck or as a re-cover membrane over a smooth, existing built-up roof. This minimal application is seldom enough
to create a durable roofing membrane. The primary modified bituminous roofing membrane is a base sheet when
required and two modified bituminous roofing membrane sheets.
(2) The type of polymer modifier used to manufacture the modified bituminous roofing membrane determines how
the product is applied. Torch application over potentially flammable substrates is discouraged.
(a) APP-modified bituminous roofing membranes are generally torch applied because of their high-temperature
melting point, which is necessary for proper adhesion. Roofing membranes suitable for cold-applied
adhesives have also been developed.
(b) Most SBS-modified bituminous roofing membranes are applied with hot-mopped roofing asphalt or
torching. Torch grade plies, once limited to flashings or metal-foil-surfaced SBS sheets because of the SBS’s

lower melting point, has grown to become the primary membrane roofing. Roofing membranes suitable for
cold-applied adhesives have also been developed.
(3) Most manufacturers require at least a base sheet beneath the modified bituminous cap or finish sheet. In some
cases, two or more glass-fiber or modified bituminous base-ply sheets are mopped into hot roofing asphalt under a
modified bituminous roofing membrane, changing the construction to a hybrid built-up roof with a modified
bituminous roofing membrane cover. A base sheet may still be required under these base-ply sheets.
f. Reroofing Comments
(1) The most comprehensive form of reroofing is the complete tear-off and removal of an existing roofing system
down to the roof deck. Partial replacement of roofing system components entails removing the existing roofing
membrane and replacing wet or damaged insulation and substrate boards. The final option is to re-cover an
existing membrane roofing system.
(2) Complete replacement is widely recommended as the safest and best option. Tear-off of all above-deck roofing
system components removes any doubts about the quality of existing materials. The soundness, fastening, and
surface condition of the roof deck may be fully evaluated.
(3) Partial replacement is a less-costly alternative if investigations reveal the worst damage is limited to the existing
roofing membrane. Once the roofing membrane is removed, wet or damaged insulation must be replaced. A new
layer of insulation is needed beneath the roofing membrane, as is replacement base flashing. The impact of
elevation changes on roof drains, flashings, and curbs, as well as added weight considerations, should also be
assessed.
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The re-cover option may be justified, for example, if the contents of a building are so critical that no risk of leaking
can be tolerated or if the removal and disposal of an old roofing system is not practical.
14.3.3 SINGLE-PLY ROOFING SYSTEMS (2010)
a. Elastomeric and thermoplastic membrane roofing systems represent a sizable percent of the new and re-roofing 3
market. The most popular elastomerics, often referred to as thermosets, are EPDM and CSPE. The most popular
thermoplastics are PVC, TPO, KEE and other PVC-blend coated fabrics. Neoprene and CPE are no longer
manufactured as roofing membranes.
b. Both elastomeric and thermoplastic membrane roofing systems require careful consideration of all the components and
their interrelationships. Compatibility of materials, response of the system to water vapor, effects of thermal stresses
on interface conditions, and weight of the roofing system can each assume major significance. Selection of the sheet 4
membrane material is only one aspect of designing a single-ply membrane roofing system. Seam integrity remains a
concern for these systems and contributes substantially to the number of system failures. Elastomeric and
thermoplastic membrane roofing systems are roofing systems designed by the roofing manufacturer that reach beyond
the design for the roof cover product. Terminations, base flashings, adhesives, and fasteners form an integral part of
the membrane roofing system. Many roofing manufacturers require the use either of their own roof insulations and
fasteners for a limited range of acceptable products. Because above-deck roof insulations form an integral part of the
membrane roofing system, code acceptance and manufacturer’s warranties are based on the use of these products.
c. Selection of systems should be made from manufacturers that have engaged UL and/or FM Global to test the systems
for external fire resistance and wind-uplift resistance.
(1) FM Global has evaluated, by testing, a number of elastomeric and thermoplastic membrane roofing systems for
both fire-resistance and wind-uplift performance. Membrane systems that have been tested to comply with “FM
Approvals’ Windstorm Resistance Classification” of 1 – 60 (60 mph winds) through 1 – 180 (180 mph winds), or
greater may be available. Wind loads resulting from calculations using ASCE/SE1 7 as reference by the IBC, or

local authority having jurisdiction mandate should be used in making the selection of an elastomeric or
thermoplastic membrane roofing system. FM Global testing approval also includes design requirements for roof
deck securement and all above deck roofing components including insulation and fasteners.
(2) UL has recently introduced wind-uplift testing similar to FM Approval’s wind-uplift test. These tests also include
roof covers, insulation, fasteners, deck and accessories.
(3) Both FM Global and UL approvals require a strict adherence to the listed components. Variation from the
standard will void the approval. The contractor cannot make any interpretation to permit variation.
d. SPRI Wind Design
(1) SPRI’s Wind Load Design Guide for Low-Sloped Flexible Membrane Roofing Systems (hereafter, the Guide)
requires the Architect to calculate the design uplift pressure, to choose a safety factor, and to select a membrane
roofing system capable of complying with the design uplift pressure multiplied by the safety factor. For similar
calculations, FM Global Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1 – 28 multiplies the uplift pressure by a factor of two to
arrive at the factored pressure, the figure that establishes FM Approvals’ Wind Uplift Classifications of 1 – 60, 1 –
75, 1 – 90, 1 – 105, 1 – 120, or greater. SPRI’s Guide has not been included in the Section Text as it is not
reference by IBC. Local building codes may also establish other minimum requirements.
(2) SPRI R-4, Wind Design Standard for Ballasted Single-Ply Roofing Systems, has been adopted into the IBC. SPRI
RP-4 prescribes minimum ballast weights and design requirements for securing the otherwise loosely laid
membrane roofing at corners, perimeters, and transitions between the loosely laid field membrane and the adhered
or mechanically fastened portion of the membrane roofing.
(3) SPRI RP-4 recognizes three levels of increasing severity of wind loading of membrane roofing design: Systems 1,
2 and 3. The system number is derived from tables equating wind speed, building height, parapet height, and
degree of exposure of the building. The procedure is modified to account for special building features and an
importance factor. For example, upgrading to the next higher system number is required if wall openings in the
story beneath the roof exceed 10%. If the building is categorized as an essential facility or an occupancy that
represents a substantial hazard to human life in the event to failure, the next higher number is used. Because
insulation is typically loosely laid in ballasted membrane roofing systems, insulation securement is not directly
addressed in SPRI RP-4. Besides the ballast, securement of the membrane roofing is required for System 3
corners and perimeters of conventional ballasted roofing systems.
e. Warranties
(1) Manufacturers offer standard warranties of five to 20 years duration, with ten- or 15-year warranties being the
most common. Unless of limited duration, most manufacturers charge extra for these warranties. When selecting
roofing system manufacturers, the review of a manufacturer’s published warranty obligations, remedies,
limitations, and exclusions can become an important consideration. Confirmation during the submittal process
that a standard manufacturer’s roofing warranty continues to comply with requirements is also important.
(2) The more comprehensive materials-and-workmanship warranties, sometimes called total-system warranties,
usually bind the roofing Installer to the membrane roofing system manufacturer to make repairs during the first
two years of the warranty period; thereafter, the roofing system manufacturer organizes repairs. The manufacturer
agrees to repair leaks by replacing non-compliant material. Often the roof insulation is also warranted to maintain
a minimum insulation value. These warranties offer the Owner a single entity to resolve covered roofing
problems. Responsibility for consequential damages to the building caused by leaks is specifically excluded.
f. Membrane Roofing Classifications
(1) Nonbituminous membrane roofing relies on the toughness and integrity of a thin-sheet polymer product and the
seams that splice the sheet into a monolithic membrane to perform as a roof cover. Special care is required to

successfully complete each roofing installation. Manufactured in large sheets, nonbituminous sheet membranes
are installed with narrow lap widths that require precise alignment.
(2) Successful membrane roofing requires the appropriate specification of manufacturer-engineered roofing systems,
quality materials, compatibility of roofing components, and reliable field application. Maintaining good
communication among the Owner, Architect, Contractor, roofing Installer, installers of related work, code officials
and insurance agencies is also necessary.
(3) Two classes of nonbituminous membrane roofing are produced, thermosets and thermoplastics, which have
different chemical characteristics.
(a) Thermosets, also called vulcanized elastomers, relate to the chemical crosslinking of the polymers, which
happens during the manufacturing process. Once vulcanization occurs, it cannot be reversed. Seams of
elastomerics may only be spliced with a liquid adhesive or adhesive tape. EPDM is the most widely used
elastomeric.
(b) CSPE is another type of thermoset, an unvulcanized elastomer, that vulcanizes not during manufacture
exposure but on exposure to the atmosphere. Seams must be heat welded in place on the roof before CSPE
vulcanizes. If installation is delayed, the onset of vulcanization can lead to problems with seaming.
(c) Thermoplastics are compounded with plasticizers and the sheet remains capable of bonding to itself without
affecting membrane integrity throughout its service life. Seams are heat welded in place on the roof. The
bond strength of seams can equal or surpass the strength of the base material. PVC, TPO, KEE, and other
PVC-based sheets are thermoplastic.
1
g. Membrane Roofing Installation
(1) Elastomeric and thermoplastic membrane roofing systems are classified by the membrane roofing material and
their method of installation or securement. Three installation systems are widely recognized: adhered,
mechanically fastened, and loosely laid and ballasted.
3
(2) The terms adhered and fully adhered are used by different groups in the roofing industry without an objective
criterion to establish definition. Because NRCA and manufacturer’s specifications describe a continuous
application of adhesive to the back of the membrane as well as to the substrate, voids or holidays in the adhesive
coverage would suggest that specification requirements have not been met.
(a) Adhered Systems: An adhered membrane roofing is bonded to the substrate and requires neither ballast nor
mechanical fastening. Substrate boards and insulation must be securely fastened and have adequate strength 4
to withstand wind-uplift forces. A thicker or reinforced elastomeric or thermoplastic membrane roofing is
usually required with superior physical properties to those used in loosely laid and ballasted membrane
roofing systems. Dimensional changes in the insulation or movement in the structural deck system can be
reflected to the membrane. Adhered single-ply membrane roofing, which may be applied to curved, sloped,
or complex roof shapes, is also directly exposed to weather stresses and does not have ballast protection.
(b) Mechanically Fastened Systems: This attachment reduces the dead load of the roof deck compared to loosely
laid and ballasted systems. This installation procedure may be used on steeply sloped decks to avoid the extra
costs of full adhesion to the substrate. Mechanically fastened systems may be secured through continuous
metal battens or by plates and fasteners. Because the membrane is exposed, it is subject to greater weather
stresses, and physical properties such as tensile strength, tear resistance, and elongation capability assume
greater significance. A mechanically fastened membrane roofing system, usually reinforced, must resist
thermal, UV-ray, and ozone deterioration. There are several ways to mechanically fasten membrane roofing.
SPRI has classified three methods: through-the-membrane attachment, under-the-membrane attachment and
in-splice attachment. The under-the-membrane attachment method is now seldom offered by roofing
manufacturers. Verify that selected membrane roofing manufacturers offer the desired installation method.

NRCA and several roofing professionals have recognized that in-splice (in-seam) fastening of wider
membrane roofing sheets that extend the spacing between fastener rows can cause an increase in wind-uplift
loading on fasteners, the steel deck substrate, and potentially the primary structural frame component. Steel
roof deck strength and flute or rib orientation for membrane roofing orientation may become an important
shop drawing coordination item with the Projects’ structural engineer. Membrane roofing installed with the
long dimension parallel to the roof deck flutes exerts greater forces on roof deck-to-structure connections than
membrane roofing fastened perpendicular to the roof deck ribs. Coordinate the membrane roofing
manufacturer’s fastener patterns and the assumed strength and thickness of steel roof deck with that proposed
for the Project. ASTM A 1008/A 1008M, Grade 80 (550) steel of a default thickness that is different from
that proposed for the Project may have been the basis used by the manufacturer.
(c) Loosely Laid and Ballasted Systems: One advantage of this installation procedure is that the membrane
roofing, being independent of the substrate, is less affected by the movement of the structure than built-up or
modified-bituminous membrane roofing, which lowers the danger of the membrane rupturing. However,
additional dead loads are imposed by ballasted systems. The actual weight of the ballast varies, depending on
wind speed, building height, exposure, and the location the roof. A disadvantage is that leak detection is made
harder as water can migrate unchecked once it has passed through the membrane. A provision has been added
to the 2006 IBC that prohibits the use of stone or gravel on the roofs of buildings in hurricane-prone regions
defined in IBC 1609.2. Further, the 2006 IBC restricts the use of gravel or stone on the roofs of buildings
located away from hurricane-prone regions but where basic wind speeds exceed 85 mph (137 km/h). Once
basic wind speeds and maximum roof heights for Exposure Categories B, C and D have been exceeded,
gravel and stone is not permitted on roofs. In areas where severe hail occurs, loosely laid and ballasted
systems protect the membrane from damage better than exposed, mechanically fastened or adhered membrane
systems. Some smooth membranes or underlying substrates may be damaged by hail. FM Approvals offers a
moderate-hail-resistant and severe-hail-resistant roof rating. Protected membrane roofing and ballasted
membrane roofing usually qualify for the higher ratings, as do some exposed membrane roofing systems.
(d) To prevent wind uplift of the membrane roofing, aggregate or paver ballast is added. Ballast also shields the
membrane roofing from exposure to UV radiation when needed. Most membrane roofing does not need this
protection because it is formulated with UV inhibitors. Aggregate ballast may damage or puncture the
membrane, however, either during placing or as a result of later traffic, and it may hold dirt and contaminating
pollutants that could result in chemical deterioration. Runoff from ballast containing iron may stain building
materials if drainage is through scuppers. A positive slope to drains would reduce this problem. Another
attribute of loosely laid and ballasted installations is fewer compatibility problems. If insulation is also
loosely laid, there may be no adhesives or asphaltic products to deal with, which broadens the range of
acceptable roof insulations. To prevent solvent damage to seams, cover boards or slip sheets may be required
over polystyrene insulations. Seam tapes that now predominate reduce this concern. Leak detection is more
complicated because moisture can migrate away from the source of the leak.
14.3.3.1 Elastomeric (Thermoset) Membrane Roofing System
a. EPDM Membrane Roofing
(1) EPDM sheet is formulated from ethylene-propylene-diene monomers or terpolymers. This elastomeric sheet is
used for roofing in its vulcanized form. It may also be used in a nonvulcanized form, typically for flashing
accessories. Seams must be liquid or tape adhesive. Heat welded seams are not permitted.
(2) Used as a roofing material since the early 1960’s, EPDM sheets are produced in a range of thicknesses including
45, 60 and 90 mils (1.1, 1.5 and 2.2 mm) and are black or white on black. They may be internally reinforced or
non-reinforced. Two manufacturers offer a fabric-backed EPDM sheet for setting in asphalt or other adhesive.
(3) EPDM membranes exhibit a high degree of resistance to ozone, UV rays, weathering, and abrasion, and they have
good low-temperature flexibility. EPDM’s properties of resilience, tensile strength, and elongation are largely
maintained in aging tests at elevated temperatures. Some shrinkage has been reported on roofs, evidenced by

some pulling away of the non-reinforced membrane at perimeter details. Manufacturers’ details have increasingly
emphasized perimeter reinforcement and securement designed to minimize damage as contraction forces attempt
to pull the membrane away at terminations and base flashings.
(4) EPDM membranes formulated with added fire retardancy are available. Many loosely laid and ballasted roofing
systems using standard EPDM membranes can comply with Class A exterior flame-spread limits at low slopes
without fire-retardant treatment. Fire-retardant-treated membranes over appropriate substrates make it possible
for mechanically fastened or adhered membrane roofing systems to achieve a Class A rating at low and steeper
slopes.
(5) EPDM membranes resist acids, alkalis, and oxygenated solvents such as ketones, esters, and alcohols. Exposure
to petroleum products, kitchen wastes such as animal fats and vegetable oils, and aromatic, halogenated, and
aliphatic solvents will result in swelling and distorting the membrane. Coating the EPDM membrane may offer
protection, but periodic recoating will be necessary.
(6) EPDM Installation
(a) EPDM membrane roofing may be installed by each of the three recognized methods: adhered, mechanically
fastened or loosely laid and ballasted. Seams are formed by removing the talc or mica dust coating used to
prevent the membrane from sticking to itself and by applying a contact adhesive or a seam tape.
(b) Adhesive-bonded seams, once predominant, have given away to more reliably performing seam tapes. Labor
savings from faster seam production and the VOC limitations placed on the field use of solvent-based
adhesives are two factors that have contributed to this change. However, seam cleaning and priming materials
required for seam tapes may also contain solvents. As an added precaution against moisture entry, some
1
manufacturers also require an in-seam sealant bead within the adhesive field of the splice.
(c) Butyl-based seam tapes are mandated by some roofing system manufacturers, depending on the securement
method of the membrane roofing. Verify the membrane roofing system manufacturer’s recommendations
when specifying seam tapes. Seam tapes minimize field variables faced by adhesives, such as thickness and
cure time, but demand careful positioning and care to prevent dust or contaminant pickup. As with other 3
roofing components, using the roofing system manufacturer’s seam tape is required. Seam tapes are at least
as sensitive as adhesives to the proper cleaning of the spliced area; priming the seam is also necessary.
b. CSPE (Hypolon) Membrane Roofing
(1) CSPE, a synthetic rubber thermoset was introduced under the trade name Hypolon and has been in use since 1966.
They may be reinforced with polyester scrim, and they have a finished thickness of not less than 36 mils (0.9 mm). 4
(2) CSPE membrane roofing exhibits thermoplastic qualities during processing and field installation. Curing or
crosslinking occurs during roof exposure. Aged CSPE is difficult to repair. CSPE exhibits strong resistance to
weathering and to a broad range of chemicals and pollutants and is inherently ozone resistant. It also offers design
versatility because of its adaptability to a variety of roof shapes and substrates. CSPE use has diminished with the
popularity of economical TPO thermoplastic membrane roofing with welded seams.
(3) CSPE Installation
(a) CSPE membranes may also be installed as adhered, mechanically fastened, or loosely laid and ballasted
membrane roofing systems. Loosely laid and ballasted installation is the least favored method. CSPE
membranes absorb more water than EPDM, and ballast retains water, prolonging the wetting of the
membrane roofing.
(b) CSPE seams are formed by chemical or heat welding in the field before curing occurs or with adhesives after
curing has occurred. Field seams are usually machine hot-air welded; flashing and detail seams are usually

hot air welded with hand-held equipment. Hot-air welding alone becomes impossible once curing of the
CSPE sheet has begun, about 24 hours after exposure. Solvents are needed to reactivate the CSPE sheet.
14.3.3.2 Thermoplastic Membranes
a. PVC Membrane Roofing
(1) PVC roofing membranes are produced by a polymerization of a vinyl chloride monomer compounded with
plasticizers, stabilizers, fillers, pigments, and other materials. PVC sheets may be manufactured by calendaring,
extruding, or spread coating. They may be internally or externally reinforced. Unreinforced PVC roofing
membrane is no longer produced.
(2) The product standard for PVC sheet is ASTM D 4434, Specification for Poly (Vinyl Chloride) Sheet Roofing.
Type II reinforced sheet is subdivided into tow grades: Grade 1 describes reinforced sheets that incorporate fibers
into the manufacturing process; Grade 2 describes sheets externally reinforced with a fabric backing. Type III
describes sheets, internally reinforced by fabrics, that may also have a fabric backing. Most PVC roofing
membranes are manufactured according to ASTM D 4434, Type III. ASTM D 4434 no longer recognizes a Type I
PVC sheet, which was once called an unreinforced sheet.
(3) PVC membranes can be installed mechanically attached, fully adhered or ballasted.
b. TPO Membrane Roofing
(1) TPO is formulated from blends of polypropylene (PP) and ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR). TPO membranes
possess characteristics of both thermoplastic and thermoset membranes in a single ply roofing membrane. All
TPO roofing and flashing membranes are reinforced. These membranes range in thickness from 45 to 80 mils.
(2) TPO roofing membranes share many characteristics of thermoset membranes; however, TPO seams are heat
welded, as are other thermoplastic roofing membranes. Properly welded seams are durable and develop much of
the strength in roofing membranes. TPOs are not formulated with plasticizers, as are PVC or PVC-blend roofing
membranes, yet they remain flexible and reweldable.
(3) ASTM D 6878-03 is the product standard for TPO roofing membrane.
(4) Mechanical attachment is the usual method for installation for TPO membranes but they can be fully adhered and
stone or paver ballasted.
c. Thermoplastic Membrane Seams
(1) Field seams are usually machine hot-air welded; flashing and detail seams are usually hot-air welded with hand-
held equipment. Solvent welding, when acceptable to Manufacturers of PVC roofing membranes, is limited to
detail seams rather than to seams in the field-of-roof membrane. ASTM D 5036 and ASTM D 5082 no longer
include solvent-welding procedures.
14.3.4 LIQUID ROOF COATING SYSTEMS (2010)
a. Liquid applied roof coating systems are reappearing in the USA after almost total failure and disappearance in the
1970’s. Of particular interest is a system developed in Europe and introduced into this country as a flashing system.
The imported system easily flashes and waterproofs irregular surfaces and penetrations. The new roofing application
has been developed for the system. Existing liquid-applied polyester and polyurethane products and solvent-based
cold adhesive require dramatically longer cure times.

b. Advanced polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) technology applied in a minimum of two fleece reinforced is the basis
for new optimism for liquid applied roofing membranes. Membrane is UV resistant without cover.
(1) PMMA membrane cures to a waterproof state in as little as 30 minutes and can tolerate foot traffic in two hours.
Applied by rollers to a controlled thickness.
(2) The cured product is resistant to oils and many other substances that can negatively affect other roofing membrane
products.
(3) PMMA membrane can be surfaced with aggregate and furnished in most any color. Color chips can also be
imbedded in an additional top coat for a decorative finish. These systems can also be surfaced for continuous
pedestrian and vehicular traffic.
(4) PMMA membranes have been in use in Europe for over 15 years and the system is classified by UL as Class A.
c. Liquid applied acrylic lack reinforcement and are low in abrasion resistance and tensile strength. These characteristics
make the membrane susceptible to mechanical damage and weathering. Low cost by comparison.
d. Silicone rubber membranes are not reinforced and possess low impact resistance and tensile strength. Good
weathering but susceptible to mechanical damage.
e. Urethane membrane is not reinforced but has higher abrasion resistance and tensile strength than acrylic and silicone
rubber.
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14.3.5 METAL ROOFING SYSTEMS (2010)
a. The following Table 6-14-2 identifies available system characteristics and differences.

Table 6-14-2. Differences Between Metal Roof Panels

CHARACTERISTIC CUSTOM BATRICATED, ON-SITE, ROLL STANDARD METAL
BRAKE FORMED FORMED ROOF PANELS
Seam profiles and All traditional seam types Some metal roof panel Manufacturers’ standard
roof shapes and variations and roof manufacturers allow on- products and seam types.
shapes are possible, site fabrication of their Some manufacturers offer
including unusual standard seam profiles special panel systems for
contours and curves. On- and roof shapes with the curved roofs. Frequency
site forming permits fewer use of UL-certified, of transverse seams is
transverse seams. portable roll-forming dependent on maximum
equipment. On-site length of panels that can
forming permits fewer be transported.
transverse seams.
Method of fabrication Custom fabricated either Fabricated on site using Fabricated in the factory
in the shop or on-site. portable UL-certified, and shipped to the project
portable roll-forming site.
equipment.
Substrate Nonstructural panels that Nonstructural panels that Either nonstructural
require continuous require continuous panels or “structural
support such as plywood support such as plywood panels,” capable of
sheathing. sheathing. spanning between
supports.
Engineering The Sheet Metal and Air Metal roof panel Manufacturers engineer
Conditioning Contractors’ manufacturers that allow and test metal roof panels
National Association on-site fabrication of for strength and span
(SMACNA), the National standard products with capabilities.
Roofing Contractors UL-certified, portable roll-
Association (NRCA), and forming equipment
the Copper Development provide strength and span
Association (CDA) have capabilities based on
tested assemblies to factory testing.
performance levels
equivalent to UL 580,
Class 90.
Performance Performance of sheet Metal roof panel Manufacturers test metal
metal roofing is manufacturers that allow roof panels against
determined by the on-site fabrication of performance criteria for
Architect’s design and by standard products with air infiltration, water
the workmanship of the UL-certified portable roll- penetration,
fabricator and the forming equipment may fire/windstorm resistance,
Installer; testing is test against performance hail resistance, and
typically not performed on criteria. Typically these thermal performance.
a mock-up. tests are not as extensive
as for metal roof panels.

b. Industry standard practices and details for sheet metal roofing are embodied in SMACNA’s Architectural Sheet Metal
Manual and NRCA’s Architectural Sheet Metal and Metal Roofing Manual (part of the NRCA Roofing and
Waterproofing Manual). Sheet metal producers may also have recommendations. Highly customized designs can be
successfully executed without departing drastically from SMACNA standard details and methods.
c. Characteristics usually desired of sheet metal roofing are flatness, fully concealed fasteners, and few horizontal joints.
Total freedom from horizontal joints is a worthwhile objective, provided the proper anchorage with provisions for
thermal expansion can be achieved. The practical length limit for preformed sheet metal roofing, however, is about 45
feet (13.7 m). Roll-formed sheet metal roofing can extend that limit to about 200 feet (61 m). When long lengths are
required, special mounting cleats or clips may be necessary to provide for expansion. SMACNA’s Architectural Sheet
Metal Manual also recommends that a step in the roof be provided for runs of 100 feet (30.5 m) or more. The design
should also consider the metal’s coefficient of thermal expansion which can vary substantially. Aluminum’s high
coefficient of thermal expansion, for example, makes long runs of aluminum more difficult to accommodate than long
runs of steel.
d. Strength and durability of sheet metal roofing are determined by its corrosion resistance, proper anchorage, and the
installation’s ability to resist wind blow-off. Sheet metal roofing can endure extremely high and low temperatures.
Custom-fabricated sheet metal roofing does not satisfy any structural purpose and requires solid, continuous support.
Although it is often impossible to predict what forms and degrees of atmospheric pollution may occur during the life of
a building, evaluate the possibility that conditions may change and greater corrosion resistance may be needed.
e. Only experienced erectors should be employed to fabricate and install sheet metal roofing and accessories. Forming
and seaming panels, soldering joints, separating dissimilar metals, providing for expansion and building deflections,
closing up flutes at copings, soffits, and eaves, protecting finishes and other requirements are too crucial to be handled
by inexperienced workers.
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f. Metals most commonly used for custom-fabricated, brake-formed and on-site, roll-formed sheet metal roofing are
metallic-coated (galvanized) steel and aluminum sheet. Almost any other durable sheet metal, such as brass, copper,
stainless steel and other alloys, which can be folded successfully without destroying finish or grain structure, can be
used for sheet metal roofing.
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g. Compatibility of sheet metal with other materials on the building must be considered. Rain drainage from copper will
stain most materials. Other metals produce a less-significant staining. Sustained wash from certain materials onto
sheet metal roofing may cause deterioration of metals or finishes. Contact manufacturers to verify whether metals and
coatings under consideration are compatible with runoff from adjoining stonework, concrete, or masonry.
h. Prefinished metal coils and sheets is the most recommended finish when the base metal does not provide the desired
appearance. The PVDF (Kynar/Hylar Resin) offers a 20-year guaranteed finish and is available in a wide range of 4
colors.
i. Metal thickness should be specified as a decimal or fractional thickness. The use of “gage” is discouraged as being an
archaic term of limited usefulness and not having a general agreement on meaning.
j. Seam types and patterns are important considerations for the aesthetics of a sheet metal roof. Seam patterns are limited
by the sizes of the sheets, the types and dimensions of seams selected, the shape of the roof surface, the roof slope, and
the need to allow for expansion and contraction of the roofing metal. Seaming requirements influence metal selection
where roof conditions require seams that are watertight when flooded. Producing watertight seams under such
conditions is more difficult with some metals such as aluminum, which can be welded but not soldered. Sealants and
gaskets are sometimes used where joints must provide movement, such as at expansion joints. Where possible, avoid
the need for a tightly sealed joint. However, this is usually impossible on low slopes where flat seams are required.
Batten and standing seams provide effective side seams only if the roof slopes enough to prevent standing water from
entering the seams during high winds and icy conditions. Other joint designs and proprietary modifications to the
following four basic seam types are available. Folding seams are also called locked and occasionally crimped.

(1) Flat seams are used for roofs with a slight pitch, for covering towers and domes, where water will flow across a
seam, and for transverse seams. Flat seams are almost always field formed. It is recommended that flat seams
with slopes less than 4:12 be soldered and slopes between 4:12 and 6:12 be soldered or sealed. Soldered seams are
inherently watertight. Flat seams with slopes steeper than 6:12 do not require soldering or sealing. SMACNA
recommends copper or dead-soft stainless steel for flat-seamed roofs. Flat seams are typically single folded but
can be double folded. Double flat locks are thicker than single flat locks and are more watertight, particularly if a
seam is not soldered.
(2) Standing seams, also called double lock seams, may be used on roofs with a slope of 1:12 and steeper according to
SMACNA. Both SMACNA and NRCA agree that slopes less than 3:12 may need sealant in the seams. The
minimum slope allowed by the 2003 IBC is ¼:12 (2% slope) for standing –seam metal roof panels.
Manufacturers’ recommended minimum slopes may vary from these. Seams are formed from upturned edges that
are bent over twice. The cleats anchoring the roof to the deck are incorporated into the standing seam. Seams at
ridges and hips may be left standing, folded over, or fabricated with a separate snap cap. All roofing metals are
used for standing seams. A half standing seam, also called single lock, open standing, or angle standing seam, is a
variation that omits the final fold (lock) of a standing seam, thereby producing a wider appearance than a full
standing seam. It is perhaps less waterproof than a standing seam.
(3) Batten seams are typically used for roofs with a slope of 3:12 and steeper. Seams are traditionally built over wood
supports called battens with a separate cap covering the upturned edges and double locked to them. Battens may
also be metal channels. A batten seam is wider than a standing seam and supports the seam from being crushed if
someone steps on it. Expansion is provided at battens by one of two methods: fabricating the batten with an
inward angle at the bottom, or angling the upturned metal edges away from the bottom of the batten. The first
method is preferred because there is less chance of error in the field. A T-seam or capped standing seam is a
variation that omits the batten, and single locks the “batten cap” onto the upturned edges of the pans, similar to
having a half-standing-seam profile on both sides of the seam, thereby producing a wide appearance. It is perhaps
less waterproof than a batten seam.
(4) Horizontal-seam (Bermuda-type) roofs have strong, horizontal visual lines formed by wood battens below the
roofing that run parallel to the roof eaves. These seams may be used on roofs with a slope of 2.5:12 and steeper
according to SMACNA. Panels are formed with a turned-down edge on the lower side that is seamed with an
upturned edge on the upper side of the panel below. Seams are folded over (single locked) at each batten.
(5) Available seams produced by manufacturers’ UL-certified, portable roll-forming equipment are typically limited
to standing and batten seams. Verify availability of seam types with manufacturers. This equipment permits field
forming of panels with extreme panel lengths possible (exceeding 100 ft. not uncommon). The elimination of
transverse panel seams is thus facilitated.
(6) Seam spacing is affected by the sheet metal properties and temperatures as well as the architectural design. The
thicker the metal, the wider the sheet can be. The maximum distance between transverse seams is inversely
proportional to the coefficient of expansion for the metal, even with support cleats or clips that allow some
movement.
k. Underlayment is always required for sheet metal roofing systems. The primary type for consideration should be self-
adhering and self-sealing. There are a number of manufacturers of a polymer modified or rubberized asphalt sheet for
this purpose. Thickness must be a minimum of 40 mils for self-sealing material.
14.3.6 SHINGLE ROOFING SYSTEMS (2010)
a. General Comments
(1) Asphalt shingles provide water shedding protection on adequately sloped-roof surfaces. They are used on all of
the most common slope-roof shapes, such as gable, hip, gambrel, and mansard. A variety of asphalt shingles is

produced, but not all types and colors are available in all parts of the U. S. Consult manufacturers for the
availability of specific products. The International Building Code (IBC) states that asphalt singles may be used on
roof slopes of 2:12 and greater.
(2) Roof-deck materials suitable for asphalt shingles should be firm, solid, smooth, and securely fastened. The most
common roof-deck products include plywood and oriented strand board (OSB). For a span of 16 inches (400
mm), the National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) recommends 15/32-inch-(12-mm-) thick, exterior-
grade plywood or OSB deck. For a span of 24 inches (600 mm), NRCA recommends 5/8-inch- (16-mm-) thick,
exterior-grade plywood.
(3) Weight is now widely considered an unreliable quality criterion for glass-fiber-reinforced asphalt shingles because
the manufacturing process differs from that used for organic-felt-reinforced asphalt shingles. Few manufacturers
now publish weights for glass-fiber-reinforced asphalt shingles.
(4) Asphalt shingles and accessory components require classification markings from FM Global (FMG), Underwriters
Laboratories (UL), or another testing and inspecting agency acceptable to authorities having jurisdiction. Products
are tested against UL 790, Tests for Fire Resistance of Roof Covering Materials, and ASTM E 108, which are
essentially similar test methods for external fire resistance. Classification markings printed on products may be
further qualified where products have been tested to achieve wind or impact resistance. The validity of markings
depends on following the manufacturer’s directions for installation underlayment, and minimum roof-deck
thickness. Neither ASTM E 108 nor UL 790 evaluates performance against internal fire exposure. ASTM or UL
classifications are based on the degree of external fire resistance.
(a) Class A: Effective against severe fire exposure. Glass-fiber-reinforced asphalt shingles should provide Class
A roof coverings over combustible decks.
1
(b) Class B: Effective against moderate fire exposure. Asphalt shingles generally do not comply with Class B.
(c) Class C: Effective against light fire exposure. Organic-felt-reinforced asphalt shingles should provide Class
C roof coverings over combustible decks. Organic-felt-reinforced asphalt shingles are very limited as to
manufacturers and products. 3
(5) Wind Resistance
(a) Asphalt shingle wind-resistance test criteria are set by ASTM D 3161 and UL 997, which are test methods
that subject asphalt shingles to a 60-mph (27-m/s) air speed for two hours. Wind-resistance tests categorize
asphalt shingles as either Type I, self-sealing shingles or Type II, interlocking shingles. Type I asphalt
shingles have factory-applied, concealed spots or strips of adhesive. Type II asphalt shingles rely on 4
mechanical interlocking to resist wind forces.
(b) Many glass-fiber asphalt shingles have been tested to higher air velocities, some to 130 mph (57 m/s).
Conversely, fire-year wind-speed warranties for other products, in many cased produced by the same
manufacturers, may be limited to 54 mph (24 m/s). Often, warranted wind speeds are lower than building-
code-mandated design wind speeds and may be based on fastest-mile wind velocities rather than on three-
second peak gust velocities.
(c) Wind damage coverage in standard warranties usually extends to fastest-mile wind velocities of 60 mph (27
m/s). Design wind speeds set by building codes in much of the U.S. exceed 60 mph (27 m/s). As a result,
some manufactures offer asphalt shingle products with coverage for fastest-mile wind velocities up to and
exceeding 100 mph (45 m/s). Usually, additional fastening is required; see manufacturers’ written
instructions for details. Wind coverage duration is limited, usually to first five years after installation.
b. Asphalt Shingle Types

(1) The Asphalt Roofing Manufacturers Association (ARMA) and NRCA broadly identify three types of asphalt
shingles: self-sealing strips, laminated self-sealing strip, and individual lock-down shingles. Strip shingles
dominate, with individual shingles occupying only a small percentage of the asphalt shingle market. Many
stylistic variations of these shingle types have been developed for glass-fiber-reinforced and organic-felt-
reinforced asphalt shingles. Strip and laminated strip are the only types discussed here.
(2) Strip shingles, approximately three times as long as their width, are manufactured as one-piece base shingles in
various configurations including three-tab strips and no-cutout strips in a number of variations.
(a) Traditional, three-tab-strip shingles, usually with square tabs, have cutouts perpendicular to the long
dimension of the strip that divides the exposed portion of the shingle into three tabs, each approximately 12
inches (300 mm) long. Some strip shingles are produced with four, five, or six tabs, or with random tabs,
which changes the proportions of exposed tabs in a completed shingle roof. Other shingles have slightly
tapered cutouts and tabs instead of square tabs.
(b) Granule-overlaid, three-tab-strip shingles have a second overlay of granules embedded in another coating of
asphalt to resemble a series of tab-like pads over the length of the shingle.
(c) No-cutout-strip shingles have single square tabs with not cutouts. A limited variety of patterns and shadings
may be achieved by alternating and staggering the lower butt edge of the strip to resemble truncated tab-like
divisions. Some no-cutout shingles are also produced with a second tab-like overlay of embedded granules in
a contrasting color to offer color variety.
(3) Laminated-strip shingles, approximately three times as long as their width, are manufactured in various
configurations by laminating a second, and occasionally a third, shingle layer to a full- or half-width, one-piece
base shingle. The manufacture of laminated-strip shingles varies. Methods include the following:
(a) Laminating tab-like pads, often of a different granule color, to the exposed portion of a three-tab-strip or no-
cutout-strip base shingle.
(b) Laminating a full-size, top shingle strip with rectangular crenellations to half-width base shingle strip without
cutouts.
(c) Laminating a full-size, top shingle strip with rounded or chamfered corners and shadow or scored lines
outlining tab divisions to a half-width base shingle strip without cutouts.
(d) Laminating a full-size, top shingle strip with rounded or chamfered corners and shadow or scored lines
outlining tab divisions to a full-size base shingle strip without cutouts.
(e) Laminating a full-size, top shingle strip with rectangular crenellations to a half-width base shingle strip with
matching crenellations.
(f) Laminating a full-size, top shingle strip with rectangular crenellations to a half-width base shingle strip with
matching crenellations.
c. Roof Underlayment
(1) Underlayment is installed between roof decks and asphalt shingles. It serves many functions, including the
following:
(a) To separate and prevent roof sheathing resins from affecting asphalt shingles and to prevent asphalt shingles
from sticking to roof sheathing.
(b) To shed water and protect roof sheathing from moisture before and after asphalt shingle installation.

(c) To provide temporary protection if asphalt shingles are displaced during windstorms.
(d) To provide a secondary water shedding surface in case water penetrates the asphalt shingle roof covering.
This function has been enhanced by the use of self-adhering, polymer-modified asphalt membranes that
prevent refrozen melted water trapped behind ice dams from entering into roof sheathing.
(e) To cushion and minimize the visual effects of edge irregularities in roof sheathing.
(f) To maintain external fire-test-exposure classification of asphalt shingles.
(g) To validate asphalt shingle manufacturers’ warranties.
(2) Two underlayment products dominate:
(a) asphalt-saturate organic felt and
(b) self-adhering, polymer-modified asphalt sheet.
The self-adhering type is self-healing around fasteners and should be the first choice.
(3) The IBC requires the use of an “ice-dam membrane” or “ice barrier” in geographical locations where the average
daily temperature in January is 25 degrees F (-4 degrees C) or less, or where the potential for ice forming along the
eaves exists. The ice barrier consists of cemented double layers of felt underlayment or a single, self-adhering
sheet underlayment.
1
(4) Self-adhering, polymer-modified asphalt sheet underlayment or a butyl-rubber, self-adhering sheet underlayment
should be placed over the entire roof surface. This underlayment also acts as the ice dam protection required in
cold climates. Textured surface sheets are available for added traction to improve safety.
(5) Roofs with a slope of 4:12 or greater are usually installed with a single underlayment layer, while roofs with slopes
of 2:12 but less than 4:12 are usually installed with a second underlayment layer. Manufacturers’ instructions will 3
make specific recommendations for underlayment based on shingle type and roof slope. Verify the requirements
of authorities having jurisdiction.
d. Application Considerations
(1) Shingles provide weatherproofing by means of overlapping layers of material with offset joints in succeeding
courses. The degree of protection depends on the number of layers of material relative to the slope of the 4
substrate.
(2) Installation practices vary somewhat throughout the U.S. but, for new work, the first shingle strip is fastened at the
eaves, and succeeding asphalt shingle courses proceed diagonally up the roof. To minimize moisture entry paths,
side (end) joints of each strip are offset and installation proceeds in a diagonal patter up the roof.
(3) Manufacturers’ application instruction usually provide detailed information to the Installer. Besides detailed
application instructions printed on shingle packages, some manufacturers have published comprehensive and
helpful applicator’s manuals and field guides illustrating many applications the specifier might encounter.
(4) Fastening Requirements: The location and number of fasteners used to fasten asphalt shingle strips can also affect
wind resistance. Standard fastening requirements from the IBC, the IRC, ARMA and asphalt shingle
manufacturers prescribe four fasteners per strip in specific locations. Roofing nails predominate and most local
jurisdictions require them. NRCA recommends roofing nails, ARMA prefers roofing nails, and the IBC requires
roofing nails. Stapling of asphalt shingles has been largely discontinued. The required number of roofing nails
increases for high-wind exposure areas. Verify the requirements with authorities having jurisdiction.

14.3.7 TILE ROOFING SYSTEM (2010)
a. General Comments
(1) Clay and concrete are both used to produce tile products used as roof coverings. The traditional appearance of
clay roof tile has been successfully supplicated with concrete tile. Concrete tile has captured the U.S. roof tile
market but clay tile persists in traditional markets and where the highest quality remains a requirement. Both clay
and concrete roof tiles, properly installed, can last as long and sometimes longer than the buildings they protect.
Installation methods are virtually the same for clay and concrete roof tiles in most respects.
(2) The principal source of technical information on clay and concrete roof tiles is the Tile Roofing Institute (TRI).
Formerly the National Tile Roofing Manufacturers Association (NTRMA) and then the Roof Tile Institute, TRI
has published two installation guides.
(a) With the Florida Roofing, Sheet Metal & Air Conditioning Contractors Association (FRSA), TRI publishes
the Concrete and Clay Roof Tile Installation Manual. This manual offers installation guidance with
particular emphasis on tile installation methods and practices for use in the higher wind applications found in
South Florida. The manual covers the proper attachment methods for clay and concrete roof tiles for wind
speeds up to 150 mph (66 m/s). It also includes mechanically fastened and mortar- or adhesive-set systems
for roof tile installations.
(b) With the Western State Roofing Contractors Association (WSRCA), TRI publishes the Concrete and Clay
Roof Tile Design Criteria Installation Manual for Moderate Climate Regions. This manual includes design
and installation guidance for roof tiles in moderate climate regions. Locations with moderate climates are
considered to be those not experiencing ice damming or a January mean temperature of 30 degrees F (minus 1
degree C) or less. The manual also offers additional fastening recommendations for locations where sustained
wind speeds may exceed 80 mph (36 m/s).
(3) The National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) recommends a minimum roof slope of 4:12 without
special underlayment and overlaps. The International Building Code permits slopes down to 2 ½ : 12. Consult the
local authority having jurisdiction.
Clay and concrete roof tiles have many common features. Although the two products are different in manufacture,
they perform similarly and appear very alike. Clay is considered the longer-lasting roof tile, but improvements in
concrete technology and manufacture may be narrowing this gap. Once of the most conspicuous differences is
color. The color of natural clay tile, and the distinctive appearance of two-piece barrel or mission clay tile, has
defined a traditional roof tile aesthetic for many generations. These shapes and colors are still available in clay
roof tiles and have, in many cases, been replicated in concrete roof tiles. Clay tile colors are a fired on glaze with
ability to last the life of the tile. Cement tile colors are either a pigment added to the concrete before forming or a
coating applied after forming. Cement tile colors do not have the permanence of clay tile glazed colors.
b. Roof Tile Profiles
(1) Clay and concrete roof tiles are manufactured in several different shapes, profiles, sizes, surface textures, and
colors. They are fundamentally classified the same way by shape and profile. Different roof tile shapes and
profiles vary by their installation arrangement and may be interlocking or overlapping. Roof tile profiles vary
from flat to highly undulating.
(2) Many clay roof tile shapes have a range of accessory tiles. Typical accessory tiles for interlocking or overlapping
flat tiles include hip and ridge units, header course units, gable or rake units, starter (under eave) units, end band
units, and termination units. Accessory tiles for high- or low-profile roof tiles include ridge and hip units, gable or
rake units, end band units, termination units, eave closures, and top fixtures. Accessories such as eaves closures
may also be available in sheet metal or EPDM rubber. Mortar is also used to close off the eaves.

c. Roof Tile Manufacture
(1) Clay roof tiles are manufactured from blended clay or shale mixed with water and extruded to shape. The tiles
may have color added or texture treatments before kiln firing at very high temperatures for a period of time to
become vitrified.
(a) Colors of clay roof tiles are initially derived from the clay type and the firing process used to create the tile.
Surface texture and some matte colors may be applied before firing; high-gloss ceramic glazes may be applied
to fired tile before it is refired.
(b) Manufacturers widely publish their range of colors and color blends and may offer custom tile coloring.
Individual tiles will almost certainly have inherent color variations, an intrinsic quality of clay roof tiles that is
often used to advantage by randomly placing different tones of a single tile color. Another installation
procedure blends or mixes several different tile colors over the field of the roof.
(2) Concrete roof tiles are manufactured from a mix of Portland cement, water and mineral aggregates with the
inclusion of other cementitious materials, chemical admixtures, and pigments as applicable. The mix is
predominantly extruded but may be molded or pressed into final tile shape and initially cured in controlled
temperature and humidity conditions. Final curing takes place over a longer period as the concrete roof tiles gain
strength.
(a) Colors of concrete roof tiles may be introduced as metal-oxide pigments into the concrete mix during
manufacture or may be surface-applied glazes.
(b) Manufacturers widely publish their range of colors and color blends and may offer custom tile coloring.
1
Individual tiles will almost certainly have inherent color variations. Blending of colors may be produced
during installation by mixing several different tile colors over the field of the roof.
d. Clay Roof Tile Product Standards
(1) The IBC requires clay roof tiles to comply with ASTM C 1167, Specifications for Clay Roof Tiles. A number of 3
product characteristics are governed by this standard, the most prominent being durability, resistance to freezing
and thawing, minimum strength, absence of efflorescence, and permeability units. Verify requirements of
authorities having jurisdiction.
e. Concrete Roof Tile Product Standards: The IBC is expected to adopt ASTM C 1492, “Specification for Concrete Roof
Tile” as the consensus product standard for specifying concrete roof tiles. A number of product characteristics are
governed by this standard, the most prominent being durability, resistance to freezing and thawing, minimum strength, 4
absence of efflorescence, and permeability limits. Verify requirements with authorities having jurisdiction.
f. Roof Design Considerations
(1) The roof deck and roof structure must be designed to support the weight of tiles in addition to other customary
load conditions. Wood panel sheathing and continuous wood plan board decking predominates as roof decking
are required by the IBC. Steel, cast-in-place concrete, structural precast concrete, and cementitious wood-fiber
deck are occasionally used. Verify requirements of authorities having jurisdiction.
(2) The installed weight of roof tiles varies, depending on the material used (clay, lightweight concrete, or normal-
weight concrete) and on the tile shape (flat, low profile, or high profile). Reducing the exposure of roof tiles adds
to the installed roof load. Shingled flat tile is usually the heaviest; interlocking flat and low-profile tiles are
usually the lightest; and pan and cover tiles, particularly two piece, lie somewhere in between.
(3) of tiles are frequently installed on wood battens over a solid roof deck. Batten systems include either single
horizontal batten or batten/counter batten construction consisting of horizontal battens to vertical battens. The

terms horizontal and vertical refer to the two axes of the roof deck plane. The use of cold-formed steel shaped as
battens may be preferred on steel deck.
(4) Underlayment materials have assumed greater importance with tile roofs than with other roof shingle materials. In
lower roof slope areas particularly, the underlayment may serve as a secondary roofing membrane.
(5) TRI (formerly NTRMA) and WSRCA also jointly published Concrete and Clay Tile Roof Design Criteria
Manual for Cold and Snow Regions, an informative design booklet that highlights differences in roof design,
specification, and installation in areas of snow and ice. The manual emphasizes design information for tile roofs
intended to retain snow until it melts.
g. Roof Underlayment
(1) Underlayment is installed over the roof deck and beneath the tiles. It serves several functions, including the
following:
(a) It sheds water and protects the roof sheathing from moisture before and after tile installation.
(b) It provides a secondary water-shedding surface in case water penetrates the tiles. For roofs, this function has
been enhanced by the use of self-adhering, polymer-modified asphalt membranes that prevent refrozen melted
water trapped behind ice dams from entering into the roof sheathing or into the building.
(2) Underlayment products used beneath tiles need to be heavier and stronger than those traditionally used for lighter,
less-durable roof coverings. Because a tile roof is expected to last for a considerably longer period than asphalt
shingles, for example, the underlayment must also serve longer. An array of underlayment products and
installation options are available. The IBC governs the minimum underlayments permitted. In some cases, the
specifier may require underlayments heavier than the minimum mandated by authorities having jurisdiction.
(3) For lower-sloped tile roofs, usually less than 4:12, authorities having jurisdiction may require a second
underlayment to be cemented, cold adhered, or hot mopped to the mechanically fastened first layer. The more
slowly rain water is shed from the roof, the more likely it is that some water may penetrate the tiles. The built-up
underlayment serves as a secondary roofing membrane beneath the tiles.
(4) NRCA’s The NRCA Roofing and Waterproofing Manual recommends the use of an ice-dam membrane or ice
barrier in geographical locations where the average daily temperature in January is 30 degrees F (-1 deg C) or less,
or where the potential for ice forming along the eaves exists. The ice barrier may consist of cemented double
layers of felt underlayment or a single self-adhering sheet underlayment.
(5) Self-adhering, polymer-modified, asphalt sheet underlayment, also called a waterproofing underlayment, seals
against water and is placed over entire roof surface. This underlayment also acts as the recommended ice dam
protection required in cold climates. Textured surface sheets are available for added traction and improved safety.
h. Roof Tile Installation
(1) Tile roofing functions as a water-shedding roof. Flat Shingle tiles are installed in overlapping layers with joints
offset in succeeding courses to limit water entry. Flat tiles may also be designed to interlock. Profiled tiles may be
interlocked or overlapped, depending on the tile shape and design. The degree of protection offered from water
entry depends on the number of shingled layers and is relative to the roof slope.
(2) A weathertight tile roof should result from observing the manufacturer’s installation instructions and paying
careful attention to flashing and sheet metal details at ridges, valleys, eaves, gables, and gutters. Details of tile
roof construction are extensively described and illustrated in publications by NRCA, TRI/FRSA, and
TRI/WSRCA.

i. Attachment Methods
(1) Tiles are attached or fastened to the roof deck by a number of recognized methods. These installation methods
have usually evolved regionally and have generally proved sufficient. As model building codes have paid more
attention to windstorm events, prescriptive fastening methods have assumed greater importance. The IBC and the
IRC dictate attachment methods based on multiple variables including climatic conditions, roof slope,
underlayment material, and roof tile type. Consult authorities having jurisdiction to determine minimum
attachment requirements.
(a) Direct deck installation fastens tiles directly to the roof deck, usually with one or two roofing nails per tile.
(b) Batten installation fastens tiles to wood battens, although tiles loosely hung over battens and held in place by
lugs is common for roof slopes not exceeding 5:12. Some clay roof tile manufacturers do not recommend the
use of battens unless the roof deck is concrete.
(c) Wire-tie installation fastens tiles with proprietary wire systems to wood or wood panel decks but also to
concrete, steel, and cementitious wood-fiber decks. Wire-tie systems find the greatest use with two-piece pan
and cover tiles such as mission and barrel.
(2) Mortar- or adhesive-set installation attaches tiles to the roof deck in mortar or adhesive patties in climates not
subject to freeze-thaw cycles. This method may be used alone on roof slopes not exceeding 6:12 and in
combination with mechanical fastening when roof slopes are greater.
SECTION 14.4 CONCLUSIONS
14.4.1 GENERAL (2010)
The most challenging roofing membrane selection is that for the flat roof. With development and improvements to built-up 3
membranes offered by modified bitumens, and the decline of coal tar and asphalt membranes, attention should be directed to
the modified bitumen systems. Coal tar and asphalt membranes still represent a significant percent of existing roof
membranes and many of them have years of use remaining. Coal tar and asphalt membranes should be considered when
patching these membranes or when an adjacent building addition requires attachment to the existing membrane. The modified
and shingle-ply systems are generally not compatible with coal tar and asphalt.
For new work strong consideration should be directed to the modified bitumen systems. APP modified could be considered in 4
areas where there is a high incidence of APP modified bitumen applications and installations. Otherwise, SBS modified
should be the system of choice. There are more manufacturers of SBS modified systems and more roofing contractors trained
in their application. Special attention needs to be given to the choice of insulation selected as it will have bearing on the
method of application, ie. mopped, torched or cold-adhesive.
Surveys indicate that the majority of new buildings with flat or low-slope roofs are receiving modified bitumen built-up
membranes with granular surface cap sheets. In the follow up position are the myriad of single-ply membrane systems. The
single-ply systems appear to have captured a stable percent of roofing membrane applications but with shifts as to the material
type of single-ply membrane continuing within the single-ply market. TPO systems are currently enjoying a surge and may be
the top system at this time. TPO system marketing efforts are certainly on the rise. This material does offer advantages over
most of the other single-ply materials. PVC systems were popular and successful but, due to environmental issues, have faded
from use. EPDM and rubber single-ply membrane systems are still available and in use. They should be in the mix when
considering selection of a single-ply membrane system. Fully adhering any of these systems improves their performance and
increases their resistance to high-winds which has been one of the contributors to failure of single-ply membrane systems. The
other area of concern when considering these systems is the choices available for seaming and mechanical attachment at

seams. A major positive for single-ply membrane systems is the speed in which they can be applied, usually less than half the
time required for a built-up system.
The PMMA Liquid Roof Coating System, while relatively new on the roofing scene in the USA, should be given
consideration for roofing areas with the following characteristics: 1) Tight, confined areas; 2) Areas subject to pedestrian and
vehicular traffic; 3) Roof areas requiring an unusual number of roof membrane penetrations, 4) Roof areas requiring a rapid
cure time; 5) Areas where a decorative appearance is desired.
The remaining roofing systems discussed in this guide are for pitched or sloped roofs and are selected for appearance or to
match an existing system. Selection would best be made from manufacturers with a long history of product performance in the
geographic location of the project. A very important component of metal, shingle and tile roofing systems is the
underlayment. A minimum 40-mil thick, self-adhering, polymer-modified asphalt sheet underlayment should be considered as
the underlayment for each of these roofing systems. The 40-mil thickness provides a self-sealing benefit at all fastener
penetrations and a waterproof layer under the finish roofing.
Information contained in Table 6-14-1, along with Table 6-14-3 and Table 6-14-4 shown at the end of this article should help
narrow the selection of a membrane system for flat roofing. Table 6-14-2 should offer the same assistance for selecting a
metal roofing system. All of the data in this guide must be considered in the context of systems prevalent in the region in
which the project is located. The best system poorly installed will not provide the long lived solution desired.

Table 6-14-3. Comparison of Roofing Characteristics
Single Ply Membrane

Item To Be Compared Bituminous Roofs Liquid Roof Coating System
Systems
1. Tear Off Can usually be used over Usually requires tear off or Not usually required.
existing roofing. recover board application for
re-roofing.
2. Vapor Barrier Usually not required as Usually not required as Not required.
system breathes. system breathes.
3. Slope Can be dead level but not Needs positive drainage. Some need drainage.
recommended.
4. Insulation Can use the least expensive Requires heat resistance when Use spray-on urethane
“Bead Board” insulation. mopped or torched insulation any thickness and
application. can slope to drain.
5. Limitations to Installation Must be dry. Must be dry and not cold. Must be dry and warm.
6. Weight Unballasted = 1/2 lb/SF Unballasted = 1-4 lb/SF Very lightweight.
Ballasted = 10 lb/SF Ballasted = 5-8 lb/SF
7. Ballast (Not permitted in Must be smooth to prevent Can be gravel. None required but granules
high wind locations by puncture 3/4 inch to 1-1/2 often applied over coating.
some code jurisdictions) inch size
8. Wood Blocking Must not be creosote treated. Any treatment is acceptable. Not required. 1
9. Expansion and Required at certain conditions. Required at building joints. Not required except over
Contraction Joints building joints.
10. Handling Long rolls and many Many rolls of felts and hot Spray on with hoses from
containers of adhesive when bitumen containers. ground.
fully adhered.
11. Flashings Flexible. Primary location of leaks Monolithic, sprayed in place, 3
required adherence to system self-flashing, no metal
details. corrosion, conforms to walls
and penetrations.
12. Shrinkage Rubber: Generally not a Will shrink when bitumen Must be taken into account
problem. dries out. especially in valleys where
PVC: Some brands lose shrinkage can cause
plasticizer causing shrinkage. separation or loss of bond. 4
13. Workmanship Critical as seams must be kept Materials must be applied dry Critical, requires experienced
clean and properly sealed and and flat with solid bituminous applicators.
membranes can damage adhesive and coatings.
during construction. Temperature must be
maintained when hot
application is used.
14. Installation time Large, clean sheets reduce Many plies and coatings make Can be rapid installation
installation time. systems labor intensive by depends on good weather.
comparison with other Two step application.
systems.
15. Wind Resistance Marginal. Improves with Good, but dependent on bond Very good.
mechanically adhered seams of base ply to insulation and
and fully adhered membrane. type of insulation.

Table 6-14-3. Comparison of Roofing Characteristics (Continued)
Single Ply Membrane

Item To Be Compared Bituminous Roofs Liquid Roof Coating System
Systems
16. Conform to Shapes Conforms easily to most Not easily conformable. Very readily conforms to
shapes but must be adhesively difficult shapes. Major
or mechanically bonded as advantage of this system.
ballast can not be used on
steeply sloping roofs.
17. Problems Sheets are flexible and remain Subject to splits, cracks, Flexible and elastic, but
elastic. Seams may separate alligatoring and blisters. subject to mechanical damage
and leak. and hail.
18. Seams Fewer seams, sealed with Must be solidly mopped, No seams, monolithic.
adhesive, solvents, heat weld sealed and coated.
or tapes. Seams can be a
source of problems if not
properly made.
19. Locating and repairing Difficult to locate. Easy to Difficult to locate when board Easy to locate and easy to
leaks. repair by patching or sealing. type insulation is part of repair applying new coating.
system and occasionally
difficult to repair.
20. Maintenance Little required as long as UV Must be resurfaced and Many need recoating.
resistance is maintained and repaired regularly.
seams remain tight.
21. Factor of Safety Single ply has no factor of Several plys. Some factor Monolithic with insulation
safety. protection. often will stop leaks until
damage is repaired. Good
factor of protection.
22. Quality Control Factory quality control can be More difficult to control. Manufacturing quality can be
better, also not dependent on More field labor intensive. controlled.
petroleum availability.
23. Contamination Membranes can be damaged Damaged by solvents Generally resistant to damage
by contact with gasoline, oils, gasolines or oils. by chemicals and solvents.
asphalt or coal tar unless
specially formulated.

Table 6-14-4. Roofing Inspection Guide
Location: Date:
Building: Inspector:
Roof Maintenance Record:
Reroofed or Recoated with:
When:
Roof Description
Area Roof: Area in Squares:
Roof Shape: Flat Gable Arched Roof Other
Roof Mat: Tar and Gravel Asphalt and Smooth Asphalt Mineral Surfaced Other
Gravel
Roof Deck: Wood Concrete Steel Other:
Insulation: None Fiberboard Fiberglass Rigid Glass
Other:
Insulation: Wet Dry% Vapor Barrier
Drainage: Water Ponds on surface% Area Dead Level (No Drainage)
Less than 1 inch rise per foot 1 inch to 2 inch rise per foot
1
Over 2 inch = rise per foot
Water Resistance: No Leaks Leaks under heavy rain Leaks every rain
Cause of Leaks: Deteriorated membrane Wind damage Hail damage Faulty material
Poor design Improper Rooftop traffic Improper rooftop installations
construction
Ponding in low spots Flashing Gravel stop failure 3
failure
Vandalism Other causes
Aggregate Adhesion to Surface: Good Fair Poor
Percentage of membrane area exposed%
Surface Condition: Smooth Alligatored Cracked Exposed felts 4
Felt Condition: Disintegrated Curled edges Buckles Fishmouths Blisters
If blistered, what size and how many per square
Cracks: Admit water Insulation: Wet Dry
Briefly describe condition of roof membrane:

Table 6-14-4. Roofing Inspection Guide (Continued)
Flashings and Parapets

Base Flashings: Sagging Separated from parapet wall Buckled Cracked
Failure from weathering Mechanical Disintegration of surface coating
failure
Improper cementing of vertical laps Other defects
Counter-Flashings Not firmly embedded into wall Deteriorated Open reglet joints
Inadequate covering of base flashing
Metal Edges: Cracked felts Not anchored Other
tightly
Flashing Block: Insufficiently pointed groove Flashing slipped out
Parapet Walls: Deteriorated mortar joints Cracks Open coping joints
Porous Comments
Rooftop Installations: Skylights, broken glass Leaks at penthouse
Mechanical Equipment: Liquid leakage Vapor condensation
Inadequate walkways Improper or deteriorated curbing
Projections: Faulty anchorage and/or flashing Repair or replenish pitch pockets
Drains: Clogged Damaged Relocate to low spots
Gutters: Plugged Sagging Separated Loose
Downspouts: Plugged Sagging Separated Loose
Overflow Scuppers and/or Leader Heads: Plugged Sagging Separated Loose
This roof repaired (date):

The following product name brands and application rates were used:

6
Part 15
Inspection of Railway Buildings1
— 2011 —
FOREWORD
a. Railway buildings represent a significant capital investment and should be properly maintained in order to protect that
investment. There are two types of maintenance functions that can be accomplished on a building. The first type is
reactive maintenance, which repairs and/or replaces an immediate problem; the second type of maintenance, is a
program of maintenance needs, which can be scheduled over a period of time. A maintenance program for a building
is generally based upon an inspection program once a year or not less than once every five years. All inspections
should be performed by a qualified professional.
1
b. The inspection program is generally carried out in order to identify problems which may be occurring that would affect
the structural soundness of the building and/or its function. The program is also used to identify potential safety
hazards which may pose a threat to the employees and/or visitors who may be using the building.
c. Finally, a building inspection program can be used to identify short term and long term costs associated with the items
appearing in the inspection report. These costs can be utilized to establish capital budget for repairs within a specified 3
time period.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
15.1 Organization and Inspection Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-2
15.2 Inspectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-2
15.3 Inspections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-3
15.4 Conducting an Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-3
15.5 Inspection Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-5
1
References Vol. 85, 1984, p 29

LIST OF FIGURES
6-15-1 Building Inspection Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15-6
SECTION 15.1 ORGANIZATION AND INSPECTION PREPARATION
a. A building inspection should be performed in an orderly fashion. The exterior of the building should be checked from
the visible foundation level to the top of the walls or underside of the eaves. The roof must also be checked along with
any parapet walls or other structures on the roof. On the interior of the building, the basement and/or crawl space and
each floor above the basement level must be checked, including any attic space. On each floor level, each room must
be checked, including ceiling spaces were dropped ceilings are used. All buildings should comply with all local, state
and federal building codes (BOCA) and American Disabilities Act (ADA).
b. In addition to the building inspection, the inspection team should also inspect the ground surface area surrounding the
building. The inspection should cover such things as grading, drainage, lighting, walkways, crosswalks, warning
devices, parking and accessibility.
c. If original construction drawings or project as-built drawings are available, they should be used to verify the current
configuration and conditions of the building. Sketches should be made of any changes which may have been made to
the building layout, plumbing, mechanical, fire protection and electrical characteristics.
d. At the time of the inspection an interview of the person(s) in charge of the building should be conducted in order to
ascertain if any unnoticeable conditions may exist that warrant further investigation.
The person in charge of the overall building inspection should, if at all possible, arrange to have the area Buildings and
Bridge Supervisor and/or his representative accompany the inspection team.
SECTION 15.2 INSPECTORS
a. Person assigned to the inspection of a building should be qualified in their particular area of expertise. A typical
inspection team should consist of a structural engineer, architect, construction project manager, mechanical engineer,
and electrical engineer. Other qualified individuals are equally acceptable.
b. Upon completion of the physical inspection of the building, the inspectors should record their inspection notes in a
format which can be easily read and used by non-technical persons. Figure 6-15-1 is an example of a form which could
be used for this purpose. Entries on the form should be legible, and easily understood. Where conditions exist which
require more detailed information, this information should be attached to the form as a separate sheet.

Inspection of Railway Buildings
SECTION 15.3 INSPECTIONS
a. Building and facility inspections in some cases are conducted on a regular annual basis and bi-annual. In the latter
case, inspections are called for only when a problem occurs which requires immediate attention. In either case
however, the process of conducting the inspection should be the same.
b. Annual or bi-annual inspections are an important resource for monitoring the conditions of the buildings and facilities
and a valuable tool for identifying potential major problems which may be developing. In some cases, these
inspections can serve to identify potential environmental problems, as well as energy inefficiencies that may exist.
Through the inspection process, buildings and facilities can be maintained in a manner which will assure their design
life and possibly prolong that life.
SECTION 15.4 CONDUCTING AN INSPECTION
a. The following paragraphs of this manual are not included to serve as a comprehensive guide on what to check when
inspecting a building and/or facility. The information provided is intended only to serve as a guide and a reminder to
those charged with the inspection duties to be mindful of these potential conditions.
Structural inspections of a building and/or facility should begin at the foundation level. The visible portions of the
exterior foundation should be checked for cracks and/or other forms of damage. Concrete stairs, stoops and/or ramps
attached to the building should be checked for settlement and/or separation and assessed as to whether or not remedial 1
measures are necessary. If steel framing is involved bolted connections should be inspected for corrosion, or; if welded
joints are used, for cracking and/or separations. The steel framing should also be checked for corrosion and stress due
to possible overloading or damage due to impacts.
Inside of the basement or crawl space, walls should be checked for cracks and water infiltration, as well as the floor
surface. If there is a concrete ceiling, check for cracking and/or spalling along bearing points. Also inspect columns
for spalling concrete and/or other damage. Inspect concrete pits for cracking in the floor and walls. Note if any water 3
infiltration is present. Check concrete piers, columns for cracking and/or damage.
Where timber framing is used, check wood joists for splitting and stress due to overloading. Also, ensure that no decay
is visible due to water damage and/or insects such as termites. Similar checks should also be made on the other floors
of the building if applicable, as well as the attic. In the attic, also check for damage to the roof sheathing due to
leaking.
4
b. The architectural inspection will deal with the exterior condition of the building, as well as the interior areas. On the
exterior, the inspection must examine the condition of the masonry, metal skin, concrete, or wood surfaces, whichever
is applicable. For masonry work, mortar joints should be checked for possible deterioration. Metal skins should be
checked for loose panels, trim, ruswt, material finish missing fasteners or possible damage. Concrete walls should be
checked for cracking and spalling, which could potentially allow water to penetrate into the building interior. Wood
surfaces should be checked for decay and/or other types of damage.
Window exteriors should be checked to ensure caulking is intact or hasn’t dried out and pulled free of its contact
surfaces. Also note any broken glass or seals which may be leaking on double glazed windows. For wooden sash,
check for possible decay.
Eaves and fascia boards should be checked as well. For wood trim, check for decay or mold. On metal trim, check
separations and/or loose pieces. Inspect gutters and downspouts for damage due to freezing and/or other factors, such
as rust and/or abuse. Inspect openings for looseness, decay and/or other types of damage.

On the interior, inspect floors, walls, and ceilings for possible damage and/or worn out conditions. Be mindful of
possible waterspots, indicating possible water filtration and/or leaks. Ensure that the hardware on doors and windows
are working properly. Check stairs and stairwells for possible safety violations and/or unsafe conditions. In areas
where ceramic tile, glazed tile and/or masonry products may be employed, check for joint decay or other possible
damage.
On the roof, inspect flashings for separation and/or other types of damage. Check the condition of the roof surface
itself for bubbles, tears, rust missing fasteners, sealants or other potential trouble spots.
c. The mechanical inspection is intended to cover both the heating and air conditioning and exhaust systems, as well as
the plumbing and possible fire protection systems. In some cases, it may be necessary to have two people conduct this
inspection. One to cover the heating, air conditioning, and exhaust systems and the other to check the plumbing and
fire protection system.
The heating and air conditioning systems checks will vary according to the types of systems used and only those
persons familiar with the operation of these types of systems should be used for the inspection. In general, heating and
air conditioning systems should be checked for clean filters, proper belt tension on fans, clean fan wheels, clean coils,
clean strainer baskets, if applicable, and that traps, valves, pressure reducing stations, condensate pumps, and air vents
are all operating properly. Boilers and hot water generator burners should be inspected, fuel filters inspected, relief
valves checked and work reports checked to ensure that maintenance requirements are being met. Finally, air
compressors should be checked, as well as the air receivers, relief valves and coolers. (Monthly checks per equipment
manufacturer’s recommendation should be carried out.)
Thermostats should be inspected to ensure that they are operating properly and are not damaged. Motorized dampers,
intake grilles, and exhaust fans should also be checked for proper operation. Inspection and/or service reports should
also be checked, if available, for re-occurring problems.
d. A plumbing inspection should start in the basement and/or crawl space. Piping for sewer and water should be checked
for damage and/or leaks. Cleanouts should be easily accessible. Toilet areas should be checked to determine if faucets
are working properly, water closets flush correctly, and hot water tanks are operating accordingly.
Sprinkler systems should be inspected for damaged sprinkler heads, leaks in the piping (on wet systems) and that the
fire pump, if applicable, is being exercised according to the manufacturer’s directions.
Building drainage systems should be checked for clogging. Oil/water separators, triple basins and other waste type
holding tanks should also be checked to ensure they are operating properly and being serviced on a regular basis.
e. Electrical inspections should determine if adequate power exists in the building and that panel board directories are up
to date. Fuse and/or breakers should be checked on each circuit in order to verify that they are properly sized.
Groundfault interrupters should be tested. Outlets should be checked for damage and/or the need to replace same.
Emergency lighting should be checked to ensure that the system is operating properly.
Lighting should be checked to determine that the proper amount of foot-candles exist in work spaces. Note if the
fixtures lenses are clean and/or in need of replacement. Check to see if motor operated circuit breakers are functioning
properly. Note if improper or unauthorized extension cords are in use, and if any wiring appears to have been added to
the facility which does not meet local electrical code requirements.
Environmental inspections are also a necessity on many buildings and facilities where asbestos, lead paint, and/or
hazardous chemical/substance may have been used and/or are expected to be found.
If an environmental inspection is deemed appropriate for the building and/or facility a qualified environmental
engineer and/or consultant should be employed. This individual and/or firm should then conduct a thorough
investigation of the building and/or facility to determine if any hazardous materials, chemicals and/or substances are
present. A full report should be provided outlining the findings of the inspection.

In the event that hazardous materials, chemicals and/or substances are found, proper documentation of the findings
should be prepared. Documentation should consist of what specifically was found, extent of the material,
identification of the substance and/or chemical, photographs, and; the approximate cost for abatement.
f. As noted earlier in this section, the above is not intended to serve as the criteria for an inspection, but merely to alert
the reader as to the many items which need to be considered when conducting a thorough building and facility
inspection. While many of the above referenced items will be common to almost any building and/or facility, each
building and/or facility will have their own unique needs and inspection requirements.
SECTION 15.5 INSPECTION REPORTS
a. Once the inspection has been completed, a report should be prepared which identifies any of the problems found. Any
items, which were identified which represent a hazard to personnel or to the safety of the structure, should be brought
to the immediate attention of the responsible person in charge of the inspection and official in charge of the building or
facility.
b. Each discipline should categorize the results of their individual inspections in order to assist those receiving the
information to identify immediate and long-term needs. When requested, estimates of costs should be prepared for the
work on an individual line item basis. This will allow the person gathering the information to provide an overall cost to
correct deficiencies on an immediate and long-term need.
1
c. A suggested rating system is proposed which can serve as a guide for determining the importance of the repairs needed.
This rating system is as follows:
(1) Potentially hazardous to personnel and/or personnel safety.
(2) Compromises structural integrity of the building and/or facility.

3
(3) Requires major maintenance and if not attended to promptly will cost substantially more at a later date.
(4) If corrected will reduce building and/or facility operating cost.
(5) Corrective action will improve image, appearance and/or personal comfort.
(6) Regular maintenance has been neglected and/or performed improperly. 4

(7) No work required.

Figure 6-15-1. Building Inspection Report

Figure 6-15-1. Building Inspection Report (Continued)


6
Part 16
Design Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities
— 2002 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2

16.1.1 General (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
1
16.2 Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
16.2.1 Macro Site Selection (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
16.2.2 Micro Site Selection (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2
16.3 Types of Main Line Fueling Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-3

16.3.1 Direct Truck Loading (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-3
16.3.2 Fixed Facilities (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-3 3
16.4 Services Provided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-4
16.4.1 Facility Size (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-4
16.4.2 Services (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-4
16.4.3 Platform Design Criteria (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-4
16.4.4 Overhead Structures (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-6
16.4.5 Equipment (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-6
16.4.6 Piping Systems (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-7
16.4.7 Electrical (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-8
16.4.8 Environmental Protection (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-8
LIST OF FIGURES
6-16-1 Platform Configuration - Platform 1’-4” Below Top of Rail - No Inspection Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-9
6-16-2 Platform Configuration - Inspection Pits and Gantry Sanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-10
6-16-3 Locomotive Service Truck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-11
6-16-4 Clifton Forge Fueling Platform, CSX Transportation Company - 4 Tracks - Fuel Dispensed on all Tracks - Sand, Lube
Oil and Water Dispensing on Center Two Tracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-11
6-16-5 Lincoln B2 West Fueling Platform, BNSF Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-12

LIST OF FIGURES (CONT)
6-16-6 North Platte Fueling Facility, Union Pacific Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-12
16.1.1 GENERAL (2002)
a. Fueling facilities are defined as facilities for adding fuel to locomotives, tenders or self propelled cars. In most cases,
additional fluids and services are supplied.
b. Fueling facilities can be divided into two classes- main line and service. Mainline facilities are designed to fuel
locomotives in transit, i.e. while attached to trains. Service facilities are designed to fuel locomotives in locomotive
consists or individually, while uncoupled from trains. Service facilities generally offer more services than mainline
facilities. They provide for locomotives that are being prepared to haul trains. They are often associated with
locomotive maintenance facilities.
c. These criteria are intended for main line facilities. They also pertain only to the fueling facilities themselves. Pumping
stations, tank farms et cetera are excluded from these criteria.
d. Chapter 14, Article 5.2.1 of AREMA standards also gives some guidance on the design of fueling facilities.
SECTION 16.2 SITE
16.2.1 MACRO SITE SELECTION (2002)
a. In broad terms, the location of a site is based on railroad operating plans. The number of trains passing a given location,
the status of their fuel supply and the time in schedule available for fueling are factors that enter into macro site
selection. Also entered into consideration are the availability and cost of fuel.
16.2.2 MICRO SITE SELECTION (2002)
a. Once the general area for a fueling facility are determined, micro site selection is governed by the following factors:
Availability of space for the train. Main line fueling facilities are either on the main line or on sidings adjacent to it. The
train will trail the locomotives being fueled. Present day train lengths, including locomotives, can approach 8,000 feet.
This space must be available without fouling adjacent tracks. The fueling facility must be at the end of the site in the
direction of travel. For example, if the train is east bound, it should be at the east end of the site. If trains traveling both
directions are to be served, there must be space for trailing trains in both directions.
Site Selection must also consider continuing railroad operation during construction. Tracks may have to be taken out
of service to facilitate construction of the facility. Also, temporary tracks may be necessary to provide a path around
the new fueling facility during construction.

Ideally, the fueling facility and one locomotive length each side of the facility should be on tangent track.
The facility and the trailing track should be on substantially level land. The site should be graded and structures
provided so that storm water drains away from the platform.
Space must be available at or near the site for ancillary facilities such as access roads, pipelines, fueling crew facilities
and support facilities such as pumps and tanks.
Conventionally, locomotives are located at the front end of trains. If distributed power is used, the presence of
locomotives at the rear or other positions will have to be accommodated. Typically, the facility design will permit
fueling the front end locomotives only. The other locomotives can be added at strategic locations already fueled and
can be detached for fueling. An alternative is to fuel the front end locomotives at a fixed fueling facility and the
distributed locomotives by some form of truck fueling.
Geotechnical considerations may also indfluence site selection.
Chapter 14 of the AREMA Manual gives guidance for track design in yards and terminals.
SECTION 16.3 TYPES OF MAIN LINE FUELING FACILITIES
16.3.1 DIRECT TRUCK LOADING (2002) 1

a. Direct truck loading (DTL) is defined as fueling directly from a fuel truck, rather than from a fixed facility. It can be
used where frequency of fueling is low enough that investment in a fixed facility is not warranted, or where the
location of the fueling cannot be determined precisely ahead of time. The latter case is occurring with increasing
frequency with increase in the use of distributed power. Trains with distributed power can be positioned so that one
locomotive consist is at a fueling facility, but the position of the remaining locomotives depends on train length and
configuration. 3
b. Fuel oil trucks can be equipped for fuel oil only, or can dispense lube oil, radiator water and sand in addition. See
Figure 6-16-3 for an example.
c. If the DTL location is fixed, the truck should be parked on a concrete pad and track pans should be provided under the
locomotive. Both should drain to an industrial waste system.
4
d. Even if the DTL location can be only approximated, track and signal design must accommodate the parked train and an
adequate all weather truck access road must be provided.
16.3.2 FIXED FACILITIES (2002)
a. Fixed facilities provide a permanent location for fueling. See Figure 6-16-3. They require more investment, but
generally provide quicker fueling, easier coordination and better environmental protection. They are well suited to high
volume fueling. Most main line fueling facilities are of this type.

SECTION 16.4 SERVICES PROVIDED
16.4.1 FACILITY SIZE (2002)
a. The size of a fueling facility is determined by the frequency of fueling and by the size of the locomotive consists being
serviced. Consists of five locomotives are common. With the advent of higher powered locomotives and distributed
power, the number of locomotives in a consist will tend to diminish. The number of tracks in a facility depends on train
traffic. The most common number is two. Facilities with eight tracks exist.
b. Facility length should be sufficient to fuel all locomotives in the maximum anticipated consist simultaneously. At
present, the maximum length of an individual locomotive is approximately eighty feet. If five of these locomotives are
anticipated, a total platform length of 425 feet is indicated, allowing some space on the ends for crossings, ramps,
sanitary dumps and so on.
c. Track spacing for multi track facilities is dictated by the requirements of fuel oil cranes and traffic on the platform. The
most common track spacing is twenty six to thirty feet. Fuel column standards fit track spacing between 18 and 32 feet.
Wider track spacing results in a reduction of the track length that can be covered by an individual fuel crane. These
considerations apply only to platforms where the fuel cranes are located between the two tracks. Some railroads find it
convenient to place the fuel cranes outside the two tracks. In this case, track spacing can be more flexible.
16.4.2 SERVICES (2002)
a. By definition, a fueling facility dispenses fuel oil. Fixed main line facilities can also dispense lube oil and radiator
water.
b. Sand is also often dispensed. See Chapter 6, Part 6 for further information on sanding.
c. Locomotive sanitary waste removal is also often provided.
d. Inspection pits for access to the underside of locomotives are sometimes provided. They may be necessary if the
facility provides required periodic locomotive inspections.
e. Rarely, journal oil is despensed. It is only practical if inspection pits are provided.
f. Provision is also sometimes made for minor running repairs.
g. Brake shoe change out.
16.4.3 PLATFORM DESIGN CRITERIA (2002)
a. Fueling platforms have the following functions:
• Provide a safe working platform for personnel
• Protect the environment against contamination by fuel and other fluids
• Provide support for equipment
b. Platform length has been covered in Article 16.4.1(b).
c. The following configurations for platforms are common. Choice among them depends on the frequency of fueling
operations and on the locomotive inspections and repairs that will be performed during fueling. A mix of

configurations can be used on individual platforms. For example, inspection pits need not be placed on all tracks nor
are they necessarily for the full length of the platform:
Platforms without inspection pits:
• Concrete track support continuous with concrete platform
• Track ballasted-Track pans-Concrete platform
• Track on deep stone fill – fueling equipment on concrete slab
Platforms with inspection pits:
• Pits between rails
• Pits between rails and on field side of rails
d. Track pans can be steel, plastic (e.g. fiberglass reinforced plastic) or concrete.
e. If the platform supports the tracks, it should be designed for loading by trains. It should be recognized that some trains
will not stop for fueling. Therefore, the platform will be designed for the train speed desired. Cooper E80 loading is a
common criterion. See AREMA Manual, Chapter 8, Part 27 for information on the design of track support. Special
attention may need to be paid to the transition between the rigid concrete support and the ballasted track at the needs of
the platform. Depending on geotechnical conditions, the track slab might be directly supported from the ground or
pilings might be required.
1
f. Track spacing has been covered in Article 16.4.1(c). Platform width must be coordinated with that parameter.
g. Space on the platform needs to be allocated to equipment and usually to a utility trench providing piping and electrical
cables to the equipment. Piping and electrical cables are sometimes mounted on overhead structures. It may be
necessary to provide for forklift or motorized cart traffic on the platform. 3
h. If a gantry sanding system is used, space on the aprons must be allocated for gantry rails. Supports are necessary for
electrical supply to the gantry.
i. The most convenient platform level for fueling operations is at the top of rail. This position places the locomotive
fueling port about four feet above the platform. If minor repairs are to be made on the locomotive trucks, platform level
is often placed 16 inches below top of rail. (see Figure 6-16-1) 4
j. Concrete aprons should be provided on the field side of the outside tracks. They may be necessary to support sanding
equipment, for motorized cart traffic or for personnel performing inspections or repairs.
k. Inspection pit depth under the locomotive is usually about four feet six inches below top of rail. This depth is a
compromise between many conflicting requirements. Other depths have been used. If service pits are provided on the
field side of the rail, depth is usually about three feet below top of rail.
l. Freeze protection for water piping is necessary in most climates. Electric heat tracing is most common.
m. Cold protection for oil piping is necessary only in very severe climates and in cases where the oil can sit stagnant for
long times. The pour temperature of the oil should be determined and an estimate made of the minimum oil
temperature in piping.
n. The utility trench can be covered with grating if heating is not required. Alternatives are steel or concrete covers.
Traffic requirements should also be considered.

o. In cold climates, glycol heating of the platform can be provided. Glycol heating systems consist of plastic piping
buried in the platform, with pumps and a heater located adjacent to the platform.
p. Expansion joint material and water stop material must be oil resistant.
q. Some fueling facilities place track on stone fill approximately three feet deep. The bottom of the stone fill is sloped
toward a drain connection to an oil water separator. The stone fill is contained by a plastic liner.
16.4.4 OVERHEAD STRUCTURES (2002)
a. A canopy can be provided over the fueling platform. The primary function of the canopy is to prevent rain water from
getting on the platform and increasing flow in the industrial waste system. If a canopy is provided, it must have a large
ventilation system to prevent locomotive exhaust fumes from being inhaled by fueling personnel.
b. An overhead structure is also often provided to support piping (especially sand piping) and electrical conduits.
c. A gantry for sanding, if that system is used, constitutes an overhead structure.
d. Overhead structure must not impinge on the train clearance envelope. See AREMA Manual Chapter 28 for minimum
clearance requirements.
16.4.5 EQUIPMENT (2002)
a. Diesel fuel cranes almost universally conform to the pattern shown in Figure 6-16-1. Operators position the fuel nozzle
in the locomotive fueling port and start fuel flow by operating a local pushbutton. The nozzle is designed to shut off
automatically when the tank is full. Such cranes can operate within a radius from the crane position. The radius is
determined by crane size. The designer must determine what portion of the platform fuel cranes should serve and
position cranes accordingly.
b. The AAR has developed a fuel nozzle to increase fueling rate and to decrease the incidence of fuel spills. It depends on
a matching fuel port on the locomotive and level measuring provisions on the locomotive. The fuel crane nozzle must
be selected to fit the locomotives to be fueled.
c. Lube oil, radiator water and compressor oil are generally dispensed from hose reel cabinets. They are designed so that
an operator can grasp the dispensing nozzle while standing on a locomotive walkway. Hose reel cabinets are generally
heated to keep radiator water from freezing and oil from congealing. Cabinet location must be coordinated with
expected locomotive position.
d. Cabinets may also be provided for platform flushing water. If provided, they are usually integrated with the boom
cabinets. Such cabinets are also heated to prevent freezing.
e. Sanitary waste can be dumped directly from the locomotives to sanitary dumps, usually located at the end of the
platform. This operation will require positioning the locomotive at the dump and repositioning it for fueling. To avoid
the repositioning operation, a transport wagon (“honey wagon”) is often provided.
f. Sanitary waste can also be dumped to a vacuum disposal system. Such systems consist of hoses at the locomotive,
piping from the hose to a vacuum tank, vacuum pumps, filters and a mechanism to dump the vacuum tank to a sewer.
g. Emergency eye wash stations are often provided on the platform.
h. Wash down capability.

16.4.6 PIPING SYSTEMS (2002)
a. The following materials are recommended for piping on the platform. Piping in support systems off the platform, such
as oil supply piping, may be different because such piping is in a less well controlled environment. Railroad piping
systems work in a harsh environment with loadings from passing trains. Pipe materials which would be satisfactory in
other environments, particularly buried pipe, may not be suitable for railroad service due to ground transmitted
vibration.
Oil systems: Carbon Steel ASTM A53 Underground oil piping should be double wall or
wrapped and cathodically protected.
Sanitary Waste: Ductile Iron AWWA C151 (below ground)
PVC (vacuum sewage system)
Industrial Waste: Ductile Iron AWWA C151 or
PVC with glued joints
Wash Water: Carbon Steel ASTM A53
Potable Water (e.g. eye wash): Copper ASTM B88
Radiator Water: Carbon Steel ASTM A53
Platform Heating: Plastic Hose (in platform)
When selecting gasket or joint sealant material, consideration of the chemical composition is needed. Diesel fuel will 1
typically contain portions of “aromatics” such as benzene, toluene and exylene. These aromatics are agressive in their
reaction on most typical gasketing materials so care will need to be exercised.
b. Fuel oil systems should be designed for the following characteristics:
• Conventional fuel oil nozzles are positioned in the locomotive by an operator. The nozzle is opened by the operator,
and turns off automatically when the tank is full. The fuel oil nozzle may be unattended when fueling. The operator 3
may also have to push a button to turn on the fuel oil pumps.
• If an AAR Standard fueling system is used, the operator latches the fuel nozzle to the locomotive and also attaches
the signal module.
• Emergency fuel oil shutoff buttons should be provided on the platform to control accidents. These buttons should be
clearly identified. 4
c. Lube oil systems should be designed for the following characteristics:
• Lube oil nozzles are usually manual. Operator attention is required during filling.
• In most climates, lube oil piping must be heat traced and dispensed from heated boom cabinets.
d. Radiator water systems should be designed for the following characteristics:
• Radiator water is usually softened water with sodium borate as a corrosion inhibitor. It does not usually contain
antifreeze. Accordingly, heat tracing and heated boom cabinets are necessary. The designer should check the type of
locomotive to be fueled to ensure that antifreeze is not required.
• Since radiator water is not potable water, a back flow preventer must separate the water supply system (if it is
potable) from the radiator water system.

a. Lighting should be provided on the platform to obtain a level of 10 foot candles measured at the sides of the
locomotives.
b. A control panel should be provided adjacent to each fuel oil crane and set of house reel cabinets to control the
dispensing pumps and DFO shutoff valves. Lube oil and radiator water booms should include on/off control at the end
of the booms.
c. Electrical panels must be provided on the platform to provide power to the following items. This list is typical. Not all
loads may exist on a given platform and some additional ones may:
control panels platform heating

DFO shutoff valves lighting
hose reel rewind motors 120V receptacles
hear tracing hose reel cabinet heating
d. If a sanding system is provided, it will have its own control and power systems, electrical power must be provided to
them.
e. The control system on the platform provides signals to the overall fueling facility control system. The latter is usually
provided in the pump house or the pump area. The control system should provide annunciation of abnormal conditions
to supervisor’s office and/or locally (horn and flashing light).
16.4.8 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (2002)
a. Minimum requirements for protection of the environment from oil pollution are presented in the Code of Federal
Regulations, 40CFR112, although Appendix A of 40CFR112 specifically exempts locomotive fueling systems from its
requirements.
b. Complying with environmental rules will require a waste system draining all area subject to oil contamination. This
system should include an oil water separator. Oil from the separator should be disposed of off site. Generally, a
recovered oil tank will be provided to contain the water oil. If water from the separator is discharged to the
environment an NPDES permit in accordance with 40CFR122 will be required. If discharged to a water treatment
facility, the requirements of the facility and 40CFR403 “General Pretreatment Regulations for Existing and New
Sources of Pollution” must be respected.
c. Areas of the facility which are subject to rainfall are also subject to 40CFR122.
d. An impermeable membrane should be provided under the fueling platform, with provision to remove contaminants
from the area directly above the membrane.

Figure 6-16-1. Platform Configuration - Platform 1’-4” Below Top of Rail - No Inspection Pits

Figure 6-16-2. Platform Configuration - Inspection Pits and Gantry Sanding

1
Figure 6-16-3. Locomotive Service Truck
Figure 6-16-4. Clifton Forge Fueling Platform, CSX Transportation Company - 4 Tracks - Fuel
Dispensed on all Tracks - Sand, Lube Oil and Water Dispensing on Center Two Tracks

Figure 6-16-5. Lincoln B2 West Fueling Platform, BNSF Railway
Figure 6-16-6. North Platte Fueling Facility, Union Pacific Railroad

14
Part 17
Other Yard and Terminal Facilities1
— 2011 —
FOREWORD
This part deals with the several and varied activities, such as stores, yard compressed air facilties, material and reclamation
facilities, which are necessary for the continued functioning of the railroads. Although these facilities are normally located
within or immediately adjacent to a yard or terminal complex, they are not (except for yard compressed air facilities)
necessarily intrinsic to them. This Part was previously in Chapter 14, Yards and Terminals.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
17.1 Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-2

17.1.1 General (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-2
17.1.2 Types (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-2 3
17.1.3 Buildings and Structures (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-3
17.2 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-3

17.2.1 Material Yards (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-3
17.2.2 Lumber and Timber Yards (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-3
17.2.3 Reserve Oil (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-4
17.3 Design of Roadway Material Reclamation and Fabrication Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-4

17.3.1 Introduction (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-4
17.3.2 Roadway Material Reclamation Plant (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-4
17.3.3 Frog Shop (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-5
17.3.4 Bridge Fabrication Shop (1990). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-6
17.3.5 Turnout and Track Panel Fabrication Facility (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-7
17.3.6 Site Selection (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-8
17.3.7 Grading, Drainage, Site Preparation (1990). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-9
17.3.8 Track Design (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-10
17.3.9 Storage Facilities (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-10
17.3.10 Structures (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-10
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 91, 1990, pp. 107, 113.

17.4 Design of Yard Compressed Air Facilities for Train Air Brake Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-10
17.4.1 General (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-10
17.4.2 Compressed Air Facility Enclosures (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-11
17.4.3 Pressurization Time Calculations (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-12
17.4.4 Air Compressors and Controllers (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-15
17.4.5 Refrigerated Air Dryers (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-17
17.4.6 Coalescing Filters (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-18
17.4.7 Air Receiver Tanks (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-19
17.4.8 Above Ground Oil Water Separator and Equipment Drainage (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-19
17.4.9 Yard Air Distribution Lines (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-19
17.4.10 Valves and Accessories (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-20
17.4.11 Underground Compressed Air Connection and Isolation Pits (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-22
17.4.12 Site Location of Yard Compressed Air Facilities (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-22
17.4.13 Acceptance Tests and Commissioning (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-23
LIST OF FIGURES
6-17-1 Typical Layout Frog Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-6

6-17-2 Typical Layout Turnout Paneling Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-8
6-17-3 Typical Layout Track Paneling Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-9
6-17-4 Typical Equipment and Building Layout for Compressed Air Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-25
6-17-5 Typical Packaged Compressed Air System Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-26
6-17-6 Isolation Valve Pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-27
6-17-7 Typical Compressed Air Pit Assembly - Single Port. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-28
6-17-8 Typical Compressed Air Pit Assembly - Dual Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-29
6-17-9 Typical Compressed Air Layout Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-30
6-17-10 Facility Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17-31
SECTION 17.1 STORES
17.1.1 GENERAL (1990)
The stores department is responsible for the ordering, care, control, distribution and, in some cases, accounting of materials
and supplies used or reclaimed in the construction, maintenance and operations of a railroad. The size and extent of its
facilities will vary in accordance with the requirements of the road. It is important to consult the chief stores officer and
receive his approval concerning any plans for the construction, alteration or elimination of stores facilities.
17.1.2 TYPES (1990)
There are three types of stores, namely, general, district, and local.

Other Yard and Terminal Facilities
a. The general also known as a system or regional store, is the largest store unit of the stores department. It should be
located on available railroad property and usually at a convenient point where large quantities of materials and supplies
can be efficiently received, handled, stored and shipped. The location of this store will also be greatly influenced by the
traffic problem created in the handling of these shipments and by the freight charges involved on off-line items
received. The general store will also operate reclamation and scrap yards where needed and will handle stationery and
office supplies.
b. The district and local stores have the same characteristics and functions as the general stores, except that they are much
smaller. These stores are generally established on larger railroads at various points to expedite the handling of materials
and supplies. Such stores operate under the jurisdiction of the general store.
c. Dining car service supplies, including foodstuffs, may be handled by the general store, but in many instances such
items are handled separately at major terminals in a local store, called a commissary.
17.1.3 BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES (1990)
Storehouse buildings for the handling of all materials requiring inside storage should be constructed so as to create the most
efficient and expeditious material storage and handling methods. Office space to house the necessary personnel to handle the
records and accounting for the store’s operation may be part of a storehouse building if suitable. Platform, docks, ramps, racks
and shelters are erected according to the needs. All storage buildings and related facilities should be served with tracks and
hard-surface driveways for the efficient handling of materials by rail or by truck. It is often possible to pave the track area so
that one platform at car-floor level can serve both means of handling.
SECTION 17.2 STORAGE
17.2.1 MATERIAL YARDS (1990)
a. There are numerous items used in maintenance of way and of equipment that can be stored out of doors; these items are
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handled in material yards. Whenever possible, such yards should be located adjacent to the storehouse area so that
trackage can be kept to a minimum. Material is stored on permanent racks and platforms, and the areas between should
be paved to facilitate the operation of rubber tired handling equipment such as trucks, loaders, cranes, etc.
b. The storage of heavy items in a material yard is usually at a separate location served by at least two tracks and an
overhead crane or other types of cranes of suitable capacity. The material is stored in the area between the tracks, one 4
track being used for receiving, the other for shipping.
c. The ideal scrap yard has a receiving and a shipping track with the sorting area between them and is served by an
overhead crane of suitable capacity. The sorting area should be hard surfaced with paved driveways to support the
heavy wheel loadings of truck cranes and trailers used to handle scrap within the yard. All cranes should be equipped
with magnets.
17.2.2 LUMBER AND TIMBER YARDS (1990)
Lumber products are not generally stored in large quantities at the general storehouse, but are frequently shipped direct from
the dealer to the point of application. However a certain quantity of lumber, cross and switch ties, bridge timber and poles must
be stored. These products require outside storage. Unseasoned materials should be stored on permanent racks in covered
storage so they can season properly; treated timbers should be stored in the manner approved by the stores department to
prevent loss by fire. The areas between the racks should be paved and so arranged that forklift tractors or truck cranes can
handle these materials onto and off freight equipment on a track serving the storage yard. This track is usually in the center of

the yard unless the area is too large, then two or more tracks serving storage areas on both sides of each track are required, and
the tracks, if possible, are connected at both ends.
17.2.3 RESERVE OIL (1990)
The stores department may be required to provide large storage reserves for fuel oils. When the size and location of the
facilities have been determined, the storage tanks should be installed in accordance with the requirements set forth by the
governing ordinances, building and fire codes.
SECTION 17.3 DESIGN OF ROADWAY MATERIAL RECLAMATION AND FABRICATION

FACILITIES
17.3.1 INTRODUCTION (1990)
Roadway Material Reclamation and Fabrication Facilities, hereafter referred to as Plant(s), may be operated by the Purchases
and Materials Department, the Stores Department or the Engineering Department. Plants operated by the Engineering
Department handle only engineering and maintenance-of-way materials. As defined herein, a Plant may include a facility to
sort and classify used other track material (OTM); a Frog Shop to manufacture and rehabilitate turnout components and
fabricate insulated glued joints; a Bridge Fabrication Shop to fabricate new girders and rehabilitate used girders; a Turnout
Panel Fabrication Facility and a Track Panel Fabrication Facility. A plant may include a Signal Shop but such a facility is not
included in this report.
17.3.2 ROADWAY MATERIAL RECLAMATION PLANT (1990)
17.3.2.1 Material Sorting
After laying rail, most railroads pick up the old OTM using a work train having a crane equipped with a magnet. The unsorted
OTM is put into a railcar. This method speeds up the removal of the OTM from the right-of-way and reduces train delays. The
unsorted material is then taken to a Roadway Material Reclamation Plant for sorting and classifying. Another method of
reclaiming OTM is hand sorting the material at the site and placing it into piles to be picked up later. This method is very labor
intensive and requires more track time. For considerations in handling of OTM refer to “Economics of Methods to Dispose of
Scrap and Obsolete Material” in AREA Bulletin 722, Vol. 90 (1989).
17.3.2.2 Material Handling Facilities
a. The Plant should be provided with tracks and hard surface driveways for the efficient handling of materials by rail and
by truck.
b. Incoming OTM for the Plant is unloaded along the track adjacent to the Plant with a crane equipped with a magnet. The
crane can be rail or rubber tire mounted. The material can be placed directly into a hopper for sorting or it can be placed
on the ground for sorting later. In sorting the OTM the material is fed from the hopper to a conveyor belt for
classification. The usable secondhand material is usually moved into the storage area with forklift vehicles. Other
vehicles used for intraplant transfer of OTM include trucks and railcars.
c. When unsorted OTM is to be delivered to the Plant in railcars, it is important to design the Plant so the cars can be
unloaded immediately and released for revenue service or for loading outbound shipments. The Plant layout should be
such that moving the material to a different location or double handling will not be necessary prior to sorting and
classification. This can be accomplished with an elevated conveyor belt mounted on a gantry. Previously unloaded
OTM is picked up with a magnet on a crane mounted on the gantry. The OTM is loaded into a hopper that feeds it onto

a conveyor belt. Workers along side the conveyor belt, who are assigned specific items to inspect, remove reusable
items and deposit them into another hopper adjacent to the belt. The material deposited into the hopper falls into a
container or railcar at ground level below the hopper. The container when filled can be moved to storage with a forklift.
Scrap material left on the belt is deposited in a railcar or other container for shipment to a scrap dealer. A railcar
containing usable materials is either shipped out to be used for construction or unloaded for storage.
d. Plants may be movable or stationary. A stationary Plant has a lower first cost but usually requires double handling,
moving of materials several times, or storage in railcars until the materials are sorted and classified. This system is
similar to the plant described above but is fixed in one location.
e. Other layouts include conveyor belts near the ground with workers removing assigned items and putting them in piles
on the ground. Any items not removed are classified as scrap and dumped in a railcar or other container.
f. The Plant layout, the flow of materials and the amount of automation should be determined by good industrial
engineering principles as specified in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering Chapter 16, Economics of
Railway Engineering and Operations, Part 6, Railway Applications of Industrial & Systems Engineering. Studies
should be made to determine to what extent automation is justified. Identification of materials by the use of Closed
Circuit Television and push-button controls to remove materials from the belt should be considered, but used only
when the cost of such an installation can be justified.
g. The materials normally sorted and classified in a Roadway Material Reclamation Plant are joint bars, compromise
joints, tie plates, rail anchors, spikes, nuts and bolts, and other small track material. Since the value of reclaimed
material usually exceeds the cost of sorting and classifying the material, most railroads have facilities to perform this
work. Often new material gets mixed in with the used material during track relays which makes the reclamation
operation even more profitable.
1
h. Some railroads straighten bent spikes, while others scrap all secondhand spikes. Spike straightening machines are
available, but a cost analysis should be made to justify spike straightening before this operation is included in the Plant.
i. Nearly all railroads recrimp rail anchors so that they are tight when reapplied.
3
j. Most tie plates are reusable as is, but they may be repunched to be used with different rail sections or spiking pattern.
k. Most bolts are reusable after rethreading them. A new nut and lock washer are usually used on rethreaded bolts.
17.3.3 FROG SHOP (1990)
a. The Frog Shop receives rail, steel sections, and other heavy material, usually in railcars. Rail is used at the Frog Shop 4
for the manufacture of frogs, guard rails, switch points and stock rails. The fabrication of glued insulated joints also
requires pieces of rail, usually new. Rail is normally unloaded from railcars with an overhead crane and placed on racks
equipped with rollers for easy movement of the rail into the shop area. Various materials are moved inside the shop
with conveyor belts or rollers and jib cranes are usually used to lift heavy items. Forklift vehicles are used to move the
completed products out of the Frog Shop to load them or place them in storage.
b. Other activities done in the Frog Shop include manufacturing of machine bolts and drift pins, fabricating of slip joints
and scale rails, explosive hardening of frogs and gluing of insulated joints.
c. A typical layout for a Frog Shop is shown in Figure 6-17-1.

Figure 6-17-1. Typical Layout Frog Shop
17.3.3.1 Manufacturing New Turnout Components
Turnout components to be manufactured include switch points, stock rails, heel blocks, switch rods and clips, gage plates,
railbound frogs and guard rails. Equipment used in a Frog Shop to fabricate turnout components includes lathes, planes
punches, drills, overhead cranes, jib cranes and conveyors or rollers to move the rail and other components through and in and
out of the shop.
17.3.3.2 Rebuilding Turnout Components
Rebuilding frogs, guard rails, switches, switch stands and crossing diamonds should take place at or near the Frog Shop, since
some of the machinery and supplies needed to manufacture these items are also required to rebuild them.
17.3.4 BRIDGE FABRICATION SHOP (1990)
a. The Bridge Fabrication Shop receives girders and steel sections, usually by rail. Other incoming materials, such as
bolts, can be shipped either by rail or truck. An overhead crane or gantry is used to move materials into, out of, and
within the shop. Extending the overhead crane outside the building permits loading and unloading railcars.
b. Most railroads want their own fabrication shop for bridge girders in order to have control over supplying girders in
cases of emergencies, such as a bridge washout, and elect to utilize this facility to fabricate girders for their regular
maintenance programs.
c. The Bridge Fabrication Shop should be equipped with overhead cranes and/or rollers for moving steel sections and
completed girders, compressed air for tightening bolts, saws for cutting steel, drills to make holes for connections, and
gas and electric welding equipment. A supply of new girders of appropriate lengths for emergencies, and steel sections
for building up plate girders and gusset plates is necessary.

17.3.4.1 Fabricating New Girders
The steel to fabric ate new bridge girders is usually ordered from the manufacturer in the proper lengths and sizes if the bridge
is part of a regular maintenance program.
17.3.4.2 Reconditioning Used Girders
a. Most railroads recover bridge materials from track abandonments, bridge washouts and replacement of bridge spans
due to damage or to increasing the bridge rating. During emergencies, such as bridge washouts or damage by other
causes, railroads often need a replacement span to place the line back in service quickly.
b. Bridge girder spans recovered from existing track are often repaired and put back into good condition for bridge span
replacement, emergencies or regular maintenance programs. The used bridge girder span is straightened, damaged
sections are replaced with new steel sections, rivets or bolts are checked and replaced as required and the girder is
cleaned and painted. The length of the girder is later adjusted to fit the bridge span where it is to be installed.
17.3.5 TURNOUT AND TRACK PANEL FABRICATION FACILITY (1990)
17.3.5.1 General
a. The purpose of this facility is to build track and turnouts on a large scale assembly line basis more efficiently than can
be done in the field. The paneling operation therefore requires a large material supply, with rail and ties normally being
received by rail in open top equipment. The OTM may be received by rail or truck. Sufficient ground storage area for
track materials must be provided. 1
b. Panels fabricated for use in new construction or maintenance programs will normally be loaded as completed and
shipped directly to the location where they are to be used. Panels to be used for restoration of track destroyed in
derailments or washouts may be shipped to central terminals or held in storage at the fabrication plant until needed.
Crane(s) and/or heavy-duty fork lift(s) must be available to load or move the panels to storage.
17.3.5.2 Turnout Paneling 3

Turnout panels are usually built in the open in two or more parts for ease of moving by rail to the point of installation. A
typical layout of a Turnout Paneling Facility is shown in Figure 6-17-2. The facility has the needed materials for fabrication
stored near the assembly area. The switch ties are moved into the assembly area on rollers. The pre-plated switch ties are
placed in the proper position using spacers. The frog, switch points, guard rails, stock rails and precut closure rails are moved
into place using a crane. The handset spikes are driven with an air driven spike hammer suspended from a frame above the
assembly area. The assembled turnout is then loaded onto cars for delivery to the installation site or put into storage for future 4
use. Some railroads use special railcars to transport the turnout panels, and to assist in the removal of the old turnout and
installation of the new one. It is desirable to make several turnouts of one size before the tie pattern is modified for another
turnout size.
17.3.5.3 Track Paneling
a. Paneling of 39 foot sections of track for movement to a construction site for assembly into the track is a fast, and often
an economical way, to build yard and other tracks and to restore derailment-damaged track to service quickly. A typical
Track Paneling Facility is shown in Figure 6-17-3.
b. Facilities for assembling track panels are usually under cover. Pre-plated ties are moved into the proper position using
spacers; the rail is placed on the tie plates; spike holes are pre-drilled; spikes are set by hand and driven with spike
hammers suspended from a frame above the assembly area. All ties are usually fully boxed with rail anchors to keep
them square with the rails during storage, transportation and placement. Joint bars are usually bolted to one end of each

Figure 6-17-2. Typical Layout Turnout Paneling Facility

panel, and bolts are loosely fastened in the unused bar holes. Panels are often stored, on the ground or on specially
fitted flatcars, with every other panel upside down to make a stable, compact pile.
17.3.6 SITE SELECTION (1990)
17.3.6.1 Location
The site for the Plant should be on a main line at a location near the center of the railroad system and have good highway
access. It may be desirable to locate the Plant adjacent or in close proximity to a Rail Welding Plant.
17.3.6.2 Size
The size of the property required for the Plant should be consistent with the functions performed and the volumes of materials
being handled, and include adequate storage space.
17.3.6.3 Zoning and Permits
As most governmental jurisdictions have zoning laws it is important to determine if the proposed site is zoned to permit
constructing the facility. The facility must also conform to building codes.

17.3.6.4 Environmental Considerations
Environmental factors to be considered are air quality, water, noise and lighting, rainfall runoff, archaeological and historical
sites, and housing displacement.
17.3.6.5 Utilities
Electrical power compatible with the machinery used is required. Power for inside and outside lighting is also required.
Normally the only outside lighting needed is for security. Sanitary sewers, water, and HVAC should be provided in accordance
with the facility requirements. Communications facilities within and beyond the operation should be provided for efficiency.
Figure 6-17-3. Typical Layout Track Paneling Facility
17.3.7 GRADING, DRAINAGE, SITE PREPARATION (1990) 4

a. It is imperative to follow good engineering practices in all elements of design and construction, including preparing
and compacting the subgrade, increasing the bearing capacity of soils as necessary, protecting against erosion, proper
sloping of cuts and fills, and providing surface and/or subsurface drainage systems.
b. Disposing of surface and subsurface water is an essential element of design and construction. The subsurface
investigation program includes obtaining information on subsurface water conditions and a reliable determination of
the ground water table. Historical data that may be available can be very useful to the designer.
c. Local, state or national agencies may have drainage design requirements and may specify certain design procedures. In
the absence of any jurisdictional agency, county or state highway department procedures are suggested for use.
d. U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps and aerial photographs are useful for analyzing both topography and
drainage. They show elevations, contours, bodies of water, streams and other features from which the rate of runoff can
be established.

e. It is desirable that roads and storage areas be surface treated to prevent dust and to expedite movement of material
within the Plant.
17.3.8 TRACK DESIGN (1990)
The track layout must be developed to fit the size and shape of the property available for the Plant. The track gradient should
be as flat as possible, preferably not exceeding 0.1% grade. The curvature should not exceed 12 degrees. Turnouts should be
No. 8, or the size that is standard for the railroad. The mainline should be protected by derail and any track on which people are
working should be protected by a blue flag system. A bumping post should be considered for the end of each track. Road
crossings should be provided as necessary to facilitate movement of materials.
17.3.9 STORAGE FACILITIES (1990)
The efficient operation of a Roadway Materials Reclamation Plant is very dependent on proper storage and good
housekeeping. Materials held at the Plant for later shipment can be stored either inside or outside. Large items, such as frogs,
glued joints, track panels, and other items that will not deteriorate under normal weather conditions can be stored outside.
Other items, such as signal equipment, require inside storage. All materials stored inside should be put in a bin, on a shelf, on
pallets or neatly stacked in an area convenient for loading out. Material stored outside should be neatly placed in its assigned
area. Racks, pallets and paved areas should be utilized to keep the material off the ground and convenient for picking up and
loading. All bins, shelves or stacked materials should be clearly labeled with a sign describing the items stored therein. It is
imperative that all items be kept in their proper places.
17.3.10 STRUCTURES (1990)
a. An office with the normal amenities will be required for supervisory and clerical staff. The size of the office will be
determined by the number of employees. Standard office design criteria should be used, including provisions for
employee parking. An employee lunch and locker room should be provided at or near the office.
b. In general, all shop functions should be carried out in a building. The shop buildings can be pre-engineered buildings,
modified as required to accommodate cranes and other special appurtenances. Windows and skylights improve the
building lighting and contribute to a pleasant environment. The floors should be concrete. All shops, when required,
should be served with tracks and hard-surfaced driveways for the efficient handling of materials by rail or truck. It is
often possible to pave the track area adjacent to a platform so that it can be used to load either railcars or trucks.
SECTION 17.4 DESIGN OF YARD COMPRESSED AIR FACILITIES FOR TRAIN AIR
BRAKE SYSTEMS
17.4.1 GENERAL (2011)
a. The purpose of a yard compressed air system is to provide a regulated supply of air free of condensation, contaminants
and chemicals to charge railroad pneumatic brake systems. Yard compressed air systems are the most efficient and
rapid means of charging a train compared to locomotive, switch engine or portable compressor air charging.
b. The system typically consists of a facility with a microprocessor based system controller, an air compressor (or
compressors running in tandem and/or with alternating loading) which feeds into high pressure piping to a refrigerated
air dryer (a condensate separator), a general purpose pre-filter (designed to remove liquid and solid particles from
compressed air) a coalescing filter (designed to remove liquid and solid particles from compressed air), into a receiver
tank (which serves as a buffer, provides storage for short periods at high demand and reduces compressor cycling), and

through a series of air lines, valves, gauges to and at compressed air pits from which railcar air brake systems are
charged.
c. Automatic air brakes are used on trains in North America. The brakes require an initial compressed air charge to a
brake pipe setting of at least 70 psi. Railroads generally operate at 80 psi to 90 psi and in some specific locations at a
higher psi because of steep grades.
d. A railroad car’s air brake system is made up from the following:
(1) Brake pipe – the system of piping (including branch pipes, angle cocks, cutout valves, dirt collectors, hoses, and
hose couplings) used for connecting locomotives and railcars for the passage of compressed air.
(2) Control valve – a valve that regulates charging at the auxiliary and reserve reservoirs, application of the brake
cylinder, and release of the brakes.
(3) Brake cylinder – a brake system piston within a cylinder transmits force through the brake rigging to the brake
shoes at the wheel treds.
(4) Brake rigging – system to move the brake shoes.
e. The yard compressed air system must be designed to meet the capacity and charging time requirements of the rail
facility. Requirements may include simultaneous charging of multiple trains and “holding” addition trains on air while
awaiting departure.
f. Yard air systems allow trains to be charged and have air brake systems inspected and tested before road power is
1
coupled. The yard system must comply with the CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS TITLE 49
TRANSPORTATION PART 232 – BRAKE SYSTEM SAFETY STANDARDS FOR FREIGHT AND OTHER NON-
PASSENGER TRAINS AND EQUIPMENT: END-OF-TRAIN DEVICES, including sections:
(1) Section 232.107 AIR SOURCE REQUIREMENTS AND COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS.
3
(2) Section 232.205 CLASS I BRAKE TEST – INITIAL TERMINAL INSPECTION.
(3) Section 232.217 TRAIN BRAKE TESTS CONDUCTED USING YARD AIR.
(4) Section 232.211 CLASS III BRAKE TESTS – TRAINLINE CONTINUITY INSPECTION (AFTER ROAD
POWER IS COUPLED).
4
g. If cars are off yard air for more than four hours, the cars shall be retested in accordance with Section 232.205.
17.4.2 COMPRESSED AIR FACILITY ENCLOSURES (2011)
a. Compressed air facility enclosures are typically:
(1) A concrete block masonry unit building with a flat concrete slab floor, raised concrete pads (for compressors,
dryers, receivers and oil/water separators), a galvanized metal deck roof and a ventilation system that meets the
equipment manufacturer’s recommendations (galvanized metal louvers may be adequate in warm climate
locations). The enclosure typically utilizes double doors along with an aisle adequate in width to allow equipment
to be installed or removed with a small fork lift. A power supply must meet the requirements of both equipment to
be installed at time of construction and future equipment such as additional compressors. Enclosures need a floor
drain to a sewer system or oil/water separator as required by local building codes, lighting and a standard ¾” hose
bib with cold water supply. See Figure 6-17-4. Typical Equipment and Building Layout for Compressed Air
Facility.

(2) A facility similar to the above described CBU building except the walls are composed of chain link fence. The
facility has a galvanized deck roof supported by corner posts. Vertical steel framing support channels with pipe
clamps are placed along the perimeter of the concrete slab to support piping and conduit.
(3) A prefabricated enclosure is shown in Figure 6-17-5. Typical Packaged Compressed Air System Enclosure which
consists of a container with all equipment included. The container is set on a prepared site and only requires
connection to power, air distribution piping and sewer (if required by local building code).
17.4.3 PRESSURIZATION TIME CALCULATIONS (2011)
a. Pressurization times shall be calculated to meet the yard operational requirements for airing rail car air brake systems
and holding cars on air (with a maximum loss of 5 psi/minute per FRA regulations) until road power is available for
departure.
b. Example one is for pressurization time calculations for a 4 loading track yard (capacity of two approximately 8,000
foot long trains) with a center aisle (with underground hose connections) and 4 compressed air pressurization pits or
stations is as follows:
(1) Example Design basis - Five-unit 305’ articulated double stack rail cars and 72’ stand-alone double stack rail cars
are used as the “design” cars for this example.
(a) The air system on five-unit cars includes three air reservoirs at 6,000 cubic inches each. The air system on
stand-along cars include one air reservoir at 6,000 cubic inches.
(b) Air line piping for this example is AAR hose size 24 (1.375” I.D.) with a total run length of 125 feet per
platform.
(c) Although air lines and reservoirs may not be empty this calculation assumes that airing will be from 0 to 80
psi for conservatism.
(2) Example design basis - The air brake and reservoir volumes are:
(a) West Track 1 has eight five-unit (305’) cars, 24 air reservoirs (6000 cu. in. each).
(b) West Track 2 has eight five-unit (305’) cars, 24 reservoirs (6000 cu. in. each).
(c) East Track 1 has seven five-unit (305’) cars plus one 72’ car, 22 air reservoirs (6000 cu. in. each).
(d) East Track 2 has seven five-unit (305’) cars plus one 72’ car, 22 air reservoirs (6000 cu. in. each).
(e) West Track 3 has six five-unit (305’) cars plus two 72’ cars, 20 air reservoirs (6000 cu. in. each).
(f) West Track 4 has six five-unit (305’) cars plus two 72’ cars, 20 air reservoirs (6000 cu. in. each).
(g) East Track 3 has six five-unit (305’) cars plus four 72’ cars, 22 air reservoirs (6000 cu. in. each).
(h) East Track 4 has six five-unit (305’) cars plus four 72’ cars, 22 air reservoirs (6000 cu. in. each).
(i) Total volumes are:

--54 five-unit cars x 3 reservoirs x 6000 cu. in. = 562.50 cu. ft.
--14 stand alone cars x 1 reservoir x 6000 cu. in. = 48.61 cu. ft.
--248 cars x 125 ft. x 16.5 cu. in./ft. = 338.98 cu. ft.
--Center isle underground hose connections 4 tracks x 100 ft. isle x 16.5 cu. in./ft = 3.56 cu. ft.
Overall Total System Volume = 953.65 cu. ft.
Use = 960 cu. ft.
c. Overall system pressurization time from 0 to 80 psig.
(1) In order to raise the pressure from 0 – 80 psig, (for a yard at sea level) amount of free air to be pressurized in the
system.
960 CF (total car volume) x 14.7 (one atmosphere) + 80 psia = 6184.49 CF

14.7 psia (one atmosphere)
use 6200 CF
If, for example, the operational requirements were for pressurization time to be within a 25 to 30 minute maximum
period then = 6200 CF/25 minutes = 248 CFM air compressor and 6200 CF/30 minutes = 207 CFM
1
Referring to compressor manufacturer’s performance data a typical 60 HP compressor at 140 psig has a 236 CFM
rating. 6200 CF/236 CFM = 26 min. 16 sec. which meets the time pressurization requirement.
(2) Air flow for each individual track is limited by 1-1/4 inch piping. The flow at the beginning of pressurization will
be higher. As the system is getting pressurized, the flow will decrease as the differential pressure descreases and
time to pressurize will increase. Actual pressurization time will vary for each track location due to the 3
configuration and geometry of compressed air piping layout and available pressure of each supply point.
d. Individual track pressurization time based on equal flow distribution.
Air being compressible fluid, flow in the distribution system will be distributed evenly. Therefore flow at each supply
point will be about 59 SCFM (four supply points).
4
e. Example two is for pressurization time when holding pressures on cars on tracks 1 and 2 and supplying air to rail cars
on tracks 3 and 4 from four air pits.
For holding (maintaining) pressure on rail cars on tracks 1 and 2 while pressurizing the rail cars on tracks 3 and 4,
amount of air to be supplied is equal to the amount of air leaked based on the maximum leakage rate allowed per FRA
which is 5 psi/minute plus the pressurization of tracks 3 and 4 from 0 to 80 psig.
Volume of air leaked for tracks 1 and 2 for a 5 psi drop in pressure:
Moles @ 80 Moles @ Volume of air

Track Vol. CF
psig 75 psig leaked CF
Track-1 W 131 2.18 2.07 41.74
Track-1 E 119 1.98 1.88 37.95
Track-2 W 131 2.18 2.07 41.74
Track-2 E 119 1.98 1.88 37.95

Moles = (PxV)/(RxT)
P = 94.7 @ 80 psi and 89.7 @ 75 psi
V = total cubic feet air volume
R (gas constant) = psi.ft3/(lb. mol.°R) = 10.73
T (degrees Rankine) = average local temp (used 70° F)+459.69=530
1 lb. mole = 379.482 scf
Volume of leaked air in scf = moles @ 80 psig – moles @ 75 psig x 379.482
Air flow through west and east tracks is assumed to be equal (being compressible flow) which is half the capacity of
the compressor capacity of 236 SCFM.
Air flow to the tracks that are on hold will be of negligible quantity. For calculating pressurization time, volume of air
(leakage) to be supplied to the tracks that are on hold is added to the tracks that are pressurized.
Pressurization times: (Tracks 1 and 2 are on hold)
Free Vol. Leakage Vol. Total Vol. Pressurization

Track
CF CF CF Time, Minutes
Track-3 W 696 41.74 737.74 12.50
Track-4 W 696 41.74 737.74 12.50
Track-3 E 754 37.95 791.95 13.42
Track-4 E 754 37.95 791.95 13.42
Free Vol. CF=total car hoses + total tank volumes for track x (94.7/14.7)
f. Piping pressure drop example:
The engineer shall calculate pressure losses due to feed line materials size and lengths; fittings; pit line volumes; and
equipment from manufacturer’s performance data; equations and/or nomograms to confirm that the compressor is
adequate for the system requirements. For this example total line pressure drop has been calculated at 14.65 psi.
Pressure at the farthest valve box:
Compressor discharge 140 psig
Dryer pressure drop 5 psi (example)
Pre-filer pressure drop 2 psi (example)
High efficiency filter pressure drop 3 psi (example)
Pressure at the farthest valve box = 115.35 psig
System requirement is a minimum of 110 psig at the pressure regulator at the air pits.

17.4.4 AIR COMPRESSORS AND CONTROLLERS (2011)
a. The compressor shall be a heavy-duty industrial type compressor unit consisting of an air cooled compressor, after
cooler, separator, and operating controls and be capable of operating in ambient temperatures up to 115o F. Options
and accessories that should be considered include low ambient packaging for cold climates, premium efficient motors,
outdoor modifications such as NEMA 4 enclosures and a low sound enclosure.
b. The compressor unit shall consist of a single stage, heavy-duty, air cooled, oil flooded rotary screw air compressor. The
unit shall be equipped with duplex tapered roller bearings with coolant dam around bearings for high load carrying
capacity.
c. The compressor/compressors unit shall be capable of delivering the rail yard required CFM capacity. (For example see
Article 17.4.3.)
d. Motors: Motors shall be specified to meet compressor requirements and site available power supply, open drip-proof,
mounted on adjustable motor base. Motors shall be high-efficiency Class F insulation, rated for continuous duty for up
to a 239°F temperature rise with a 1.15 Service Factor.
e. Mounting: The compressor assembly shall be suitable for mounting on a level pad with four hold down bolts. All
components shall be mounted on a rigid steel base with forklift access holes for easy mobility.
f. Cooling Lubrication System: The compressor unit shall incorporate an integrally mounted air-cooled oil cooler of
sufficient size to ensure that the inlet oil temperature to the compressor shall not exceed 180 degrees F on a 105 degree
F day at full load. The cooling fan shall be driven by the same motor that drives the compressor. A thermostatic valve 1
shall be included to ensure that the inlet oil temperature does not fall below 140 degree F on cold days. A two stage
coolant separation system shall be provided to reduce downstream carryover to less than 2 parts per million (ppm).
The core, fan and fan motor shall be mounted and prewired in the compressor package. The lubrication system shall
include check valve, relief valves, and other safety components as necessary to ensure trouble free operation. A drip
pan shall be provided under the skid to collect drips.
g. After cooler: Each air compressor shall be equipped with an internal air-cooled after cooler mounted on the skid with 3
the oil cooler and moisture separator with an automatic drain trap. The after cooler shall cool the air to within 15
degrees F of the ambient air temperature. The after cooler shall be mounted, pre-piped, and tested as part of the
packaged compressor assembly.
h. Inlet Air Filter: Heavy duty dry type, 99.99% efficient at 3 micron and above.
i. Sound Enclosure: A 75 dba sound attenuating enclosure per ANSI standard S 5.1 shall be provided. 4
j. Controls: Provide the following controls as a minimum.
(1) Display Standards:
• Package discharge pressure.
• Air end discharge pressure.
• Sump pressure.
• Separator element condition.
• Total hours/loaded hours.
• Air filter maintenance indicator.

(2) Membrane Touch Panel:
• Start and unloaded stop.
• Display select up/down.
• Set/reset.
• Unload/load.
(3) Adjustable Operating Parameters:
• Online and offline pressures.
• Control mode select-online/offline, ACS, modulation only.
• Display time.
• Option selections - auto start/stop, remote start/stop, power outage restart, and sequencer control Star Delta
transition time.
• Lead/lag setting.
(4) Fault Warnings:
• High air end discharge temperature.
• Change separator element.
(5) Fault Shutdowns:
• High air end discharge temperature.
• High discharge pressure.
• Low sump pressure.
• Control voltage loss.
• Open contactor.
• Main motor overload.
• Fan motor overload.
• Reverse rotation.
• Pressure transducer failure.
• Temperature sensor failure.
(6) Communication: Compressor Controller shall be connected to the System Controller through a standard 22 gauge
twisted pair wire and capable of communicating to the System Controller.

k. Motor Controllers: Full-voltage, combination magnetic type with under voltage release feature and motor-circuit
protector-type disconnect and short-circuit protective device:
(1) Control Voltage: 120 volts, ac or less, using integral control power transformer.
(2) Motor Overload Protection: Overload relay in each phase.
l. Coolant: The compressor shall be factory filled with a synthetic polyglycol compressor coolant suitable for 8000 hours
of operation without requiring change.
m. Pressure Protection: Provide an air pressure relief valve and minimum pressure check valve.
n. System Controller: System controllers should be used when the facility has multiple compressors. They shall be set to
operate existing compressor(s) now and will be used to control any future additional compressors that may be added to
the facility at a later date. Provide microprocessor based controller capable of controlling the required number of
rotary screw compressors. The control will load or unload compressors as necessary to maintain a user adjustable, 2-
10 PSI pressure band. The pressure is sensed via a single point in the system. The controller will prevent electrical
power surges using technology that will prevent the simultaneous loading of compressors. Up to 2 compressor
sequences can be designated by the user to provide customized control of the compressor system. These sequences can
be changed automatically on the basis of elapsed time, or on specified events. An event specifies a particular sequence
to be run on a specified time of day and day of week. In the event of controller or communication failure, the affected
compressor(s) will default to local control and settings. This will prevent interruption of the air system. A common
trouble fault alarm shall be installed outside of the building. The common trouble alarm shall be an audible horn and
an alarm indicating light. System Controller shall be capable of communicating with the individual compressor
controller.
1
17.4.5 REFRIGERATED AIR DRYERS (2011)
a. Air dryer shall be a cycling, refrigerated, aircooled, direct expansion flooded evaporator type complete with heat
exchanger, refrigeration compressor, automatic controls, moisture separator, internally wired and piped in, and full
refrigerant charge. The dryer shall be enclosed in a powder coated sheet metal enclosure and shall meet NEMA 1 3
electrical standards. The unit shall be CSA approved.
b. Heat exchangers shall be air-to-air and air-to-refrigerant heat exchangers with automatic control system.
c. Air dryer shall have a centrifugal type moisture separator and self actuating drain valve designed to remove 99.99% of
all liquids and solid particle sizes 10 micron and larger.
4
d. Air dryer refrigeration unit shall be hermetic type designed to operate continuously to maintain 35 degree F dew point,
completely wired and piped in. Unit shall have an access door and panel for maintenance and inspection.
e. System Operation Monitor:
(1) System Operation Monitor shall be a microprocessor based information control system that allows access to all
critical dryer operating parameters. The System Operation Monitor shall provide warning of the problems before
troublesome shutdowns occur. Routine maintenance requirements shall be displayed with the service reminder
LED. Electrical control panel NEMA 12 shall include motor overload protection control transformer, on/off
switch, control fuse, and refrigerant pressure controls. Pilot lights shall be installed to monitor power “on” and
high temperature.
(2) The System Operation Monitor shall provide as a minimum the following digital display readouts for:
(a) Inlet air temperature.

(b) Refrigerant suction temperature.
(c) Refrigerant discharge temperature.
(3) The System Operation Monitor shall provide as a minimum the following fault warnings:
(a) High inlet air temperature.
(b) High ambient air temperature.
(c) High refrigerant suction temperature.
(4) It shall also allow to adjust automatic drain open time, automatic drain off time, and automatic drain test.
f. Air dryer shall have the following capacity:
(1) Discharge Air: Minimum pressure dew point 35 degrees F.
(2) Rated Air Flow: SCFM capacity will be calaculated by the engineer to meet the compressor CFM capacity.
(3) Inlet Air Pressure: Inlet air pressure will be calculated by the engineer to meet the compressor CFM capacity.
(4) Maximum Pressure Differential from Inlet to Outlet: 5 psi.
(5) Maximum operating pressure 230 psig.
g. The electrical characteristics shall be determined by the engineer to meet the dryer options and the site available power
supply.
h. Air dryer shall include an automatic drain system. This drain system shall be of manufacturer’s standard and shall
include a solid state timer for variable blowdown intervals and duration. 1/60/115 volt, NEMA 1, non-clogging
solenoid valve internal to the dryer skid, manual drain and piping.
17.4.6 COALESCING FILTERS (2011)
a. After the air dryer, a general purpose coalescing particulate pre-filter shall be installed followed by a high efficiency
coalescing filter to remove oil, water, condensate, dust, metal particles and pipe scale from the system.
(1) The filters shall utilize the coalescing method for removing contaminants (liquids and solids) from compressed air.
(2) The pre-filter shall remove particles down to 1 micron-liquids down to 0.05 ppm w at 70˚F (0.05 mg/m3 w at
21˚C) and the high efficiency filter.
(3) The initial dry pressure drop at rated inlet air pressure and rated flow shall not exceed 1.5 psig for the pre-filter and
1 psig for the high efficiency filter. The initial wet pressure drop will not exceed 2 psig for the pre-filter and 3 psig
for the high efficiency filter.
(4) The housing shall be die-cast aluminum with threaded inlet and outlet connections, removable bowl for easy
element exchange. An Audible alarm shall be provided to show if the filter bowl is inadvertently loosened while
under pressure.
(5) The filters shall have a timed automatic electric drain to remove condensate. The drains shall have an adjustable
drain cycle and timer interval. The valve shall be in a NEMA 4 enclosure.

17.4.7 AIR RECEIVER TANKS (2011)
a. The tank serves as a buffer (along with the volume contained in the air lines) to minimize compressor cycling and
provides storage for short periods of system demand. The tank shall be sized to meet the requirements of the
compressed air system.
b. Air receiver tanks shall be built to ASME standards, Section VIII with a working pressure of 165 psig, with threaded
inlet and outlet connections.
c. Air receivers shall have a safety valve, a temperature gauge, a pressure gauge, an automatic drain valve and a manhole.
d. Air receiver tanks shall be shop primed and painted.
e. The tank shall be fitted with welded saddles.
17.4.8 ABOVE GROUND OIL WATER SEPARATOR AND EQUIPMENT DRAINAGE (2011)
a. If the compressed air facility is to “stand alone”, install an above ground oil water separator for removal of entrained
oil from the condensates collected from air compressor, dryer, air receiver, and coalescing filter. Automatic drains
from this equipment shall be hard piped to the oil water separator. The oil water separator shall be rated to meet the
requirements of the mechanical equipment for capacity and incoming flow rate on an intermittent basis and shall
remove the free oil. The oil water separator shall consist of a high efficiency vertical tube coalescer, a micro-matrix
coalescer self supporting grid, oil skimmer section and a hydrocarbon accumulator that meets the requirements of the
system. The accumulator shall be equipped with a top mounted float level switch as specified. 1
17.4.9 YARD AIR DISTRIBUTION LINES (2011)
a. Pipe and fittings shall be stenciled indelibly with the alphanumeric number of the ASTM standard to which they
conform.
b. Above-Ground Pipe:
3
(1) Pipe and Tubes: Pipe shall be ASTM A53-Grade B seamless galvanized carbon steel, schedule 40.
(2) Fittings: Size 2 Inches and Larger
(a) ANSI B16.9, carbon steel, butt welding, schedule 40. 4

(b) ANSI B16.5, carbon steel welding neck flange class 150.
(c) ANSI B16.5, flanged fittings, carbon steel, Class 150.
(d) Gaskets: Spiral wound metallic, class 150.
(3) Fittings: Size 1-1/2 Inches and Smaller
(a) ASME B16.11, forged steel, class 3000 socket welding or Class 2000 threaded.
(4) Unions: ASME B16.39, Class 1 (300 PSIG WOG).
c. Buried Pipe:

(1) Pipe and fittings shall meet the requirements for a high density polyethylene (HDPE) material according to ASTM
D-3035. All components shall be molded or extruded according to ASTM D-1248. All material shall be made of
ductile HDPE material and shall meet or exceed the requirements for plastic piping in compressed air, according to
local and state requirements. The thermoplastic system shall be as recommended for compressed air service by the
manufacturer.
(2) Pipe shall conform to the requirements of ASTM D-2837-88 for establishing a hydrostatic basis. In addition, the
pipe shall be a dimensional ratio (SDR of 7.3) pipe with a wall thickness to meet or exceed 230 psi at 68° F for
piping through 4” nominal diameter.
(3) Pressure fittings shall conform to the same requirements as outlined for piping. In addiitonal all fittings through
4” shall be injection molded. Special plastic to metal transition threaded fittings shall be made of nickel coated
brass and injection molded as one piece. Flanges shall be of the Van Stone style; stub-end with a backing ring.
(4) All pipe and fittings shall be by the same manufacturer.
d. Pipe Supports General Requirements:
(1) General: Piping systems including connections to equipment shall be properly supported to prevent deflection and
stresses. Supports shallcomply with ANSI/ASME B31.1, except as otherwise indicated.
(2) ANSI/MSS Types: Except as otherwise indicated, pipe support components shall comply with the types in
ANSI/MSS SP-58.
(3) Support Spacing: Supports for horizontal piping shall be properly spaced. Except as otherwise indicated, pipe
support spacing shall comply with the following:
Pipe Size inches Max. Span feet
1/2 to 1-1/2 6
2 to 4 10
17.4.10 VALVES AND ACCESSORIES (2011)
a. Two way ball valves shall have bronze body conforming to ASTM B62. Valve shall be two piece construction with
stainless steel ball and stem, teflon seal, threaded ends and vinyl covered steel handle. Valve shall have a minimum
400 psig rating.
b. Check Valves: Bronze body, stainless steel spring actuated with silicone W.O.G. 300 PSI rubber seal and internal
opening.
c. Safety Valves: Comply with ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII “Pressure Vessels,” National
Board Certified. Valves shall bear the appropriate labeling and have been factory-sealed after testing. Valves to be
constructed of bronze body with poppet safety valve for compressed air service.
d. Pressure Regulators: Aluminum alloy diaphragm-operated, direct acting, spring loaded, manual pressure setting
adjustment, rated for 250 psig inlet pressure and sized to handle 0-150 SCFM with an upstream pressure of 140 psig
and a downstream pressure range of 60 psig to 90 psig. Pressure regulator shall be provided with integral relief valve.
e. Shut-Off Valves: Gate valve, bronze body, bronze trim, non-rising stem, handwheel, inside screw, single wedge
threaded ends.

f. Air Outlet: FS-4 type hose coupling with threaded hose nipple.
g. Flexible Hose: Rubber hose reinforced with two wire braids, threaded ends in conformance with AAR M-618 and M-
927 specifications.
h. Pressure Relief Valves downstream of Pressure Regulator: Steel body, composition seat, diaphragm type, set to open
at 90 psig (range 50-150 psig) sized to handle maximum flow when the pressure regulator fails.
i. Top Mounted Float level Switches (Single Point Detection): Top mounted float actuated single point level switches
shall consist of a float, a rod, and a magnetic actuator which slides up and down in a non-magnetic guide tube. A
permanent magnet attached to a pivoting mercury switch shall snap against the guide when the float pushes the
actuator up, in turn tilting the mercury switch. Float, trim, and sleeve shall all be constructed of ASTM 316 stainless
steel. The switch shall be a DPDT vibration resistant mercury switch with a minimum rating of 4 Amps at 120 VAC.
Float level switches shall be provided with adjustable dead band. The switch shall suitable for mounting on a 5 gallon
accumulator and shall allow easy removal while replacing the accumulator.
j. Electronic Pressure Transmitter: Electronic pressure transmitters shall be two wire devices utilizing “Smart”
Technology with continuously adjustable span, zero and damping adjustments, integral indicators scaled in
engineering units, solid state circuitry and 4-20 mA outputs. Accuracy shall be plus or minus 0.25 percent of calibrated
span. Process wetted and body materials shall be 316 SS. Process connections shall be 1/2-inch NPT.
k. Local Pressure Measuring Systems: Pressure gauges shall be installed as indicated and shall have Type 316 stainless
steel movement and stainless steel or alloy case. Except as otherwise indicated, gauges shall have a 3-1/2-inch dial,
1/4-inch threaded connection, a Type 316 stainless steel snubber adapter, and a shut-off valve. Gauges shall be
calibrated to read with an accuracy of plus/minus 1 percent to 150 percent of the indicated pressure. Gauges shall be
1
vibration and shock resistant. Process connections shall be 1/2-inch NPT unless otherwise indicated.
l. Diaphragm Piston Pressure Switches: Pressure switches shall consist of a pressure transducer and a precision switch.
Pressure transducer shall be the diaphragm piston type with wetted materials as recommended by the switch
manufacturer. Piston shall be backed by a cylinder disc to permit 10 times overrange pressure without affecting
calibration. Range spring and piston shall be isolated from process fluids by the diaphragm. Switch shall be provided 3
with two ¾-inch conduit connections. The pressure transducer shall be selected so that setpoint falls between 30 and
70 percent of maximum range. Approximate setpoint and, if applicable, reset point shall be indicated on calibrated
scales. Repeatability and sensitivity shall be 1.0 percent of operating range or better. Unless otherwise specified,
switches shall be nonadjustable deadband type. Process connections shall be 1/2-inch NPT.
m. Differential Pressure Switch: Differential pressure sensing switches shall be single-pole, double-throw with an
adjustable differential range. Minimum differentials shall be less than 10 percent of range. Differential pressure 4
switches shall be able to withstand surge pressure 1.5 times range or better. Each pressure switch shall have a visible
scale contact operation. Pressure switches shall have a contact rating of 10 amperes at 125 volts AC. Pressure
switches shall be snap-action switches and shall be in general purpose enclosures. A 316 SS three valve manifold shall
be supplied with each switch. Process connections shall be 1/2-inch NPT.
n. Bimetallic Dial Temperature Measuring Systems: Temperature indicators shall have 5-inch nominal diameter “all
single” indicating scales, Type 316 stainless steel stems, and be suitable for stainless steel wells. Accuracy shall be
plus or minus 1 percent of full range.
o. Thermowells: Unless indicated otherwise, thermowells shall be provided for dial thermometers. All thermowells shall
have a ½-inch NPT female thread for connection of the measuring element. Well mounting connections may be
screwed, socketweld, or flanged. Screwed connections shall be 3/4-inch. Thermowell shall be bored from solid
barstock with a minimum thickness of 3/16-inch. The well material shall be Type 316 stainless steel unless indicated
otherwise. Well lengths are based on vessel or pipe size.

17.4.11 UNDERGROUND COMPRESSED AIR CONNECTION AND ISOLATION PITS (2011)
a. Pit covers shall be all primary metal cast aluminum No. A356.2, per Federal Specification QQ-A601F with a T-6 heat
treat per Mil. Spec. H-6088F. Service lettering shall be abrasion/corrosion/chemical resistant, color coded, and
polyester powder coated. Counterweight cover and cover 18 inches access door shall have a hand-hole with a
minimum 1.75 inch depth and 7.5 cubic inch volume, located near edge opposite of hinge side, and safety orange panel
on topside (for counterweight pit) and underside. Non-counterweight cover door shall have a maximum 35 pounds lift
using non-weight bearing, free floating hinges and a minimum of 0.5 inch diameter hinge pins: providing a minimum
23.5 inches diameter opening, and access under opening to highest pit internal component at a maximum of 4 inches
from pit top, if applicable.
b. Counterweight cover shall be one piece, and have a “one single motion” automatic non-spring, latch lever without any
above grade protrusions whether in use or not and with a minimum of 0.25 inch clearance from latching surface.
Cover shall open 90 degrees with a maximum 35 pounds lift and close with a minimum 50 pound push, without spring
shocks, using fixed lead weighted arm with attachment to cover to include safety through bolt. Arm set shall be
attached to gears within grease packed totally enclosed gear box. Gear ratio shall allow cover to go to fail-safe
automatic open position once lifted beyond 70 degrees. In non-arm latch areas, highest pit internal component shall be
accessible from a maximum of 5.5 inches from pit top if applicable.
c. For each pit cover style’s prototype, submit a test report conducted by an independent testing company for the
following requirements: Cover loading over each 200 sq. in., footprint shall result in a minimum 1,000 PSI rating with
a maximum 0.100 (or 0.150 for cover larger than 31 inches) full load deflection at center indicator and deflection
rebound within 0.010 inch after load release.
17.4.12 SITE LOCATION OF YARD COMPRESSED AIR FACILITIES (2011)
a. Compressed air facility pressurization pits or stations should be located near the car spot and outside of the ties on each
track that is to be serviced. In container yards the tracks are usually the loading tracks and the departure tracks. FRA
regulations require trains that are to be pressurized from yard air shall be pressurized from the same end to which the
locomotives will be coupled.
b. Air pits with a single connection are required for each track to be serviced. See Figure 6-17-7. Typical Compressed
Air Pit Assembly - Single Port. Dual connection pits can be placed between tracks to serve two tracks simultaneously,
however, piping size within the pit may need to be increased to meet pressurization time requirements. Figure 6-17-8.
Typical Compressed Air Pit Assembly - Dual Port. Standard air brake hose assembly that meets AAR specification
M618-87 with a gladhand can be used to connect the pit to the rail car.
c. Compressed air facility enclosures or pads should be located as close to the air pits as possible to minimize air line pipe
diameter and length. This will minimize material costs, installation costs, and reduce air line pressure losses which
will save energy and equipment sizing at the facility.
d. Isolation valve pits should be located on each side of main air line branches and at branch lines to air pit clusters. The
isolation valves allow routine maintenance or repairs at specific locations without disrupting the entire system. See
Figure 6-17-6. Isolation Valve Pit and Figure 6-17-9. Typical Compressed Air Layout Schematic.
e. In large yards consideration should be given to installation of two or more compressed air facility enclosures or pads to
reduce long main air line runs, to distribute and minimize equipment sizing and to avoid entire yard air outages when
one facility is down.
f. It is recommended that air lines under tracks be placed in a casing pipe for protection and to avoid boring if a
replacement is necessary.

17.4.13 ACCEPTANCE TESTS AND COMMISSIONING (2011)
a. Acceptance Tests
(1) Upon completing installation, test the system section by section, in the manner described below. Provide all
equipment and materials required for the tests.
(2) Give the Engineer at least 24 hours’ written notice before commencing any test.
(3) Before commencing tests, calibrate all pressure gages to the Engineer’s satisfaction.
(4) Conduct the following line tests:
(a) Preliminary Test: Apply air pressure to 20 psig (max) and determine the location of any major leaks.
(b) Pneumatic Test - Air Piping: Upon completion of preliminary test and any required repairs, carry out a
system pneumatic test in accordance with procedures outlined in ANSI B31.1 Section 137.5 a manfacturer’s
procedure for testing of the HDPE piping.
(5) In the event of a line test failure, identify the leak or leaks, repair them in an approved manner and re-test the line
to the Engineer’s satisfaction.
(6) Test the compressor unit after completion of installation. Perform the tests as recommended by the manufacturer
and to the satisfaction of the Engineer. 1
(7) Piping that has been tested shall be completely sealed against infiltration of dust and other contaminants. The final
connections between the tested sections shall be left exposed until the final pressure test. During the final pressure
test, the entire below-ground piping system shall be gradually charged to a pressure of 120 psig and held for the
minimum time required to leak test the previously untested/exposed joints.
(8) Manufacturer’s Field Service: Provide services of a factory authorized service representative to inspect field 3
assembly of components and installation of equipment, including piping and electrical connections, and to report
the results in writing.
b. Commissioning
(1) Preparation: Perform the following final checks before start-up:

4
(a) Complete tests of piping systems.
(b) Check for piping connection leaks.
(c) Check lubricating oil for lubricated-type equipment.
(d) Check V-belts for proper tension.
(e) Check that compressor inlet filters and piping are clear.
(f) Check equipment vibration-control supports and flexible pipe connectors and check that equipment is
properly attached to substrate.
(g) Check that safety valves have correct setting; it should be greater than compressor discharge pressure, but not
greater than pressure rating of system components.

(h) Mount the lead/lag control panel as shown on the Drawings. Furnish and install all field wiring required
between each compressor control cabinet and the lead/lag panel. Wiring shall conform to ELECTRICAL
Section. Startup and load test system after acceptance of cleaning and pressure test.
(i) Test operation of equipment safety controls and devices.
(j) Test operation of air dryer, on/off pressure switch, automatic drains and operation of air compressor.
(2) Starting Procedures: Follow the manufacturer’s written procedures.
(3) Training: Provide a minimum of four hours of training of personnel designated by the Engineer on the operation
of the system.
(4) A factory-authorized service representative shall test and inspect unit installation, provide start-up service and to
demonstrate and train Engineer’s or other maintenance personnel designated by the Engineer as specified below:
(a) Test and adjust operating and safety controls. Replace damaged and malfunctioning controls and equipment.
(b) Train maintenance personnel on procedures and schedules related to start-up and shut-down, troubleshooting,
servicing and preventative maintenance.
(c) Review data in Operating and Maintenance Manuals.
(d) Schedule training by factory-authorized service representative for yard operators to demonstrate equipment,
start-up and shutdown procedures, preventative maintenance and servicing procedures, and troubleshooting
procedures. Review operating and maintenance information and program system controller and demonstrate
its functionality.

Figure 6-17-4. Typical Equipment and Building Layout for Compressed Air Facility

Figure 6-17-5. Typical Packaged Compressed Air System Enclosure

Figure 6-17-6. Isolation Valve Pit

Figure 6-17-7. Typical Compressed Air Pit Assembly - Single Port

Figure 6-17-8. Typical Compressed Air Pit Assembly - Dual Port

Figure 6-17-9. Typical Compressed Air Layout Schematic

Figure 6-17-10. Facility Example 1


6
Chapter 6 Glossary
The following terms are used in Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities and are placed here in alphabetical order for your
convenience.
Chimney
A vertical shaft enclosing one or more flews.
Daily Average Passenger (DAP)

The total number of passengers using a facility on a daily basis derived from five day average of at least four randomly
selected weeks during the year.
Downtown Location
A station site in the Central Business District (CBD) where the primary mode of travel to and from the station is in the
CBD.
Exterior Chimney
1
A chimney built outside the walls of a building and having lateral support from the building.
Flue
An enclosed passageway in a chimney for removing products of combustion from solid, liquid, or gas fuel.
Interior Chimney 3
A chimney built within the walls of a building and having a lateral support from the building.
Isolated Chimney
A chimney which receives no lateral support from the building. Guys or stays shall not be considered lateral support.
Multi-Occupancy Development
A station site occupying a small portion of a larger facility such as a shopping center or office complex. The rail station is a
tenant and shares common areas of the Development with the other tenants. This type of station may be either a Downtown
or Suburban location.
Peak Hour Passenger (PHP)

The maximum number of passengers and accompanying visitors using the facility during any given hour on a sustained
basis.
Smoke Pipe
A pipe or breeching connecting a heating appliance and a flue.
© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 6-G-1

Suburban Location
A station site which serves a medium to low density population center requiring the use of private automobiles as the
primary mode to reach the station. The site may be a small central business district, but because the final destination of most
travelers is not this business district, the location is classified as “suburban.” Suburban locations are usually found in
commuter operations and as satellite facilities in intercity markets to capture additional ridership.
Vent Pipe
As applied to heating, a pipe for removing products of combustion from gas appliances.
6-G-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

6
References1
— 1986 —
The following list of published reports and presentations (1965-1983) used in Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities is
placed here in alphabetical order for your convenience.
1. Architectural Design Competition, Vol. 77, 1976, pp. 342–350 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
2. Architectural Design Competition, Vol. 77, 1976, pp. 493–498 (D.A. Bessey). Presentation at Annual Conference.
3. Architectural Design Competition, Vol. 78, 1977, pp. 373–381 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
4. Architectural Design Competition, Vol. 82, 1981, pp. 456–459 (D.A Bessey). Presentation at Annual Conference.
5. Automobile Handling Terminals, Facilities for, Vol, 68, 1967, pp. 294–298 (O C. Denz). Published as information. 1
6. Caulkings, Joint, and Sealants, Evaluation of, Vol. 84, 1983, pp. 116–123. Published as information.
7. Ceiling Systems for Air Supply and Sound Control, Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 286–287 (A.W. Charvat). Published as
information.
3
8. Chairman's Report, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 187–188 (J.W. Hayes); Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 315–316 (J.W. Hayes); Vol. 68, 1967,
pp. 293–294 (J.W. Hayes); Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 385–386 (W.C. Humphreys); Vol. 70, 1969, pp. 601–602 (W.C.
Humphreys); Vol. 71, 1970, pp. 515–516 (W.C. Humphreys); Vol. 72, 1971, pp. 419–420 (D.A. Bessey); Vol 73, 1972,
pp. 493–494 (D.A. Bessey); Vol 74, 1973, pp. 275–276 (D.A. Bessey); Vol. 75, 1974, pp. 539–540 (F.D. Day); Vol. 76,
1975, pp. 299–300 (W.C. Sturm); Vol. 77, 1976, p. 341 (W.C. Sturm); Vol. 78, 1977, pp. 371–372 (W.C. Sturm); Vol. 79,
1978, pp. 281–282 (T.H. Seep); Vol. 80, 1979, pp. 271–272 (E.P. Bohn); Vol. 81, 1980, pp. 227–228 (E.P. Bohn); Vol. 82,
1981, pp. 210–211 (T.H. Seep); Vol. 83, 1982, pp. 278–279 (T.H. Seep)
9. Computer Room Design, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 310–314 (R. Hale). Published as information.
10. Computer uses for Railway Building Design, Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 894–895 (J.A. Penner). Presented at Annual Conference.
11. Computer uses for Railway Building Design, Vol. 70, 1969, pp. 964–965 (J.A. Penner). Presented at Annual Conference.
12. Concrete, Prestressed, for Railway Buildings, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 202–210 (W.R Hyma). Published as information.
13. Container-on-Flat Car Facilities, Design Criteria for, Vol. 74, 1973, pp. 106–114 (G.J. Chamraz). Manual
Recommendation, Part 5.
14. Conveyor Systems, in floor, Vol. 75, 1974, pp. 540–546 (D.F. Logan). Published as information.
1
© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 6-R-1

15. Crew Housing, Portable, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 301–310 (J.A. Comeau). Published as information.
16. Critical Path Method for Architects and Engineers in the Railway Field, Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 333–334 (I.G. Forbes).
Published as information.
17. Critical Path Method for Railway Engineering, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 721–742 (F.J. Raskopf). Special feature at Annual
Conference.
18. Curtain-Wall Construction for Railway Buildings, Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 325–332 (R.J. Martens). Published as information.
19. Diesel Service and Repair Shops, Design Criteria for, Vol. 75, 1974, pp. 209–231 (A.R. Gualtieri). Manual
20. Elevated Yard Office Buildings, Design Criteria for, Vol. 77, 1976, pp. 172–180 (W.C. Humphreys). Manual
21. Fixed Obsolescence, Designing Railway Buildings for, Vol 68, 1967, pp. 298–301 (F.D. Day). Published as information.
22. Freight and Passenger Stations, Large, Vol. 68, 1967, pp. 302–305 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
23. Freight Forwarding Facilities, Design Criteria for, Vol. 81, 1980, pp. 94–110 (S.D. Arndt). Published as information.
24. Freight Forwarding Facilities, Vol. 83, 1982, pp. 168–180 (S.D Arndt). Manual Recommendation, Part 13.
25. Heating, Infrared, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 222–223 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
26. In-Floor Conveyor Systems, Vol. 75, 1974, pp. 540–546 (D.F. Logan). Published as information.
27. Infrared Heating, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 222–223 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
28. Inspection of Railway Buildings, Vol. 82, 1981, pp. 91–103 (J.N. Michel). Published as information.
29. Joint Caulkings and Sealants, Evaluation of, Vol. 84, 1983, pp. 116–123. Published as information.
30. Locomotive Sanding Facilities, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 169–178 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 6.
31. Locomotive Washing Facility, Design Criteria for, Vol. 79, 1978, pp. 283–289. Manual Recommendation, Part 12.
32. Manual, Revision of, Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 890–892 (W.C. Sturm). Presented at Annual Conference.
33. Manual, Revision of, Vol. 70, 1969, pp. 963–964 (W.C. Sturm). Presented at Annual Conference.
34. Maintenance of Way Equipment Repair Shops, Design Criteria for, Vol. 77, 1976, pp. 162–171 (J.G. Robertson). Manual
35. Metal Buildings, Pre-Engineered, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 178–184 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 7.
36. Obsolescence, Fixed, Designing Railway Buildings for, Vol. 68, 1967, pp. 298–301 (F.D. Day). Published as information.
37. Office Buildings, Design Criteria for Railroad, Vol. 72, 1971, pp. 120–135 (W.C. Sturm). Manual Recommendation, Part
2.
38. Office Buildings, Design Criteria for, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 167–168 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 2.
6-R-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

References
39. Office Planning, Design Criteria for Railway, Vol. 70, 1969, pp. 602–609 (R.J. Martens). Published as information.
40. Paint and Coating Products, New Advantages, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 199–202 (A.F. Langmeyer). Published as information.
41. Passenger and Freight Stations, Large, Vol. 68, 1967, pp. 302–305 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
42. Passenger Stations, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 188–191 (W.G Harding). Revision to manual.
43. Passenger Station, Design Criteria for, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 185–204 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 8.
44. Piggyback – Its Development and Its Future, Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 701–714. Panel discussion at Annual Conference.
45. Piggyback Terminals, Facilities for, Vol. 69, 1968, pp. 892–894 (C.R. Madeley). Presented at Annual Conference.
46. Piggyback Terminals, Facilities for, Vol. 71, 1970, pp. 516–523 (C.R. Madeley). Published as information.
47. Plastic Materials in Railway Buildings, use of, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 210–221 (H.R. Helker). Published as information.
48. Pneumatic Tube Systems, Vol. 75, 1974, pp. 547–556 (H.R. Helker). Published as information.
49. Portable Crew Housing, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 301–310 (J.A. Comeau). Published as information.
50. Portable Prefabricated Buildings, Vol. 74, 1973, pp. 276–286 (P.W. Peterson). Published as information.
51. Portable Prefabricated Buildings, Vol. 78, 1977, pp. 97–101 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 11.
1
52. Portable Station Buildings, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 191–194 (C.R. Madeley). Published as information.
53. Pre-Engineered Metal Buildings, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 179–184 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 7.
54. Prefabricated Buildings, Portable, Vol. 74, 1973, pp. 276–286 (P.W. Peterson). Published as information. 3
55. Prefabricated Buildings, Portable, Vol. 78, 1977, pp. 97–101 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation. Part 11.
56. Prestressed Concrete for Railway Buildings, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 202–210 (W.R. Hyma). Published as information.
57. Relocateable Structures, Vol. 68, 1967, pp. 588–592 (T.R. Arnold). Special Feature at Annual Conference.
4
58. Roofing Systems, Selection and Maintenance of, Vol. 83, 1982, pp. 180–191 (K.N. Kearns). Manual Recommendation,
Part 14.
59. Sanding Facilities, Locomotive, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 169–178 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 6.
60. Sealants, Joint Caulkings and, Evaluation of, Vol. 84, 1983, pp. 116–123. Published as information.
61. Specifications for Buildings for Railway Purposes, Vol. 70, 1969, pp. 200–218 (W.C. Sturm). Manual Recommendation,
Part 1
62. Specifications for Railway Buildings (Portable Station Buildings), Vol 66, 1965, pp. 191–194 (C.R. Madeley). Published
as information.
63. Spot Car Repair Facilities, Design Criteria for, Vol. 74, 1973, pp. 115–125 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 3.
64. Station Buildings, Portable, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 191–194 (C.R. Madeley). Published as information.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 6-R-3

65. Stations, Freight and Passenger, Large, Vol. 68, 1967, pp. 302–305 (D.A. Bessey). Published as information.
66. Stations, Passenger, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 188–191 (W.C. Harding). Revision to Manual.
67. Stations, Passenger, Design Criteria for, Vol. 76, 1975, pp. 185–204 (T.H. Seep). Manual Recommendation, Part 8.
68. Synthetic Resins for Adhesives, Use of, Vol. 66, 1965, pp. 195–198 (H.A. Shannon). Published as information.
69. Trailer-on-Flat-Car Facilities, Design Criteria for, Vol. 74, 1973, pp. 106–114 (G.J. Chamraz). Manual Recommendation,
Part 5.
70. Unit Costs for Various Types of Railway Buildings, Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 316–324 (T.S. Williams). Published as
information.
71. Yard Office Buildings, Elevated, Design Criteria for, Vol. 77, 1976, pp. 172–180 (W.C. Humphreys). Manual

0
CHAPTER 11
COMMUTER AND INTERCITY RAIL
SYSTEMS1
FOREWORD
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
NOTE: This chapter is being developed by Committee 11, which was formed in 1998. Additional material will
appear in future Manual Revisions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1-1
1.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1-1
1.2 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1-1
2 Corridor Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-1

2.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-2
2.2 Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.4 Corridor Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.5 Corridor Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.7 Multi-Modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-8
1

2.8 Corridor Implementation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-8
3 Track and Roadway Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-1

3.1 General Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-2
3.2 System Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-2
3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.4 Right of Way Design Criteria and C onsiderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.5 Track and Roadway Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
4 Facilities and Structural Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-1

4.2 Passenger Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-3
4.3 Multi-Modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.5 Bridges and Drainage Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-14
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-15
4.7 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-15
5 Vehicle Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-1

5.2 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-1
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-1
5.4 Rolling Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-2
6 Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-1

6.2 Operations Centers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2
6.3 Signal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2
6.4 Communications Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2
6.5 Propulsion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-3
7 Maintenance of Way Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-1

7.1 General Informaton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-1
7.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation and Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.4 Right of Way Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.5 Track Maintenance Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.6 Track Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.7 Structures Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.8 Signal and Communications Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3
7.9 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3
7.10 Facility Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3

INTRODUCTION
The chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents (specifications,
Article Dates – Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last time that Article was modified.
1


30
Part 1
Introduction
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1-1
1.2 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1-1

1
SECTION 1.1 GENERAL INFORMATION 3
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 1.2 SAFETY/SECURITY
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems

30
Part 2
Corridor Planning Considerations
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.1.1 Under Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-2
2.1.2 Under Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-2
2.1.3 Environmental (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-2
1
2.2 Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6

2.3.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.3.2 Demographic Data (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6
2.3.3 Attitude Surveys (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-6 3
2.3.4 Zoning Data (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.3.5 Environmental Data (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.3.6 Geographic and Physical Data (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.3.7 Population and Economic Data (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.3.8 Transportation Demand (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.5 Corridor Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-7
2.7 Multi-Modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-8
2.8 Corridor Implementation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2-8

SECTION 2.1 GENERAL INFORMATION
2.1.1 UNDER DEVELOPMENT
2.1.2 UNDER DEVELOPMENT
2.1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL (2009)
2.1.3.1 The Environmental Process
Commuter and Inter-City rail transportation supports the economic vitality of the nation’s urban centers and is therefore
generally considered to be environmentally desirable. Over the years numerous laws have been enacted to protect
communities and their natural resources during major rail construction projects. Chief among these laws is the National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) which established a national policy of preserving and enhancing the human
environment for future generations while meeting the transportation needs of the present generation.
NEPA regulations direct Federal agencies, planners and designers to integrate into their planning and decision making the
natural and social sciences, environmental amenities and values, and the design arts along with the necessary engineering and
economic considerations. In addition to NEPA, and where federal funding is not involved, the provisions of other statutes,
regulations and executive orders affect the decision making on transportation projects. These mandates and considerations
cover such concerns as air and water quality, historic preservation, parklands, protection, habitat preservation, civil rights and
social burdens of transportation investments. It is important to note that NEPA is a significant environmental law but is only
one of many laws that may be applicable and govern the environmental process. It is suggested that an environmental
professional be consulted regarding environmental issues that affect planning, construction and operation.
SAFETEA-LU permits States that "re-engineered" their environmental review process to streamline transportation decision
making under the provisions of §1309 of the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) to request a
grandfathering exemption to continue operating their program under those processes.
The Federal Transit Administration in cooperation with the operating agency (applicant) will perform the work necessary to
complete a Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) or an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and comply with related
environmental laws and regulations to the maximum extent possible during the NEPA process. This work included
environmental and related engineering studies, agency coordination and public involvement.
In accordance with 23 CFR, typically final design activities, property acquisition, purchase of construction materials or rolling
stock, or construction will not proceed until the following have been completed:
a. The action has been classified as a categorical exclusion (CE), or
b. A FONSI has been approved, or
c. A final EIS has been approved and available for the prescribed time period and a record of decision (ROD) has been
signed.
2.1.3.2 Air Quality
Commuter and Inter-City rail projects that are funded with federal funding must meet the requirements of the Clean Air Act in
addition to NEPA. The Clean Air Act contains detailed transportation conformity requirements to ensure that federally funded
rail projects conform to the applicable State (air quality) Implementation Plan which documents the measures taken to attain
the national air quality standards. The conformity is governed by a regulation issued by the Environmental Protection Agency
40 CFR Part 93.

Mass transit or rail projects that are federally funded must meet the requirements of the Clean Air Act in addition to those
required as part of the NEPA process. This act contains “conformity” requirements the purpose of which is to ensure that the
projects conform to the applicable State (air quality) Implementation Plan (SIP) to attain national air quality standards.
2.1.3.3 Endangered Species
U.S. federal law protects critical rare animal and plant species and their habitats. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16
U.S.C. 1531) provides for the protection of species that are at risk of extinction throughout all, or a significant portion of their
range, and for the protection of ecosystems on which they depend.
The Federal Transit Administration (FTA), in consultation with Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) or National Fisheries Service
(NMFS) ensure that no federally funded commuter rail projects will jeopardize the continued existence of any listed species or
result in the destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat. Agencies, planners and designers should contact the FWS
and NMFS during project scoping for information about listed species that may be present.
2.1.3.4 Environmental Justice
Under Executive Order 12898 (EO 12898) and the U.S. Department of Transportation’s order, consideration of environmental
justice issues must be considered during preparation of alignment alternatives and Environmental Impact Statements (EIS).
Some principles are as follows:
a. The composition of affected areas to determine whether minority populations, low-income populations, or Indian tribes
are present should be considered as to whether there may be a disproportionately high and adverse human health or
environmental effects on these populations.
1
b. Develop effective public participation strategies that assure meaningful community representation.
c. Where a disproportionate and adverse environmental impact is identified, consideration should be given to relevant
demographic, public health and industry data concerning the potential for exposure to human health or environmental
hazards in the affected population to the extent that this information is readily available.
3
d. The relative impact of alternatives should be considered, and measured to avoid, minimize, and mitigate impacts
should be evaluated.
2.1.3.5 Floodplains
A floodplain is the lowland adjacent to a river, lake or ocean and is likely to be designated by the rarity of the flood that is large
enough to inundate them, i.e. 10-year or 100-year. Executive order 11988, “Floodplain Management” places special 4
importance on floodplains and avoids conducting, allowing or supporting actions on a floodplain. When planning a rail
project, maps of the Federal Insurance Administration should be consulted to determine if the proposed project site is located
within the 100-year floodplain. Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) are usually available for review at local zoning or
planning commission office and if they are not available for a particular area, a flood hazard boundary map should be
reviewed. If the proposed project is located within a floodplain, a detailed analysis should be included in the environmental
assessment document as specified in the US Department of Transportation Order 5650.2. “Floodplain Management and
Protection”, April 23, 1979.
2.1.3.6 Hazardous Materials & Brownfields
The uncontrolled disposal of industrial waste creates adverse impacts on public health and the environment. Materials that
may constitute hazardous waste include petroleum products, pesticides, organic compounds, heavy metals, or other
compounds injurious to human health and the environment. The nature and extent of contamination can vary widely, and early
detection, evaluation, and remediation of hazardous waste is essential to minimize project delays.

Brownfields are abandoned, idled, or underused industrial and commercial properties where improvement or redevelopment is
complicated by real or perceived contamination.
Generally, every project that includes the purchase of new right-of-way, excavation, and/or structure demolition or
modification will at least require an initial or preliminary site assessment to determine if any potential hazardous waste is
within the project limits as part of the FTA process.
Several federal laws have been established to ensure remediation of contaminated sites including the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA or “Superfund”). The Resource Conservation Recovery
Act (RCRA), the Oil Pollution Act (OPA), the Underground Storage Tank (UST) program and the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA )and FTA Policy on Brownfields Economic Redevelopment Initiative.
2.1.3.7 Historic, Archeological, and Cultural Resources
Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 requires projects that include federal participation to take into
account the effects on any properties listed, or eligible for listing, on the National Register of Historic Places. Historic
properties may include districts, sites, buildings, structures, or objects older than 49 years old. Archeological sites are also
protected under this Act and the process is applied in a similar fashion when excavation for a transit project is required.
Properties impacted by a project are also subject to Section 4(f), see “2.1.3.10 Parklands”.
2.1.3.8 Navigable Waterways and Coastal Zones
Navigable waterways are those waters of the U.S. that are subject to the ebb and flow of the tide shoreward to the means high
water mark, and that are presently used, have been used in the past, or may be susceptible to use for transport of interstate or
foreign commerce. Commuter rail projects that affect navigable waterways are subject to permitting and review. The River and
Harbor Act of 1899 requires that the Secretary of the Army issue permits for various activities. Section 9 of the Act requires
authorization from the US Army Corp of Engineers (USACE) prior to construction of a dam or dike across a navigable
waterway. Section 10 of the Act requires USACE authorization prior to construction of any structure over, excavation from, or
disposal of materials into navigable waters.
Coordination with the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the appropriate state wildlife agency is required when a project
impounds, diverts, channelizes, or otherwise controls or modifies the waters of any stream or body of water.
If a project will directly affect the coastal zone of any state, the environmental assessment document must show whether the
project will be consistent with the Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Plan.
2.1.3.9 Noise and Vibration
The Federal Transit Administration recently published updated guidance on how to assess noise and vibration impacts of
proposed mass transit projects, “Transit Noise and Vibration Impact Assessment, May 2006”. Project sponsors seeking
funding from the FTA must address these impacts during the environmental review process and this guidance sets out the
procedures for accurately predicting and assessing the magnitude of these impacts. For speeds over 90 mph refer to the Federal
Railroad Administration (FRA) “High Speed Ground Transportation Noise and Vibration Impact Assessment:, October 2005.
2.1.3.10 Parklands
The Section 4(f) compliance process as described in 49 U.S.C. 303 states that a special effort must be made to preserve the
natural beauty of the countryside and public park and recreation lands, wildlife and waterfowl refuges, and historic sites. A
transportation project or program requiring the use of such land will be approved only if there is no prudent and feasible
alternative to using that land and if the project or program includes planning to minimize harm to the land and resources.

2.1.3.11 Social & Economic Impacts
If land is to be acquired for a rail project, the project’s environmental assessment documentation should contain a description
of the land to be acquired. Where the acquisition displaces businesses or individuals, there is a social impact that must be
analyzed as part of the process. The analysis identifies the characteristics and needs of persons and businesses to be displaced,
describes inventory available of comparable replacement dwellings and sites, discusses potential relocation problems, and
describes methods to mitigate adverse impacts. Federal regulations implementing “the Uniform Relocation Assistance and
Real Property Acquisition Policies Act of 1970” are contained in 49 CFR Part 24.
Rail projects affect the social environment and may change the physical layout, demographics, and sense of neighborhood in
local communities. As part of the NEPA process, project sponsors and engineers should work with local planning agencies and
conduct public outreach to determine the impacts of a proposed project on communities and identify methods to avoid,
minimize and mitigate impacts such as creating physical and psychological barriers; changes in land use patterns; circulation
patterns; access to services; changes in population densities; and effects on neighborhood cohesiveness.
Sections 3 and 5 of the Urban Mass Transportation Act require that federally funded transit projects be consistent with official
plans for the development of an area as well as the community’s goals and objectives.
2.1.3.12 Transportation Impacts
Construction of new rail facilities and/or expansion of services may affect existing rail operations. The impacts should be
analyzed and discussed as part of the environmental assessment documentation. Rail considerations include: changes in
geographical areas of service; travel times and reliability; frequency and hours of service; changes in patronage and demand;
changes in transit mode; changes in station access and circulation; and increased traffic around stations and depots.
1
2.1.3.13 Water Quality
Wastewater generated by rail system maintenance and storage facilities can contain a number of pollutants that through
improper handling and treatment, can be released into stormwater systems. The project environmental documents should
discuss any activities that could generate wastewater (e.g. vehicle washing and floor wash-downs) ands the provisions for
containing possible pollutants. Stormwater runoff from parking areas may contain pollutants and if a project changes the 3
existing runoff pattern and analysis should evaluate the magnitude of any impacts.
Mitigation measures should be used to control chemical and detergent use and to remove oil grease, and solid materials at the
source. A National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit issued under Section 402 of the Clean Water Act
may be required if wastewater is discharged into the stormwater system.
2.1.3.14 Wetlands 4
Wetlands are lowland areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency that, under normal
circumstances, supports a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally
include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas that tend to be highly productive in providing habitat for many species of
plants, fish or waterfowl. The USDOT “Order on Preservation of the Nation’s Wetlands” and the planning process require that
an analysis of potential wetland impacts be performed and included in the environmental assessment documents. If the
analysis shows significant impacts on wetlands, an Environmental Impact Statement will usually be required.
Any mass transportation or rail project that involves discharge of dredged or fill material to waters of the US, including
wetlands, is subject to the “Section 404” permitting process, established under the Clean Water Act and jointly run by the
USACE and the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).
2.1.3.15 Essential Fish Habitat
The Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act requires consideration of impacts to Essential Fish Habitat
(EFH). The consultation generally applies to anadromous or salt water species. It requires consultation with the National

Marine Fisheries Service whenever a project impacts waters and substrate necessary to fish for spawning, breeding, feeding, or
growth to maturity.
SECTION 2.2 PLANNING
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 2.3 DATA COLLECTION
2.3.1 GENERAL (2012)
Transportation planning and data collection is performed at many levels of government and by many agencies, including
States, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPO’s), Regional Planning Organizations, Transportation Agencies or
Authorities, Municipalities, Passenger, and Freight Railroads.
A complete set of data, especially quantitative data and information, is needed early in the rail corridor planning process. This
data ranges from the demography of the human populations to be served to the physical characteristics that will govern
engineering and design of the system.
2.3.2 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA (2012)
instances, the rail corridor may be connecting people to their workplaces. Vital statistics of the population are also important.
The working population will have a different demand than the leisure population. Age distribution will affect demand and
particularly future demand. Economic Distribution will also affect demand. Population growth, location, and average income
trends are also important for forecasting future ridership.
Sources of demographic data for the rail planner and engineer include the following:
a. Census Transportation Planning Products (CTTP).
b. Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) and Public Use Microdata Area (PUMA).
c. American Community Survey (ACS).
d. Census 2000 Supplemental Survey (C2SS).
2.3.3 ATTITUDE SURVEYS (2012)
The primary purpose of attitude surveys is to provide input to determine patronage on a rail corridor. Some of the data taken
from attitude surveys include determining attributes that the public considers important in satisfying what it perceives as
acceptable transportation service; minimum levels of service necessary to generate significant patronage; factors that may
influence riders to use rail service in lieu of their automobiles; and trip purposes for which the rail corridor would be used.
See Volume 3, Chapter 12 Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail, Article 2.3.3.

2.3.4 ZONING DATA (2012)
2.3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL DATA (2012)
2.3.6 GEOGRAPHIC AND PHYSICAL DATA (2012)
2.3.7 POPULATION AND ECONOMIC DATA (2012)
2.3.8 TRANSPORTATION DEMAND (2012)
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SECTION 2.4 CORRIDOR IDENTIFICATION
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 2.5 CORRIDOR EVALUATION
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
4
SECTION 2.6 IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 2.7 MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 2.8 CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

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Part 3
Track and Roadway Considerations
— 2010 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.2 System Design Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-2

3.2.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-2
3.2.2 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-2 1
3.2.3 Mixed Passenger and Freight (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-3
3.2.4 Speeds (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-3
3.2.5 Cant Deficiency (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.6 Passenger Comfort (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.7 Vehicle/Track Interaction (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.8 Propulsion System (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4 3
3.2.9 Signal Systems (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.10 Environmental Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.11 Reliability Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.2.12 Regulatory Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-4
3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5

3.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.2 Regulatory Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.3 Passenger Operations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.4 Freight Operations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.5 Fixed Objects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.6 Movable Objects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.3.7 ADA Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.4 Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5

3.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-5
3.4.2 At Grade Crossings (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
3.4.3 Drainage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
3.4.4 Vegetation Control (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
3.4.5 Environmental (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
3.4.6 Third Party Occupancy (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6
3.5 Track and Roadway Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6

3.5.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-6

3.5.2 Regulatory Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-11
3.5.3 Maintenance Philosophy (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-13
3.5.4 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-14
3.5.5 Gage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-15
3.5.6 Track Structure (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-15
3.5.7 Horizontal Geometry (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-15
3.5.8 Vertical Geometry (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-19
3.5.9 Signal Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-22
3.5.10 Grounding (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-22
3.5.11 Turnouts and Special Trackwork (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-22
LIST OF TABLES
11-3-1 Tangential Turnouts Currently in Use in High Speed and Commuter Rail Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3-23
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 3.2 SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA
3.2.1 GENERAL (2006)
The design of the track and roadway is a fundamental part of the entire rail system. It is seldom possible to design a track
system in isolation, therefore the designer must optimize an existing or proposed corridor using design criteria that meet the
service objectives with reasonable economy. Several of the track design criteria interact strongly with the overall system
design and the designers must maintain contact with all stakeholders so that expectations of the planners, funding agencies,
regulatory agencies, governing boards, and operating departments are met.
Design criteria and specific standards should never be regarded as a completed work, but rather a set of guidelines that are
open to refinement from knowledge gained by actual operating experience, from peers, from suppliers, or due to regulatory
change.
For further discussion of corridor planning considerations, see Part 2 of this Chapter.
3.2.2 SAFETY/SECURITY (2006)
To be Developed

3.2.3 MIXED PASSENGER AND FREIGHT (2006)
Track design considerations on mixed use passenger and freight lines will be dependant to a large degree on the ownership of
the corridor. Where the commuter agency owns the corridor and operates the majority of the trains, the track design can be
optimized more for the passenger operations.
On corridors where a freight railroad is the owner, the commuter agency is typically bound to the track design considerations
of the freight railroad. The design considerations can be adjusted based on the split between the number of freight trains and
passenger trains, but commuter agencies should be prepared to negotiate reimbursements for increased maintenance costs to
the freight railroad for trackwork features and parameters beyond those needed for the baseline freight operations.
3.2.4 SPEEDS (2006)
Train speeds control many of the designer’s choices. The corridor’s characteristics are likely to impose speed constraints due
to:
• track alignment,
• track conditions,
• track crossings,
• public and private roadway crossings,

1
• freight train performance,
• passenger equipment characteristics,
• right of way and site conditions,
• regulatory requirements or restrictions. 3

Geometric and train dynamic limits are expressed as the maximum speed permitted on varying combinations of curvature,
actual superelevation, cant deficiency, length of transition spirals, length of reversing tangents, and speed through diverging
turnouts, as expressed in AREMA Chapter 5. These limits may also be dictated by the design standards of the property owner.
On shared use corridors, freight operations may impose somewhat lower limits on maximum actual superelevation and
therefore possibly reducing the maximum speeds on those curves. Actual freight speed may be limited by horsepower and/or 4
braking. Good design practice equates the actual speed on curves with the equilibrium speed plus an unbalance elevation of
1½ or 2 inches.
Curvature design criteria is governed by the speed and superelevation considerations discussed above, with the maximum
permissible degree of curve being defined by the rolling stock. As a practical guide for mixed use corridors, curves of 10
degrees result in an operating speed in the 20-35 MPH range (depending upon superelevation and cant deficiency). These
sharp curves may impose track and wheel wear costs on the operation of the system. Curves up to 12º 30’ may be used, for
example, to access yards and terminals. Wherever possible, the designer should design the alignment to allow the greatest
flexibility for future speed and capacity improvements at a minimal cost.
Operations simulation with computers has two strong effects on the speed design aspects of corridors. First, train operations
on several trial alignments of varying refinement and cost can be used to quantify the time savings vs. the cost of the more
refined designs. Second, as the actual design is refined the simulated running times will guide those responsible for operating,
marketing, and coordination with other transportation modes.

3.2.5 CANT DEFICIENCY (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.6 PASSENGER COMFORT (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.7 VEHICLE/TRACK INTERACTION (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.8 PROPULSION SYSTEM (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.9 SIGNAL SYSTEMS (2006)
Signal and train control system (legacy or newly constructed) criteria may also control maximum speeds. The track alignment
designer must coordinate with the signal designers throughout the planning and design process. In a new or wholly
reconstructed corridor, the train speed criteria will guide signal system design, however incremental improvements to an
existing corridor may result in the signal system setting maximum train speeds due to higher acceleration rates by passenger
equipment.
Signal spacing, preview, and block length are functions of both the speed and signal system design. The signal spacing must
provide adequate distance to make the appropriate speed reductions or stop between the signals. Three aspect signal systems
(Clear, Approach, Stop) without cab signals require blocks that provide stopping distance from maximum allowable speed to
stop in two blocks. Four aspect signal systems (Clear, Approach Medium, Approach, Stop) without cab signals require blocks
that provide stopping distance in three blocks. Cab signals further modify the block length requirements.
The signal spacing and stopping distance will often be governed by the heavier and longer freight trains rather than the
commuter equipment.
Generally, a short length of higher speed will be more beneficial to passenger trains than it will be to freight trains. A
passenger train may benefit from a higher speed over a distance of 0.6 mile while freight train may only benefit if the higher
speed extends for a distance of 2.0 miles or more. In a shared use corridor, an increase in the design speed for any segment of
track, coupled with higher speed sidings, will have beneficial results in cases of increased freight and passenger service.
3.2.10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.11 RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
To be Developed
3.2.12 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS (2006)
To be Developed

SECTION 3.3 CLEARANCES
3.3.1 GENERAL (2006)
Clearances from the track to obstructions must be established by the property owner to meet local regulatory requirements, to
meet passenger platform interface needs, and to allow for future installation of an overhead catenary system. Local exceptions
to these criteria that will provide greater clearances to enhance visibility at crossings and signals should be controlled by the
designer.
Track spacing must be selected to meet the minimums of the applicable regulatory agencies and Corridor Owner, with greater
track spacing being highly desirable in order to permit maintenance operations on one track to continue under Roadway
Worker regulations while trains operate on adjoining tracks. Wider track spacing may also be required to provide clearance for
inter-track fences at stations.
To be Developed
3.3.3 PASSENGER OPERATIONS (2006)
To be Developed
3.3.4 FREIGHT OPERATIONS (2006) 1

To be Developed
3.3.5 FIXED OBJECTS (2006)
To be Developed
3
3.3.6 MOVABLE OBJECTS (2006)
To be Developed
3.3.7 ADA REQUIREMENTS (2006)

4
To be Developed
SECTION 3.4 RIGHT OF WAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONSIDERATIONS
3.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
The number of tracks in the corridor, both present and future, is a vital planning and design criteria. Designers and planners
must have a decades-long vision of the corridor.
The design of the corridor should anticipate the probable growth trends for passenger and freight traffic and a sense of the
number of tracks needed to meet both existing and future demands. This plan should be adopted by the corridor owners and
used to defend the corridor against encroachments and to plan major infrastructure projects (typically grade separations).
For the more immediate term, designers should use the future multiple track configuration to guide the layout of station
platforms, junctions, and signal facilities (e.g. place signal enclosures far enough from the first track that the second track can

be installed without moving them.) Some corridors may be considered for shared mode use with other transportation (e.g. a
parallel transit or Maglev line) or utility facilities, which may control whether the entire width of the right of way is available
for future tracks or track realignment.
The designer should also consider the need to coordinate and integrate with electric traction system design requirements
should an electric traction system be planned for the future operation of the rail system.
3.4.2 AT GRADE CROSSINGS (2006)
To be Developed
3.4.3 DRAINAGE (2006)
To be Developed
3.4.4 VEGETATION CONTROL (2006)
To be Developed
To be Developed
3.4.6 THIRD PARTY OCCUPANCY (2006)
Right of way uses in the corridor should be controlled by the property owner so as to not interfere with the maintenance or
operation of the rail line, nor obstruct future expansions of the railroad facilities. Planners and designers must carefully
consider whether certain public uses of the corridor (e.g. recreational trails) are an acceptable risk and can be located so as to
meet the maintenance, operation, and expansion needs of the owner.
Generally, utility occupancies within a corridor are a potential revenue source for the property owner, and designers must
establish compatible location and installation criteria. Transverse underground utility crossings are often best designed for
railroad loading across the whole width of the right of way in order to avoid future impacts due to adding tracks, performing
realignment of existing tracks, or performing heavy maintenance with off-track equipment. Master agreements between the
property owner and the major utilities within the corridor are useful in establishing agreement for design criteria and financial
responsibility for large numbers of crossings.
Refer to AREMA Chapter 1, Part 5 for guidance, however, Owners are encouraged to develop their own requirements for third
party occupancies.
SECTION 3.5 TRACK AND ROADWAY CONSIDERATIONS
3.5.1 GENERAL (2007)
3.5.1.1 Design Criteria
Consideration should be given to a peer review of the design standards or criteria that are adopted for a passenger corridor.
Much of the practice of railroad maintenance and engineering is specific to sites and a review by nearby incumbent senior
designers and managers may prevent any inappropriate local use of a general standard.

3.5.1.1.1 Curvature
As with conventional freight corridors, setting speed for a series of varying curves is a process, best done as a series of trial
solutions for groups of curves rather than an attempt to maximize the speed for each curve in isolation. In consideration of
potential speed increases (e.g. pending installation of improved signals and controls) the horizontal alignment may be set for a
future higher speed (e.g. length of spirals) and curves superelevated for an interim, lower speed. This minimizes future
expenses for track realignment due to eventual speed increases.
3.5.1.1.2 Grades
Grade profiles for shared passenger corridors may be restricted by consideration of freight operations. Generally, the ruling
grade of a subdivision should not be exceeded by the grade of a new passenger facility. Grade design of exclusive passenger
corridors (or with only slow speed and short length freight trains) will benefit from the shorter vertical curves permitted by
AREMA Chapter 5. The short “passenger” vertical curves in those tables have demonstrated good ride quality and train
handling characteristics.
Maximum grades for the corridor (exclusive of freight considerations) are governed by tractive effort and braking performance
of the trains to be used. Grades on mixed freight and passenger lines are usually solely governed by the more conservative
freight train requirements. For lines that will be exclusively operated with passenger trains, the designer has more flexibility.
Grades (particularly those for flyovers and short distances) can be set considerably higher than on mixed use lines to comply
with site, environmental and economic constraints. The lowest possible grade is always desired, but where necessary grades
above 3% have been used successfully, sometimes with special instructions for brake recharging if the train has to be stopped
while on a downgrade. In general, grades up to 3% for passenger trains can be used without limitations, while grades between
3% and 4% should be used only when other options are not available and in consultation with the operating department to
assure acceptance of any special operating rules. Trains intended for use in territory with sustained grades over 1% should
1
have an independent dynamic brake control.
Designers should be aware that climate affects the maximum grade desirable for a territory. Falling leaves on the head of the
rail significantly reduce the adhesion available for braking and moving a train even on light grades. Frost, ice, freezing rain,
snow, and fog also have negative effects on the adhesion available for safe operations. Several properties in the northeastern
United States use dedicated equipment to control dropped leaves on the rail, or run non-revenue equipment to sand and clear 3
the rail prior to revenue operations. The cost of any of these options should be included in the economic analysis of a gradient
design.
The use of sand to overcome the adhesion reduction caused by environmental conditions is not without secondary problems.
Sanding can result in the loss of signal system shunt on shorter and lighter commuter vehicles and trains. Loss of shunt can
lead to improper warning time at grade crossings and other undesirable conditions. Sanding also leads to premature ballast
fouling in ballasted track and can block subgrade drainage systems. 4
3.5.1.1.3 Economic Considerations
Track structure design is governed by economic conditions. Designers may find that a considerable part of an existing corridor
does not need any reconstruction provided that routine maintenance cycles are followed. In this case, the standards for that
existing track must be adopted (probably in parallel with new standards for newly-constructed track).
New track is typically specified as 115 pound to 141 pound continuous welded rail (CWR). Heat-treated or head hardened rail
is generally justified for curves of three degrees and sharper. Heat-treated or head hardened rail may also be considered if
warranted by the operating speeds, type of traffic, tonnage and frequency of traffic.
Crossties should be chosen based upon an economic evaluation of life cycle costs and applicability to specific site conditions.
Generally, concrete ties provide superior long-term gage control and are not affected by removal and replacement of rail, so
they may be cost effective when used in curves, in new construction and in major rehabilitation projects. Wood ties with
elastic fasteners may provide some of the benefits of concrete ties at a lower cost. Designers should consult with track owners

in their region to understand the contracting, durability, environmental, freight costs, and field performance of ties before
specifying their track design.
Ballast should be specified per AREMA recommendations. Refer to Chapter 1, Part 2 of the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering.
Special trackwork is usually specified as following AREMA recommendations or major railroad practices, with special
emphasis on elements that enhance ride quality (curved or tangential switch points, spring rail or movable point frogs, fully
welded layout). The designer should use the largest cost effective turnout (i.e. the lowest frog angle) possible, and is
reasonable with anticipated speeds, in order to make the alignment more compatible with future higher speed operations. This
may be most cost effective if completed in the early stages of construction.
If the owner can obtain rights to use special trackwork designs adopted by adjoining major railroads, there may be economies
of scale and familiarity by vendors and employees and contractors to consider.
The designer may consider the use of a train performance calculator tool to “optimize” curve/speed design features and
benefits.
3.5.1.2 Maintenance Criteria
Track maintenance criteria are underpinned by the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) Track Safety and Roadway Worker
regulations, however most property owners establish specifications for maintenance that exceed the regulated minimums.
Many of the repair and rehabilitation criteria will be guided by the Maintenance Philosophy decisions indicated in
Article 3.5.3 below. This section is not intended to guide an entire maintenance program; it is intended to identify the track
maintenance criteria that may be unique to passenger corridors.
The owner must adopt schedules for inspections, consistent with FRA requirements as a minimum (track visual, rail flaw,
track geometry, structures, and ride quality), and working schedules for inspectors and repairers (e.g. day or night). These
scheduled activities have the potential to affect passenger train performance. Policy (and philosophy) will guide the extent to
which passenger service will be permitted to be affected by maintenance activities. Rail passenger systems generally are often
intolerant of any more than modest delays to trains.
Below are listed several inspection procedures or requirements that the corridor owner should consider:
• Visual track inspection per FRA 213.233 and 213.235
• Visual inspection of CWR under thermal stress per 213.119
• Rail flaw detection per 213.237
• Special condition inspections (e.g. storms, earthquakes) per 213.239
• Annual fall and spring inspections (for freezing climates)
• Track observation by supervisors, managers, and inspectors riding trains for subjective ride quality and visual
observation of conditions.
• Accelerometers or ride quality measurements
• Track geometry car
• Gage Restraint Measurement System
• Rail cross section “light slice” to evaluate rail wear conditions

• Tribometer (coefficient of friction) rail measurement device
In addition to the above inspections the owners and managers of a corridor may elect to have a peer review inspection policy
on a regular basis. This peer review provides the managers with an opportunity to observe practices and conditions of other
properties and to have a fresh set of inspectors evaluate their property.
Refer to Article 3.5.1.3 below for discussion of comfort criteria effects of the maintenance standards.
3.5.1.2.1 CWR Thermal Adjustment
CWR thermal adjustment policies must be adopted to conform to weather conditions in the corridor, with a high regard for
stability of the track in hot weather. These policies are often included in the Owner’s design criteria and maintenance manual.
3.5.1.2.2 Rail Profile
Rail profile criteria must be adopted in consideration of the wheel profiles used by the operator(s) on the corridor and
optimized to minimize wheel flange contact and gage face wear. In some cases a small top radius rail head may improve signal
shunting by narrowing the contact band and increasing contact pressure. This is a consideration for rail lines with relatively
light axle loads or total daily traffic and with atmospheric conditions that lead to rust formation on the rail.
Rail profile maintenance consists of three steps: establishment of criteria, measurement of existing conditions, and correction
of profile by grinding. Smaller properties generally use contractors for these services, larger owners may keep grinding and
rail profile measurement functions in-house.
3.5.1.2.3 Running Rail

1
Refer to Article 3.5.3 for discussion of the maintenance philosophy on the use of second hand rail. Maintenance managers
must carefully distinguish between used (but serviceable) rail and condemned rail (removed from track due to flaws) and have
maintenance procedures to clearly mark condemned rail so that it will not inadvertently be placed back in the track.
One sub-set of the maintenance criteria for used rail is the balancing of wear in curved track. Curve rail replacement and 3
transposing can follow two patterns:
• The traditional pattern is to install new rail on both rails of the curved track and when gage face and head wear
reaches limits specified in AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering Chapter 5, the rail is removed and transposed.
The high rail is placed in the position of the low rail, and vice-versa. After the designated amount of wear occurs on
the transposed rail, both rails are replaced with new rail.
4
• An alternate pattern is “high to low”. In this pattern of curve rail replacement a new rail is installed on the high rail
of the curve, then that rail is installed in the low rail of the curve and the existing low rail is removed from the track.
The practical differences between transposition of rails and “high to low” replacement methods are:
• If an inside rail has a significant amount of metal flow it may not be suitable for use on the outside rail position
because traffic is likely to break off chunks of the overflow and because the gage will be tight until the overflow is
worn or broken off. Therefore transposing the rail is not an option.
• The “high to low” operation can be done in shorter individual time increments. Trains can be operated after each
individual rail is installed instead of having to install both rails at once. The tradeoff is that multiple short track
outages may be required to complete the rail replacement operation instead of a single longer outage.

3.5.1.2.4 Gage
Track gage (with rare exceptions) is typically designed to be 56-1/2 inches in North America. Subtle adjustments to this gage
can be made in two special conditions:
• First, the gage can be increased by up to (3/8”) in curves of 8 degrees and over in order to assist wheels and truck
assemblies to negotiate the curves.
• Second, track gage can be reduced to 56-1/4 inches on tangent track with operating speed above 55 MPH. This
“tight” gage helps to eliminate truck hunting at higher speeds.
Gage in special trackwork shall conform to the design of the special trackwork. AREMA standard drawings, dimensions, and
details should be used wherever possible for special trackwork. The design of special trackwork shall consider the
relationships between the back of flange, face of worn wheel, and worn flange limits when establishing design gage.
On shared use track, track gage wider than 56-3/4” will allow truck hunting oscillation amplitudes for freight cars to increase
to unacceptable levels at speeds above 55 MPH.
Track gage deterioration is generally due to deterioration of wood ties, gage face wear of rail, crushing of insulators (on
concrete ties), or missing or inadequate fasteners. Track maintenance personnel must be trained to observe for these
conditions before gage standards are exceeded.
3.5.1.2.5 Special Trackwork
Special trackwork requires specific maintenance and inspection procedures, which should be adopted by the owners to guide
maintenance managers, employees, and contractors. Regular joint inspection of turnouts (with the signal maintenance
managers) includes detailed visual inspection and measurement of key dimensions and test operation of switches. Some
specific maintenance tasks to have defined and scheduled include:
• grinding switch points, stock rails, and frogs to remove metal flow,
• frog and crossing bolt tightening,
• adjusting operating and detection rods,
• restoring metal loss on manganese steel frog inserts by welding and grinding,
• cleaning and lubricating slide plates,
• maintaining surface and alignment,
• maintaining and adjusting switch heaters, and
• cross-cutting and maintaining insulated joints.
Reliable execution of these maintenance tasks will greatly extend the service life of special trackwork components.
3.5.1.2.6 Right of Way
Right of way maintenance criteria will be influenced by the property owner and by local codes. Right of way conditions,
including signs and fencing, have a strong influence on both the security and safety of the rail corridor. Signs to control
trespassing and trash dumping must contain language that complies with applicable codes.

Generally, a program of pre-emergent herbicide; mechanical removal of grass, brush, trash, and overhanging limbs; post-
emergent herbicide “spot” treatment; and a limited amount of graffiti abatement is sufficient to keep the right of way in a
condition that is acceptable to riders, owners, and local public health and safety agencies.
Local political pressures may require some “zero tolerance” graffiti and trash maintenance.
Right of way fencing, if installed, must be fully maintained in order to protect the owner from liability exposure.
Right of way management depends, to some extent, on the observations of the maintenance inspectors. They should be
instructed on the limits of the right of way and leases, and to report encroachments, chronic trespassing, damaged fences and
gates, trash dumping, or discharges of pollutants onto the right of way.
Natural or planted vegetation may either enhance or aggravate right of way maintenance. Vegetation generally aids erosion
resistance of the embankment, provided it can be maintained within visibility, clearance, fire transmission, and vector refuge
limits. Right of way managers should control the selection of planting within the right of way. Inappropriate vegetation,
which may impact the track structure, sight distances, drainage and clearances, may be removed either with herbicides or by
mechanical means consistent with local practices, ordinances and conditions.
3.5.1.3 Comfort Criteria
Passenger comfort is affected by several design criteria choices including the amount of cant deficiency in curves, the length
and shape of transition spirals, length of vertical curves, speed through and design of turnouts, and tilting mechanisms for
carbodies. Comfort is also affected by the maintenance standards, often expressed as a range of permitted track geometry
deviations between zero and the FRA exception levels.
1
Ride quality can be monitored by accelerometers mounted (temporarily or permanently) in passenger cars; most accelerometer
systems can report exceptions by wireless links.
Rail conditions including corrugations, dry flange contact, engine burns, and rail end joint batter affect passenger noise and
acceleration.
3
Passenger corridor designers and maintenance managers must adopt maintenance criteria that meet passenger expectations of
quality transportation in addition to meeting minimum economical maintenance standards.
3.5.2.1 Federal Regulatory Requirements

4
Rail projects can be broken down into five broad categories that will help define the Federal regulatory requirements:
• Commuter and Intercity projects operating on the general railroad system of the United States (whether or not
connected to the rest of the network).
• High Speed ground transportation systems that connect metropolitan areas without regard as to whether those
systems use new technologies not associated with traditional railroads.
• Projects that use magnetic levitation irrespective of speed.
• Shared corridors (See Paragraph 3.5.2.1.1).
• Urban transit systems (including rail rapid transit, light rail, and people movers).

The first four categories are subject to the regulation of the FRA irrespective of the sources of funding. If a freight railroad or
Amtrak is involved, then the regulation of access and compensation for use is also under the administration and oversight of
the Surface Transportation Board (STB). Services operated by a state or regional authority on its own tracks may not be
subject to the Board’s review unless there is an issue of freight service on those tracks.
The fifth category is exempt from FRA and STB oversight, but may be subject to local and/or state public utility
commissions.
All projects are subject to environmental review using the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) processes if Federal
funds are involved. Many agencies opt to follow NEPA procedures even if federal funds are not being used in order to
preserve the ability to seek federal grants at a later date for subsequent parts of a project. If federal funds are not being used,
then state and local regulation applies, many of which mimic the federal requirements and may actually be more stringent.
Also, all projects are subject to Corps of Engineers permitting for impacts to wetlands and to actions involving the navigable
waterways of the United States.
The source of federal funding will normally determine the lead agency for preparing and reviewing the Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS) should one be required. Railroad projects on existing rights-of-way often can be addressed using the FRA
exclusionary provisions that allow normal maintenance and expansion of capacity within the right-of-way limits. Many
projects initiate action through a “Finding of No Significant Impact” (FONSI) that allows a project to proceed without a full
EIS.
3.5.2.1.1 Shared Corridors
Rail transit operations may be involved with FRA rules if their lines utilize corridors shared with FRA regulated lines or
through a “Memorandum of Understanding” executed between the FRA and the rail transit system for use of those corridors.
Issues such as track center spacing, fouling in the event of a derailment, grade crossing protection, and signaling interfaces
with freight railroads bring a local transit operation under the review of the FRA. Also involved is the interaction of vehicles
designed under different structural requirements and braking systems.
Passenger rail vehicles not complying with 49CFR Part 238 may not be operated on the general railroad system unless the
FRA has issued a waiver. Most rapid transit vehicles and light rail vehicles do not comply so a safe plan of operation on
shared corridors is mandatory. This is often solved with “time of day separation” schemes and physical barriers or supervised
intrusion systems to isolate non-complaint vehicles or provide warning of a fouling of the passenger tracks.
The Memorandum of Understanding appeared in the July 10, 2000 Federal Register and can be found at www.gpo.gov (cite
65CFR 45529). While some of the issues in the MOU are formally promulgated in the Code of Federal Regulations, many are
not and involve project specific negotiations that ultimately lead to a waiver. It should also be noted that all parties to a shared
corridor project must co-sign the waiver application with the actual FRA recognized “railroad of record” being the principal
applicant. This means that early communication with parallel users such as a freight railroad is highly recommended.
Each waiver is judged on its own merits and assuming that a waiver will be approved simply because another property
received a similar waiver may impact the project. The FRA Office of Safety evaluates all factors in an application, precedent
being only one of those factors. Applicants should base their waiver application on technical solutions and operating practices
that systematically identify risks and corresponding mitigation structured to indicate whenever possible that the proposed
solution is at least equal in safety to a fully compliant solution. On a shared corridor project, the FTA will not make grants
until the FRA has agreed to the terms and conditions of a waiver.
3.5.2.1.2 Infrastructure Regulations
The Federal regulations that govern the design and operation of infrastructure are contained in Title 49 of the Code of Federal
Regulations, Part 200. Activities such as signal design, track standards, worker protection, and rolling stock requirements
should be reviewed and the parameters of operation for a specific corridor or project established to optimize the performance
of the corridor. These regulations are available on the Government Printing Office website www.gpo.gov.

The maximum operating speed of a system is especially critical, as infrastructure requirements with regard to structures and
rolling stock change as speed increases. Train speeds above 125 mph require the use of Tier II rolling stock, which impose
significant added expense in the vehicle acquisition as well as the train control requirements.
3.5.2.2 State and Local Regulatory Requirements
To be Developed
3.5.3 MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHY (2006)
Corridor owners must establish comprehensive guidelines for maintenance of the property. Designers and planners can use
these guidelines to develop maintenance standards and practices that obtain the maximum useful life from the track
components while delivering high quality transportation. This section reviews the planning and budgeting for a life cycle
maintenance planning process, and is followed by several specific maintenance decisions that the owner’s philosophy will
direct.
There is not a single “right answer” to these philosophical considerations, each property owner will have to make decisions
based upon the economic realities, which vary over time. The role of the design professional is to quantify the costs and
impacts (to the limited precision of such forecasts) of these decisions so that planners and owners can make decisions fully
informed as to current and future costs.
The maintenance philosophy is also driven by the operational requirements and will necessarily involve close cooperation and
coordination with operating staff to create and control working windows.
1
The most desirable maintenance philosophy is to maintain the track and infrastructure to a level that provides high levels of
passenger safety, reliability, comfort, and speed while budgeting a replacement stream of rehabilitation work that keeps the
nominal average life of all components within an acceptable range.
Implications of the first half of this philosophy leads to more than the minimum number of inspections and inspection and
repair personnel so that:
3
• problems are detected before they are defects,
• repairs are performed so as to minimize or eliminate delays to trains (e.g. track fully stabilized and thermally
adjusted after each maintenance or construction disturbance instead of tolerating temporary speed restrictions),
• surfacing track well before geometry deviations approach FRA exception levels, and
4
• an aggressive right of way maintenance program.
This “high quality” standard may drive track design choices that favor long-life, but more expensive components. Under this
philosophy, heavier rail sizes, larger and/or concrete cross ties, deep ballast sections, premium rail on curves and in turnouts,
premium turnout and crossing components, aggressive rail lubrication, and fully welded track would be specified in order to
produce the best-riding track with the longest interval between maintenance or rehabilitation activities that affect train
performance. A maintenance philosophy focused closely on the service quality may force most inspection, repair, and
rehabilitation to be performed at night or on weekends.
The second half of this philosophy leads to a planning and programming process for track rehabilitation that evaluates the
economic life of components, compiles the amount of each component in the property, and then computes an annual
rehabilitation budget that keeps the infrastructure continually maintained with replacement components and services so that
there is no net deterioration of the infrastructure. Note that this philosophy supports the GASB 34 Modified Fixed Asset
Reporting requirements for public agencies, which account for maintenance expenses compared to the projected costs to
maintain the assets at a constant level of maintenance. Within this broad answer of how much money to allocate to

rehabilitation, the maintenance criteria can be set to have considerable latitude in selecting particular areas for concentration
within each year of budgeting. Traditional railroad maintenance practices would be followed in the matters of prioritizing rail
replacement based upon failure records, percent of metal loss, and tonnage, prioritizing tie replacement based upon number of
failed ties per mile and coordination with other programs (e.g. ballast cleaning), and adjusting rehabilitation programs to
install upgraded components (e.g. higher speed turnouts, heavier rail) to gradually move the property toward the design criteria
for new construction (which is continually evolving as the industry standards advance). Maintenance managers would
typically group projects of a similar scope of work into economical programs for either dedicated internal work units or for
requests for bids sent to contractors.
Maintenance managers and owners have flexibility in deciding whether some portions of the maintenance tasks are performed
on a continuing series of smaller “routine” tasks or whether to let work accumulate until a large work force is used to
systematically do a more comprehensive rehabilitation. An example of this choice is turnout repair and replacement. Small
work units can incrementally change out the switch ties, frogs, plates, rails, points, etc., usually with no impact to train traffic,
or a larger work unit can prefabricate a replacement turnout panel and within an overnight track occupancy change the whole
unit. Managers must decide which approach to take while balancing both the economy of maintenance and a quality of service
criteria.
Rail maintenance management can be proactive or reactive. A proactive philosophy requires detailed knowledge of the
amount of wear and the defect history of the rail; a rigorous program of inspections and monitoring conditions; and reporting
on traffic and tonnage levels. This in turn requires a (preferably automated) method to measure rail head configuration and
compare it to original section(s), a detailed database inventory of the in-track asset, and detailed records of rail flaws (both
service failures and internal flaws) and train tonnage. In practice, particularly with active freight corridors purchased for
passenger development, the tonnage history does not exist and the inventory must be confirmed by field checking. However
gathered, this knowledge about replacement rail can be programmed and budgeted and rail profiles can be adjusted by
grinding. The corridor designers should establish (or work within established) criteria for wheel and rail profiles.
In practice, a repetitive budget item may be used to carry out an annual cycle of measurement and grinding, with rail
replacements made in larger increments as warranted by the economical application of work units or contracts. This means
that rail may be replaced a year or more before it is theoretically “worn out” due to the economies of managing the work and
the confidence of changing the rail before it fails.
One aspect of rail maintenance philosophy is the establishment of criteria for the use of second hand rail. Practical railroad
management has always included the use of “relay” rail of varying quality for less critical track. Storage and yard tracks,
bridge and tunnel guard rails, and storage tracks for maintenance equipment are all suitable places to use rail no longer fit for
main track service. Article 3.5.1.2 above discusses the use of second hand rail as a sub-set of rail maintenance in curves, by
transposition or by “high to low” rail replacement policies.
Proactive rail maintenance philosophy includes lubrication of the gage corner of curves and possibly some lubrication of the
head of the inside rail on extremely sharp curves. Automated devices to apply lubricant, the lubricants, and placement and
carrying distances of the devices are changing and the corridor designers should research the best current practice. In closed
systems lubrication may be performed by vehicle mounted devices, however in mixed use corridors, managers will have no
control over many of the trains and must rely on wayside devices to deliver lubrication to the wheel/rail interface.
3.5.3.1 Ballast maintenance
The nature of some maintenance activities may be determined by the form of contract used by the owner to accomplish the
work.
To be Developed

3.5.5 GAGE (2006)
To be Developed
3.5.6 TRACK STRUCTURE (2006)
To be Developed
3.5.6.1 Subgrade
To be Developed
3.5.6.2 Subballast
To be Developed
3.5.6.3 Ballast
To be Developed
3.5.6.4 Other Support Systems
To be Developed
1
3.5.6.5 Ties
To be Developed
3.5.6.6 Other Track Materials
To be Developed 3
3.5.6.7 Rail
To be Developed
3.5.6.8 Inner Track Guard Rail

4
To be Developed
3.5.6.9 Negative Return Bonding
To be Developed
3.5.7 HORIZONTAL GEOMETRY (2006)
The design of Horizontal Geometry of Track for Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems is essentially similar to that of any rail
system. This Section describes the various aspects of Horizontal Geometry as they relate to Commuter and Intercity Rail
Systems, highlighting, where appropriate, differences and concerns as compared to geometry for typical freight service.
The designer has two distinct types of design tasks. One is to design for an Agency who is the Owner of the track in question.
The other is to design for an Agency who will be performing work in conjunction with the Railroad who in fact owns the track.
The Railroad may be a freight carrier or other entity.

In all cases the applicable design criteria of the specific Railroad or Agency must be consulted and applied. Frequently, the
conservative design criteria commonly in use results in unreasonable constraints. To provide a method of addressing this,
some criteria allow for a “minimum” and “preferred” condition, as well as exceptions that can be granted by the proper
authority. It is important for designers to address any criteria deviations that may be necessary early in the design process to
avoid unnecessary delays and costly revisions at later stages.
3.5.7.1 Tangents
The preferred track alignment is to be as tangent as possible, with few intervening curves. Since this is rarely the case in
reality, for the purposes of this section, “tangent” refers to a section of tangent track that must be placed between other
elements, such as curves, spirals, and turnouts in order to achieve the desired quality of track alignment.
These track elements should be separated by a suitable length of tangent whenever possible in order to allow rolling stock to
leave the first element and be allowed to pass completely onto tangent track before encountering the next element. This will
minimize the adverse effects of end overhang on coupler angles, superelevation runoff, and the undesirable train dynamics that
could otherwise occur. Considering that Commuter and Passenger rolling stock is frequently the longest and fastest operating
on a given line, due regard shall be paid to incorporating the appropriate tangent lengths.
3.5.7.1.1 Reversing Tangents
Reversing tangents refers to tangents placed between reversing curves. (Refer also to AREMA Chapter 5, Section 3.5.)
The most basic requirement for reversing tangents is that the minimum length should be equal to the longest truck center of a
car or locomotive, plus the length of one truck. The actual length of tangent should be as long as possible.
This basic minimum does not account for speed of operation or degree of curvature. Since these two elements do have an
impact on the practical operation of equipment over reversed curves, it is reasonable that they be taken into account.
Length of Tangent between Reversed Curves – Commuter Tracks
60 mph and higher – 240 feet
40 mph through 59 mph – 180 feet
25 mph to 39 mph and below – 150 feet
25 mph and less – 85 feet
Reversing Tangent standards vary somewhat by Commuter Agency. Freight railroad standards typically are longer.
3.5.7.1.2 Tangents Between Track Elements
Tangents Between Track Elements refers to the use of minimum horizontal tangent lengths between turnouts and curves when
they are constructed in proximity. As with the requirements for reversing tangents, the goal is to minimize the undesirable
operational effects on rolling stock.
In addition to the geometric aspects, turnouts typically incorporate a number of specialized trackwork components. It is
desirable to configure each turnout as an isolated unit, free from interference or interaction with others. Therefore, a minimum
length of tangent is required.
The recommended minimum length of tangent between a point of switch or point of frog and a horizontal curve is 200 feet.
Facing point turnouts require minimum length of tangent considerations as well. The absolute minimum would be the distance
required to install the necessary headblock ties, switch stands, and other components without those of one interfering turnout

with those of the other turnout. For most turnouts this distance could be 25 feet or less. However, in almost all cases, other
factors in addition to the physical layout of the switch components will govern. Typically, insulated joint layout, standard stock
rail configurations and signal clearance distances will govern. The overall length of the control point and the universal
configuration of the crossovers should also be a consideration.
3.5.7.2 Curves
Properly designed, geometrically correct curves are used to connect tangents in horizontal alignment design. Railroad curves
may consist of only a simple circular curve, or may be composed of spirals, circular curves, and superelevation. These three
components work together in determining the safe operating speeds for curves. Refer to Chapter 5, Article 3.1.1 through
Article 3.1.7 for a detailed discussion of the Railroad Spiral Curve.
The railroad circular curve is a true circular curve with constant radius. In traditional railroad engineering, the curve is
specified by the degree of curvature, using the chord definition of curvature, whereas other engineering disciplines
traditionally have used the arc definition of curvature. There is a slight difference between the results obtained by these two
definitions, but for the larger radii typically used in railroad work there was no practical difference. However, with the
extreme accuracies produced by Computer Aided Design methods, and the reality that most rail engineering work is now
performed with commercially available software, the discrepancies between arc and chord defined curves should be
understood. The designer should refer to the design criteria of the Owner to determine which definition is appropriate for use.
The discrepancies arise from the fact the Chord definition is an approximation, while the Arc definition is mathematically
correct. Therefore, as the various calculations are performed slight differences will appear. These are not serious, but the
designer should be aware of this situation so as to minimize confusion over any inconsistencies encountered.
The DEGREE of curve is the fundamental description and it determines the allowable speeds that can be achieved. This basic
1
description of curvature is essentially the same for freight, commuter, and passenger system design.
3.5.7.3 Spirals
The spiral curve provides a uniform transition between tangent track and curved track so that a train will be gradually directed
into the curve, rather suddenly forced into the curve. The spiral curve is also used to run out the superelevation of the curve. 3
The length of spiral is the fundamental description. The length of the spiral is determined by the speed of operation and by a
combination of actual and unbalanced superelevation. Higher speeds may require longer spirals due to reduced runoff rates
for speeds over 60 miles per hour and 125 miles per hour.
The AREMA formula for determining required length of spiral is summarized as follows (the formula for a specific property
should be verified with the owner): 4
The longest of
Ls = 1.63 x Eu x V
or
Ls = 62 x Ea
Where
Ls = length of spiral in feet
Eu = unbalance elevation in inches (cant deficiency)

Ea = actual elevation in inches
V = train speed in miles per hour
Reference - Chapter 5, Article 3.1.1
If approved by the owner through a design exception process, shorter spirals may be used due to physical characteristic
restrictions.
3.5.7.4 Superelevation
Mainline curves intended to be operated at reasonable speed require the incorporation of superelevation, that is, the outer rail
is set higher than the inside rail on curves. In railroad work the term “elevation” is frequently used in place of
“superelevation”. As applied to railroad curves the term “elevation” refers to superelevation and not “height above sea level”
or some other definition. Refer to Chapter 5, Article 3.3.1 for a detailed discussion of superelevation.
The formula for equilibrium superelevation is summarized as follows:
E = 0.0007 x V2 x D
Where
E = Equilibrium elevation in inches
V = train speed in miles per hour
D = degree of curve (Chord Definition)
Reference – Chapter 5, Section 3.3.
3.5.7.5 Unbalance (Cant Deficiency)
Elevation of railroad curves consists of two components:
• Actual Elevation, Ea; and
• Unbalanced Elevation, Eu.
Ea is the actual amount the high rail is set above the low rail.
As a practical matter, Ea should not equal E for successful operation. When Ea equals E the train is at dynamic equilibrium
and the trucks will hunt between the high rail and the low rail. To reduce truck hunting an to improve ride quality an
allowance, Eu, determined by practical experience and railroad and agency policy, is used to reduce the Ea to a value below
the E determined by the formula:
Ea = E - Eu
Eu is sometimes referred to as "cant deficiency" or "underbalance".
For conventional freight and commuter systems, Ea is typically limited to between 4 and 5 inches.
In freight rail work Eu is typically limited to 1.5 or 2 inches, while for passenger rail Eu is commonly 3 inches. In certain
cases Eu may be 4 or 5 inches for conventional passenger equipment and 9 inches for tilt equipment. The designer should
reference the design criteria for the standard.

Selection of the Eu is critical in mixed freight and commuter systems. High Eu values will cause the wheels to be forced
against the high rail causing accelerated wear at design speeds. Low Eu values place greater weight on the low rail resulting in
higher crushing forces, and field side metal flow. On a system where the speed differential between the passenger and freight
trains is great, selecting the Eu is an economic balance between the low rail damage caused by the heavy freights and the high
side gage face wear caused by the passenger trains.
3.5.7.6 Practical Design of Curves
The foregoing elements of curves are applied to design the proper curve. In main line work it is typical practice to use the
flattest (greatest radius) curve that right of way and other constraints will permit, regardless of the intended speed of operation.
The maximum speeds desired will dictate the minimum radii required. And conversely, if the desired radii cannot be used, the
curve geometry will limit maximum speeds.
Typically the radii of the curve will be governed by project geometric constraints. Once the radius is established the suitable
elevation can be determined, considering the anticipated speed of operation.
Once the curve, elevation, and speed is known, the minimum length of spiral can be calculated. In keeping with designing for
increased corridor speeds in the future the ultimate spiral length for maximum speed, Ea, and Eu for the curve should be
checked. Wherever possible, the ultimate length of spiral should be used.
In the case of any main line curve the geometry should be reviewed with ultimate future corridor operations in mind. Care
should be exercised to avoid building future speed constraints by designing curves that are too slow. Conversely, unnecessary
expenditure to construct curves that are faster than future operations will require should also be avoided.
3.5.7.6.1 Main Line Offsets or “Doglegs”

1
A common type of reversed curve that is encountered is the offset or “dogleg”. The purpose of a dogleg is to adjust the
position of otherwise tangent (and/or parallel) tracks within the R/W. This is frequently necessary when track centers are
adjusted for bridges, grade crossings, stations, or crossover installation.
The typical dogleg consists of two very large radii (0 deg. 30 min. or less), relatively short curves, separated by the appropriate 3
length of reversing tangent, as described earlier. It is preferred to use very flat curves in order to avoid the need to apply
spirals and superelevation onto very short curves, and to force the length of curve to be long enough so that it can be properly
constructed and maintained in the field. Due to the typically short lengths of curve, these doglegs often appear to be “kinked”
in the field even when properly designed and constructed.
While a properly designed and constructed dogleg is perfectly safe and functional, their use should be minimized. Often, if the
work is in conjunction with other track rehabilitation work the tracks can be lined into a preferred configuration for some 4
distance to avoid additional doglegs. In other cases, if a dogleg is proximate to an existing full curve, portions of that curve
can be realigned to achieve the required adjustment, and the dogleg avoided.
3.5.8 VERTICAL GEOMETRY (2007)
The design of Vertical Geometry of Track for Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems is essentially similar to that of any rail
system. This Section describes the various aspects of Vertical Geometry as they relate to Commuter and Intercity Rail
Systems, highlighting, where appropriate, differences and concerns as compared to geometry for typical freight service. The
combined elements of vertical geometry are commonly referred to collectively as the track profile.
The designer may deal with two distinct types of design tasks. One is design for an Agency who is the Owner of the track in
question. The other is design for an Agency who will be performing work in conjunction with the Railroad who in fact owns
the track.

In all cases the applicable Design Criteria of the specific Railroad or Agency must be consulted and complied with.
Frequently, the conservative design criteria commonly in use results in unreasonable constraints. To provide a method of
addressing this, some criteria allow for a "minimum" and "preferred" condition, as well as exceptions that can be granted by
the proper authority. It is important for designers to address any criteria deviations that may be necessary early in the design
process, to avoid unnecessary delays and costly revisions at later stages.
3.5.8.1 Vertical Curves
The preferred track profile would be as level as possible, with a minimum of changes in grade. Since this is rarely the case in
reality, the changes in grade of vertical tangents must be made gradually through vertical curves (Vc) of correct length, rather
than abruptly by "grade breaks" or "angle points". Properly designed vertical curves will minimize adverse effects on coupler
angles, vertical acceleration, rolling stock suspension, ride quality, and train dynamics.
Refer to Chapter 5, Section 3.6 for a discussion of the design of vertical curves. The reader is encouraged to review the
complete Section 3.6.
Chapter 5, Section 3.6 requirements for lengths of vertical curves is summarized as follows:
The minimum length of vertical curve is (except no Vc should be less than 100 feet):
2
D × V × K-
L = ---------------------------
A
Where:
A = Vertical acceleration in feet/sec/sec (0.10 for freight operations; 0.60 for passenger and transit operations)
D = Absolute value of the difference in rates of grades expressed as a decimal
K = 2.15 (conversion factor to give L in feet
L = Length of vertical curve in feet
V = Speed of the train in miles per hour
For convenience the lengths of vertical curves used are typically rounded up to the next 50 or 100 feet.
The vertical curve criteria presented here and in Section 3.6 represents a relatively recent revision to traditional, more
conservative vertical curve criteria. Many railroads still maintain the traditional criteria and require its use wherever practical.
For designers familiar with the traditional criteria the lengths of vertical curves determined by the revised criteria may seem
very short indeed.
The differences in criteria will have minor effect on most track design where the changes in grade are small. However, in
projects such as flyovers and grade separations where a substantial change in track elevation must be designed in limited areas
the differences can become dramatic. Therefore, in those cases it is especially important that the required criteria and its
impact on the design be analyzed as early in the design process as possible.
3.5.8.2 Grades
The grade (or gradient) of the profile is expressed as a percent of rise over run. That is a 1% grade represent a rise of 1 foot
vertically for every 100 feet traversed horizontally.

The grade of the track has a profound effect on train operation, typically much more so than in highway design where the
longest truck may be three sections compared to a 150 car freight train. The ideal grade would be 0%, from a train handling
perspective. In reality, appropriate grades must be incorporated into the profile to accommodate topography and other factors.
For freight operations, a 1% maximum is typically specified. However grades of 2% and slightly more are fairly common on
many existing lines. For freight service, it is important to consider the overall territory and not add a grade so steep as to
change the operational characteristics of the line.
For Commuter service, where trains are typically much shorter and are operated at greater horsepower per ton ratios the
impacts of gradients are considerably less. However, many Commuter lines carry at least some freight traffic and this needs to
be considered.
The following is a general guideline for grades:
• 0.0% to 1.0% - generally considered acceptable for freight and passenger service.
• 1.01% to 2.0% - acceptable for freight and passenger service if they are similar to maximum grades elsewhere on
the line.
• 2.01% to 3.0% - generally not acceptable for through freight service, may be used in passenger only lines and for
short ancillary freight service.
• 3.01% to 4.0% - not acceptable for through freight service, may be used in passenger only lines, preferably only for
short distances such as flyovers.
1
• 0% to 0.2% - preferred for maintenance and layover facilities.
3.5.8.3 Practical Design of Profiles
The foregoing elements of vertical curves and grades are applied to design the proper profile. In main line work it is typical
practice to use the flattest (lowest gradient) profile that the topography and other constraints will permit, regardless of the 3
intended speed of operation. The maximum speeds desired will dictate the minimum lengths of vertical curves. And
conversely, if the desired profile cannot be used, the lengths of vertical curves will limit maximum speeds.
Once the grades and operating speeds are known, the minimum length of vertical curve can be calculated. In keeping with
designing for increased corridor speeds in the future the ultimate length of vertical curve for maximum speed should be
checked. Wherever possible, the ultimate length of vertical curve should be used.
4
In the case of any main line vertical curve the geometry should be reviewed with ultimate future corridor operations in mind.
Care should be exercised to avoid building future speed constraints by designing vertical curves that are too short. Conversely,
unnecessary expenditure to construct vertical curves that are longer than future operations will require should also be avoided.
3.5.8.4 Other Considerations
In addition to the vertical geometry, some additional factors should be considered.
• Turnouts, station platforms, and at-grade road crossings should not be placed in vertical curves.
• It is desirable to not place vertical curves within the limits of a horizontal curve.
• An undulating profile consisting of many short vertical curve and tangents should be avoided. Frequently, such
profile can be "improved" by using longer vertical curves to "smooth out" the profile.

• It is generally considered poor practice to design an erratic profile for the purposes of balancing earthwork or to "hit"
a series of existing elevations along the track.
• Vertical clearance to overpasses and other overhead structures must be considered. It is recommended to allow 0.5 –
1.0 foot additional clearance to account for future track maintenance, i.e. surfacing, which typically raises track
somewhat.
• In the cases of ballast deck railroad bridges, the effect of raising track must be considered in terms of the added dead
load of the additional ballast, and whether the ballast shoulders and slopes of the raised track can be properly
contained by the existing structure and ballast retainers.
• In the case of a proposed lowering of track, the potential effects on existing structures must be considered. Will
sufficient ballast section remain on any ballast deck bridges? Will pipelines and other utilities crossing under have
sufficient cover? Will adjacent structures, foundations, or footings be undermined?
3.5.8.5 Compensated Gradients
Train resistance increases on a curve, therefore a train on a grade that is on a horizontal tangent will encounter even greater
resistance when moving onto a horizontal curve. In order to keep train resistance more uniform, the grade can be reduced
slightly in the horizontal curve to account for increased resistance of the horizontal curve. This known as a "compensated
gradient". As with other profile considerations, this is more critical in heavy freight operations than in Commuter service.
Again, since many Commuter lines also carry freight service, this should be considered. The reader is referred to Chapter 5,
Section 3.7, for a discussion of Compensated Gradients
3.5.9 SIGNAL CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
To be Developed
3.5.10 GROUNDING (2006)
To be Developed
3.5.11 TURNOUTS AND SPECIAL TRACKWORK (2010)
To be Developed
3.5.11.1 Geometry
To be Developed
3.5.11.2 Secant
To be Developed
3.5.11.3 Turnouts for High Speed and Commuter Systems
Table 11-3-1 lists the Tangential Turnouts that are currently in use in High Speed and Commuter Rail Systems in the United
States. The design of these turnouts offers the advantage of increased operating speeds through the diverging routes and
improved ride quality. The highest diverging speed that is operated in the US is 80 MPH . The initial capital cost of these
installations is high compared to the cost of the standard AREMA Number 20 turnout, which is the most common higher speed
turnout in most commuter and passenger service.

Tangential turnouts are fabricated with asymmetrical switch rails sections, which enables the incorporation of resilient
fasteners on the gage side of the stock rails. Rigid frogs are used in Number 15 and 20 Tangential turnouts. Movable point
frogs can be used in all tangential turnouts and are required in turnouts above Number 20. Tangential designs have been used
in turnouts smaller than Number 15 in commuter terminals and on some transit systems. Speed is not a factor in these
installations.
Table 11-3-1 Tangential Turnouts Currently in Use in High Speed and Commuter Rail Systems
TURNOUT FROG LEAD PS/PITO FROG TPF/HEEL C. L. DIVERSION RAIL

NUMBER ANGLE LENGTH RADIUS SPEEDS ROAD
15 3°49'06'’ 122.52’ 51.40' 36.00' 24.29' 1622.17' 30 AMTRAK
20 2°51’51” 170.30’ 76.14' 44.17' 29.75' 3212.01' 45 AMTRAK
20 2°51’51” 192.11' 93.40' 42.23' 27.81' 3937.26' 60 MNRR
20 2°51’51” 171.97' 76.96' 34.17' 21.05' 3217.01' 45 NJT
20 2°51’44.6” 187.26' 95.72' 60.47' 27.81' 3937.29' 60 MNRR
25.47 2°14’54.5” 277.78' 128.04' 51.93' 30.47' 5577.43' 65 MNRR
26.5 2°09’39.9” 276.36' 153.90' 76.00' 55.08' 8556.76' 60/80 AMTRAK/NJT
26.5 2°09’40” 221' 125' 40.65' 24.66' 5347.00' 60 LIRR
32.75 1°44’52.4” 299.73’ 145.42’ 72.00’ 47.64’ 10116.26’ 80 AMTRAK 1

LIRR/MNRR
20 2°51’51” 167.33’ 72.33’ 47.66’ 25.46’ 2250.00’ 50 CALTRAIN**
Note: ** CALTRAIN Turnout is not a Tangential design and has a standard switch point and a spring frog.
Design Criteria and more information on Tangential Turnouts is found in Chapter 17, Article 3.5.11.1.2. 3
3.5.11.4 Switches
To be Developed
3.5.11.5 Frogs
4
To be Developed
3.5.11.6 Guard Rails
To be Developed
3.5.11.7 Switch Machine Arrangements
To be Developed
3.5.11.8 Turnouts and Crossovers
To be Developed

3.5.11.9 Crossing Diamonds
To be Developed
3.5.11.10 Track Layouts and Interlocking Plants
To be Developed

30
Part 4
Facilities and Structural Considerations
— 2010 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2

4.1.2 ADA Requirements (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2
4.1.3 Sustainability (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-2
4.1.4 Safety and Security (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-3 1
4.2 Passenger Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-3

4.2.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-3
4.2.2 Functional Requirements (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-3
4.3 Multi-Modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10 3

4.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.3.2 Functional Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.3.3 Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.3.4 Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.3.5 Baggage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.3.6 Amenities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.3.7 Passenger Information/Signage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.3.8 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10

4.4.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.4.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-10
4.4.4 Environmental Requirements (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-12
4.4.5 Safety and Security (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-12
4.4.6 Engine Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-13
4.4.7 Car Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-13
4.4.8 Maintenance of Way Shops (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-13
4.4.9 Material Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-13
4.4.10 Site Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-13
4.4.11 Utility Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-13
4.5 Bridges and Drainage Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-14

4.5.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-14

4.5.2 Emergency Egress for Bridges and Structures (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-14
4.5.3 Clearances through Structures (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-14
4.5.4 Design Considerations for Drainage Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-14
4.5.5 Passenger Stations on Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-15
4.5.6 Additional Structure Amenities Required for Passenger Rail Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-15
4.5.7 Safety and Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-15
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-15

4.6.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-15
4.7 Tunnels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4-15
a. Virtually all passenger rail facilities are publicly funded, either at the Federal, State, or Local level, or some
combination of these. Privately funded stations will also fall under governmental guidelines. Hence there may be
regulatory requirements regarding safety, hiring, Buy America requirements, local wage rate conformance,
environmental regulations, accessibility, and a host of other issues of which the designer and owner must be aware.
These issues may drive the design and affect costs, but generally are necessary as a condition of funding. The selected
designer will surely be made aware of these considerations by the sponsoring agency as part of the scope of work of
their design contract. It is likely that a designer will be required to demonstrate familiarity with governmental
regulations as part of the process of being selected to design the facilities.
b. Unlike the railroad related work, station design is subject to local regulation. Local zoning laws and ordinances will
need to be evaluated to determine specific requirements that must be incorporated into the design of the station. The
options of where a station may be located may be determined by the zoning laws, although most zoning rules have
procedures for obtaining variances. Additionally, most of the local regulations will stipulate requirements for lot size,
setbacks, vehicle access and control, signage, and illumination. Control of water runoff from the station will also need
to be considered. As the local regulations can vary greatly, the station designer should investigate the local
requirements as part of the conceptual site selection and design process.
4.1.2 ADA REQUIREMENTS (2010)
The design of stations will conform to the Americans with Disability Act (ADA). The ADA regulations are subject to change,
and it is recommended that the designer check the current regulations for current requirements. References to ADA
requirements noted in this section are given to alert the designer of likely ADA-related issues, but are not intended to be a
substitute for reference to current ADA regulations.
4.1.3 SUSTAINABILITY (2010)
Passenger stations and facilities offer an opportunity to introduce the concept of sustainable design. Energy efficient systems,
recyclable materials and other measures can reduce the long-term operating costs of the facility. Improved sustainable
building design can be obtained using the LEED (Leadership in Energy Efficient Design) guidelines. Information on
sustainable and LEED design can be found at the U.S. Green Building Council - www.usgbc.org.

4.1.4 SAFETY AND SECURITY (2010)
When developing passenger facilities, it is important to identify elements that must be included in the design that address the
overall safety and security of the facility, the employees and contents of the facilities.
The design of buildings, facilities, stairways, walls and parking lots that minimize hidden or blind spots and improve visibility
can improve the overall security at a particular location by discouraging crime activity. Passageways and hallways should be
well lit and straight whenever possible so that unimpaired visibility is provided. Stairwells should be open and/or glassed in so
that activity can be monitored. Glassed elevator cars should also be considered to improve the ability to monitor activities
within the elevator car.
Lighting and surveillance cameras can also improve security. However, cameras need to be continuously monitored. Motion
detectors can be used at some locations to activate cameras to lower monitoring efforts and alert those monitoring the cameras.
The presence of railroad and/or designated facility personnel provides assurance to those who use the facilities that there is a
presence providing security. If the facility is not staffed, increase use of remote monitoring should be considered.
Fencing and noise abatement may be combined where needed. The quality of fencing should be such as to deter climbing or
cutting of the fence. The fence foundation should be stabilized to be kept free of vegetation. The purpose is to avoid trash
accumulation, provide clear sight of the fence line, and limit maintenance requirements.
SECTION 4.2 PASSENGER FACILITIES
4.2.1 GENERAL (2010) 1

a. The purpose of this section is to provide supplemental information related to the design of passenger stations and
support facilities for commuter and intercity rail, including high speed rail (HSR) operations. The focus of this section
is to assist those who are developing new services or expanding or renovating existing systems.
b. General design guidelines for rail passenger stations are given in Chapters 6 and 14 of the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering. 3
4.2.2 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS (2010)
a. General Considerations
For commuter rail, the station complex typically includes a parking lot, platform(s), and sometimes a station building 4
or shelters. Tickets are purchased on the train or through a vending machine or retail outlet. At larger stations, such as
at a major terminal, having a ticket agent should be considered.
For intercity rail, station building structure is usually provided. Unlike commuter rail, baggage handling is often
provided at intercity rail stops. In addition, an enclosed heated waiting area is an expected amenity among intercity rail
patrons because the train frequency may be low. A comfortable waiting facility is necessary to accommodate the
current state of intercity rail service, especially along the lines with low frequency. Other amenities, such as restrooms,
phones, and food and beverage service of some sort, are typically provided.
For HSR operations, it is likely that the high-speed trains would only stop at major city locations. Therefore, a rather
complete station complex would generally be provided and would typically include all the elements of the intercity
station noted above. In addition, it would be expected that a ticket agent would be available.
Security needs to be considered at all stations. For stations open 24 hours per day, an additional consideration is the
need to control loitering and allowing only persons using the train services within the station and on the station
property.

b. Station Interior Space Requirements
For commuter rail stations, space may include a waiting area, restrooms, and retail service. Ticketing services are
optional since many commuter rail patrons purchase multi-ride tickets, or buy the ticket on the train. Fare collection is
evolving and paperless ticketing in the form of Easy Pass, electronic transit pass, and other similar systems improve
fare collection and access for passengers. On some systems, commuter rail station buildings are often only open
during rush hour periods because of the expense of staffing and policing of the facility.
For intercity rail, the interior space requirements, at a minimum, include ticketing, waiting areas, restrooms, baggage
facilities, and sometimes food and beverage service, as well as retail space. Details on waiting areas, concourses,
ticketing, baggage, and restroom facilities are also found in Chapters 6 and 14 of the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering. Recommended station design criteria maybe be established by the owner or operator of the service and
these criteria should be utilized as required.
To establish a ‘brand identity’, some systems may stipulate that a single “kit-of-parts” design be used repeatedly for a
number of stations. The use of a single design will require that the rail operating entity identify existing, or develop in
advance, the design criteria to be used for the “kit-of-parts” station.
For high-speed rail, the stations will likely be the same ones used for conventional intercity rail, and shared between
the two. There would be no difference in the interior except that there may be a separate waiting area for the high-
speed rail passengers to expedite loading, which minimizes dwell time for the high-speed trains.
c. Intermodal Interface
Many times, the rail passengers need to connect with other transportation to complete their trip. Thus, stations should
accommodate means for connection to other transportation options including van, bus or transit services, taxi stands,
“kiss-n-ride”, park and ride, or transfer from express trains to a local or shuttle-type train and vice-versa. The bus
mode requires berths for drop off and pick up. Sometimes the station can serve as both a bus and train station with
combined ticketing and information services. Local buses may stop at the train station so that a transfer from bus to
rail or rail to bus can take place. Also, a dedicated taxi area with call information should be provided for all stations.
Detailed ridership projections and destinations determination should be used to provide adequate capacity for the
intermodal interface.
d. Signage
Way-finding signage should be designed for the person who has never been at the station. Signage on platforms and in
the station must be well thought out and well placed. A station name sign should be visible to a person seated on the
train and be visible from every coach in the train. It is better to have too many station name signs than too few.
Train information boards must employ a technology that allows for frequent updating of information. Station signage
should also include local street map graphics and related transit and bus route maps so passengers can determine their
transfer routes. For busy stations, the use of electronic message boards should be considered. Electronic signage can
include detailed messages announcing delays, arrivals, departures, or schedule or track changes.
Interior signage should include exits accentuated with the names of streets that are associated with each exit. The
interior signage should focus on directing passengers to the various exits and available transportation options. ADA
compliant exits must also be identified, since not every exit may be accessible.
Signs should be made out of durable material that is tamper resistant. Signs, such as system maps and timetables that
change often, should be produced on a medium that allows for frequent yet economical replacement or updating.
Illumination of signs should be considered. Illumination of standard signs needs to be considered as part of the
integrated overall illumination design.

ADA requires tactile Braille signs at stations as specified in the Code of Federal regulations.
e. ADA Accessibility
Both new and renovated stations must be ADA-compliant. The costliest component of this is the required elevators
that allow disabled passengers to use track over or under passes. The cost of ADA compliance work on an existing
station facility should be evaluated against the cost of a new facility.
Both new and renovated stations and vehicle floor-level station platforms must be designed to be ADA compliant. The
Code of Federal Regulations has different requirements for different types of rail service and the appropriate section of
the Code should be consulted. The configuration and dimensions of the station platforms will be defined by the
passenger cars using the station. If more than one type of car is used, the platform dimensions that are the least
restrictive would likely be used and some form of portable lift or ramps, or mini-high platforms would be utilized for
other types of passenger cars. Use of ramps conforming to the ADA and local codes are preferable to elevators when
accessing platforms and station facilities. One of the costliest components is the elevators required to allow passengers
to cross above or below mainline tracks.
The FRA proposed ADA requirement of high-level platforms for the full length of the longest passenger train has
created a major problem for those older stations that feature low-level platforms and station areas without room for
acceptable access ramps. The cost of ADA compliance work on an existing station facility should therefore be
weighed against the cost of a new facility, preferably at a nearby tangent section of track. If the old station is on the
historic register or otherwise worth maintaining, it can be made into a farmers’ market, restaurant, or other rail-related
commercial use.
Typically, new stations must have full-length, level boarding platforms. These must be as long as the longest train
1
using the station to avoid double stopping. The platform edge is required to have a two-foot wide tactile tile strip with
a buttoned surface and a contrasting color like bright yellow so those with limited sight can detect the platform edge.
High-level platforms (approximately 4 feet above top of rail) can interfere with freight train horizontal clearances. The
typical offset from track center to edge of platform is 5’-7” on tangent, and larger on curves. Wide freight cars cannot
operate adjacent to the high-level platform. 3
A gauntlet track can be used to allow wide freights to bypass the high-level platform. Gauntlet tracks have been
implemented in two ways: a gauntlet to shift the passenger trains closer to the platform, and a gauntlet where the
freight trains are shifted away from the platforms. A gauntlet shifting the passenger trains closer to the platform is
preferred because the movement on the gauntlet is usually at a slower speed and, since the passenger train will be
stopping at the station, slowing it does not introduce a running time penalty. The non-gauntleted movement can be
made at the speed of the main track and allows trains (including passenger trains) that do not stop at the station to run 4
at full speed.
For existing stations, some agencies allow so-called “mini-high” platforms to accommodate the need for level boarding
to accommodate those unable to use the low-level boarding. Mini-high platforms are generally a minimum of 45’-0’’
long, 8’-0” wide, and allow access to the train through a high-level platform, which is usually 4’-0” high above top of
rail. The offset from the centerline of track to the face of the platform is 5’-7” on tangent and larger on curves. These
dimensions must be confirmed for the respective rail operation. A retractable or hinged drop-down platform edge can
be installed that allows the platform edge to be moved out of the way to allow a wide freight to pass. This requires
coordination and planning to execute such a move.
The mini-high is accessed by a ramp system with a minimum slope of 1:12. The maximum ramp length is 30 feet
before a minimum 5-foot landing must be provided for resting before continuing on to the next ramp section. The
mini-highs must have canopies covering the platform and ramps. Any signage on the main platform, such as system
maps, schedule case, phone, benches, and lights, must be duplicated on the mini-high platform.

To board a train from a mini-high, a member of the train crew or a station attendant must deploy a “bridge plate” to
bridge the gap (usually 4 inches) between car and platform.
Intercity train stations that do not have mini-high platforms maybe able to use a portable wayside lift that allows
wheelchair users to be loaded and unloaded from a train. These are lightweight aluminum mechanical elevators that
can easily be wheeled into position manually and operated by a crank and cable system, or a hydraulic system using
foot pedal power.
Other ADA features include visual signage for those with limited hearing and for the general announcement of train
arrival status, safety communications, train assignments, locations of boarding for special seating, such as first class,
and to provide any general update information needed. The use of a Public Announcement (PA) system can be used to
augment any messaging signage.
f. Safety and Security
The planning and design of constructed facilities and structures shall be performed in accordance with appropriate
guidelines and recommendations used in the industry. The planning and design of such facilities and structures shall
include guidance and processes contained in, but not limited to, the following:
• 49 CFR Part 659: Rail Fixed Guideway Systems; State Safety Oversight
• A state’s Fixed Guideway Safety Oversight Plan
• Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design, T. Crowe, 2000
When considering the safety and security aspects during the planning and design phases, the following among other
things, should be considered:
• Protection of the infrastructure
• Redundancies in systems and operating practices
• Surveillance and emergency devices
The following represents some of the considerations that should be addressed for specific components of a station
facility or terminal. Specific railroad and transit system requirements and industry guidelines and processes, as well as
site specific conditions, will determine the project-specific approach and measure taken.
• Designing platforms, stairways, walls, parking lots, canopies, benches, signage and other facilities to minimize
hidden alcoves, or blind spots and improve visibility to discourage criminal activity can improve the safety and
security of a facility.
• Passageways under tracks should be well lit and sufficiently wide and straight so positive sightlines and visibility is
offered from end to end. Stairwells should be open or glassed in so activity on the stairs can be monitored. Glassed
elevator cars should also be considered. Lighting and surveillance cameras can also improve security in tunnels,
stairways, and elevators.
• Consideration should be given to the use of Closed Circuit Television Cameras (CCTV) in high use stations or
stations with security concerns. CCTV should be monitored during operations and have recording capabilities.
Motion sensing detectors in the platform areas, tunnels, hallways and passage areas, stairwells, elevators, fare
collection areas, and other lower use areas of the station should be used to supplement cameras in continuous
operation to lower operating costs and alert those monitoring the cameras.

• Plantings in parking lots, “kiss-n-ride” and bus drop-off areas, and other access points should be restricted and
strategically positioned so as not to disrupt sightlines and create hiding areas that could foster safety and security
concerns.
• Bollards and other incursion protection systems (i.e., heavy duty concrete planters) should be placed in areas where
bus and automobiles approach the station area.
• Lighting on/at/in platform, common station areas, approach roadways, and parking lots/garages shall be such that
appropriate level of lighting is provided to be a deterrent and provide sufficient lighting for CCTV.
• Police call back boxes can be installed on station platforms, in passageway and/or common station areas, and/or in
parking lots and garages, to allow passengers to contact police if necessary. These are comprised of a vandal proof
speaker and button. When the button is pressed, a police representative answers to offer assistance or to be told of an
incident. Simply pressing the button without speaking is effective because it can provide the police the location of
the call box so they may investigate.
• Restrooms should be located near visible and busy parts of the station and not in remote areas of the building.
Restroom fixtures should be of stainless steel or a similar material that cannot easily be damaged. Sound should be
allowed to travel enough through the entrance so a call for assistance can be heard. Substantive lighting should be
provided.
The presence of police and/or system operating personnel is of great assistance in deterring criminal activity and
reducing security breaches, and in general to make passengers feel more secure. Steps should be taken to discourage
loitering and homeless activity. Unmanned transportation facilities can make passengers feel vulnerable and at risk. If
a platform or station area is unmanned, to make passengers feel more comfortable about their safety and security, it
1
should have police call boxes, adequate lighting, monitored CCTV, and have positive sightlines that allow passengers
to see the surroundings and for them to be seen.
Cleanliness also discourages criminal activity and adds to security. A clean and well-maintained facility identifies that
the facility is monitored and personnel are on site, which would make it a difficult location to conduct illegal activity
without detection. 3
Commercial spaces add to the activity level. Active areas are less likely to attract those with criminal intent or
vagrants. Vacant commercial space should be secured or turned into activity areas rather than remain unused, which
creates a blighted and insecure atmosphere.
g. Site Considerations
4
The site considerations should include effective storm water management, the layout of the facility with respect to
roadways, pedestrian access, utility vehicles, baggage, and express vehicles, maintenance vehicles, passenger parking,
interface with buses and other transit, and access to utilities. Chapter 6, Part 8, Design Criteria for Railway Passenger
Stations contains a great deal of conventional information. Additional information would include consideration for the
layout of commuter rail stations in suburban areas and how such stations blend into the existing residential and
commercial infrastructure to minimize adverse impacts.
Active passenger commuter stations generate a great deal of automobile traffic in the morning and evening rush hours,
with low traffic volume during the day. Design considerations include traffic management to allow a large number of
cars to exit the station area at the same time, traffic signage and signals, pedestrian crosswalks, and drainage
provisions.
The availability of adequate utility services is essential. Existing electrical sources may have to be upgraded to accept
the new service load. A water supply is needed for restrooms, retail shops, or other commercial activities.
Fire protection for the station should be considered and may be required by local codes and regulations.

h. Parking Facilities
The parking lot is typically designed for a considerable number of cars, ranging from 50 to 400 and up to 1,000.
Beyond that, a parking garage may become appropriate. A parking garage may become necessary if a large grade level
parking area is not available. The lots are typically lit with a minimum of 2-foot candles per square foot. Lighting
should be designed to minimize impacts to adjacent properties. For safety and surveillance purposes, a minimum
number of lights should be on during low light periods.
A parking space size is usually set by local ordinances and may range in size from 8’ to 8.5’wide to 17’ to 20’ long.
Some ordinances specify parking space size in terms of area with 180 square feet being a common value. Some spaces
are reserved for compact cars and may be smaller. ADA requirements for accessible parking must also be met.
The design of parking lots varies widely and may vary depending on the budget. Well-capitalized lots will be made of
bituminous with stone or concrete, well-striped with numbered spaces, well-drained and lit, with access spaces well-
striped and marked. Lower cost lots can be made of crushed stone, with no curbing. Either condition may provide
acceptable service, but the less costly station parking lot will require maintenance to keep the surface safe and
serviceable.
i. Landscaping
Landscaping improves the appearance of stations. However, it must not be allowed to create visual barriers in parking
lots that may affect security. Also, landscaping must be maintained or else it begins to detract from the facility. Trees
that do not generate inordinate amounts of large leaves should be chosen. Consideration of using deciduous evergreens
that don’t shed or drip resins require less maintenance maybe of value. The designer should consider the required
maintenance including mowing and watering when using grasses for ground cover.
j. Structural Systems
The structural systems must be designed to the applicable building codes, and for railroad stations, the vibration caused
by passing trains should be incorporated into the design, particularly if the station is below grade with trains passing
over the ceiling of the station overhead. Vibration attenuation should be provided to reduce the disturbance from a
passing train.
A note of caution for vibration-related issues: Each track system, whether it is ballasted track or direct fixation on
slab, will have one or more natural frequencies of its own that can defeat the use of dynamic insulation.
For example, when the track and ballast with a combined mass [M] is placed upon an elastic ballast mat of spring rate
[S], the result is a single stage spring-mass system with a natural frequency [fn] = ½ pi (S/M) 1/2 say 20Hz/20 cycles per
second. To prevent resonance of excitable nearby structures, all track natural frequencies must be different by at least
a factor of (2)1/2 from the excitation frequency of either a nearby structure or the preferred wave propagation frequency
of the ground underlying the track and structures in the vicinity. Since the preferred ground propagation frequency
ranges from 25 to 32Hz for the softer alluvial deposit on which many mid-Atlantic seaboard cities are built, (it ranges
from 63 to 100Hz found in Manhattan and on even harder rock foundations of cities further north), a careless choice of
ballast mat has the potential of causing amplification of soft ground vibration in lieu of the expected dynamic
insulation.
Technical advice from an accredited acoustics engineer should be the basis for such track insulation design choices.
k. Mechanical Systems
Elevators and escalators, heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems, and water heaters comprise most of the
typical mechanical systems. Mechanized baggage handling equipment may also be included, as well as fare vending
equipment, and turnstiles at certain commuter rail stations that warrant such equipment.

LEED and Energy Star systems should be considered for station equipment.
l. Finish Materials
Finish materials include flooring, wall treatments, window treatments, doors, light fixtures, furniture, and counters.
This is another area where the services of an architect are useful. Such materials should be durable and able to
withstand the traffic from passengers, baggage carts, and tracked-in rain and snow. The surfaces should be durable and
easy to clean. Materials that still look good as they age are also important so old materials do not begin to look
deteriorated and worn with age (good quality ages gracefully).
m. Retail Space
Retail space is often provided in the busier stations, both intercity and commuter rail. Typical commuter rail stations
with rush hour activity only may have a hard time remaining viable for serving such a small market. Larger stations
that remain busy throughout the day have a better chance of attracting retail vendors. Retail services add to the activity
of a station and improve security by generating activity. Stations located in downtown areas may attract retail patrons
independent of the train services, which helps to keep the vendors in business. Retail vendors may also provide the
ticket selling function at stations on contract, thus relieving the passenger operator of the need to provide a ticket
counter. Services, such as coffee and snacks, news and books, dry cleaning and shoe repair, banking and automatic
teller machines, as well as postal and other delivery services, add to the utility of a station, and may help attract
ridership. For example, the Swiss Federal Railway station restaurants are famous for their good chefs and reasonable
prices. Since the rails capture a significant portion of the tourist travelers there, that good reputation enhances the
popularity of Swiss Rails.
n. Lighting
1
Lighting should conform to the local building codes at a minimum, but should be bright and indirect, or soft. The
lighting should be chosen to create a warm and inviting atmosphere, as opposed to an industrial shop-like atmosphere.
Lighting design should include services from lighting design consultants who can help determine the appropriate
lighting fixtures and arrangement of lighting to use.
3
o. Passenger Information Systems
Passenger information systems would include station signage throughout the facility, giving directions, identifying
rooms and facilities, phones, platforms, tracks, exits, restrooms, food service, alternative ground transportation,
baggage, tickets, information, and services. The train announcement board can range from a schedule case at a
commuter rail station to an electronic board at a large city terminal.
4
Information systems include audible systems, such as PA systems and visual systems, such as LED message boards or
video monitors. The visible systems are needed by the hard of hearing, and the sight-impaired patrons need the audible
systems. Every patron benefits from a good audio system and clear graphics. The basic design should be intended for
the first time user. It should not be assumed that patrons understand vernacular terms, such as “inbound” or
“outbound”, without providing some defining graphic. Directional arrows to terminal points and properly labeled
platforms are helpful in understanding the direction to a desired location to avoid catching a train in the wrong
direction.
Timely information on incidents, train delays, and the like is extremely important. Equally important is to avoid
confusion by being specific. For example, passengers and the general public need to know what “ON-TIME
ARRIVAL” means. On a metropolitan commuter rail system, “ON-TIME” may be defined by the operator as an
arrival within five minutes and 59 seconds of scheduled time. For an intercity train, “ON-TIME” may be defined as
arrival within fifteen minutes of scheduled arrival. The actual arrival time is what matters to the public. If the train is
ten minutes late, the fact should be announced. A board or voice announcement of “ON-TIME” arrival may fit some
arbitrary definition, but it can be viewed by the passenger as misinformation.

SECTION 4.3 MULTI-MODAL FACILITIES
Under Development
4.3.1 GENERAL
4.3.2 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
4.3.3 CIRCULATION
4.3.4 PARKING
4.3.5 BAGGAGE
4.3.6 AMENITIES
4.3.7 PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE
4.3.8 CONNECTIONS
SECTION 4.4 YARDS AND SHOPS
4.4.1 GENERAL (2010)
The purpose of this item is to provide supplemental information related to the design of Commuter, and Intercity Rail,
including High Speed Rail, Yards and Shops. General design guidelines for rail passenger yards and shops are given in
AREMA Chapters 6 and 14. Information in this Section attempts to provide additional passenger specific information in
accordance with current practice and experience.
4.4.2 MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHY
a. The maintenance philosophy of the system drives many of the design considerations. There are two general
philosophies: unit maintenance and consist maintenance. The unit maintenance philosophy deals with repairs and
upgrades on a car by car and case by case basis, whereas the consist-train philosophy performs maintenance,
preventative repairs, and upgrades on the entire train consist. Identification of the maintenance philosophy should be
identified early in any planning or design activity.
b. Rail passenger car and locomotive facilities, such as yards and shops, should be designed and then constructed to meet
the needs of the existing and/or planned service. Design should evolve from concept and then be reviewed and
modified in order to progress the contract documents from preliminary through to final design.
c. A Design Basis Memorandum (DBM) should be developed, reviewed, and accepted by all project stakeholders that
clearly define the design assumptions to be used on the project from which are developed the project scope, schedule,
and budget.
d. Resulting designs should meet or exceed system requirements, provide for sufficient utility and safety, and feature an
optimal relationship between initial capital/first cost and the whole life costs and benefits.
e. Resulting designs should be accomplished in collaboration with the major disciplines within the end user organization
to include: Transportation, Mechanical, and Engineering-maintenance.

f. Several design alternatives should be developed and multiple alternatives may be progressed through conceptual
design. These designs should then be reviewed and evaluated using an approach as offered by Value Engineering to
determine what concepts and/or alternatives should be progressed to final design.
g. Each of the design alternatives should also be evaluated with due consideration of the agency’s maintenance
philosophy and resources likely to be available over the useful life of the facility. This is co-determined by the type of
scheduled/preventive maintenance, or by performance-based maintenance of items that will be kept in a controlled
state of good repair.
a. General Considerations
A passenger rail yard contains several key elements. A general site design is developed that includes such elements as
utilities (water, sewer, storm water, power and lighting), communications, substations for yard and hotel power, fuel
storage (as required), drainage, parking lots, entrance and exit roadways and fencing or site security. On this general
site arrangement is placed one or more tracks to hold cars, locomotives, and trains. The arrangement, complexity, and
number of tracks will be driven by its intended use as an originating, terminating, and/or intermediate yard. Required
structural project elements often include inspection and servicing pits and ancillary buildings to provide crew
headquarters and warehousing for parts and supplies.
Passenger shops are designed and arranged to support such activities as the inspection, servicing, maintenance, and
repair of passenger equipment, locomotives, and/or maintenance of way equipment. A general site design is developed
that includes civil elements, such as utilities (water, sewer, storm water, power and lighting), communications, 1
substations for yard, facility and hotel power, fuel storage (as required), drainage, parking, entrance and exit roadways
and fencing or site security. On the general site arrangement is placed one or more tracks that support the overall
function of the shop and may hold cars, locomotives, trains and other rail bound equipment. The arrangement,
complexity, and number of tracks will be driven by its intended use in support of designated shop functions. Major
structural elements often include shop buildings, inspection, and servicing pits, and repair floors with overhead cranes.
Additionally, there are often ancillary buildings required to provide crew reporting headquarters, supervision
headquarters along with facilities to warehouse parts, supplies and equipment. 3
b. Yard and Shop Space Requirements
Cars, locomotives, and trains are rectangular elements that often drive a passenger yard site footprint that is rectangular
in nature. The overall size of this footprint is driven by the amount and length of tracks to be constructed along with
the need for ancillary facilities, such as buildings, pits, substations, utilities, ingress and egress roadways, and
perimeter fencing (security). 4
The storage and inspection requirement for cars, locomotives, and trains drives both the number and length of tracks to
be constructed. The way in which this planned facility is to be connected to existing adjacent main, branch and/or yard
tracks may also drive site size. For example, if the proposed yard is roughly parallel to existing trackage, then the rail
connection to the proposed yard may be reasonably simple and may require a smaller footprint than if the long axis of
the planned yard is at some angle to existing trackage, which may require a more complicated connection with a larger
associated footprint.
Similarly, the cars, locomotives and trains to be inspected, serviced, maintained, and rebuilt within a shop facility are
rectangular elements that often require one or more buildings that are rectangular in nature. Individual building size
can be driven by both the number of cars, locomotives, and/or trains to use the facility along with the type of work to
be accomplished at a facility. Work type and/or function can determine space required based on not only the amount of
material and equipment required to progress the work, but also the number of personnel required along with the
number of work stations to be provided. The overall size of the site footprint is then driven by the number and size of
the required buildings as well as the amount and length of tracks to be constructed to interconnect the buildings and

then connect the planned facilities to existing trackage. The need for ancillary facilities, such as substations, utilities,
roadways and perimeter fencing (security), also contributes to the actual site size required.
Additional information on passenger yards and shops are found in Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities and
Chapter 14, Yards and Terminals. The design of passenger yards and shops can vary greatly between locations.
However, there are usually reoccurring elements that are common to all designs, such as the need for head end power
in passenger inspection and layover facilities and the need for inspection pits in passenger and locomotive shops.
4.4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS (2010)
a. General
The design of passenger rail yards and shop complexes must be accomplished in an environmentally responsive
manner. It is important to understand what type of potential issues must be addressed during the environmental review.
Items of concern, such as natural resources, wetlands, storm water runoff, endangered species, artifacts, historic
structures, noise, light, and other quality of light issues, are typical among the subjects that must be addressed and
mitigated as required during the environmental acceptance phase of the project.
When comparing several sites, potential environmental issues must be considered in the overall site evaluation and
may, in some cases, be a deciding factor to eliminate a particular site in favor of another.
Key to identifying and progressing the environmental process for a particular project is to identify the “lead agency”
that will be responsible for the environmental review. The designated agency may vary from project to project and
may depend upon how the project is to be funded and if both private and/or public funds are to be used.
The key to making good progress in the environmental portion of the design is to, as early on as possible, identify the
lead agency, develop the proposed project environmental program and then obtain agreement for this program amongst
all project stakeholders and environmental and storm water management oversight agencies.
4.4.5 SAFETY AND SECURITY (2010)
When designing yards and shops, it is important to identify elements that must be included in the design that address the
overall safety and security of the facility, the employees and contents to also include equipment and materials.
For example, it may be desirable to install police call back boxes at critical locations to allow employees to contact railroad
police or the local policing authority when there is a medical and/or other emergency. Boxes contain a tamper-proof speaker
and button. When the button is pressed, the police or a designated representative answers to offer assistance or to be told of an
incident. Simply pressing the button without speaking is effective because it can provide the police the location of the call box
that must be investigated.
Designing buildings, facilities, stairways, walls, parking lots, and to minimize hidden or blind spots and improve visibility to
discourage crime activity can improve the overall security at a particular location. Passageways and hallways should be well
lit and straight whenever possible so that unimpaired visibility is provided. Stairwells should be open and/or glassed in so that
activity can be monitored. Glassed elevator cars should also be considered.
Lighting and surveillance cameras can also improve security. However, cameras need to be continuously monitored.
Sometimes motion detectors are used to activate cameras to lower operating costs and alert those monitoring the cameras.
The presence of railroad and/or designated facility personnel provides assurance to the employees and those who use the
facilities that there is a presence providing security.

Fencing and noise abatement may be combined where needed. The quality of fencing should be such as to deter escalation and
cutting of the fence. The fence foundation should be stabilized to be kept free of vegetation. The purpose is to avoid trash
accumulation, provide clear sight of the fence, and limit ongoing maintenance requirements.
4.4.6 ENGINE SHOPS
Under Development
4.4.7 CAR SHOPS
Under Development
4.4.8 MAINTENANCE OF WAY SHOPS (2010)
The requirements for a maintenance of way shop area is driven by the maintenance plan for the agency. Many agencies have
only limited maintenance capabilities and rely on contractors for the majority of this work. Consequently, such agencies have
minimal needs for this type of facility.
Maintenance of way shops are constructed with tracks equipped either for the purpose of inspecting and running maintenance,
or tracks for performing heavy repairs and/or overhauling maintenance of way equipment. A design basis memorandum
should be developed early on in the design that identifies the types and numbers of equipment and small tools to be repaired at
the proposed facility. Shops may be designed and constructed to accommodate several types of maintenance of way
equipment to also include rail-bound road, or road-rail equipment.
1
Once the equipment assigned to the shop is known, the types of work to be performed is determined and a preliminary annual
repair schedule is developed for the fleet, then the designers can begin to determine the amount and arrangement of work
stations along with the space required for the work for supervisory and crew offices and related facilities and for the receiving
of parts, tools and other supplies used in the day-to-day operation of the facility.
The reliability of work equipment is a major factor in determining the productivity of mechanized maintenance or renewals. 3
Recognizing this, as well as the seasonal nature of track production and the benefit of year-round retention of trained
personnel, some railroads have negotiated union agreements for higher-paying operator-mechanic positions. The operator-
mechanics run and service critical production equipment, performing running maintenance in the field. At the end of the work
season, they accompany their equipment and perform the overhaul in the comfort of the workshop.
4.4.9 MATERIAL YARDS

4
Under Development
4.4.10 SITE CONSIDERATIONS
Under Development
4.4.11 UTILITY CONSIDERATIONS
Under Development

SECTION 4.5 BRIDGES AND DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
4.5.1 GENERAL (2010)
Design recommendations for railway bridges can be found in Chapters 8 and 15 of the of the AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering. Chapter 8 contains design parameters for concrete structures and Chapter 15 includes design recommendations
for steel structures. In addition, design recommendations and hydraulic formulae for culverts and railway drainage structures
are contained in Chapter 1, Part 4 of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
The intent of this Section is to incorporate additional considerations for structures intended for use by passenger rail operators
or for operations that involve the joint use of freight and passenger rail within the same corridor.
4.5.2 EMERGENCY EGRESS FOR BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES (2010)
An important consideration for railway structures intended for use by passenger rail operators is to incorporate provisions for
emergency egress that may be required in the event of an onboard emergency. Most railway structures currently in use were
originally designed without this provision in mind. Evacuating a train on a bridge structure without adequate provisions for
passenger egress can create a dangerous situation.
Though the likelihood of an onboard emergency requiring a full evacuation of a passenger train is remote; nevertheless, a
contingency plan should be developed to prevent the extremely dangerous situation of hundreds of passengers spilling onto the
right-of-way. This is particularly important when long-span structures come into play. A train evacuation on a viaduct, series
of bridges, and/or steep embankment could prove to be more dangerous than the incident itself. However, in the event of a fire
or derailment it may become necessary to evacuate passengers as quickly as possible.
Intercity and Commuter Rail operators should evaluate all structures within their operating systems to evaluate the affect of a
full train evacuation at each specific location. Consideration should be given to how the general public will safely vacate the
train and which route will be employed to move passengers to safety. Long-span structures and viaducts are of particular
concern because passengers cannot use the connections between cars to move safely beyond the structure.
All aerial structures should include a safety walkway along both outer edges of the structure to enable passengers to evacuate
the train and to move to a safe distance beyond the structure. Under no circumstances should the passengers’ only means of
egress be limited to walking along an active trackway on double or multiple track structures.
Directing passengers away from an emergency situation and enabling emergency personnel toward an incident should be a
primary consideration in the evaluation of existing structures and in the design of new structures intended for use by passenger
rail operations. In addition, stairwells and other amenities should be considered to permit a safe descent from aerial structures.
Careful planning is required to permit emergency egress and not compromise security along the right-of-way. One way access
gates, doors, and other barriers may be used to allow safe evacuation from the right-of-way onto public areas yet prevent
trespassers from gaining easy access to the trackway.
4.5.3 CLEARANCES THROUGH STRUCTURES (2010)
Minimum clearances as given in Chapter 28 of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering shall be maintained. In some
cases it may be desirable to provide additional horizontal and/or vertical clearance through certain types of structures when
designing new structures or during major rehabilitation. For example, added horizontal clearance may be advisable to permit
maintenance activities to occur on adjacent tracks without reducing track speed on the adjoining track or taking all of the
tracks on the structure out of service.
4.5.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
Under Development

4.5.5 PASSENGER STATIONS ON BRIDGES
Under Development
4.5.6 ADDITIONAL STRUCTURE AMENITIES REQUIRED FOR PASSENGER RAIL

OPERATIONS
Under Development
4.5.7 SAFETY AND SECURITY
Under Development
SECTION 4.6 CRASH WALLS
4.6.1 GENERAL (2010)
The derailment of a passenger or freight train has the potential to damage adjacent structures. Consideration in the design of
stations or other facilities may warrant the inclusion of crash walls. The intent of crash walls is not to resist the full impact of
a direct collision but rather to deflect or redirect the force of the moving train.
The use of crash walls was initially developed relative to the protection of adjacent bridge piers. Refer to Chapter 8, Part 2 of
the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering for additional information. 1
SECTION 4.7 TUNNELS
Under Development


30
Part 5
Vehicle Considerations
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.2 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-1
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-1 1
5.4 Rolling Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5-2
SECTION 5.1 GENERAL INFORMATION 3
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 5.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 5.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 5.4 ROLLING STOCK
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

30
Part 6
Signals, Communications, and Propulsion
Considerations
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2 1

6.2 Operations Centers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2
6.3 Signal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2
6.4 Communications Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-2

3
6.5 Propulsion Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-3
6.5.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-3
6.5.2 Traction Power System (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-3
6.5.3 Lines to be Electrified (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-3
6.5.4 Performance to be Achieved (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-3
6.5.5 Sectionalizing Diagram (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-3
6.5.6 Substation and Feeding and Supply Locations (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-4
6.5.7 Catenary System – General Description (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-4
6.5.8 Car Clearance Gage (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-4
6.5.9 Electrical and Mechanical Clearances (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-4
6.5.10 Contact Wire Height (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-4
6.5.11 Safety Considerations (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-4
6.5.12 Electrical Characteristics (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-5
6.5.13 Grounding and Bonding (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-5
6.5.14 Catenary Safety Design (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-5
6.5.15 Conductor Parameters (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-5
6.5.16 System Features and Arrangements (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-5
6.5.17 System Sub-Assemblies (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-6
6.5.18 Poles and Foundations (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-6
6.5.19 Catenary System Installation Design (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-6
6.5.20 Installation Procedures (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-6
6.5.21 Shop Drawings (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-6

6.5.22 Catenary Maintenance Manuals and Procedures (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-6

6.5.23 System Maintenance (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-6
6.5.24 Maintenance Standards (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-7
6.5.25 Periodic Tests (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-7
6.5.26 Safety During Electrical Fault (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-7
6.5.27 Safety During Switching Operations (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-8
6.5.28 Safety During Maintenance Operations (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-8
6.5.29 Pollution/Contamination (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6-8
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 6.2 OPERATIONS CENTERS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 6.3 SIGNAL SYSTEMS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 6.4 COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 6.5 PROPULSION SYSTEMS
The information and guidance provided with respect to Electric Traction Power aspects of Commuter Rail Systems is
reference only, and the reader should review Chapter 33 of the AREMA Manual for additional information on Electric
Traction Power for commuter rail applications.
6.5.1 GENERAL (2012)
When commuter rail service is electrified, electric traction power is comprised of power supply from utility companies to
substations with power distribution by means of an overhead catenary or 3rd rail system. However, some systems require a mix
of commuter; freight or high speed trains and the traction power system would need to be designed to handle mixed use.
6.5.2 TRACTION POWER SYSTEM (2012)
The general outline of the power supply system is found in Chapter 33 of the AREMA manual as well as the Canadian and
European electrification standards.
6.5.3 LINES TO BE ELECTRIFIED (2012)
All tracks of electrified commuter routes should be electrified for train operation purposes. Where commuter trains run on
other routes for access to passenger terminals, to maintenance facilities or for through running purposes, only assigned tracks
and alternates need be considered for electrification. Route/track diagrams can be used to verify the choice of operating
scenarios with all affected departmental personnel of the railroads involved. 1
6.5.4 PERFORMANCE TO BE ACHIEVED (2012)
The electric traction power demand for commuter trains is considerably higher due to capacity and station starts. It is
recommended that all or most substations have two transformers, providing sufficient capacity in reserve to enable all
conceivable power demands to be met with only one transformer in service. The use of dual transformers, dual power supply
sources and dual bus bars provides a high level of redundancy and ensures that the probability of total loss of supply is 3
extremely small.
In addition to reliable operation and performance of substation equipment discussed above, it is important that the utility
company power supply maintain a very high level of reliability. There should be two separate sources of incoming power
supply, preferably direct from major high voltage supply grid circuits with proven high availability ratings.
The safe electrical operation of the traction power system requires safety standards for insulator creepage paths, air clearances 4
and electrical switching arrangements. The switching and feeding subassemblies should provide for fault detection and
protection relay operation, including zone relays, which can distinguish between heavy load currents and fault currents, and
can attain virtually instantaneous disconnection of electrical supply when a fault condition occurs. Additional information can
be found in the Chapter 33 of the AREMA Manual and the Canadian and European electrification standards.
6.5.5 SECTIONALIZING DIAGRAM (2012)
The full extent of the catenary system and associated substation, switching station and paralleling station locations should be
shown on an electrical sectioning diagram. The catenary system should include sufficient sectioning to facilitate isolation of
electrical faults to individually controlled sections of the operational track system. Starting with the normal feeding
configuration, a number of disconnect switches are used to energize all catenary sections with all normal and alternate feeding
scenarios.
Some disconnect switches may need to be included for abnormal situations such as the temporary loss of power supply from a
substation or main feeding point, or the inadvertent stranding of a train at a phase break. Disconnect switches for these

situations are normally open and would only be closed when the abnormal situation occurs, after appropriate adjustment from
the normal arrangements. Additional information concerning the principles and normal sectionalizing practices recommended
for use are provided in Chapter 33 of the AREMA Manual and the Canadian and European electrification standards.
6.5.6 SUBSTATION AND FEEDING AND SUPPLY LOCATIONS (2012)
The selection of substation locations is an iterative process involving a number of factors which sometimes conflict with each
other. The nature of commuter rail route or network and the situation of routine high power demand zones create natural
locations for preferred siting of substations. The high reliability requirements for utility power supply sources will usually
restrict the number of alternative locations to a few choices. The availability of environmentally acceptable substation sites
may further limit those choices, especially in urban or scenic areas. A provisional scheme for substation siting should be
developed and verification procedures should be applied by implementing a series of computer studies. More than one scheme
may need to be studied in difficult situations, involving the alternative types of feeding systems available for use, and
providing alternative solutions for management review. Further information and details of recommended procedures are
provided in Chapter 33 of the AREMA Manual and the Canadian and European electrification.
6.5.7 CATENARY SYSTEM – GENERAL DESCRIPTION (2012)
A catenary system provides the means of distribution of electrical power to moving railroad trains. All new catenary systems
consist of a constant tensioned contact wire supported by one or more messenger wires which are in turn supported by brackets
or cross span assemblies on adjacent poles. Some older catenary systems have variable tensions with fixed wire dead ends.
Detailed descriptions, definitions, standards and concepts relating to catenary systems are provided in Chapter 33 of the
AREMA Manual and the Canadian and European electrification.
6.5.8 CAR CLEARANCE GAGE (2012)
See Chapter 33 of the AREMA Manual and the Canadian and European electrification for information and guidelines on
locomotive and car clearance gages, subject to potential super elevation, sway, tilt and bounce allowances relevant to electric
train operations. In addition Chapter 28 of the AREMA manual has standard freight car clearances used in North America.
6.5.9 ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL CLEARANCES (2012)
See Chapter 33 of the AREMA Manual and the Canadian and European electrification for information and guidelines on
electrical and mechanical clearances.
6.5.10 CONTACT WIRE HEIGHT (2012)
The range of contact wire height on existing systems is normally controlled by the minimum height of overhead bridges and
structures, together with the maximum height of contact wire necessary to comply with high wire clearance requirements at
highway grade crossings or other facilities.
6.5.11 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS (2012)
The use of high level platforms may generate additional electrical clearance safety considerations and compliance with the
National Electrical Safety Code or equivalent National Code is required.
All overpasses and other overhead structures on electrified commuter rail routes will require the use of safety barriers in all
areas of feasible pedestrian access. Barriers should be at least 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m) high, should extend at least 10 feet (3.05
m) longitudinally from the nearest catenary, and should include features preventing any side access around the end of a barrier.
The material usually selected is rigid aluminum sheeting, which should not include any protrusions providing feasible
footholds for climbing access.

Grounded safety screens, barriers and anti-climbing guards should be included in the design of signals and other railway
facilities and features within 10 feet of a catenary system, and the use of fencing or safety cages should be considered to
prevent vandalism or unauthorized access when required by specific circumstances.
6.5.12 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (2012)
The electrical characteristics for Commuter Rail typically include sufficient power supply system capacity for sustained
acceleration from station stops or from in-route delays up to the high operating speeds required. The electrical current demand
for each train is substantially higher than for other types of passenger trains, due to the high drag coefficient at high-speed and
the current drawn by onboard facilities. The use of motive power utilizing regenerative power capability may also be
considered, subject to load limitation, traffic levels and potential for future growth, over-voltage prevention and harmonic
content limitations.
6.5.13 GROUNDING AND BONDING (2012)
The grounding system must prevent any risk of an unsafe condition occurring either within the electric traction system, at
stations, or in the immediate surroundings along the right of way. The electric traction and signaling systems both require the
use of appropriate bonding connections, circuits or other devices at project-specific spacings to ensure the fail-safe operations
of trains and supporting infrastructure. Compliance with step-and-touch protection standards should be given high priority in
all areas accessible to passengers and other non-railroad personnel.
6.5.14 CATENARY SAFETY DESIGN (2012)
The catenary industry applies local engineering and construction procedures to their relevant extent, together with appropriate
1
input from overseas railroads. This composite design basis should be monitored to verify that all technical, operational and
environmental safety requirements are adequately provided for, to the satisfaction of the appropriate regulatory organization.
The following are some of the key requirements to be considered when an overhead electric catenary system is required for an
electrified rail project.
6.5.15 CONDUCTOR PARAMETERS (2012) 3

The conductors for an overhead catenary system consist normally of a contact wire supported by hangers from one or more
messenger wires. The conductor tensions at each operating and non-operating limiting condition have to be reviewed to verify
that adequate safety factors are provided. The recommended minimum safety factors for electrified rail projects are 2.5 on
messenger wire tensions and 2.0 on contact wire tensions, relative to ultimate conductor breaking loads throughout the
lifespan of the wire.
4
6.5.16 SYSTEM FEATURES AND ARRANGEMENTS (2012)
The operational performance requirements for commuter rail projects make it essential to incorporate some form of automatic
tensioning into the catenary system. This feature compensates for temperature changes and maintains a constant high
mechanical tension in the catenary conductors to facilitate optimum current collection performance. The need for automatic
tensioning creates a number of special system features and arrangements. These include catenary overlaps between individual
tension lengths of catenary, typically spaced as needed at up to a maximum of about one mile (1.6 km), dependent upon the
system design selected.
Some form of overrun protection should be provided wherever passenger trains are routed past facing connections with
diverging non-electrified track. This will prevent safety and operational problems in the event of a raised pantograph being
inadvertently routed onto the diverging track, with resultant potential teardown of overcrossing feeder, static, communications
or signaling cables and wires. Overrun protection can be provided by adding short sections of catenary to guide diverging
pantographs beyond overcrossing obstructions, or by raising or rerouting such obstructions beyond the maximum pantograph
reach and sway.

6.5.17 SYSTEM SUB-ASSEMBLIES (2012)
The automatic tensioning system has to cater for temperatures ranging from minimum ambient to maximum operating
temperature, which includes provision for solar heating and peak levels of electrical load heating. The pulley/balance weight
tensioning assemblies (or spring tensioners used where space is very restricted) can be fitted with inertial stops to hold the
tensioning assemblies if sudden breakage of conductor occurs. Temperature stops can be provided to operate below a defined
wire temperature, typically 20 degrees F. (–7 degrees C.) to restrict the amount of catenary system sag that would otherwise
occur when heavy icing conditions are encountered, and to reduce the need for severe speed restrictions at such times.
6.5.18 POLES AND FOUNDATIONS (2012)
An additional consideration concerns the minimum and normal pole clearances from adjacent tracks. Where feasible,
especially when applied to new construction, the normal clearance should be at least 14 feet (4.27 m) to provide for passage of
a train with one or more derailed vehicles which are in the process of making an emergency stop, or experiencing a progressive
derailment. Trackside features including catenary poles and foundations can be set back sufficiently to permit such passage
without sideswipe contact and increased risk of injury to passengers and crew. The choice of pole design can include
consideration of likely impact scenarios involving commuter trains to minimize the danger to passengers and crew. Features to
be evaluated should include the style, ductility and break-away elements of poles considered for use.
6.5.19 CATENARY SYSTEM INSTALLATION DESIGN (2012)
The catenary system selection and design process should consider how installation of the selected system can be undertaken in
accordance with safe working practices and in compliance with OSHA and local regulatory requirements.
6.5.20 INSTALLATION PROCEDURES (2012)
The design process should take full advantage of feedback from prior construction experience, and should avoid construction
staging configurations that involve partly constructed system supports, conductors or other features which are structurally
weak or incapable of withstanding severe weather conditions. If construction work has to be undertaken on an existing
operating railroad, the catenary installation plan should be conceptually developed as a number of individual work stages,
most requiring relatively brief on-track time and incorporating a maximum amount of advance subassembly work under more
controllable conditions at a construction depot.
6.5.21 SHOP DRAWINGS (2012)
Wherever detailed design of material is part of a procurement contract scope of work, or where proprietary materials are being
supplied, the contractor should be required to submit detailed shop drawings. These should illustrate the design, function,
means of manufacture and specification appropriate to the specific item, and should give reference to the originating
conceptual design or assembly drawing.
6.5.22 CATENARY MAINTENANCE MANUALS AND PROCEDURES (2012)
Overhead catenary systems are typically designed to have a service life of at least 30 years, ranging up to 50 years in many
instances. Systems are intended to be maintenance free, but the typical harsh railroad environment requires that effective
preventive maintenance procedures be adopted. The use of specialized custom-built hardware also requires provision of
supplier maintenance manuals, specifying necessary routine inspection activities.
6.5.23 SYSTEM MAINTENANCE (2012)
An overhead catenary system and its component items should be subjected to a number of prescribed periodic inspections to
verify system functions and to check for component wear, misadjustments or faults.

Correct functioning of automatic constant tensioning systems is of particular importance, and routine checks of termination
assemblies should be carried out at regular intervals.
A dedicated maintenance team should be established at a strategic location, equipped with purpose-built hi-rail and wire train
vehicles sufficient to carry out both routine maintenance and emergency repair tasks.
6.5.24 MAINTENANCE STANDARDS (2012)
Maintenance standards for electric traction systems should either be established as part of the design and installation basis, or
be included in supplier documentation packages approved during procurement of equipment, hardware assemblies or
components. Many maintenance standards will be identical or similar to construction acceptance standards and tolerances; a
few may include additional tolerance or performance nonconformance provisions not available to the original supplier or
installation contractor.
The maintenance standards for catenary systems on commuter train routes require close conformance with contact wire
heights and gradients to avoid high vertical acceleration of pantograph head assemblies, high contact forces or momentary loss
of electrical supply to the locomotive. Some maintenance standards involve two or more levels of tolerance or other
conformance parameters, which facilitate continuing operation on a degraded basis, that could include lower acceleration rates
or lower maximum speeds, similar to track classification standards.
6.5.25 PERIODIC TESTS (2012)
Part of the preventive maintenance program recommended for commuter rail routes should be a series of performance tests
applied both to the power supply equipment and to the overhead catenary power distribution system. Power supply equipment 1
testing can routinely include one or more operations of circuit breakers and disconnects which have no recorded operations
within a defined period, typically one year.
Catenary system performance testing can routinely include one or more pantograph operation video recording along each main
track of the commuter route. One video should be taken at or close to the maximum operating speeds along the entire route. If
any degradation of pantograph performance is identified, a second video should be taken through route sections of interest or
concern, with train speeds controlled to match the design balancing speeds through each curve. Direct comparison and joint 3
evaluation of the two videos should help to establish the cause of any performance degradation, which typically could be
related to track misadjustment, vehicle suspension misadjustment, pantograph frame joint deficiencies, catenary system
misadjustment or any combination of deficiencies.
A permanent maintenance history log should be maintained for each power supply facility and for each electrical catenary
section. This log could highlight any long term recurrence of deficient conditions, and help to develop corrective actions for
implementation prior to system or equipment failure occurrences.
4
6.5.26 SAFETY DURING ELECTRICAL FAULT (2012)
Electrical faults are caused by one or more factors, including inadvertent faults caused by wild animals and birds, insulation
failures in power supply and catenary systems, or equipment failures on board locomotives or other motive power vehicles.
All interconnected, energized equipment and systems have to be fully bonded throughout to prevent any possibility of floating
electrical potential remaining in conductors, wires or equipment components when the traction power system is de-energized.
All non-energized metallic and other electrical conductive items including support poles and frames, line side fencing, station
metalwork and all other such items within the traction power system electrical zone of influence should be effectively
grounded. Metal components should be bonded together and all assemblies and isolated items should be connected to a ground
wire system, a ground grid or to grounding rods, in accordance with NESC requirements and electrification industry practice.
Circuit breaker and relay systems installed at power supply substations and switching stations provide protection against
electrical faults. Each circuit breaker provides connection of electrical power from an energized bus bar to an individual region

or track-specific section of the catenary system. The occurrence of an electrical fault would be detected by relays which cause
the circuit breaker to open within a few milliseconds. Since many faults are transient in nature, most circuit breakers should be
set to reclose automatically within a few seconds to restore power to the section. If the fault persists, the circuit breaker will
lock open until the fault is investigated and repaired. Special distance zone type relays should be used to differentiate between
high traction power loads and actual faults.
The circuit breakers for catenary sections at yards, station platforms and other areas where passengers or railroad personnel are
routinely present should not reclose onto a fault, but instead should lock out immediately for on-site investigation of the fault
cause and affects.
6.5.27 SAFETY DURING SWITCHING OPERATIONS (2012)
The switching of electrical power is carried out in accordance with prescribed procedures by authorized personnel at an
electrification system control center that would usually control an entire route or region. The procedures used should include
some form of interlock or logic data-based system to prevent simultaneous supply of power to a section from more than one
source, phase or substation, particularly when alternate feed arrangements have to be implemented while a fault is being
investigated and rectified.
Safety measures adopted include siting of all switching equipment in high security situations, compounds or buildings, with
intrusion detection systems connected to the control center for all facilities which are normally unattended.
6.5.28 SAFETY DURING MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS (2012)
Maintenance of traction power supply and catenary system facilities should be preplanned for implementation during light
traffic periods or during short overnight system shutdowns. All access and work activities should be in accordance with
prescribed procedures that prevent any approach within specified limitations until all power has been disconnected and
permanent or temporary grounds have been installed at either or both sides of the access area. Any circuit breakers or
disconnects that could be inadvertently closed and reenergize the area of access should be locked open and tagged by the
person responsible. The tags should not be removed until all personnel have been accounted for as being outside the specified
access limitations and maintenance grounds have been removed or disconnected, and the tags should only be removed by the
person who initially placed them. The remote operation of circuit breakers and disconnects may require supplementary safety
procedures to achieve safety of personnel and equipment.
Safety during specific maintenance activity requires that all personnel should clearly understand and acknowledge the limits of
temporary access, and should be fully trained, regularly certified and checked in respect of their knowledge and familiarity
with maintenance procedures and activities being undertaken.
6.5.29 POLLUTION/CONTAMINATION (2012)
Past experience on railroad electrification projects included the need for mitigation of industrial air pollution and
contamination. Most harmful forms of air pollution have now been eliminated, but some benign contamination still exists in
unique local circumstances. Such contamination may occur naturally and its presence should be recognized by incorporation
of appropriate design features, treatments or materials. One typical example is the presence of high salt concentrations in moist
onshore winds at route sections along stretches of sea or ocean coastline.

30
Part 7
Maintenance of Way Considerations
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 General Informaton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-1
7.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation and Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2 1
7.4 Right of Way Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.5 Track Maintenance Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.6 Track Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2 3

7.7 Structures Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-2
7.8 Signal and Communications Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3
7.9 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3
7.10 Facility Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7-3
SECTION 7.1 GENERAL INFORMATON
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 7.2 MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHY
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.3 INSPECTION, EVALUATION AND PLANNING
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.4 RIGHT OF WAY MAINTENANCE
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.5 TRACK MAINTENANCE LIMITS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.6 TRACK MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.7 STRUCTURES MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT

SECTION 7.8 SIGNAL AND COMMUNICATIONS MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.9 PROPULSION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 7.10 FACILITY MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT


0
CHAPTER 12
RAIL TRANSIT1
FOREWORD
Chapter 12, Rail Transit is intended to serve as a guide and offer insight for planning, design and maintenance of a rail transit
system. Recognizing the importance of the technical considerations required in the design, construction and maintenance of a
rail transit system, the well informed choices of the engineering professional are of utmost importance. The available methods,
components and applications are many and varied, therefore concise and clearly defined criteria are essential when developing
goals and objectives. This chapter endorses the AREMA recommended practices from other chapters when possible, and
recognizes that many of the topics within require extensive coordination with other chapters in the manual. Various
techniques, components and methodologies for construction and maintenance must be evaluated fairly and accurately in order
to consider alternative concepts on an equal basis. The reader is encouraged to evaluate the methods and effective practices 1
utilized by the many operating rail transit systems in North America, and to utilize this manual and chapter as a basis for the
work.
NOTE: This chapter is being developed by Committee 12, which was formed in 1986. Additional material will
appear in future Manual Revisions.
1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-1
1.2 Safety/Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-3
2 Corridor Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-1

2.2 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-4
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.6 Selection of Rail Transit Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.7 Regional Transportation Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
2.8 Corridor Implementation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23

3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-10
3.4 Right-of-Way Design Criteria and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.5 Track and Roadway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-18
3.6 Design Considerations for Future Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-34

4.3 Multi-Modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-87
4.7 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-87
4.8 Segmental Girder Guideways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-94
4.9 Direct Fixation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-96

5.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5-2
5.2 General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5-2
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5-2

6.2 Operations Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.3 Signal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.4 Communications Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.5 Propulsion Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2

7.2 Maintenance Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.4 Right of Way Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4

7.5 Track Maintenance Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4

7.6 Track Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.7 Structures Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.8 Signal and Communications Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-6
7.9 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-6
7.10 Facility Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-7
8 Embedded Track. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-1

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-2
8.2 Embedded Track Alignment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-4
8.3 Wheel Rail Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-8
8.4 Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-8
8.5 Rail Fixation (Fastening) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-22
8.6 Support Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-22
8.7 Special Trackwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-22
8.8 Stations, Stops, Passenger Access & Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-22
8.9 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-23
8.10 Appendix A - Commentary on Analysis of Lateral Acceleration and Jerk Rate for Establishing Superelevation
and Spiral Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-23
1
Chapter 12 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-G-1

INTRODUCTION
The chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents (specifications,

12
Part 1
Introduction
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1.1 Use of Chapter 12 (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-2
1
1.2 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-3
1.2.1 Safety (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-3
1.2.2 Security (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1-3

Rail Transit
Chapter 12, Rail Transit, is one of three chapters comprising the Passenger and Transit sectors of the rail industry. The other
two are Chapter 11, Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems and Chapter 17, High Speed Rail Systems. The three chapters are
tied together by the Volume 3, Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section that describes those aspects of the three modes
that apply to all three, covering the following broad rail disciplines and features.
• Civil and structural engineering
• Mechanical and electrical engineering
• Train control and communication systems
• Track and related infrastructure
• Passenger stations
• Maintenance shop and yard facilities
• Rail vehicles
The Volume 3, Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section should be used by planners and engineers evaluating the
introduction of new service, be it a new system or new line of an existing system.
Chapters 11, 12 and 17 should be used with the Volume 3, Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section to refine the mode
selection. Depending upon which mode is selected, the corresponding chapter is used to design, construct and maintain the
new system for long-term operations.
Respectively, each chapter provides information useful for improvement projects.
The Volume 3, Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section and Chapters 11, 12 and 17 have been developed with a
universal outline and format to help make direct comparisons between the various passenger modes possible.
1.1.1 USE OF CHAPTER 12 (2007)
This chapter generally is used for rail systems that carry only passengers on dedicated or closed rights-of-way and that fall
under the purview, in the United States, of the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) of the United States Department of
Transportation (USDOT). In some systems, the right-of-way is shared by freight railroads and the passenger rail transit
vehicles. In these circumstances, both the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) and the FTA are involved.
Chapter 12 is for the following rail transit systems.
• Rapid Transit, some times called Heavy Rail or Subways
• Light Rail Transit and Street Cars
• Automated People Movers

Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Considerations
Safety and security should be integral to the design, construction, maintenance and operation of rail transit. Each system will
have its own inherent security requirements based on the type of system designed, type of Right-of-Way available, access to
the system and other factors that must be considered before executing a security plan. Safety and security criteria should be
developed and employed in conjunction with the design and operating criteria of the rail transit system.
1.2.1 SAFETY (2007)
Safety is to prevent injuries and proscribe action upon the incidence of injury. Safety applies with equal importance to the
people who provide service and the people who utilize rail transit. Safety is part of the daily procedures and policies that apply
to the following people:
• Construction workers, supervisors and periodic visitors
• People and vehicles adjacent or near the construction sites
• Rail maintenance-of-way, station, train, shop, yard and office workers
• Passengers and retail customers on trains and in stations
• Passengers and the public as they enter or pass by the transit system
Sources of injury are numerous and can be some of the following: 1

• Every day actions such as walking
• Using tools and operating machinery
• Rain, ice and snow

3
• Storms
Preventative measures that should be developed may include the following:
• Policies and procedures
• Initial and periodic peer review of safety training and drills

4
• Evacuation and treatment plans
1.2.2 SECURITY (2007)
Security is similar to safety in that it requires consideration in the planning, design, construction, maintenance and operations
of rail transit, every day and all day. Security is different in the sources of security issues. These sources can include the
following:
• Customer, passerby and employee vandalism
• Planned criminal activity such as robbery
• Terrorist activity such as bombing and sabotage

Rail Transit
While such matters are commonly the responsibility of police and other security professionals, it requires direct involvement
of the planning, design, construction, maintenance and operations rail transit professional to ensure sound, reasonable and
economical security solutions that compliment the short and long-term goals and fiscal constraints of the rail transit system,
such as the following:
• Initial and long term cost
• Cost of prevention versus cost of repair
• Cost of loss of service

12
Part 2
Corridor Planning Considerations1
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.2 Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-4

2.2.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-4
2.2.2 User Needs (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-5 1
2.2.3 Economic Acceptance (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-6
2.2.4 Environmental Acceptance (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-6
2.2.5 Social Acceptance (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-6
2.2.6 Safety (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-6
2.2.7 Institutional Issues (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-7
3
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.3 Attitude Surveys (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.4 Zoning Data (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.5 Environmental Data (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.6 Geographic and Physical Data (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-8
2.3.7 Population and Economic Data (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-9
2.3.8 Transportation Demand Data (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10

2.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4.2 Rail Corridor Criteria (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4.3 Operations Criteria (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4.4 Traffic Sources and Destinations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4.5 Route Identification (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-10
2.4.6 Constraints (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.4.7 Land Availability (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.4.8 Rail Line / Neighborhood Interface (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.4.9 Regulatory Interface (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
1

Rail Transit
2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11

2.5.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.5.2 Selection of Route within Corridor (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.5.3 Passenger Convenience (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.5.4 Land Availability (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-11
2.5.5 Multi-Modal Interfaces (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.6 Central Business District Interfaces (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.7 Community Relations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.8 Joint Facility Development Opportunities (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.9 Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.10 Property Value Impacts (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.11 Rolling Stock Requirements (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.12 Shared Right-of-Way (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-12
2.5.13 Shared Trackage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.5.14 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.6 Selection of Rail Transit Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13

2.6.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.6.2 Vehicle Technology Types (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-13
2.6.3 Track Technology (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-15
2.6.4 Propulsion Technology (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-16
2.6.5 Signal Technology (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-16
2.6.6 Communications Technology (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-17
2.6.7 Safety and Security Technology (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-18
2.6.8 Fare Collection Technology (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-18
2.6.9 Stations and Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-19
2.6.10 Route Technical Constraints (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-20
2.6.11 Electric Traction Characteristics (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
2.7 Regional Transportation Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22

2.7.1 General – Interface with Other Transportation Modes (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
2.7.2 Types of Interfaces (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
2.7.3 Typical Station Interfaces (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
2.7.4 Central Business District Stations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
2.8 Corridor Implementation Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23

2.8.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23
2.8.2 Operations Simulation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23
2.8.3 Implementation Schedule and Plan (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23
2.8.4 Capital Cost Estimating (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23
2.8.5 Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimating (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-23

LIST OF TABLES
12-2-1 Typical Vehicle Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-14

12-2-2 Typical Control Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-17
12-2-3 Typical Minimum Radius Curvature Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-21
12-2-4 Typical Maximum Gradient Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-21
12-2-5 Typical Maximum Speed Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-21
12-2-6 Typical Station Spacing Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2-22
a. This section covers an area best described as conceptual engineering. It builds upon the planning discussion presented
in the Volume 3, Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section and describes the steps and considerations which are
normally addressed when identifying and analyzing rail transit corridors. The rail transit modes addressed in this
section are rapid transit, light rail and automated guided transit (AGT). A general synopsis of transit-related planning
considerations is included to familiarize the engineer with the overall concepts for studying a potential corridor and
selecting the most appropriate rail transit mode.
b. A rail transit corridor evaluation study is typically performed by a multi-disciplined team. It is important that engineers 1
be included on this team so that practical engineering considerations are recognized from the earliest stages of project
development. This team must work closely with the agency sponsoring the study, as well as the different levels of
government and agencies involved in the area to be studied. The study team staffing plan should include environmental
impact specialists, financial analysts, and government representatives. In an area with an existing transit system,
representatives of the operating authority should also be included.
c. The first step when starting an analysis is to define clear project goals. Some goals will be set by the sponsor and some 3
will be self-evident. Other goals need to be defined by the project team before an effective study can proceed. Included
in this section is a discussion of what the most common goals are and how to achieve them. Once the goals are set, the
gathering of data and projections can begin.
d. Some types of planning data will be readily available. Other data must be specifically developed for the project, and
will take a period of time to produce. Ridership projections and economic analyses, in particular, can take long periods
of time to obtain, especially if they are to be accurate. Ridership estimates must be based on reasonable assumptions
4
and lead to realistic projections.
e. The viability of corridors to be analyzed should be assessed early in the process, so that data collection can proceed
effectively without wasting time and effort on non-viable corridors. Corridor studies are often broken down into
conceptual and preliminary phases. The conceptual study phase attempts to look at all choices, but this is done only
with the amount of detail necessary to eliminate the worst options. The preliminary study phase then proceeds with a
more in-depth analysis to arrive at the evaluation team’s recommendations for selecting the preferred corridor(s).
f. The criteria for evaluating the potential corridors and routes need to be set by the entire study team, with due regard for
the sponsoring agency goals. In the case of an initial line in a location with no previous transit experience, local
decision makers may be unfamiliar with rail transit planning issues. In these circumstances, the responsibility of the
planning team is increased and the assignment of the best qualified people is essential.
g. The decision to build a rail transit corridor will have extensive and long-term impacts on the region. Due to these long-
term effects, the choice of rail transit technology must be closely related to the potential ridership and the perceptions

Rail Transit
of the public. The proposed rail transit system must be perceived as bringing social and economic benefits to the
community. It must also interface with and improve the existing regional transportation system. Finally, it must serve
the future transportation needs of the area.
h. Major areas to be addressed in identifying rail corridors go beyond engineering and include:
• Planning
• Urban Land Economics
• Environmental Issues
• Financing
• Operations
• Politics
i. Engineers working on corridor studies need to be familiar with the above disciplines, and recognize that they will have
strong effects on the eventual selection of corridors and routes. Likewise, the choice of corridor/route and vehicle
technologies often affect one another.
j. The corridor evaluation section includes a discussion of some of the factors which are important when selecting a
vehicle technology. Alignment, station locations, passenger loadings and travel time are obvious factors. However,
technology changes, such as those in car design, control and power systems, can also be important considerations.
k. Lastly, the strategy for the implementation of the rail transit plan needs to be developed. This includes phasing, land
purchases, financing, approvals, public relations and design/construction planning.
2.2.1 GENERAL (2006)
In planning for rail transit corridors, it must always be kept in mind that the central purpose is to move people. More
particularly, the purpose is to move people efficiently, safely and securely with an appropriate degree of comfort. In defining a
rail transit project, practical trade-offs must be made between ideal planning objectives and adherence to rigid design criteria.
Many other sub-goals and criteria must also be considered, but their relationship to the central goal of efficiently, safely and
securely moving people must always be kept in mind. Examples of major criteria include the following.
2.2.1.1 Capacity
a. The characteristic of rail transit that gives it special significance is its ability to move volumes of people on minimal
rights-of-way. There are systems operating that move as many as 60,000 persons per hour per track in the peak travel
direction. Utilizations of 500-700 persons per track per minute may be more reasonable to avoid unfavorable public
reaction to crush loading. However, the 1,000 person per minute capability can be obtained.
b. Rail transit’s high volume capabilities suggest that its primary advantage is to move large volumes of people,
particularly during peak travel hours. Various operating patterns (local, express service, zone service, skip-stop service)
may be considered to tailor the system to passenger demand. Capacity to handle future demand increases requiring

additional tracks and ability to bypass stations (e.g. express or zone service) should be considered in the planning
process.
2.2.1.2 Land Usage
a. Due to rail transit’s high volume capability, it is particularly well suited to serve areas of high density land utilization.
In these situations, other vehicles move about only with difficulty and large amounts of land and structures are
necessarily devoted to streets, highway structures and parking.
b. A central goal for rail transit corridors is to feed or link these areas of high density land usage, or to act as a catalyst for
high density development. Rail transit allows much more dense commercial, business, and residential development
than is possible with other transportation technologies. As such, rail transit can be an asset in planning and stimulating
development in accordance with community land use goals.
2.2.1.3 Energy
High capacity rail transit uses much less energy per passenger-mile than the single occupant automobile. Therefore, an
important goal is to couple highway systems to rail corridor systems using fringe or suburban parking developments. In this
manner the energy-inefficient automobile portion of the trip can be shortened, and lower cost land can be utilized for parking.
2.2.2 USER NEEDS (2006)
The success of any rail transit corridor will depend on its ability to attract riders. The service must be convenient, predictable,
pleasant, safe and economical to the user. Both the infrastructure and the rolling stock must support these needs. Categorized 1
below are various attributes that may be considered important to the attractiveness of service.
2.2.2.1 Convenience
a. Rail corridor stations must be convenient to destination points and facilities such as station parking lots. Pedestrian
mobility to and around stations must be direct and without obstruction. The practical pedestrian radius will be
influenced by length of walk, surroundings, climate, and local preferences. 3
b. For destinations beyond walking distance, convenient interface facilities with connecting transportation systems are a
must. Timing of connections at interface points is particularly important.
c. Frequency of service and perceived speed are other important characteristics affecting convenience. High density
systems commonly operate on as little as 90 second headways. Moderate ridership densities can use 10-15 minute
headways, while longer headways are often used in commuter rail service. Various types of operating patterns (express, 4
zone, skip-stop, etc.) may be used to reduce travel times.
2.2.2.2 Reliability
a. Of all the characteristics that will make a rail transit corridor attractive, reliability of service may be the most
important. Transit riders do not have a sense of control. The system must not frustrate them or make them want to
regain control (i.e., return to a private auto). Significant variations from expected performance cannot be tolerated.
b. Reliability starts with dependable, maintainable mechanical equipment, electrical facilities, and infrastructure. To the
extent possible, maintenance must be accomplished without disrupting or altering service. The system must also be
resistant to adverse weather conditions such as snow, heavy rain, or fog.
c. Another aspect of reliability occurs at connections. Undependable or overly long connections are annoying, fare
machines or turnstiles that don’t work are frustrating, and inadequate parking facilities make the trip difficult.

Rail Transit
Techniques such as timed transfers, dependable machines, and user-friendly designs that promote the sense of
reliability must be included in system goals.
2.2.2.3 Ambiance
a. The ride quality, rail vehicles, stations, and station access must be pleasant. Station designs should provide shelter from
wind and weather, and provide a feeling of security. Stations (and their neighborhoods) must be “pedestrian friendly”.
Activity centers such as small shops can be integrated into station designs to improve the appearance and vitality of the
station environment.
b. While there is a necessary level of reliability and attractiveness to generate the volume of passengers required for
support of the rail corridor, overspending on details that add little to convenience, reliability, general ambiance, utility
of construction or efficiency of operation and maintenance should be avoided.
2.2.2.4 Reasonable Fare Structure
a. Studies are required to suggest an appropriate fare structure and to designate the sources of additional funding. This
additional funding typically supports from 15% to 65% of the cost of operations. The additional funding must be
derived from a dependable long-term source.
2.2.3 ECONOMIC ACCEPTANCE (2006)
Only a portion of the population will ride the rail transit corridor. Yet, the presence of the rail transit corridor will affect the
whole community through its influence on highway traffic volumes and density of land usage. It is important that the rail
transit service be understood and accepted by the community as a whole, because of the rail line’s impact on the surroundings
and its need for some form of public subsidy. A definite effort should be made to quantify the costs and benefits of all
transportation modes in the community, including rail transit.
2.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTANCE (2006)
Environmental acceptance goes well beyond the common restrictions on air and water pollution. It encompasses the question
“is the proposed rail corridor compatible with the character and feelings of this community?” A goal of the rail corridor
development is to pass this community test. A number of factors must be considered, including air quality, noise, vibration,
visual appearance, travel time, traffic congestion, blocking of streets, taking of property, dislocation of neighborhoods,
blocking of views, construction disruptions, etc.
2.2.5 SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE (2006)
Modern society requires that certain social goals be met when providing transit services. These generally require an equality of
mobility for all persons in the community. Communities are unique and the relationship of their social goals to the rail transit
corridor must be aired and decided.
2.2.6 SAFETY (2007)
The corridor safety goal is that it must be, on a per trip basis, at least as safe as the existing alternatives. A number of particular
details for attention are categorized below.
2.2.6.1 Train Movement
By far the most important safety matters in rail corridor operations are speed and control of train movement. The irrevocable
goal is that safe separation distances be maintained at all times and that there be no collision or hazard of accident between
trains.

2.2.6.2 Infrastructure
Design and engineering of tracks, bridges, and tunnels utilize well-developed safe practices and codes. The goal for
infrastructure is that it be safe, maintainable and in accordance with all applicable codes.
2.2.6.3 Electrical Hazards
Systems employing overhead or third-rail power distribution must include protective designs for both the public and their own
employees. Access to overhead wires must be denied at bridges; third-rail should employ covers, and be located on secure
right-of-way.
2.2.6.4 Vehicular Conflicts
Grade crossing accidents are the principal cause of human injury with respect to rail operations. Collisions between highway
vehicles and rail vehicles must be prevented. Systems employing automatic train operation must be isolated from all
uncontrolled activity such as vehicles and pedestrians at grade. This isolation includes the system’s own maintenance
activities.
2.2.6.5 Pedestrian Safety
a. Stations, station platforms, stairways, and escalators must include safety considerations in their design. Problems of car
door safety and platform gap awareness are important focuses for safety on high density systems. Designs must also
recognize the safety considerations posed by persons with physical disabilities. The goal is to avoid personal injuries
from stumbling, slipping, falling, running into objects, or being pushed into a dangerous situation.
1
b. Trespassers form a second consideration for pedestrian safety. Rail rights-of-way should be designed to be relatively
inaccessible and warning signs should be used.
2.2.6.6 Security
Along with general pedestrian safety, security of individuals must also be considered. The problem is as much perceived 3
security as it is any actual threat to persons using the transit system. Designs should attempt to keep persons in full view of
others and avoid solitary paths of movement in and around stations. The goal is to avoid security problems by keeping people
together and within sight of one another. Proper use of Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) systems with centralized security
and communications bears consideration.
2.2.6.7 Fire
4
The primary source of transit fires is electrical systems, both in trackside power systems and onboard the cars themselves. The
infrastructure must allow for evacuation of passengers quickly and safely and must allow access and safety for fire fighters.
Designers are well advised to know their local fire safety codes and, in particular, NFPA 130, “Standard for Fixed Guideway
Transit Systems”. The goal is to avoid injury or loss of life due to fires occurring on the rail transit system.
2.2.7 INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES (2007)
A wide range of institutional issues must be addressed throughout the planning process. The impact of a rail transit line will
cut a wide swath through a variety of institutional interests at the federal (national), state (provincial) and local levels. Each of
these institutions will have their legitimate interests and all must be satisfied to some reasonable degree if the project is to
move toward construction. These institutions will include entities both public and private, with political, financial, public
policy, business, environmental and community development interests, among others.
The interests of these institutions and their constituencies should be identified early and considered throughout the planning
process. Typically, a wide variety of issues will be brought forward by the various institutions. Some organizations will be

Rail Transit
supportive, some with be critical, and all will have their own items of particular significance. Each major player should feel
that they have a place at the table; there is much to be gained by keeping all parties engaged. The planner needs to understand
these various interests and accommodate as many as possible given the constraints of technical, schedule and financial
feasibility. These interests should always be respected even if they cannot always be accommodated.
In addressing sometimes competing and conflicting interests, the planner should stress the overall benefits of the rail project
and seek to bring these benefits to as wide a constituency as possible. Conversely, the planner should seek to mitigate
problems associated with the project through effective planning, review of available options, and thorough analysis of site-
specific concerns.
Many concerns will focus on disruption to the local community during construction activities. Much benefit can be gained by
effectively addressing construction-related concerns through careful attention to work zones and staging plans to minimize
disruption to local communities and roadways.
2.3.1 GENERAL (2006)
A complete set of data and information is needed early in the rail corridor planning process. This data ranges from the
demography of the human populations to be served to the physical characteristics that will govern engineering and design of
the system. This section suggests the variety and scope of data to be collected and considered.
See Volume 3 Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section.
2.3.4 ZONING DATA (2006)
2.3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL DATA (2006)
2.3.6 GEOGRAPHIC AND PHYSICAL DATA (2006)
Transit lines, particularly LRT lines, can offer the designer a wide range of route location options thanks to their flexibility and
adaptability to a variety of right-of-way types. Transit routes can utilize a variety of existing land uses, including “green field”
and “brown field” sites, highway medians and shoulders, city streets (i.e., street-running LRT), utility easements, and active
and abandoned railroad rights-of-way. This is in contrast to commuter rail route planning, where route options are generally
limited to existing, pre-defined rail lines and there is little, if any, scope for expansion beyond existing railroad rights-of-way.
Data needs for transit-oriented planning will typically be more extensive than for commuter rail, both in terms of the quantity
of the information required and the amount of research necessary. The greater number of route options available inherently
creates a need for planning data for each option. The research effort required will vary depending upon existing land uses.

Existing railroad and utility corridors typically have well-defined, well-accepted boundaries and the data needed for planning
purposes can often be obtained from a single source (e.g., company records). In cases involving highway rights-of-way and
land not currently used for transportation purposes, however, project boundaries may be tentative and planning information
must be gathered from a variety of sources (or taken from field surveys) and interpreted in terms of the intended rail use.
a. Route planners should carefully review the data that may be available from public authorities, utilities, and private
companies. Geographic and physical data are often available from previous surveys and databases. Data sources
include:
• Topographic maps.
• Development maps.
• Geologic data.
• Climatic records.
• Hydrological records.
• Utility maps and records.
• Railroad right-of-way maps.
• Track and signal diagrams.

1
• Other right-of-way maps.
• GPS-based mapping.
• Graphic-based geographic management information systems (GIS).

3
b. The physical characteristic data must be combined with demographic and transportation data to identify the physical
obstructions and preferable routes for the natural flow of the transportation system. From this process, a set of possible
corridor routes will emerge to be evaluated.
2.3.7 POPULATION AND ECONOMIC DATA (2006)
a. The beginning of a rail corridor investigation should be a literature search of published population and economic 4
growth projections. Public records and utility records are good sources of growth information.
b. The following points should be considered to assess the validity of the growth projections:
• What are the underlying assumptions?
• What assumptions are missing?
• What are the sources of the base data?
• Are the assumptions and base data adequate?
• Do the projections make sense?
c. Next, evaluate the projections themselves. Are they relevant to the rail corridor? What will be their effects?

Rail Transit
d. Missing projection data must be developed. It is important that the corridor agency participate in development of
projections so that other agencies’ observations and knowledge are incorporated. A consensus is important; all parties
should formally agree on the population and employment forecasts. Also, these forecasts should indicate a range of
results (low, medium, and high) using appropriate statistical measures, such as means and standard deviations.
2.3.8 TRANSPORTATION DEMAND DATA (2006)
a. Accurate knowledge of current transportation patterns is indispensable to any rail corridor plan. The data desired is
accurate origin-destination pairs by mode and by time of day.
b. Once the current transportation patterns are known, population, employment, and activity projections can be
considered and the range of future demand forecast. The first transportation forecast assumes no changes in
transportation infrastructure and forecasts the impacts of future increases in transportation demand.
c. If high density land use is present or projected, rail transit corridors should be considered. It is very important that once
a rail corridor has been defined, it must be integrated into an overall regional or local area transportation plan. This
plan must include highways, local roads, parking, and public transit.
2.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
2.4.2 RAIL CORRIDOR CRITERIA (2006)
2.4.3 OPERATIONS CRITERIA (2006)
2.4.4 TRAFFIC SOURCES AND DESTINATIONS (2006)
2.4.5 ROUTE IDENTIFICATION (2006)
a. Once identified, a corridor will broadly define the location of a proposed rail transit line within its boundaries. As
corridor characteristics are analyzed, the rail line location will be further defined in terms of a general route or
alignment. Characteristics defining a route may be the traffic demand pattern, existing transport facilities (rail lines,
highways, power lines), or the natural topography. In some cases where a candidate route is delineated by existing or
projected travel demand, there may not be an obvious physical route available.
b. These situations should be evaluated at an early stage so that their impact on project cost and feasibility may be
determined.
c. In some situations, there will be two or more alternate (parallel) routes possible through all or part of the corridor. In
these cases, an analysis must be conducted to rank candidate routes.

2.4.6 CONSTRAINTS (2006)
2.4.7 LAND AVAILABILITY (2006)
a. The availability of land suitable for rail transit development within a selected corridor may be limited. Often, land and
right-of-way availability become the crucial issues in rail corridor development. The planning process should explore
creative use of existing public and private rights-of-way to mitigate these problems.
b. The purchase of land to create a new transportation corridor where none exists is an expensive, time-consuming
activity. It is a highly public endeavor requiring multiple review processes. As an alternative, it may be desirable to
analyze the rail transit potential of existing transportation corridors, such as railroads, highway medians, utility rights-
of-way, etc. The presence of a relatively inexpensive, existing right-of-way may make a rail project practical and
economically justified, even if it is not among a region’s most densely traveled corridors.
c. The use of existing rights-of-way is subject to two caveats: The conversion cost to rail transit use must be reasonable,
and the project must serve a meaningful level of transit demand.
d. Public agencies may also wish to preserve existing unused rights-of-way or actively assemble individual parcels into
new corridors for future transportation use. Otherwise, these opportunities may be lost through uncoordinated land
development.
2.4.8 RAIL LINE / NEIGHBORHOOD INTERFACE (2006) 1

2.4.9 REGULATORY INTERFACE (2006)
See Volume 3 Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section. 3
2.5.1 GENERAL (2006)

4
2.5.2 SELECTION OF ROUTE WITHIN CORRIDOR (2006)
2.5.3 PASSENGER CONVENIENCE (2006)
2.5.4 LAND AVAILABILITY (2006)

Rail Transit
2.5.5 MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES (2006)
a. The relationship of the location of stations to the highway network, and in particular, the freeway system and arterial
road network, must be considered. If the purpose of the line is to serve a large area beyond the corridor itself, then the
design of the station/highway interface may include modifications of the freeway interchanges to facilitate intermodal
coordination.
b. The total travel time of the passenger is a very important consideration in route selection. However, this factor should
not be calculated simply from one rail station to another; rather it must be calculated from the passenger’s origin
(home) to his/her destination (work, school, entertainment). For example, total travel time may include walking or
driving to the station, parking, waiting, transfer, travel on bus and/or rail transit, walking, and elevators to the final
destination.
2.5.6 CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT INTERFACES (2006)
a. In an urban area, the route, type of construction (at-grade, aerial, underground), and selection of sites for stations,
storage yards, and maintenance shops must conform to the nature and character of each neighborhood that the line
serves.
b. Station design should be integrated into the fabric of the individual neighborhood being served. From the engineering
and operation standpoints, stations may be standardized but from the aesthetic standpoint, they should be assets and an
integral part of the area. Properly designed and built, the new stations will become the hubs in their local area and will
attract development around them. Where possible, substations may be integrated with passenger stations, shop
facilities, or other project-related structures.
c. In the urban zone, proper integration with existing distributor systems will reduce the need for large parking areas.
2.5.7 COMMUNITY RELATIONS (2006)
2.5.8 JOINT FACILITY DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES (2006)
2.5.9 SUITABLE SUPPORT AND MAINTENANCE AREAS (2006)
2.5.10 PROPERTY VALUE IMPACTS (2006)
2.5.11 ROLLING STOCK REQUIREMENTS (2007)
2.5.12 SHARED RIGHT-OF-WAY (2006)

2.5.13 SHARED TRACKAGE (2006)
SECTION 2.6 SELECTION OF RAIL TRANSIT TECHNOLOGY
2.6.1 GENERAL (2006)
a. The central issue in the selection of the best-suited rail transit technology is the selection of the vehicle technology or
type.
b. The functions of service goals and vehicle type/technology are closely interrelated. Service goals set the level of
service frequency, transit time, station spacing, comfort levels, and amenities, as well as the nodes to be served. These,
in turn, determine the power and propulsion requirements, station size, and vehicle configuration for expected
loadings. Finally, the requirements for the vehicle type are reflected in the infrastructure (curvature, grade, and speed
capabilities), need for grade separation, and other design characteristics of the track and structure.
1
2.6.2 VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY TYPES (2007)
a. There are three general types of rail transit technology that can be considered:
• Rapid Transit
3
• Light Rail (including streetcar)
• Automated Guided Transit (AGT)
b. While each type has some flexibility in application, the technology must be compatible with the selected route
alignment. As a result, from a technical standpoint, the selection of transit technology is interdependent with the choice
and design of the route alignment. 4
2.6.2.1 General
See Volume 3 Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail.
a. Vehicle configuration is a variable of the technology selected, expected patronage loadings, and planned travel times.
b. Rapid transit vehicles typically have a seating capacity of 40 to 80 passengers and can accommodate crush loads well
in excess of 100% additional standees. Rapid transit operates in high-capacity trainsets with high platform
loading/unloading capabilities and minimum headways.
c. Light rail employs single-vehicle seating capacities of approximately 50 to 85 passengers and utilizes three or four
vehicle trainsets for peak operations. Because of operating philosophies and the street-level boarding/disembarking of

Rail Transit
the light rail vehicles, a 50% standing capacity is calculated for load analysis. When loads for light rail vehicles exceed
this factor, a decision must be made as to accepting crush loads, adding more vehicles to trains, or by reducing
headways. Each of these options must be looked at from a cost effectiveness standpoint.
d. Automated Guided Transit (AGT) is a suitable mode for major activity centers such as aiports, universities, hospitals
and central business districts. These systems are typically designed for full automated operation and without the need
for personnel on-board the vehicles or at stations. AGT systems may be designed to operate relatively small cars,
seating only six to ten passengers per vehicle, while AGT cars in airport and urban service may be designed to
accommodate 50 passengers or more per vehicle.
e. Systems can be planned for all persons seated, all standees, or a mix. Table 12-2-1 shows the wide variety of vehicle
designs.
Table 12-2-1. Typical Vehicle Characteristics
Accel. Decel.
Seating Maximum Rate Rate
Category Capacity Capacity (mph/s) (mph/s) Cars/Train
Rapid Transit 40-80 100-175 2.5-3.0 2.8-3.2 6-10
Light Rail 50-85 110-175 3.0 3.0-4.0 1-4
AGT 30-50 75-160 2.2-3.0 2.5-3.0 1-8
2.6.2.2.1 Rapid Transit
a. If the designated corridor has characteristics suggesting the need for a trunk line rapid transit system, the selection of
such factors as car length, platform height, and door pattern affect the length of stations, the required running and
station dwell time, and the number of cars in the fleet.
b. In turn, the selection of the route alignment may require cars that can negotiate small radius curves and steep grades.
The height of the car becomes a factor in the cost of construction if extensive tunneling is involved. The weight of the
car becomes a factor if extensive aerial structures are required.
c. The capacity of the cars, the size of the door openings, and the minimum spacing between trains strongly affects the
design of the station platforms, staircases, escalators, and other station design elements relating to capacity.
2.6.2.2.2 Light Rail Transit (LRT)
a. Vehicles designed for use on lines which will include a combination of private rights-of-way, aerial structures, tunnel,
and running in public streets with automotive traffic must be designed to accommodate an additional series of criteria.
b. In order to negotiate curves required when turning corners in an existing street pattern, vehicles must be capable of
negotiating extremely short radius curves. If the route under consideration has steep grades, these must also be
accommodated.
c. Street running with automotive traffic requires that the braking rates and systems for vehicles in such service be
capable of much shorter stops than other rail systems.
d. In order to obtain high productivity, many LRT lines utilize trains of several cars under control of one operator. The
total train length must be determined such that the rear of a train stopping for a traffic light at one intersection will not
interfere with traffic flow at adjacent intersections.
e. The design of stations within the city streets will be affected by, and will affect, the design of the car.

f. Basic route selection of all transportation facilities includes the factors of travel time, initial cost of construction, initial
cost of locomotives and vehicles, operating costs over the life the system (life cycle cost of system), feasibility of
construction and political acceptability. All of the factors enumerated above must be considered before the final
evaluation is made.
2.6.2.2.3 Automated Guided Transit (AGT)
Automated Guided Transit (AGT) systems are typically employed in passenger circulator and distributor roles. In some cases
these systems may have a short line-haul mission as well.
AGT systems are typically supplied by a manufacturer on a turn-key basis using proprietary technologies. The various
elements (vehicles, guideway, power, and control systems) and their functional interfaces are set and controlled by the
manufacturer. AGT systems may be based on steel wheel/steel rail or rubber-tire technologies.
AGT systems feature automatic, unmanned operation. As a result, they require use of dedicated, grade-separated guideways
compatible with unattended operation. Design of AGT infrastructure and control systems must provide safety and passenger
information features for use in the event that automated systems fail.
AGT guideways may be aerial, at-grade or underground. Station and guideway design must provide facilities for passenger
evacuation during service failures or emergencies.
In reviewing AGT options, the planner is well-advised to consider the carrying capacity, maximum speed, clearance envelope
and vertical and horizontal geometry capabilities of each proprietary AGT system. AGT performance and guideway
geometries need to be well-matched to the intended service and available alignment options.
1
Route selection will depend primarily upon passenger demand, but must also include access to a suitable location for a
maintenance facility.
2.6.3 TRACK TECHNOLOGY (2007)
A wide range of service-proven track technologies is available for use in rail transit applications. The selection of track 3
technology will be driven by a variety of factors, chief among them location, service life, initial capital cost and on-going
maintenance frequency and cost.
Conventional tie and ballast construction dates from near the dawn of railroad development and remains the most widely-used
track type even today. It is best suited for at-grade construction but can also be viable for aerial and subway applications. In
current practice, rail will be continuously welded, while ties may be wood or concrete, with the choice of tie made based on
life-cycle cost analysis. Rail fasteners will be of either the direct fixation type, or conventional tie plates and cut spikes, 4
adequately anchored, if wood ties and stone ballast are to be employed.
Street trackage may be built using conventional tie and ballast construction with a paving layer or through reliance on
specialized construction types, such as concrete track slabs. Rail may be conventional T-rail or girder-type. Rail securement
may be by means of mechanical fasteners or poured-in-place construction elastomers.
Track slabs utilizing direct fixation of rails may also be the economical choice for use in aerial and subway construction, where
the reduced weight and lower vertical profile associated with this type of construction can be of benefit.
Special low-noise and low-vibration track forms are available for use in sensitive areas such as hospitals, laboratories, and
concert halls to mitigate the effects of transit operations. These track types are generally complex and make extensive use of
elastomeric elements to isolate the track structure from the surrounding environment. Their use is restricted to areas of high
sensitivity where the additional expense can be justified.

Rail Transit
Special trackwork (turnouts, crossings, restraining rails and the like) can generally be found in the same variety of options as
the basic track construction. Generally, the type of construction employed in the special trackwork should match the
construction of the surrounding track form.
For planning purposes, the planner should quantify which portions of the route are suitable for open (conventional) track,
which portions will require street trackage, and which areas may require slab track or other special track forms. Special
trackwork requirements should also be determined. Design criteria establishing the construction details should be established
and reasonable unit cost estimates developed for each type of track construction. Unit costs may then be applied against
quantity take-offs to develop construction cost estimates for each alignment option.
NOTE: Refer to Chapter 5 for more information.
2.6.4 PROPULSION TECHNOLOGY (2007)
2.6.4.1 Electric Propulsion
Vehicle propulsion is generally accomplished through the application of electric traction motors to drive axle-mounted gear
units. Proprietary systems using Linear Induction Motors, where part of the propulsion apparatus is mounted in the guideway
in the form of a reaction rail, have also been employed in certain applications on fenced or grade separated alignments free of
at-grade crossings.
Current and anticipated trends in vehicle propulsion technology involve use of alternating current (ac) propulsion systems
employing high-performance power electronics to transform energy drawn from a wayside traction power system into a form
suitable for use by ac traction motors. System arrangements and details vary between manufacturers and continually evolve,
and on established rail systems may need to consider the presence of pre-existing electrification systems, but the fundamental
advantages of ac propulsion in the rail transit environment are well established. These advantages include higher reliability,
reduced maintenance requirements, and reduced susceptibility to moisture-related motor damage as compared to conventional
direct current (dc) traction.
Propulsion manufacturers can provide ac propulsion systems suitable for any type of rail vehicle across a wide range of
performance capabilities. Vehicles may have some or all axles powered depending upon the performance levels desired and
specific design constraints (such as weight).
Vehicle electric propulsion systems, by nature, will emit electromagnetic energy across a broad spectrum. This energy has the
potential to generate Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) that may adversely affect other on-vehicle systems and wayside
signal and communication systems. These emissions need to be strictly limited at the most sensitive frequencies and
minimized over the entire spectrum. As a result, the specification, design, manufacture and installation of vehicle propulsion
systems, signal and train control systems, and communication systems must be closely coordinated.
NOTE: Refer to Chapter 33, Part 12 for more information.
2.6.4.2 Diesel Propulsion
While LRT has traditionally been synonymous with electric propulsion, several non-electric LRT lines have been built
worldwide in recent years. These systems combine traditional light rail vehicle design concepts with a diesel prime mover and
electric or hydraulic transmissions. While less “green” than a traditional electrified system, this approach allows construction
of LRT without the associated expense of electrical infrastructure. The primary U.S. example at the time of writing is NJ
TRANSIT’s River Line between Trenton, NJ and Camden, NJ.
2.6.5 SIGNAL TECHNOLOGY (2007)
a. Signaling should not be viewed as a governing factor in the corridor selection process, but should become an
outgrowth of the technology chosen, and must be appropriate for the speeds required and traffic density anticipated.

Rapid transit, by its nature, is sophisticated and modern-day systems are highly automated. Light rail, by its use of
shared rights-of-way, does not need to be highly signaled. However, in tunnels and at higher speeds, a minimum of a
wayside signal system should be used. With the trend of having light rail traveling down centers of boulevards and, in
some cases, reverting to street running with automobiles, the signal system is often integrated with the automobile
traffic signals. Automated Guided Transit (AGT) systems require totally automated control systems, but generally have
manually-operated backup controls for fault recovery, and for shop and yard movement.
b. Various types of control systems in use are listed here in order of increasing protection/automation and capital cost:
• LOS – Line of Sight.
• MB – Manual Block.
• ABS – Automatic Block System.
• ATS – Automatic Train Stop.
• ATP – Automatic Train Protection.
• ATC – Automatic Train Control.
• ATO – Automatic Train Operation.
In addition, current trends in the signal technology applications include development of Positive Train Stop (PTS)
features and implementation of Communications Based Train Control (CBTC) systems.
1
c. Control systems typically employed on the various rail transit modes are shown in Table 12-2-2.
Table 12-2-2. Typical Control Characteristics
Category LOS MB ABS ATS ATP ATC ATO 3

Rapid Transit — — X X X X X
Light Rail X — X X — X —
AGT — — — — — X X
NOTE: Refer to AREMA Communications and Signals Manual, Section 7 for more information.
4
2.6.6 COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY (2007)
Communications technologies are rapidly evolving across a multitude of applications, with increasing levels of capability and
decreasing levels of cost. Some of these technologies are (or will be) useful in the context of a rail transit system. The planner
should be aware of the communications capabilities available during the planning for each project and apply those that fit with
project goals, requirements and budgets. Communications technologies should be incorporated because they are useful and
necessary, not simply because they are technically achievable.
Basic items that should be incorporated in communications systems planning include two-way radios, public address systems,
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)-compliant passenger information systems, and passenger (emergency) intercoms.
Except on very simple LRT and streetcar systems, Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems should be
employed to support operation of wayside installations such as traction power substations and fare collection systems.

Rail Transit
Enhanced communications options that might be considered include GPS vehicle location systems, automated vehicle health
monitoring, automated transmission of vehicle fault reports, and CCTV coverage of vehicles, stations, parking lots and secure
areas. Other enhancements are to be expected as improved technologies migrate into the field of rail transit.
Communications requirements should be specifically evaluated with respect to security issues associated with both the
terrorist and the common criminal.
NOTE: Refer to AREMA Communications and Signals Manual for more information.
2.6.7 SAFETY AND SECURITY TECHNOLOGY (2006)
a. Safety considerations must be given high priority in the planning process for corridor selection. Factors that govern
safety are:
• The level of signalization chosen.
• Whether grade crossings are to be considered.
• Whether the system operates on exclusive or shared right-of-way.
• Type of power source.
• Level of right-of-way security.
b. While the list is not complete, it should point out that each step of evaluating the technology should emphasize the
safety level of the alternative considered.
2.6.8 FARE COLLECTION TECHNOLOGY (2007)
System planners must establish the overall approach to fare collection to be used (barrier-based or barrier-free) and the fare
media and technologies to be employed. The entire approach to fare collection must be carefully studied in the context of
connecting routes, other non-rail modes and public policy. The overall goal should be to integrate the fare collection system
across all routes and modes so that the transit system as a whole is convenient and economical to use.
Barrier-based systems divide the station area into “free” and “paid” areas which are physically separated by barriers such as
turnstiles. Access to trains is available only from “paid” areas and fares are collected or inspected at the point of barrier entry.
Barrier-free systems are used in conjunction with “proof-of-payment” fare policies. No barriers are used as all station areas
are typically “free.” Fares are paid prior to vehicle boarding using ticket vending machines and the vehicle itself becomes the
“paid” area. Customers are issued a receipt that serves as the “proof-of-payment”. Fare inspectors are employed on vehicles
to inspect for fare payment and issue fines for non-payment of fares. On some systems, especially those with grade-separated
stations, boarding platforms also may be designated as “paid” areas, as a way to enable fare inspection outside the vehicle to
increase compliance and enhance security.
The decision between barrier-based and barrier-free systems will have a major impact on the architectural design of stations.
Barrier-based stations will typically be larger, more complex, and require an enclosed station building due to the need to
segregate “free” and “paid” zones. Stations built to incorporate a barrier-free system will generally be smaller and simpler,
and easier to conform to the specific constraints of each station site.
A variety of fare media and technologies are available and will continue to evolve over time. A primary driver in selection of
the fare medium is the need to accommodate the individual one-way or round-trip fare. Typical media used for this application
are cardstock tickets incorporating a readable magnetic strip and electronic stored value “smart cards” used as a virtual “coin
purse”.

Magnetic strip tickets must be passed through a reader to verify or deduct fare payment. This technology has been available
for a number of years and is still widely used. Electronic cards represent the next generation beyond the magnetic strip and
generally utilize contactless technology. Capabilities can be expanded beyond basic fare payment to include payment for
small purchases from a variety of stores and vendors. Other capabilities include generation of origin-destination and
passenger count data based on where and when the card is used.
It should be noted that the dated time-value ticket (such as a weekly or monthly pass) is a convenient, secure medium that can
readily be employed by the bulk of transit riders (i.e., regular users). Such tickets are compatible with both magnetic strip
tickets and electronic cards. This type of media reduces the number of financial transactions required (e.g., fare is paid once
per month rather than twice per day) and promotes use of credit cards and other forms of electronic payment.
2.6.9 STATIONS AND FACILITIES (2007)
2.6.9.1 Passenger Stations
Passenger stations should be functional, attractive, economical and compatible with their surrounding communities. Design
criteria and the desired level of station ambiance should be determined early in the planning process and further refined as the
project proceeds. Key design factors must include the safety and security of passengers, employees and the general public.
Design concepts should recognize local concerns and be developed with community input.
The planning of passenger station locations will be a key outcome of the planning process. Station location decisions must
strike the right balance among a number of competing factors. Station spacing should be sufficiently close to capture the
available ridership without imposing large travel time penalties associated with an excessive number of station stops. Stations
must have sufficient space for parking and mode transfer facilities yet recognize community sensitivities that may object to a 1
station that is “too large”.
Once potential station locations have been identified, baseline designs should be developed for each type of station required
(e.g., surface – side platforms; surface – center platform; aerial, etc.). All elements necessary for station function should be
included (e.g., shelters, fare machines, passenger information systems, parking, bus bays, security features, etc.).
Design of station platforms and car doorways should be conducted in tandem to ensure that the geometry of the 3
platform/doorway interface is properly set and realistically maintainable over the life of the system.
Each baseline station design should have an associated, realistic construction cost estimate. The estimating methodology
should have sufficient flexibility to allow adjustments to reflect the impact of site-specific conditions (e.g., number of parking
spots, fare machine quantities, degree of site congestion, etc.).
2.6.9.2 Traction Power Substations 4

Traction power substations will typically be required at regular intervals along an electrified rail transit line. Details will vary
with the specifics of each project but spacings of 1.0 -1.5 miles are typical for dc traction power substations. Substations must
be located in proximity to the track and overhead line and suitably projected by enclosures and fencing.
Substation locations should be identified as part of the alignment review process. Sites will be relatively easy to find on
dedicated rights-of-way and in areas of industrial land use. Sites may be difficult to find in downtown and residential areas
where land is scarce and the appearance of an electrical installation may be considered objectionable. In these cases, the
planner may consult with the traction power designers to determine where some flexibility in location may be possible. For
instance, the use of larger capacity, more widely-spaced substations supported by additional feeders may be feasible.
Alternatively, the use of decorative facades and landscaping may be considered to allow the substation to inconspicuously
blend with its surroundings.

Rail Transit
2.6.9.3 Signal Bungalows and Other Signal Infrastructure
Signal bungalows and other signal infrastructure will be needed at defined locations on the right-of-way as determined by
operating requirements and signal design principles. Typically there will be little or no latitude to move the equipment to
alternative locations. If necessary, signal bungalows can be “disguised” in a manner similar to substations in visually-sensitive
locations.
2.6.9.4 Shop Facilities
Shop facilities can present a particular challenge in site selection. These facilities typically require a substantial “footprint” of
contiguous parcels to accommodate the necessary maintenance and storage functions, plus the space demanded by material
storage and employee parking requirements. The facilities must be located close to the rail line and in an area compatible with
the “light industrial” nature of their use. Many times, the number of feasible candidate sites is small and the list of their
shortcomings is long.
Identification and preservation of possible shop sites is critical to project development and should be addressed in the earliest
phases of planning. All possible options should be considered and creative use or reuse of existing sites should be considered.
Alignment options must consider their connectivity with feasible shop sites, and lack of a suitable site may constitute a “fatal
flaw” for a given alignment.
NOTE: Refer to Chapter 6 for more information.
2.6.10 ROUTE TECHNICAL CONSTRAINTS (2007)
The following route characteristics form the constraints that will influence the selection of the transit technology.
2.6.10.1 Exclusive Grade-Separated Right-of-Way
This configuration represents an ideal situation for any rail technology. It is generally utilized when third-rail power collection
is used and is a requirement when automated rail systems are employed, due to safety considerations. In addition, automated
systems require fencing and should consider intrusion detection protection. Exclusive rights-of-way are desirable for higher
operating speeds, regardless of the power supply or control systems.
2.6.10.2 Dedicated Grade-Level Right-of-Way
Rail operations have often been located on dedicated rights-of-way with periodic crossings at grade for highways and
pedestrians. This arrangement is typical of most of the U.S. railroad network and many transit operations. This configuration
allows economy of development but incurs safety problems at street crossings and with trespassers.
2.6.10.3 Street Running or Non-Dedicated Right-of-Way
Automatic systems are not suitable for street running due to the inability of their control systems to react to unsafe movement
by automotive vehicles or pedestrians. Street running is well suited for light rail operations, and can offer advantages with
respect to alignment flexibility and cost economies.
2.6.10.4 Curvature
Transit rail technologies can accommodate curvatures to 46 degrees (125-foot radius) and sharper; however, it is
recommended that new construction limit curvature to approximately 23 degrees (250-foot radius) for light rail and 19 degrees
(300-foot radius) for rapid transit. Automated Guided Transit (AGT) systems can accommodate sharper curvature when short
cars are utilized. Note that various features of car construction can materially influence the minimum radius curvature
allowable. Table 12-2-3 illustrates typical minimum radius curvatures utilized on existing systems.

Table 12-2-3. Typical Minimum Radius Curvature Examples
Category Mainline Yards and Terminals

Rapid Transit 82-750 feet 85-300 feet
Light Rail (Note 1) 82-750 feet 82-100 feet
AGT 230-328 feet 100 feet
Note 1: Radii as short as 35 ft are used on light rail systems that have evolved from historic trolley car
systems. However, use of these shorter radii limits the options for procurement and operation of
equipment, as the more common modern day light rail car designs are designed for 82 ft (25 meter)
curve radius.
2.6.10.5 Grade
The desirable maximum grade for transit construction is approximately 3%. Grades steeper than this can be considered for use
if there are compelling reasons (e.g., topographic constraints, construction costs) and operating safety is not compromised.
New construction should reference existing operating properties to establish desirable grades. Care must be taken in
considering propulsion methods and weather considerations in planning for gradients. A major criterion is vehicle braking
performance on descending grades; systems utilizing automatic controls usually require that grades within 1,000 feet of
stations be limited to 3% or less. See Table 12-2-4 for examples of existing systems.
Table 12-2-4. Typical Maximum Gradient Examples

1
Category Mainline Exceptions
Rapid Transit 6% 7%
Light Rail 5-6% 7%
AGT 6% 8%
2.6.10.6 Speed 3
Rapid transit vehicles, for the most part, are designed for fast acceleration/deceleration for throughput and frequent stops.
Running speeds up to 65 mph are generally adequate.
Light rail vehicles are also designed for fast acceleration/deceleration and may also be operated in non-exclusive rights-of-way
or in street running with other vehicles. Typical light rail vehicles are designed for maximum speeds in the 50 to 65 miles per
hour range.
4
Automated systems for dense patronage in an urban environment have been designed for speeds up to 70 mph. Automated
Guided Transit (AGT) systems also serve dense patronage (such as at airports), but are designed for somewhat slower speeds,
in the range of 25 mph to 50 mph.
For each technology, desired speeds must be determined from station spacing, line geometry, braking capabilities, and the
ability to attain and maintain vehicle design speeds. For examples of typical maximum speeds, refer to Table 12-2-5.
Table 12-2-5. Typical Maximum Speed Examples
Category Maximum Speed

Rapid Transit 50-80 mph
Light Rail 50-65 mph
AGT 50-55 mph

Rail Transit
2.6.10.7 Station Spacing
Criteria for planning station spacing should take into consideration land use patterns and population densities. Stations in
central business districts and areas of high employment concentration will often require closer spacing than suburban stations.
The availability of distribution and feeder systems will also affect station locations and spacing. Station spacings for rapid
transit and light rail systems will vary depending upon location, with longer station spacing in outlying areas and closer
spacing in urban and CBD locations. For AGT systems, spacing may be measured in the hundreds of feet, depending on the
specific application. For examples of typical station spacings, refer to Table 12-2-6.
Table 12-2-6. Typical Station Spacing Examples
Category Downtown Outlying

Rapid Transit 0.5 Mile 1-2 Miles
Light Rail Every Block or 2nd Block 0.5-1 Mile
AGT 800-1500 Feet 0.5-1 Mile
2.6.11 ELECTRIC TRACTION CHARACTERISTICS (2007)
Rapid transit, utilizing dedicated surface rights-of-way and subway operations, has commonly used a third-rail, collector strip,
or overhead wire power distribution. The presence of grade crossings usually found in light rail operations will generally
restrict the use of third-rail power collection and will normally require overhead contact or catenary wire. Power for AGT
systems is always derived from the guideway. While these general guidelines apply, reference should be made to Chapter 33,
Electrical Energy Utilization, for a more detailed discussion.
SECTION 2.7 REGIONAL TRANSPORTATION INTERFACES
2.7.1 GENERAL – INTERFACE WITH OTHER TRANSPORTATION MODES (2006)
Transportation interfaces are those points where transport systems or modes meet and require the passenger to change modes.
The portrayal of interfacing between a rail transit corridor and other forms of transportation is described in this section.
2.7.2 TYPES OF INTERFACES (2006)
2.7.3 TYPICAL STATION INTERFACES (2006)
2.7.4 CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT STATIONS (2006)
a. Understanding the basic interfaces and realizing their importance in creating a desirable transport mix is essential for
decision makers and station planners. The quality of the interface of rail transit with the other transport modes will
have a large impact on a rider’s decisions regarding all public transit use.

b. Station interfaces, in general, must mesh with the local transportation network and be compatible with their
neighborhoods.
SECTION 2.8 CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES
2.8.1 GENERAL (2006)
a. The political and financial ramifications of transit corridor selection and route design must be considered concurrently
with the preceding steps so that implementation of the system will proceed smoothly. Planning and design functions
will be coordinated closely with the sponsor throughout the corridor selection process to insure accuracy of land
acquisition needs and construction cost estimates.
b. Right-of-way acquisition is often the “make or break” factor for a proposed rail transit system and will, in some
instances, govern the vertical location of the system. During the evaluation phase, the planning team must be
constantly attuned to this important factor and be authoritative in assessments that sufficient right-of-way is available
for the trackway, stations, substations, yards, maintenance shops, and storage facilities. Wherever possible, viable
alternate routes should be presented in addition to the preferred alignment. Costs and non-economic implications of
each alternate approach should be clearly set forth for evaluation by public sector decision-makers. Very often
legislation at one or more government levels is required to make the necessary land obtainable, and errors can be
costly, or perhaps fatal, to the project.
1
c. Most rail transit systems are funded through a combination of sources such as local government, regional authorities,
and state, provincial and federal governments. Here again, much care must be exercised during the evaluation process
to provide accurate and defendable cost information to take to the supporting agencies, and sometimes the voting
public, for approval of loans, grants, and bond issues. Major transit endeavors that overrun estimated construction costs
and fail to achieve ridership and revenue targets alienate the general public. Legislators must be heavily involved in the
evaluation phase of corridor and route selection activities. The time, cost, and effort associated with intense public
involvement are a small price to pay for acceptance and approval of the proposed rail transit system by the general 3
public and the involved agencies.
2.8.2 OPERATIONS SIMULATION (2006)

4
2.8.3 IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE AND PLAN (2006)
2.8.4 CAPITAL COST ESTIMATING (2006)
2.8.5 OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE COST ESTIMATING (2006)

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123
Part 3
Track and Roadway Considerations1
— 2010 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.2.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-3
3.2.2 Safety/Security (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-4 1
3.2.3 Mixed Passenger Transit and Freight (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-5
3.2.4 Speeds (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-5
3.2.5 Superelevation Deficiency (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-6
3.2.8 Propulsion System (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-7 3
3.2.9 Signal Systems (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-8
3.2.10 Environmental (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-8
3.2.11 Reliability (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-9
3.2.13 Flange Bearing Wheels (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-10
3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-10

3.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-10
3.3.3 Passenger Operations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.3.4 Freight Operations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.3.5 Fixed Objects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.3.6 Movable Objects (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.4 Right-of-Way Design Criteria and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12

3.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-12
3.4.2 At Grade Crossings (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-13
3.4.3 Drainage (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-13
3.4.4 Vegetation Control (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-14
3.4.5 Environmental (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-14
3.4.6 Third Party Occupancy (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-14
1
References, Vol. 92, 1991, p. 65; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 131; Vol. 97, p. 117.

Rail Transit
3.5 Track and Roadway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-18

3.5.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-18
3.5.3 Maintenance Philosophy (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-21
3.5.4 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-21
3.5.5 Gage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-21
3.5.6 Track Structure (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-21
3.5.7 Horizontal Geometry (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-26
3.5.9 Signal Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-31
3.5.10 Grounding/Stray Current (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-31
3.5.12 Special Trackwork Components (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-34
3.6 Design Considerations for Future Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-34

3.6.1 Scope (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-34
3.6.2 Introduction (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-34
3.6.3 General Approach (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-35
3.6.4 Specific Points to be Considered (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-36
3.6.5 Conclusion (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-38
LIST OF FIGURES
12-3-1 Third-rail Territory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-20
LIST OF TABLES
12-3-1 Interface Rankings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3-36
The purpose of Part 3 of Chapter 12 is to delineate recommended track and roadway design considerations for heavy and light
rail transit systems, particularly those considerations that differ from other types of passenger and freight operations. Many of
the engineering considerations for rail transit are the same as for other types of rail operations that are described in other
chapters of this Manual. In such cases, this Chapter will reference the other chapters.
Other organizations with an interest in transit track design, primarily the American Public Transit Association (APTA) and the
Transportation Research Board (TRB), have published design and maintenance information that applies to heavy and light rail
transit track design. These publications support the recommendations of this Chapter and will be referenced herein where
appropriate.

Several facets of rail transit operations, while applicable to other types of rail operations, usually receive a different or greater
emphasis in rail transit, thereby resulting in different design considerations from other types of operations. Several of these
facets and their rail transit perspective are as follows:
Operational Reliability. For rail transit, this means safe, on-time performance and requires track components that are
robust and have long service lives that will not require frequent or disruptive maintenance. Components must be
susceptible of easy inspection to identify defective elements and plan for their maintenance or replacement in a safe
and timely manner that will not interfere with normal operations.
Quality of Ride. Passenger comfort of seated and standing patrons should be a significant factor in determining track
modulus, spiral lengths, underbalance limits, and other criteria that result in a smooth ride with gradual changes of
direction and grade.
Headways. Frequency of trains and length of hours of service dictate track designs that are maintainable with minimal
track outages and interference with traffic.
Homogeneity of Fleet. Transit vehicles on a particular route usually have nearly identical characteristics and are
operated in a consistent manner that results in high numbers of uniform stress applications and consistent wear patterns
over time. Anticipated load applications and wear patterns should be examined at an early stage of design and result in
design and maintenance practices that address them.
Track Loading. Transit vehicle axle loads are significantly lower, relatively uniform and more numerous compared to
freight railroads. Transit track should be designed to withstand both maximum loads and fatigue loading.
Urban Environment. Constrained rights of way and close proximity of residential and other sensitive urban facilities
1
require attention to noise and vibration issues. These and other environmental issues, which concern the surrounding
community, should be addressed with regard to access and procedures for construction and maintenance.
Vehicle Constraints. Transit vehicles are typically designed to negotiate sharper horizontal and vertical curves than
other types of railroad vehicles, but the limitations must be identified (or mutually agreed upon between vehicle and
track engineers) and applied to alignment geometry criteria and clearance allowances. A healthy dose of conservatism 3
in the application of these criteria during early stages of design is highly recommended to ensure finished construction
meets operational and safety goals without variances from the criteria.
Electric Traction. Most transit systems use electric traction with either third rail or catenary for power distribution and
with the running rails providing the negative return. The effects of stray current and electric power safety must be
considered in design of track components.
4
Aesthetics and Cleanliness. Patrons are sensitive to interior and exterior appearance and cleanliness of their transit
systems. Patron support of transit is, in part, determined by these conditions. Track should be designed to facilitate
these concepts.
3.2.1 GENERAL (2006)
Developing a safe, operationally efficient, and cost-effective transit system includes the participation of experienced
trackwork engineers during all phases from planning through design to operations and maintenance. A key product of the
systems engineering approach are the criteria that result from the tradeoff of requirements among the engineering disciplines

Rail Transit
and other interests as they coordinate and resolve planning and design issues for each type of transit mode and operating
scenario.
During the planning phase, operations, planning, engineering, real estate, and architecture (OPERA) as well as environmental
and safety personnel should work as a team to define feasible transit corridors, modes and operating scenarios that balance the
needs of all participants. Among the engineering disciplines, the trackwork engineer should play a significant role. A
preliminary trackwork design criteria, along with other disciplines and interests, should be documented and used as the basis
for cost analysis of each scenario. This` planning criteria should become the basis for the final design criteria of the selected
alternative.
During the design phase, the trackwork engineer should continue to work with the other disciplines and interests to define
trackwork criteria that are compatible with the criteria prepared by the other engineering disciplines and interests.
The following sections will present track related information that interacts with the requirements of other disciplines and
which should be used as the basis of discussion during the development of a transit project’s design criteria.
The principal means of securing track and right of way from intrusion that falls within the responsibility of the track and
roadway designer is fencing. Public and patron safety is achieved with respect to track and right of way by keeping
unauthorized people away from tracks and trains by means of barriers, principally fences. Right of way fence types should be
coordinated with security personnel to establish the need, type, height, and whether or not barbed wire or concertina wire
topping is needed. Fence requirements should also be coordinated with the project architect, owner, and the public, to select
styles that are aesthetically pleasing, particularly at stations and other locations of high visibility. Gate locations and their
control (locks) should be coordinated with all disciplines that will use them for maintenance access including signals and
traction power. Gate locations and keys to locks should be coordinated with local fire and police agencies that will use the
gates for emergency access. For shared use corridors that are fenced, gate access must be coordinated with the railroad and
procedures established for control of access through a single “dispatcher.”
Right of way fences are commonly placed on the property lines. Clearance between tracks and fences or walls should be
sufficient to provide a safe refuge from passing trains. A continuous walkway of not less 30 inches width (including allowance
for middle ordinate and end overhang) should be provided adjacent to each track. Where continuous clearance cannot be
provided, individual safety refuges not more than 50 feet apart should be provided for the length of the reduced clearance.
Many states have enacted regulations specifying railroad clearances and in some cases for rail transit. These are compiled in
AREMA Chapter 28, Clearances, and should be consulted for applicability to any fence or other safety/security barrier being
designed for a transit system.
Pedestrian safety when crossing tracks is of paramount importance. Overpasses are preferred to underpasses for patron
security. If underpasses are used they must be well lit and be considered for CCTV monitoring. Grade crossings should be
ADA compliant, be well lit if night use is expected. Installation of gates, flashing lights and ringing bell warning systems
should be considered. Ample signage should be provided along rights of way whether fenced or unfenced, at gates and at
grade crossings to warn people of the perils they face near active, particularly electrified, tracks.
Additional safety/security guidelines are provided in APTA publications: (1) 1981 Guidelines for Design of Rapid Transit
Facilities and (2) Transit Security Guidelines Manual.
3.2.2.1 Fencing for LRT Systems
Light rail systems include many areas that are not fenced such as street running segments and grade crossings. Fencing to
control or channelize access around hazardous areas is recommended. Fencing near stations and grade crossings should
channelize pedestrians to use over (or under) passes or crosswalks. Fencing near playgrounds and other areas frequented by
children, especially if their likely route to these areas would involve crossing the LRT tracks should be fenced and a safe
means of crossing provided at the most convenient feasible location. Yards and multiple track locations where trains are

standing on one or more tracks that could obscure pedestrian vision of approaching trains should be fenced. Fencing between
tracks may be suitable in lieu of fencing one or both sides of a corridor to control pedestrians crossing the right of way.
3.2.2.2 Fencing for Heavy Rail Systems
Heavy rail transit systems should prohibit all access to their rights of way. Access to the right of way should be controlled by
locked gates. Unless grade separation is provided by elevated structure, tunnel or walls over 6 feet in height, the right of way
should be fenced. Chain link fence at least 6 feet high should be used as the basic security fence with other types of fence that
provide similar or greater protection from intrusion used where appropriate. Consideration should be given to installing
intrusion detection on all fencing.
Where highway vehicles operate near transit rights of way, appropriate barriers to prevent their intrusion into the right of way
should be provided. A New Jersey style barrier is recommended for areas where highway vehicles operate parallel to transit
tracks. The height of the barrier should be based on the type of traffic. Barriers 5 feet high have been used on roads with high
speed truck traffic. The barrier should not be less than 3 feet high. The barrier should be topped with a 6 foot high chain link
fence equipped with an intrusion detection system that automatically and instantaneously notifies both train control and transit
agency security forces of any intrusion.
3.2.3 MIXED PASSENGER TRANSIT AND FREIGHT (2008)
Transit vehicles (heavy and light rail) with few exceptions are not designed to meet FRA vehicle design parameters,
particularly with respect to crashworthiness. This fact along with disparities of speeds and operating schedules make mixed
traffic operations difficult if not impossible to implement in a manner that is considered to be safe and reliable in light of FRA
regulations. Therefore, in the United States, joint use of the track by both freight and transit requires separation of the two 1
operations by time. Typically, joint use track is used by transit services during the day and freight at night during the hours
when transit operations are shut down. This is known as temporal separation and FRA regulations apply.
If a track will be joint use, its design must be coordinated with all users. Freight operations often require clearances greater
than transit operations. Rail weight, tie size and spacing, ballast depth, turnout sizes and other track design elements such as
maximum superelevation and superelevation deficiency must satisfy the needs of all users and comply with FRA Track Safety
Standards. The limits of joint use should be identified and joint use criteria applied only to the portion of the track system 3
requiring it. Minimum radii for curves and maximum grades may be limited by the freight operation. Because freight wheel
loads generally are heavier than transit loads, the freight wheel loads will generally govern track component criteria for joint
use track.
Joint use track requires careful coordination of track gage, wheel gages, and types of wheels that will use the track and special
trackwork. Track designs suitable for narrow tread light rail vehicle wheels may not be compatible with freight equipment
having wide tread AAR wheels, especially where self guarded frogs or raised guard rails are contemplated. Differences in 4
wheel mounting gages, particularly back to back distance of the wheels, can have a significant effect on the flangeways used in
guard rails and frogs. The smaller wheel diameters and variations in flange heights typically used on transit equipment will
result in a smaller wheel flange footprint which has a decided effect on switch designs and on the requisite flangeway for
check rails/restraining rails if used.
3.2.4 SPEEDS (2008)
Track designs should be coordinated with operations, vehicle and signal designs to establish speed goals for the alignment that
are compatible with operating run time objectives, vehicle acceleration and deceleration capabilities, and, where applicable,
train control speed limitations. In an ideal world, with no site constraints, curves would be designed for vehicle maximum
speeds and signal speed increments or slightly above to maximize operating efficiency. However, because transit alignments
are often superimposed on existing civil infrastructure, it is often the case that suboptimal curve radii must be used to avoid
unaffordable demolition or site work. An operations and vehicle performance coordination example is that, by taking vehicle
acceleration/deceleration capabilities into account, a sharp curve located near a station will have less impact on overall run
time than if located midway between stations. An example of coordination with the signals design is in the case of a signal

Rail Transit
design that sets specific speed increments. A 40 mph curve will be operated at 30 mph if that is the next lowest speed
increment below the curve design speed and the next increment is higher than the curve speed. Ideally, vehicle operating
characteristics and train control parameters should be established in conjunction with the alignment and not before.
3.2.5 SUPERELEVATION DEFICIENCY (2008)
Superelevation deficiency (unbalanced superelevation) affects ride comfort and may affect rail wear. Vehicle designers should
be consulted on maximum allowable superelevation, superelevation transitions (spiral length) and superelevation deficiency.
Operations should be consulted to identify operating speeds for both normal and abnormal conditions so that a superelevation
deficiency can be selected that best fits the range of operating speeds anticipated. Higher superelevation deficiency may
sometimes be used to lower actual superelevation at grade crossings without reducing train speed thereby providing a
smoother grade crossing, particularly for multiple track grade crossings.
A detailed discussion of superelevation that is applicable to both heavy and light rail transit track design including options for
combining actual and unbalanced superelevation for various situations is given in Chapter 3 of TCRP Publication No. 57,
Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit.
Track designers should coordinate with operations and vehicle designers to reach agreement on alignment elements
including spiral length, superelevation, superelevation deficiency and special trackwork design and components that will
provide a comfortable ride, particularly for systems anticipating large numbers of standees and for all systems at station
approaches where passengers often stand to move toward exit doors before the train has stopped at the platform.
Where pedestrians cross tracks, which is often the case at light rail system stations, the pedestrian grade crossing design should
be coordinated with architects to select a crossing type that provides a safe comfortable walkway and with operations to locate
it where it will not be blocked by standing trains or unsafe because of sudden train movements. Pedestrian grade crossings
must be designed to comply with current ADA regulations.
Transit track design must be selected in conjunction with the selected transit vehicle and the vehicle wheel design to form a
compatible system. For rapid transit systems using standard two-truck vehicles, the use of freight railway standards may be
entirely appropriate for such items as track gage, check gage, wheel gage and wheel profile.
Railway standards are essential for transit system track design when sharing track with freight railways. Where tracks will not
be used jointly with freight operations, use of other wheel profiles may be advantageous for improved ride quality and reduced
noise. The selection of vehicle parameters, especially wheel profile and wheel gage, must be coordinated between vehicle
designer and track engineer for corresponding track parameters, especially rail profile, track gage, flangeway width and depth,
and wheel tread overhang in paved track.
3.2.7.1 Standards
Different track and wheel standards may be appropriate for Light Rail Vehicles (LRVs) because of
Lighter axle loads.
Articulated vehicles.
Smaller wheel diameters.
Narrower wheel treads.

Different (generally shorter) vehicle wheelbases.
Sharper curves.
Use of girder rail.
Use of in-street track.
3.2.7.2 Gage
The short distance between trucks found on many articulated LRVs can make these vehicles susceptible to hunting. The
difference between track gage and wheel gage should therefore be carefully selected to control hunting.
Trade-offs are involved when selecting track and wheel standards. Widening the wheel gage to reduce the wheel gage/track
gage difference may provide a superior ride at higher speeds, but may result in increased wheel and rail wear.
3.2.7.3 Wheel Tread
Wheel tread profile must be compatible with the selected rail section, rail head profile and rail cant in order to control hunting,
reduce wear, and permit some degree of self-steering on large radius curves. For street track, consideration should be given in
both wheel and track design to avoid contact between the wheel and pavement.
3.2.7.4 Canted Rail
Canted rail is used in freight railway track to align more closely the rail web with the resultant of lateral and vertical wheel
1
loads. This is not strictly necessary for rail transit systems where wheel loads are as little as one-third those of freight railways.
Vertical (uncanted) rail is common on European transit systems. Nevertheless, canted rail should still be considered for transit
track in order to permit the use of standard freight railway tie plates and hardware, where possible.
Changes in rail cant will alter the wheel/rail profile contact geometry. Wheel machining and/or rail grinding policies can 3
obtain restoration of the desired wheel/rail contact geometry.
3.2.7.5 Rail Profile
AREMA recommended rail sections, as contained in Chapter 4, Rail, are suitable for use in transit systems. The rail head
profile may be adjusted by grinding to optimize the rail/wheel interface for specific applications.
4
3.2.7.6 Flangeways
Narrowing of frog flangeways should be considered in certain circumstances. Transit vehicle wheels may have a tread width
narrower than freight railway wheels causing “wheel drop” at frogs and crossings because the flangeway width is designed for
wider freight railway wheels. A reduced frog flangeway width will improve the transit vehicle ride through frogs and
crossings. This may, however, preclude the use of outside track maintenance machinery.
Movable-point frogs may be the solution in some circumstances.
3.2.8 PROPULSION SYSTEM (2008)
Track designers should coordinate with traction power designers on the track requirements for the use of the running rail as the
traction power negative return. Rail weight and chemical composition determine its capacity for carrying return current.
Special trackwork and insulated joints must provide continuous paths for return current which require bond cables and
impedance bonds to electrically bridge bolted joints and insulated joints respectively.

Rail Transit
Third rail systems are usually part of track design and must be coordinated with traction power design as to location of third
rail gaps, methods of mounting and details of components including type of conductor rail, ramps, insulators, anchors, and
expansion joints.
Impedance bond design includes selecting sizes and mounting systems that are compatible with the track including wayside
mounting.
The design of grease lubrication and friction modifier systems to control noise and rail wear should be coordinated with
vehicle, signals, and traction power designers to assess the potential for loss of traction or loss of conductivity where grease
lubricants are used. Research indicates that friction modifiers do not cause loss of traction or conductivity. Lubrication and
friction modification are very cost effective at reducing wear and noise; it is recommended that their use be incorporated into
designs where appropriate and that the coordination effort focus on ensuring proper selection of lubricants and friction
modifiers, application systems, and maintenance of these systems rather than their exclusion from consideration.
On new systems that will not be electrified it is recommended that provision for future electrification be considered in the
initial design. Electrification has high initial capital cost but has a lower operating cost. Therefore it is probable that for
systems that are initially built as diesel operations electrification will be given consideration in the future.
Coordinate with AREMA Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization.
3.2.9 SIGNAL SYSTEMS (2008)
Signals (and traction power) require electric isolation of one rail from another and from ground to obtain signal circuit
integrity and prevent stray current corrosion. Track design must be coordinated with signals and traction power design to
establish practical, feasible levels of isolation and means of verifying them as part of the track design criteria and
specifications. Signal and traction power designs should reflect these levels of isolation and take into account that isolation
levels tend to deteriorate with time due to lack of maintenance. Unreasonably high levels of isolation should not be attempted
in the track design.
Track designers must coordinate with signal designers on the type and location of insulated joints, especially within special
trackwork. Avoid, if possible, locating insulated joints where they weaken the special trackwork track structure or require
double rail type joints.
Special trackwork design must be coordinated with signal design to accommodate switch machines, switch heaters and other
signal hardware.
Sight distance for signals must be coordinated with alignment, clearances, catenary poles, walls and fences. Signal locations
and clearances from track must be coordinated with track design.
Embedded track design requires detailed coordination with signal and traction power designers to ensure all embedded items
including signal and power conduits, traffic loops, signal boxes, signal and traction power equipment foundations, and other
embedded items within the track area are accounted for before roadway surfaces are placed.
Transit systems are required to comply with federal, state and local environmental regulations regarding the process of
selecting and designing new alignments and when making major changes in existing operations. Environmental issues that are
required by law to be addressed include air quality, noise, vibration, wetland impacts, community impacts and impacts on
natural habitats. Where United States federal funds are being sought, the FTA guidelines for environmental analysis are
applicable to the environmental analysis and review process.
Noise and vibration are the principal environmental issues that have impact on track design and may be mitigated by selection
of appropriate technologies incorporated into the track and roadway design. Chapter 9, Noise and Vibration, of TCRP Report

No. 57, Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit provides FTA and APTA noise and vibration level guidelines and lists
many mitigation technologies applicable to track and roadway design of both heavy and light rail transit.
Noise and vibration generated by vehicle wheels on rail must be assessed during planning and mitigated as part of the track
design where anticipated levels exceed local codes or federal guidelines. The use of ballast mats, sound barriers, softer direct
fixation fasteners, floating slabs, lubrication and other means of mitigating noise and ground borne vibration must be
addressed from the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) stage through final design. The track criteria must be developed in
conjunction with acoustical consultants to achieve cost effective solutions.
Track design should be coordinated with track maintenance planning regarding noise and vibration control because with time,
track systems develop rail corrugation and rail defects which generate noise and vibration. Anticipation of these effects by
means of a well planned preventive rail grinding program is recommended.
3.2.11 RELIABILITY (2008)
Reliability of track components and designs should be based upon their demonstrated performance under conditions that are
representative of the conditions they will face in service. This can be verified based on past history and/or by performance
testing. Track components and designs must be reliable under the full range of conditions which they will experience during
their service life. They must be suitable for specific although infrequent high loadings such as may occur during maintenance
as well as the loads from normal operating conditions. Track components should be designed for easy inspection and with an
anticipated failure/deterioration rate that reflects the time lapse that occurs between inspections and discovery of deterioration
and time required to plan and execute replacement of deteriorated components. Track components must function under all
weather conditions they are expected to encounter with a reasonable measure of conservatism for extreme conditions. It is
recommended that track designers coordinate with operations and maintenance personnel, vehicle, signal, and traction power 1
designers to select the parameters and ranges that apply to these considerations.
An example of a weather-related consideration is that switches in northern climates should be furnished with switch heaters,
and the most reliable type should be employed, depending on the prevailing weather conditions. In some cases, electric
heaters are fine, and in others the forced-air blowers work the best. In addition, the decision as to when to turn the heaters on
is a reliability factor.
3
Another example of a weather related consideration is the design of continuous welded rail (CWR) track against track
buckling and rail pull-apart at the extremes of the expected temperature range. This consideration affects, among other factors,
selection of the zero thermal stress temperature for anchoring CWR, rail yield strength, joint pull-apart strength, lateral and
longitudinal restraint parameters for fasteners, and ballast shoulder widths.
Another example is that the operating schedule (timetable) must be coordinated with branch line turnouts and crossover
spacing so that trains can meet the schedule reliably under abnormal as well as normal operating conditions. This means 4
testing the schedule through simulations of single tracking during maintenance and around train breakdowns. The schedule
should also be verified in the field before publishing it for the public and the employees. Bottlenecks and/or speed restrictions
should be investigated to determine if they can be economically mitigated to improve the operating reliability.
Track and roadway design are subject to few direct regulations. Indirectly, there are many federal, state, and local jurisdiction
laws and ordnances governing diverse topics including speeds, noise and vibration, grade crossings, ADA requirements at
station platforms, street traffic, traffic signals and signage, etc. that may affect track design. Where joint use of tracks with
freight operations or intercity passenger operations will occur, FRA regulations apply as well as United States CFR Title 49,
Part 213 Track Safety Standards (in Canada, the Rules Respecting Track Safety) and laws in most states that establish
minimum clearances for freight operations which may also govern transit operations.

Rail Transit
3.2.13 FLANGE BEARING WHEELS (2008)
Some transit systems use a wheel profile having a flat flange to bear on the bottom of flangeways through frogs of complex
trackwork. This concept reduces impacts and noise, and may be considered in the design of a new transit system. The use of
flange bearing systems is generally associated with the use of narrower wheel treads.
3.2.13.1 Steerable Axles
Vehicular trucks developed with steerable axles provide flexibility for the wheel sets to take up radial positions in negotiating
track curvature. This provides improved stability at high speeds and reduces both wheel/rail forces and wheel/rail wear.
Track design should consider any special requirements of transit vehicles with steerable axles.
It should be noted that most self-steering trucks rely on top of rail friction to provide steering forces. Thus, improper use or
application of rail lubrication can limit the effectiveness of such designs.
3.2.13.2 Lubrication
Lubrication of the wheel/rail flange contact surface should be considered for the design of any transit system. Both on-board
and wayside lubrication are feasible depending on the geometric characteristics of the transit system.
For relatively short transit trains, on-board lubricators can provide a clean, compact, unobtrusive, all-weather lubrication
system.
Wayside lubricators allow lubrication to be controlled over relatively short distances and/or on a curve-specific basis, but they
require on-track access and adjustment. Placement of wayside lubricators should consider track gradient.
Care must be exercised in using lubricators where the rail is used as the negative return in an electrically operated transit
system, or where signal systems using track circuits are involved.
3.3.1 GENERAL (2006)
The types of service and equipment that will be operated govern clearance requirements for transit. For systems that are
connected to the North American railroad system, and which jointly operate with a common carrier freight service, clearances
will be governed by the operating railroad and the requirements of Chapter 28, Clearances.
Where transit operations are exclusive over the system, clearances must be derived from the dimension and physical
characteristics of the transit vehicle that will be operated. In many instances, this is not determined at the initiation of a project.
A useful approach has been to base conceptual design and initial engineering on a composite design vehicle, incorporating
critical dimensions and characteristics of currently available and recently purchased transit vehicles of the general type
contemplated for use on the system. When vehicle engineering has progressed to the point that dimensions and other pertinent
characteristics are defined, revisions to the clearance requirements can be made, and designs reviewed and modified
accordingly. Should the actual dimensions and performance characteristics of the vehicle, as manufactured, differ significantly
from the design vehicle, additional revisions to the clearance requirements may be necessary.

3.3.1.1 Dynamic Outline
A rail transit vehicle will occupy a certain cross-sectional area and particular configuration, referenced to the centerline of
track and top of rail. While at rest, this is defined as the static outline, and is based on the dimensions of the vehicle. As the
vehicle moves, it will occupy a larger cross-sectional area of a different configuration, due to the effects of vertical, lateral and
rotational vehicle motion, truck suspension movement, truck and vehicle body skew, rail-to-wheel clearance and permissible
wheel and rail wear. This is defined as the dynamic outline.
Where transit vehicles are equipped with rear view mirrors that extend from the vehicle body, they may determine the
maximum lateral dimension of the dynamic outline. Mirrors may be made retractable to mitigate their effect on the dynamic
outline.
The rotational movement of the transit vehicle body is affected by the truck-to-body secondary suspension system, typically
provided in modern transit vehicles by air-filled rubber bags. The worst-case dynamic outline will occur where both primary
(truck) and secondary suspension systems on only one side of the vehicle have failed. A thorough analysis must be made to
determine for all feasible combinations of curvature and superelevation the combination of normal and failed suspension
modes that will result in the maximum dynamic outline. Where transit vehicles are equipped with fixed rear view mirrors,
these are normally considered sacrificial in the failed suspension mode, and the clearance determination made on the vehicle
body only.
3.3.1.2 Clearance Envelope
To the space required for the transit vehicle dynamic outline, allowances must be added for the fabrication, construction and
maintenance tolerances of the track, and for running clearance to adjacent structures, poles and other facilities to allow for the
effect of track degradation and for the accuracy of location and construction of other adjacent fixed facilities. The allowances
1
to be used in establishing the clearance envelope require judgment to ensure they are adequate, but not excessive, to require
unnecessary right-of-way and constraints on the design. In some locations, the allowances are prescribed by Statute, Code or
Order. The clearance envelope must be adjusted to accommodate the increase in transit vehicle dynamic outline as a result of
curvature and superelevation, as described in the following section.
3.3.1.3 Curvature and Superelevation 3

On curved track, the transit vehicle dynamic outline will increase due to the effect of end overhang and mid-ordinate offset.
These characteristics are primarily determined by the truck centers and the distance of the truck center from the end of the
transit vehicle. If the track is superelevated, the effect of vehicle lean must also be accommodated. Where subway or retaining
walls are of chorded construction, the required clearance must be obtained at the closest point on the chord. The analysis and
determination of these values is greatly facilitated by use of CADD.
4
3.3.1.4 Emergency and Maintenance Walkways
For emergency access and evacuation purposes, a walkway is required on at least one side of the trackway at all locations. The
vehicle clearance envelope should not encroach into the emergency walkway zone. Sufficient vertical clearance must be
maintained from the walkway surface to the point on the vehicle clearance envelope, or to a fixed obstruction (such as a
signal), to avoid encroachment. Where the emergency walkway is located between tracks, allowance must be made for a
transit vehicle on the adjacent track, and for any between-track obstructions, such as bridge piers, inter-track fences or
catenary poles. In tunnels or retaining wall sections where the safety walk is of chorded construction, particular attention
should be paid to complying with walkway location and width requirements. Where the transit system is either constructed in
paved track or adjacent to a roadway, separated by a low curb (and no fence), access to the roadway shoulder or clear zone is
often used for emergency walkway purposes. Requirements for emergency access and evacuation are prescribed in some
locations by Statute, Code or Order. Of particular note is National Fire Protection Association NFPA 130, “Fixed Guideway
Transit Systems”.

Rail Transit
3.3.1.5 Vertical Clearances
The types of service and equipment to be operated govern vertical clearances above transit lines. Where the traction
electrification system utilizes an overhead distribution system (i.e., catenary or trolley wire), the vertical clearances are
determined by the characteristics and requirements of the current collector (pantograph) mounted on the roof of the transit
vehicle, and by the space between the current collector (pantograph) and overhead structures and facilities necessary for the
overhead distribution system. These requirements vary with the operating speed of the transit vehicle and the type and design
of the overhead distribution system. These factors must be considered in order to establish the minimum permissible
dimension from the top of the highest rail to overhead obstructions. Vertical clearance requirements may be prescribed by
Code, Statute or Order. Additionally, consideration should be given to emergency jacking of cars to clear obstructions in
relation to undercar and truck components.
Where transit systems are connected to the North American Railroad system, and jointly operate with a common carrier freight
service, overhead clearances will be governed by the operating railroad and the requirements of Chapter 28, Clearances. In
such instances, overhead electric traction distribution systems must be installed at a greater height above the top of rail than is
normally necessary for systems exclusively operating transit vehicles. All elements of the electrification system must be
carefully evaluated to ensure proper operation under all conditions.
Where transit system structures cross over roadways and railroads, the clearance (measured from the crown of the roadway
pavement, or top of the highest rail to the transit structure) is normally prescribed by statutory requirements or by the design
standards of the jurisdiction or railroad whose facility is crossed.
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.3.3 PASSENGER OPERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.3.4 FREIGHT OPERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.3.5 FIXED OBJECTS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.3.6 MOVABLE OBJECTS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
SECTION 3.4 RIGHT-OF-WAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONSIDERATIONS
3.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
The requirements for right-of-way for transit systems are driven by the realities of introducing a new guided transportation
mode into an urban or suburban setting. Right-of-way requirements are constrained by the physical requirements imposed by

the clearance properties of the rail vehicle, the geometry requirements for ride comfort and safety, and the ability and
economic realities of securing property from current uses.
3.4.1.1 General Right-of-Way Requirements
Transit systems are invariably constrained to obtaining the minimum right-of-way consistent with safety, rail vehicle
characteristics, train control and electrification systems and operating and maintenance requirements. Transit systems right-of-
way can be classified into the following basic categories.
3.4.1.2 Exclusive
Right-of-way is fully controlled, with complete grade separation of motor vehicle and pedestrian crossings, protected by fence
or other barrier where required (includes subways and aerial structures).
3.4.1.3 Semi-Exclusive
Right-of-way is partially controlled, with at-grade crossings for motor vehicle and pedestrian traffic. A reserved right-of-way
between crossings is established by fences, barricades, curbs or pavement striping.
3.4.1.4 Non-Exclusive
Right-of-way is shared with other users, such as other transit modes, emergency services, and highway vehicles and in
pedestrian malls.
3.4.1.5 Typical Cross-Sections

1
Conditions throughout a transit alignment vary more extensively than for freight railroads, and extensive site-specific designs
are often required to mitigate impacts and fit the transit system to the environment. In defining the criteria for transit systems,
it is useful to develop cross-sections to illustrate typical right-of-way configurations, portraying conditions representative of
those expected to be encountered. These are useful in focusing the design intent, and can be developed and adapted to suit site
specific requirements as they are encountered. The cross-sections must be dimensionally consistent with the clearance 3
requirements of the design transit vehicle, and accommodate the clearance adjustments required for curvature and
superelevation. The quantity and conditions illustrated in typical cross-sections are defined by the project requirements, and
require judgment on the part of the designer. As work progresses, additional illustrative cross-sections and modifications to
those previously developed are normally required to accurately portray conditions and reflect design decisions.
3.4.2 AT GRADE CROSSINGS (2006)

4
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.4.3 DRAINAGE (2007)
3.4.3.1 Drainage
The drainage systems used in rail transit systems are generally the same as found in freight railway systems. Sub-grades
should be cross-sloped to achieve proper drainage. Ownership and maintenance responsibilities of drainage systems serving
adjacent railroads or highways should be identified during design phase and calculations made to ensure adequate capacity that
includes future requirements. Inlets and outlets should be located outside of the tie bed area to avoid track construction and
maintenance interference. Since access to the drainage system is often restricted, design using self-cleaning grades is of added
importance.

Rail Transit
3.4.4 VEGETATION CONTROL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.4.6 THIRD PARTY OCCUPANCY (2007)
Third Party Occupancy addresses the sharing of the right of way with roads and utilities, existing and proposed.
3.4.6.1 General Considerations
New transit systems typically deal with urban and suburban areas. The right of way may be a previous railroad line and will
likely share or cross public and private highways and streets, and have a variety of public and private utilities under, on, and
above the right of way. Established transit systems will be approached from time to time by utility companies including
railroads, and government agencies with jurisdiction over streets, highways, drainage, water and sewer services, with requests
to establish a third party occupancy on the transit right of way.
Transit systems must develop their legal, contractual, and engineering design and construction documents for all third party
occupancies. For new systems, this must be started during the preliminary design stage and be continued through final design,
construction, and operations with the cooperation of existing third party utilities, federal, state, and local agencies/authorities.
For a transit line being established on a railroad right of way, it is recommended that the transit agency identify existing third
party occupancy agreements held by the railroad and resolve as part of the purchase agreement with the railroad how the
occupancies will be continued, relocated or removed from the newly acquired transit right of way.
Engineering design for new lines must account for utilities, grade crossings, waterways (both navigable and non navigable),
grade separated highways and railroads. The costs of accommodating these third party occupancies may be a significant
portion of the overall cost for a transit project and should be included in project cost estimates from the beginning of planning.
Sharing railroad rights of way, tracks and crossing of railroads at grade is addressed elsewhere in Chapter 12.
3.4.6.2 Third Party Occupancy Manual Outline
As a means of managing third party occupancies during design of new systems and as a means of maintaining a consistent
policy and procedure for handling third party occupancies on established transit systems, it is recommended that a transit
agency develop a Third Party Occupancy Manual that covers the following:
a. Summary Guide and Procedures
• General guidelines, contract formats, contacts and protocols for new occupancy proposals, guidelines for
maintenance and repair methods on existing third party fixed plant.
• Scope, definitions, submittal requirements, plans and specifications by third parties, payments and inspection,
insurance, indemnification, legal documents for temporary and permanent easements.
• Site specific work plan format, schedule, information and detailed requirements for all third party activities on transit
property.
b. Maintenance and Protection of Transit Operations

• Assure understanding by both transit agency and third party of construction methodology, control of potential
impacts on transit operations and establishment of an on site safety program.
• Items may include slope protection, excavation, blasting, large equipment operation with clearance envelopes,
erection/demolition and transit flagman protective services.
• Also see Chapter 1, Part 1, Section 1.3 Construction.
c. Insurance Specifications
• Defines insurance requirements and indemnification provisions to be included in Third Party Occupancy
agreements.
d. Pipeline Occupancy Specification
• Covers design submission, geotechnical preliminary engineering, test borings, parallel and perpendicular plans, and
cross sections. Railroad loading influence area, minimum depth to top of casing pipe from bottom of tie, installing
casing pipe with future capacity for the carrier pipe to pass thru.
• Cathodic protection of casing and carrier pipe.
• Soil investigation for mixed face, water table, cobbles and hidden obstructions, dewatering procedures and drainage,
and jacking/receiving pit requirements.
• Soil stabilization prior to boring/jacking if required.

1
• Continuous 24/7 jacking while under railroad influence line, continuous top of rail survey and pre approved blasting
specifications if rock face.
• Post grouting of casing with pre-drilled and plugged grout holes.

3
• Track resurfacing and site considerations when completed.
• Design for pressurized carrier pipe and special concerns for carrier product.
• Live load and design for steel pipe, concrete pipe, cast iron pipe, and corrugated metal pipe/ structural plate liner
tunnels.
4
• Vents from casing pipe and surface identification markings.
• Also see Chapter 1, Part 5 Pipelines.
e. Wire, Conduit and Cable Occupations
• Ground profiles, vertical clearance at highest temperature sag, voltages and horizontal clearance to poles, inductive
interference to train control signal and operating systems.
• Overhead clearance of 25 feet to 50 feet or more for voltages in the range of 700 to 700,000, respectively.
• Underground crossings and parallel occupancy will require different designs of protection for cables based on
location, distance to nearest track and ground profile on right of way.
• Protection for track maintenance, ballast undercutting, underground transit power lines or signal cable replacement.

Rail Transit
• Installation utility marking signs with depth and distance offset to utility.
f. Bridge Erection, Demolition and Hoisting Operations
• Overhead highway, railroad and building structures, either proposed or existing being repaired/rebuilt, will require
detailed plans and safety protection.
• Plan showing crane size, clearance, access, pick, swing (and obstructions), radius and lift capacity that meets 150%
of lift will be reviewed and approved.
• Catalogue cuts, data sheets, hourly schedule will be part of the approval.
g. Temporary Sheeting and Shoring
• Footings, piers, dewatering, clearance and support calculations within railroad loading influence must be considered.
• Coordination of transit operations with driving of sheeting or H piles under flagman protective services.
• Survey monitoring of nearest track to assure proper cross level and that nearest rail is not dipping with the sheeting,
driving the earth, ties and ballast downward.
• Piles within the transit agency’s horizontal clearance will be fully driven or cut off at no higher then top of rail.
• Temporary parallel employee bridge with handrails may be required.
• Type of crane and guy wires may be needed to protect overhead transit power lines.
h. Blasting Specifications
• Establish a pre- and post-blast survey.
• Review submission of site plan, hole depth, amount of explosives, delay pattern, non-electric delay, soil/rock profile,
scaled distance and safety plan.
• Monitor blasting at nearest transit structure such as a signal house or utility.
• Designate the type and location of a seismograph.
• Limit peak particle velocity to 1 inch per second; depending on conditions this may be modified to 2 inches per
second.
• Limit scale distance to 60 feet per 1.5 pounds of delay charge.
• Coordinate with train operations.
• Also see Chapter 1, Part 1, 1.2.2.6.5 Effect of Blasting.
i. Temporary Protection Shields for Demolition and Cosntruction
• Shields may be necessary on adjunct building structures and more so on overhead highway/railroad bridges when
under construction or repair.
• Horizontal shield design should have the capacity based on code of 100 pounds per square foot minimum live load,
and a minimum 2,000 pound concentrated load producing maximum stress.

• Vertical shield will be designed by code for wind load with a minimum of 30 pounds per square inch.
• Protection shields do not eliminate the need for flagman and inspection to protect transit agency property.
j. Right of Way Fencing Specifications
• Define and specify applicability of standard, high security, architectural styles of fence, employee access and vehicle
equipment gates.
• Identify State PUC requirements.
• Specify that fence located along highway median is to be located to provide safe pull over area for transit agency
maintenance vehicles at access points, particularly at interlockings and signal instrument houses.
• Also see Chapter 1, Part 6, Fences.
k. Test Boring Specifications
• Access to property, work window, boring log detail, and hole backfill.
• Protect ballast from contamination during the water washing of the boring.
l. Fiber Optic Cable Specifications
• If this is a parallel occupancy, there is oftentimes opportunity for transit agency to share cables for SCADA and train
1
control, to share conduits and to incorporate locations for tie-ins and regeneration stations.
• Also see Chapter 1, Part 5, Section 5.5, Specifications for Fiber Optic “Route” Construction on Railroad Right of
Way.
3.4.6.3 Specific Considerations for Occupancy by Type 3

Considerations for specific types of Third Party Occupancy have unique requirements and design impacts.
3.4.6.3.1 Utilities
In utility design the basic policies should be to:

4
a. Protect the transit system against possible damage caused by the presence of a utility.
b. Provide a means of inspection, maintenance, and repair of utilities, as may be required, without disruption of transit
system service.
c. Satisfy the reasonable needs and criteria of the affected utility owners.
d. Replacements/relocations of existing utilities should provide service essentially equal to that offered by the existing
installations. The utilities should be designed to the current standards of the utility company and the transit property.
e. Utilities should be removed from the right-of-way whenever possible. Utilities extending longitudinally along the
track way within the transit right-of-way should be limited to those serving the transit property.
f. Utilities that parallel the transit right-of-way should generally be relocated to adjacent streets that parallel the right-of-
way. If the utility network has adequate capacity, it may be possible to tie into adjacent utilities in lieu of physically
relocating the utility.

Rail Transit
g. Minimize the number of crossings and have all underground utilities in a carrier pipe that is inside of a casing pipe,
with sufficient depth below track. Crossings should be made at right angles, if possible.
h. If the transit agency wishes to sell/lease the use of right-of-way to utility communication companies, then the
positioning of these utilities should be such that their service and maintenance does not interfere with transit operations
and transit maintenance if at all possible. Position utilities to avoid unnecessary disruption or exposure to damage
while doing transit maintenance on the fixed plant.
3.4.6.3.2 Street, Road and Highway Crossings
In the design of new systems on abandoned freight right of ways, there may be many at grade crossings and overhead or
undergrade crossings with limited clearance. The following should be considered:
a. Transit agencies should negotiate to eliminate all at grade crossings (especially if using 3rd rail electric traction). Look
for federal/state funding of bridge reconstruction prior to start of transit operations, as considerable cost savings can be
achieved. Transit agency right of way horizontal and vertical layout will dictate bridge design or modification and
should account for future growth such as potential double tracking. New alignments will need to address immediate
transit design and future clearance for expansion.
b. For both new construction and rebuilding of existing overhead and undergrade structures, transit agency requirements
will be needed as part of contract bid specifications. Track alignment may consider a future undergrade bridge
replacement in parallel to the existing structure and a future track swing onto new alignment without speed reduction
or creating negative maintenance impact.
3.4.6.4 APTA Rail Transit Standards
See APTA Standards, Volume 4, Operating Practices, Part 10 Standard for Contractor’s Responsibility for Right of Way
Safety. This standard identifies additional contractor’s responsibilities for knowing and enforcing the transit systems
requirements that govern the activities of third party occupancy contractors performing inspection, design, investigation and
construction on transit right of way.
SECTION 3.5 TRACK AND ROADWAY
3.5.1 GENERAL (2006)
The design of the roadbed, track structure and drainage system for use in a rail transit system is typically influenced by
considerations such as economics, topography, traffic type, operating speeds, rolling stock geometry and several non-
engineering issues. The overall design process for these components in a rail transit system will typically follow the same
process used during the preliminary planning phase, where the general horizontal and vertical alignments and the basic
features of the system are established and subsequently expanded to meet the specific rail transit system requirements.
The general engineering and mechanical components of the roadbed, track structure and drainage system for use in a rail
transit system will additionally require special design considerations as a result of the need to accommodate many specialized
elements in a typically restrictive right-of-way, in paved vehicular areas, or in a specially-designed corridor. Horizontal
alignments in a rail transit system are often restricted by retaining walls or barriers and they generally have requirements for
grade separation in suburban environments. Vertical alignments are often restricted by physical obstructions or man-made
conditions in an urban environment.

As a result of these special design considerations, current technological advances should be used as part of the design criteria
to produce highly reliable, low maintenance and high capacity systems which will be subject to lighter axle loads and the more
frequent service demand generally found in these systems.
Refer to Figure 12-3-1 for an illustration of the dimensional considerations that must be addressed in third-rail territory.

Rail Transit
Figure 12-3-1. Third-rail Territory

(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.5.5 GAGE (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.5.6 TRACK STRUCTURE (2006)
3.5.6.1 Roadbed
The roadbed in a rail transit system serves the same function as that in a freight railroad and is one of the key structural
elements. Its primary purposes are to provide bearing capacity and stability under repetitive track loadings and to provide a
medium for adequate drainage. The roadbed material selection and proper drainage design are two of the most important 1
elements contributing to the design, maintenance and stability of the track structure. Refer to Chapter 1, Roadway and Ballast
for the recommended design criteria in regard to subgrade, sub-ballast and ballast depth design and the associated use of
geotextiles in the design of the roadbed.
When vehicular (highway) or other rail transportation systems are at the same grade, a separation barrier should be provided to
protect the rail transit system from other vehicular intrusions. These barriers should be designed with duct banks or cable
troughs as an integral part of the structure, thereby achieving separation as well as space economies for future utilization by the 3
operating property.
The design of the roadbed section should typically provide for the inclusion of designated walkways for employees and for
emergency evacuation. These walkways should be level, relatively unobstructed and outside the vehicle clearance envelope.
Areas that do not provide clearance for employees must be marked to show the inadequate clearance condition. Refuge spaces
must be provided at frequent intervals and secure vehicular access roads should be provided where feasible for maintenance
work to be performed. Care should be exercised in the design of roadbed sections in curves to ensure adequate shoulder width 4
and to include any necessary retaining walls to support the required track superelevation and for retaining the high ballast
shoulders on the outside of curves. Overhead clearances should provide for adequate space for track surfacing in ballasted
track areas and for potential rolling stock modifications.
3.5.6.2 Track Structure
Most of the existing and proposed rail transit systems have developed their own specific design practices and standard
portfolio of plans for their particular track structure. For the most part reference has been made to the recommended practices
as provided in this Manual for Railway Engineering and the AREMA Portfolio of Trackwork Plans. It is important to note that
special design considerations are often required for rail transit applications of AREMA special trackwork.
Refer to the appropriate AREMA Manual Chapters for the recommended design criteria in regard to cross ties, rail section, tie
plate size, fastenings and rail anchoring systems. Designers should keep in mind the specific considerations applicable to rail
transit systems and should select the individual track components and their application to correspond with the need.

Rail Transit
3.5.6.3 Ballast Section
The ballast section for rail transit systems are generally the same as found in conventional railway systems. The crib area
should be adequately filled with ballast, shoulders should be of an adequate width to maintain proper alignment and proper
slopes with associated drainage ditches should be provided. Ballast sections need to be wide enough to fully support third-rail
ties if required.
The greater ties spacing generally provided in a rail transit system makes design compensation necessary such as widening the
shoulders to obtain the same level of lateral resistance to track buckling. A safety factor of two is recommended for Talbot’s
formulae for ballast depth design used in rail transit systems tracks due to the higher frequency of service and lighter axle
loads.
Ballast and sub-ballast materials for rail transit systems should be of high quality and comply with material specifications
found in Chapter 1, Roadway and Ballast. Typically, AREMA Size 4 stone ballast is used for mainline ballast and AREMA
Size 5 stone ballast is used in storage yards, terminals and shop areas to provide for the required track support. On an
electrified system, the electrical resistance of the ballast material should be considered.
3.5.6.4 Non-Ballasted Sections
Due to grade separation requirements, large portions of rail transit systems are located on elevated and underground structures.
In the early stages of design, each type of structure anticipated and each at-grade condition should have their typical sections
developed. These sections serve to standardize design and resolve interfaces between the civil, structural, mechanical,
electrical, signal and communication disciplines. These sections also serve to define the right-of-way clearances and the
necessary track support/fastenings and drainage requirements for these structures.
Special design considerations affecting track constructed in a tunnel roadbed and on elevated structure are discussed in the
section on Rail Support.
3.5.6.5 Paved Track Design Practices
A commonly used track in pavement has been one designed as a conventional track structure utilizing a girder rail section that
is subsequently covered in some fashion up to the pavement level. This type of design has been generally utilized since it
provided a long life expectancy and does not suffer maintenance problems associated with surface and alignment. If the track
is rigidly encased in the pavement area, vibrations may be transmitted directly to the surrounding structures and airborne noise
increased.
Alternate track support systems such as continuous concrete slabs can be used in lieu of tie and ballast construction. These
systems can be designed to reduce the level of noise and vibration generated by the operation of transit vehicles.
3.5.6.6 Rail/Guarding/Wear Prevention
There are several items to consider when selecting a rail section for use on transit systems. Since wheel loads of transit
vehicles are much lower than the loads of heavy freight vehicles, a lighter rail section can be used. Many of the older rail
transit systems use 90 and 100 pounds per yard rail sections that are adequate to support the imposed loads. Because of a
reduction in availability of these sections, most of the newer transit systems are using 115 and 119 pounds per yard rail
sections that are more readily available.
Rail transit systems that include embedded track may require girder rail in order to form a flangeway in the embedding
material. If tee rail is used a flangeway can be formed in the embedding material if the material has sufficient strength to
withstand non-rail loads such as rubber tired vehicles. Tee rail can also be used with a bolted flangeway liner. However, this
approach is better suited to short sections of embedded track because of the higher cost of the installation.
Transit systems with sharp curves in track may require guarding of the inside rail to reduce the possibility of derailments and
decrease wear on the outside rail. Guarding of these curves in embedded track can be accomplished through the use of girder

guard rail or with restraining rail affixed to the inside running rail. Restraining rail should also be used on sharp curves in
ballasted and direct fixation track. A consideration that must be evaluated in guarded construction is the increased noise
resulting from such construction methods.
Premium (high strength) rail should be considered for areas subject to accelerated wear such as curves, station stops and
special trackwork.
For areas where a derailment could cause catastrophic results, emergency guard rails should be considered. Such areas include
bridges, tunnel entrances and track that are adjacent to major structures such as bridge columns and abutments.
Many transit systems operate within environments that are sensitive to noise and vibration; therefore, continuously welded rail
(CWR) is highly recommended. CWR will also provide a continuous return current path for electrified transit systems without
the need for rail joint bond cables. Regular rail profile grinding is recommended to keep noise and vibration to a minimum and
reduce wear. CWR and properly grounded rail will also provide a smoother ride, which is important for passengers on transit
systems. There are also special rail treatments available to reduce rail wear and noise from wheel/rail contact due to their
increased resistance to corrugation formation. These treatments are described in Chapter 4, Rail.
3.5.6.7 Track Loading and Related Issues
Transit operations typically consist of trains of up to ten self-propelled cars with headways ranging from less than 90 seconds
to 30 minutes during daytime operations with nighttime operations ranging from hourly headways to a complete shutdown of
the system for periods up to six hours. This results in track loading that is usually lighter than railroad (and commuter) loading
but with the wheel loads applied more frequently. Thus, while the annual gross tonnage for a freight railroad line and a transit
line may be similar, the way this tonnage accumulates is not.
1
The wheel load range for a transit track is usually narrowly defined and precisely estimated since a limited range of vehicles is
used on most transit systems. These differences allow more precise design with narrower margins considered for excessive
loading of track components. It also suggests that fatigue analysis be applied along with stress analysis to obtain safe, long
service life, cost-effective components for transit service. Because transit systems may contain many sharp curves, the effects
of lateral loading on curves are an important element in the track design.
3
Other factors besides load must be considered in the design of track support and fastener components. Electrified transit track
components in typically wet tunnel paved track environments must be designed with atmospheric corrosion resistance.
Because of the urban environment in which transit operates, the dynamic performance parameters to be included in track
support systems design often times need to address noise/vibration mitigation as well as provide the resilience needed for good
ride quality and resistance to rail corrugation.
Transit systems, due to their urban environment, tend to have large percentages of their tracks constructed in tunnels, on 4
elevated structures, on retained cuts and on retained fills rather than on typical open roadbeds. Paved tracks are used
extensively in light rail systems. These circumstances lead to consideration of a wide variety of track support systems in
contrast to freight railroads, which usually consider only tie and ballast track. For the transit track design engineer, a major
effort should be expended on development of optimum track design concepts before detail designs are begun.
Another factor affecting transit track support design is the high cost of maintenance brought about by restricted access,
clearances, and work hours, and in some cases by noise and light restrictions. Reduced maintenance windows and the high
impact on patrons and the public in general caused by rail traffic interruptions and, in the case of street tracks, on motor vehicle
traffic should influence the design engineer to select track concepts and details which are robust and low in maintenance
requirements.
It is recommended that the transit track designer take each of the above considerations into account. Transit track should be
designed using one of the several elastic design procedures available such as the one in Chapter 16, Economics of Railway
Engineering and Operations. Further, the track design should be conducted using a systems engineering approach to ensure an
optimum relationship between track, structures, vehicles, traction power, and train control systems.

Rail Transit
3.5.6.8 Rail Support
Rail support systems for track are divided into two main categories: tie-in-ballast systems and ballastless systems consisting of
open deck on elevated structure and slabs which can be applied to elevated, underground and at-grade trackbeds. Both tie-in-
ballast and ballastless systems may be adapted to paved track designs which are common to light rail systems. Because of
noise, vibration and maintenance considerations, new systems often use slabs (solid decks) on elevated structures although
many older systems will continue to operate with open deck structures. In systems where more than one type of support is
used, the stiffness of adjoining track types should be compared and appropriate transitions used to provide gradual rather than
sudden large changes in stiffness. Frequent changes of track structure type should be avoided.
Tie-in-ballast systems are applicable to all types of structures (tunnel, aerial and at-grade) but are favored only for at-grade
applications where the subgrade is sound. For reasons of clearance, and longer service life with lower maintenance costs,
particularly with respect to drainage system maintenance, ballastless systems are favored for new tunnel and elevated structure
designs. In poor subgrade situations, slab track may be as economical as other means of reinforcing the subgrade. The decision
should be based on a comparison of construction and maintenance costs of each alternative.
For tie-in-ballast track, ties may be of wood, concrete, composite plastic, or steel. The decision on which to use should be
based on design requirements, ease of maintenance and life cycle costs. The cost analysis should be tailored to the specific
project particularly with respect to quantities involved, current prices for major components, and the interest/inflation factors
applied to future costs. The cost analysis should include affected related elements such as fasteners and ballast section if
different between systems being compared.
Wood ties are traditionally the least first cost alternative (although not in all cases) and are the most adaptable for third rail,
special trackwork, and attachments such as signal components, grade crossing panels, restraining rail and guard rail. Ties
meeting the specifications of Chapter 30, Ties are frequently used for transit tracks. Due to lighter loading, wider spacing of
the ties is possible in transit track than in freight railroad track. Lighter loading often means that service life of wood ties is
entirely a function of weathering. Wood ties for transit use should be treated to maximize their resistance to weathering. Spike
killing and plate cutting seldom limit transit track timber tie life except on sharp curves where lateral loads and frequent rail
renewal can lead to spike killing.
Concrete ties may be of several designs including monoblock pretensioned concrete ties, monoblock post-tensioned concrete
ties, and two-block reinforced concrete ties.
When compared to wood ties, concrete ties offer longer service life, lower operating and maintenance costs, and better ride
quality owing to their increased weight and positive fastening system.
Unlike a wooden tie fastening system in which the rail is traditionally tie plated and attached to the tie by means of cut spikes
or lag screws, the rails are attached to the concrete tie with a mechanical rail fastening system, which provides a positive
connection between the tie and the rail.
As part of the fastening system, insulators must be used to prevent interference with track signal systems and to isolate stray
currents that may lead to deterioration of outside structures and utility pipelines.
An elastic pad at each rail seat is necessary on concrete ties to prevent abrasive wear of the concrete due to rail movements,
attenuate high frequency vibrations and impact forces due to track and wheel anomalies, and provide electrical insulation for
track signal circuits.
For transit applications, where loads are more uniform and peak impact loads are lower and less frequent due to more frequent
wheel maintenance, concrete ties provide life cycle costs for new construction that are competitive with wood ties.
Maintenance of transit track is more difficult to schedule than freight railroad track owing to reduced time of headways during
hours of operation and short time windows during non-operational hours. Moreover, limited access to the track in urban areas
may limit the types of maintenance equipment that can be utilized. For these reasons and with its longer maintenance cycle,
concrete tie track should be considered. Concrete ties for transit application can be lighter in weight than those for freight

railroad use due to lower wheel loads. Tie spacing is usually increased from the conventional 24 inches spacing used for
freight railroad track to spacing of upwards of 30 inches.
Tie lengths for transit ties are similar to those for freight railroad ties except where supporting an electric contact rail (third
rail) dictates an increased length. Another method of supporting the contact rail is by means of bracket extension plates that
extend beyond the end of a standard length tie. Special design considerations must be made to allow for inserts required to
support contact rail bracket extension plates, guard rail, restraining rail, signal appliances and other attachments.
In the design of the concrete mix, utmost consideration must be given to the materials used and the expected environmental
conditions to which the concrete shall be exposed. The use of low alkali cement and a petrographic examination of the
aggregate to preclude the incorporation of reactive material are strongly recommended. In addition, concrete from trial mixes
should be subjected to recommended freeze-thaw tests to evaluate its behavior within a freeze-thaw environment. Also, the
addition of silica fume to the concrete mix may be considered in an effort to reduce the concrete permeability, which is
believed to reduce or eliminate stray current leakage.
Steel ties have found little application in this country up to now. Steel ties must be considered with care on electrified transit
tracks because of the need for highly reliable electric isolation between the rails and from ground. One advantage of steel ties
is the shallower ballast section required compared to wood and concrete.
Ballastless slab construction has been used to support track in most new transit track tunnels, aerial structures and paved
tracks. This type of construction is often called direct fixation because the track is “directly fixed” by means of a resilient rail
fastener to the invert/deck slab. Direct fixation track construction details vary. The base slab is an integral part of the tunnel
invert or bridge deck in all designs. In two-pour construction, the invert/deck slab has a second pour of concrete in which
inserts for bolting the rail fastenings are cast. The second pour may be reinforced and is attached to the invert with dowels or
keyways. In one-pour construction a thin grout pad is placed on the slab with the fastener anchor bolts passing through the pad
1
into the slab. A third type of construction uses either wood or concrete tie blocks. The track is assembled and placed in final
alignment above the deck/invert slab and is then grouted into place.
An exception is floating slab construction that is used where a high level of vibration isolation of the track from the invert is
needed. In floating slab designs, the tunnel invert is depressed a depth sufficient to permit construction of an isolated slab
which rests on elastomeric pads in the recess. Both cast-in-place and precast methods have been used to construct floating 3
slabs. The track is then built on the isolated slab using one of the methods described in the previous Article. An alternative
means of obtaining vibration isolation is to use highly resilient fasteners between the invert slab and the rail. An acoustical
analysis is performed to determine the site-specific degree of vibration isolation needed. Attenuation levels of 15 to 25 dB are
obtainable with floating slabs compared to standard invert direct fixation track construction. The high resilience fasteners
provide 4 to 8 dB attenuation and therefore are applicable as an economical substitute for floating slabs only where the
required attenuation is less.
4
The selection of track support construction type should be based on cost comparisons that include the structure costs as well as
the track. In underground situations, the type of track construction significantly affects clearances with corresponding structure
cost impacts. On elevated structures, the type of construction affects the weight with corresponding cost impacts. For retrofit
of existing tunnels, clearances and working conditions often limit the type of construction that may be used.
3.5.6.9 Fastenings
A wide variety of fastening systems and components, most of them proprietary, have been used for holding rail to ties and
more recently for directly fixing the rail to slabs. Older systems tended towards rigid clamp connections for fixing the rail with
the newer designs incorporating resilient spring clips. The fastening system design must be an integral part of the track design
to ensure its compatibility with the other components and to achieve economy, constructability and maintainability. Fastening
systems should be designed to require the fewest number of parts and minimize the use of threaded components. Fastening
systems should be designed for the expected vertical, lateral and longitudinal forces, electrical isolation, resilience, fatigue
resistance, corrosion resistance, and deterioration due to atmospheric conditions. Ease of installation and replacement of rail
and fastener components should be addressed in the design and procurement specifications.

Rail Transit
Because of the proprietary nature of fastener procurements, competitive procurement specifications are usually of the
performance type. These specifications should include adequate design review, qualification and manufacturing testing as well
as material and configuration requirements including quality control. Designers should familiarize themselves with the
performance histories of the various designs in service as well as product test data before developing a procurement
specification.
Fastening systems for timber ties use steel tie plates screwed or spiked to the ties with or without a cushioning pad between the
tie and plate. The rails are held to the plates by either the spikes or by resilient clips. If spikes are used, rail anchors must be
provided to control longitudinal forces in the rail from thermal activity and braking/acceleration of trains.
Resilient clips provide longitudinal restraint by means of their toe load on the base of the rail.
Fastening systems for concrete ties require their integration with the tie design and include shaping of the rail seat in the tie
and casting of inserts in the tie for attaching the rail hold-down devices which may be either screw or spring clip devices. A
resilient pad between the base of the rail and the tie is needed for protection of the tie and hold-down devices against impact
and to provide electrical insulation. Additionally, insulators are required between the rail and rail clips to provide electrical
isolation.
Direct fixation fasteners require a metal top plate to which the rail is attached and an elastomeric pad between the plate and
slab for resilience. In many designs, a bottom plate beneath the resilient pad is provided. The resilient pad in many designs is
bonded to the metal plate(s), which allows the elastomeric to act in compression, tension and shear. The rail is attached to the
top plate by means of either bolted clamps or spring clips. The entire system is attached to the invert with anchor bolts. Male or
stud bolt systems may be either cast or grouted into the slab with the fastener set over the bolts and a combination of nuts,
washers, and sometimes insulating bushings used. More recently, female threaded inserts cast or grouted into the invert slab
with a combination of bolts and washers inserted through the fastener have been extensively used to attach the fastener to the
invert slab.
Direct fixation fastener systems may be adjusted vertically by placing shims under the fasteners as needed to provide a smooth
profile. Some systems also provide up to one inch of lateral adjustment to meet both construction tolerances for line and gage
and to permit future gage adjustment.
For new systems using ballastless construction with embedded wood or concrete tie blocks, the rail fastening system is the
same as for that material in ballasted construction except for resilient elastomer boots placed around the bottom of concrete tie
blocks before grouting them into place. In older systems with existing embedded block track, resilient direct fixation fasteners
have been used in retrofit projects to reduce vibration and improve ride quality.
On elevated structures with continuous welded rail track, direct fixation fasteners must be designed for the interaction forces
between the structure and the rail caused by temperature changes.
3.5.7 HORIZONTAL GEOMETRY (2006)
3.5.7.1 General
Wherever possible, track geometry is designed for optimum vehicle operating speed considering availability of right-of-way;
patron safety and comfort; vehicle performance characteristics; station spacing; construction cost; maintenance considerations;
and vertical and horizontal alignment.
Stationing is denoted throughout the route length along the centerline of the control track. In many cases, all tracks of multiple
track systems include stationing.

3.5.7.2 Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment of main line tracks consists of tangents joined to circular curves by spiral transition curves. Spirals
are also desirable in all heavily used tracks other than main line tracks, where practicable, between tangent and curves and
between the different degrees of curvature of a compound curve.
Curvature and superelevation are related to design speed and the characteristics of the design vehicle.
3.5.7.3 Tangents
A desirable minimum tangent can be determined from the following formula:
L = 3V
Where:
L = Minimum Tangent Length, feet.
V = Design velocity through tangent, mph
This minimum tangent distance allows patrons to recover from the effects of lateral force due to traversing a curve prior to
entering another curve (which is often in the opposite direction). In many cases this distance may be difficult to achieve where
right-of-way availability is limited. An absolute minimum length of tangent (usually not less than the length of the longest car
to traverse the tangent) is required in order to prevent damage to vehicle couplers and articulation joints. The absolute
minimum tangent length is determined based upon degree of curvature and vehicle/rolling stock requirements.
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3.5.7.4 Circular Curves
Circular curves in many heavy rail transit (HRT) systems (i.e. rapid transit) are often defined by the arc definition and
specified by their degree and/or radius as determined by the formulae found in Chapter 5, Track. Many commuter rail systems
(which often share track with freight traffic) define curvature by the chord definition as outlined in Chapter 5, T rack. 3
Curves on light rail transit (LRT) systems are usually defined by the arc definition and are specified by centerline radius and
central angle (degrees-minutes-seconds). The owner or operator of the system should confirm the definition of curvature for
existing properties.
Allowable speed through circular curves is dependent upon degree of curvature, superelevation, and length of transition
spirals. The maintenance condition of the track will also dictate the allowable speed through curves. Design speeds are 4
established such that given the parameters indicated above, the lateral (centrifugal) force will not exceed a specified value.
3.5.7.5 Spiral Transition Curves
Spiral transition curves provide a smooth transition from tangent track to curved track and should be used on all main line
horizontal curves. Spiral transition curves can usually be omitted where the length for spiral (Ls) divided by the radius (R)
using either feet or meters is less than 0.01.
An acceptable spiral length can be determined from the equations given below in Article 3.5.7.6, Article 3.5.7.7 or
Article 3.5.7.8. Each equation represents one of the factors that govern the length of the spiral. The maximum value calculated
should be used as the minimum length of spiral. These formulae are valid only for standard gage (4’-8 1/2”) track. Use of
nonstandard gage track will require revised formulae.
Abbreviations used in these equations are as follows:
Ls = Spiral length, feet

Rail Transit
Ea = Actual superelevation, inches
Eu = Unbalanced superelevation, inches
V = Velocity, mph
3.5.7.6 Rate of Change of Superelevation
For speeds up to 60 mph a maximum rate of superelevation application of 1 ¼ inches per second is typically utilized, giving a
formula: Ls = 1.17 EaV.
For speeds in the 60–80 mph range a maximum rate of superelevation application of 1-1/16 inches per second is typically
utilized, giving a formula: Ls = 1.26 EaV.
Another form of expressing the rate of superelevation change per second is as “Roll Rate” in radians per second or degrees per
second. The above equations will usually govern spiral length where the actual superelevation is large or where there is little or
no unbalanced superelevation.
3.5.7.7 Rate of Change of Lateral Acceleration
Based on typical values used for maximum lateral acceleration through the curve of between 0.10 and 0.12 g/sec and a rate of
application of lateral acceleration between 0.03 and 0.04 g/sec2, the spiral length will be within the values given by the
formulae Ls = 1.22EuV or Ls = 1.63 EuV. When a large number of standing passengers is anticipated, the maximum values for
lateral acceleration and rate of application may be reduced to provide improved ride quality.
This spiral length equation usually governs for curves designed with maximum permissible unbalanced superelevation.
3.5.7.8 Vehicle Torsion
The recommended maximum twist in the cross level of the track in the length of the maximum track centers of equipment
operated over the line is one inch. The track warp must not be more than 1 inch in 62 feet, giving the equation Ls = 62Ea.
Articulated light rail vehicles (LRVs) must consider wheelbase from the center to the end trucks. A typical LRV may thus give
the equation Ls = 30Ea. This spiral length usually governs for low speeds or curves with high superelevation.
Note that the factor of 62 or 30 relates to a transit vehicle with a standard three-piece truck. Many transit vehicles have an
entirely different truck configuration. In any case, the manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed as to the allowable
torsion (track twist) that the vehicle can tolerate.
3.5.7.9 Reverse Curves
Reverse curves should be avoided on main line track. If reverse curves are used, the minimum tangent length and spiral length
as described in Article 3.5.7.3 and Article 3.5.7.5 should be used. An absolute minimum tangent length between reverse
curves is governed by vehicle and/or rolling stock requirements.
If circumstances do not permit the minimum tangent length to be accommodated between reversing curves, the spiral
transitions may meet at the point of reverse curvature, provided vehicle torsion considerations do not govern the spiral length.
The track twist is doubled at back-to-back spirals and the spiral length should be doubled in these circumstances.
3.5.7.10 Compound Circular Curves
Compound curves should be avoided on main line track. If compound curves are used, a spiral should be inserted between the
circular curves. The same considerations for minimum spiral length shall be met in these cases.

Superelevation is the height difference between the high (outside) and low (inside) rail on a curve, which allows higher speeds.
Superelevation should be constant throughout the entire length of the circular curve. The superelevation should increase
linearly throughout the length of the spiral curve.
The track superelevation may be determined from the formulas indicated in Chapter 5, T rack or modified to suit specific
transit applications. When developing a maximum allowable unbalanced superelevation on a new transit system, patron
comfort and safety is a primary consideration. See Chapter 5, Track for definition and derivation of unbalanced
superelevation.
Superelevation is generally not used in yard track except in cases such as long “loop” tracks where superelevation may be
desirable in order to reduce wear on the high rail.
3.5.8.1 General
The vertical alignment consists of vertical tangents or grades connected by parabolic vertical curves having a constant rate of
change in grade.
The vertical alignment is generally set at the top of the low rail (profile rail).
3.5.8.2 Vertical Grades 1

Vertical grade constraints are generally determined by the acceleration, deceleration and wheel/rail adhesion characteristics of
the design vehicle. For efficiency and performance, all grades should be the lowest percent that is practical.
The maximum grade for HRT generally ranges from 3.0 to 4.0%. A typical desirable maximum grade is 3.0%.
The maximum grade for LRT generally ranges from 4.0 to 7.0% or greater. A typical desirable maximum grade is 4.0%. 3
A number of factors govern vertical grades. The following is a partial listing of factors the designer should consider when
selecting maximum and minimum grades:
Acceleration characteristics of the vehicle. (Velocity profile calculations may be required).
Braking capabilities of the vehicle. 4

The presence of horizontal curves on grade (curve compensation calculations may be required).
Grade limitations through stations.
The possibility of increasing/decreasing grades to assist in vehicle acceleration or braking.
Limitations due to sustained grades.
Limitations to accommodate trackside drainage.
Grade constraints for maintenance yards (i.e. avoidance of runaway vehicles).
Limitations due to topography and existing features (as encountered in street running systems).

Rail Transit
Limitations for multi-use corridors (i.e. a joint commuter rail and LRT corridor).
3.5.8.3 Vertical Tangents
A minimum vertical tangent length is often desirable for patron comfort and/or vehicular constraints. A desirable minimum
can be determined from the following formula:
L = 3V
Where:
L = Minimum Tangent Length, feet.
V = Design velocity through tangent, mph
Some properties require an absolute minimum vertical tangent length of 100 feet (30 m) while others (street running systems)
may allow a shorter vertical tangent length due to topographic constraints. When determining minimum vertical tangent
lengths, vehicle characteristics must be considered.
All changes in grade are connected by parabolic vertical curves for smooth riding and appearance. The length of a vertical
curve is determined by the grades to be connected, the design speed, and the design vehicle characteristics. A typical minimum
vertical curve length is 100 feet. A preferred minimum is 200 feet. Vertical curves for LRT may be as low as 30 feet or less due
to physical (topographic) constraints. Many LRT systems define minimum vertical curve lengths based on formulas derived
from highway design (AASHTO) equations.
Vehicle manufacturers typically state physical constraints for vehicles in terms of combined horizontal and vertical curves as
defined by circular curve radius. For this purpose, using the following formula can approximate an equivalent minimum radius
for a given vertical parabolic curve:
R = 100 L / (g1-g2)
Where:
R = the equivalent circular curve radius, feet
L = Length of vertical parabolic curve, feet
g1 and g2 = the entering and exiting grades, percent
(g1-g2) = the algebraic difference in grade, percent
Vertical curve lengths may also be limited by overhead contact wires (in electrified transit systems) due to the permissible rate
of separation or convergence between the track and the contact wire. Applicable criteria for overhead contact systems should
be considered.
3.5.8.5 Reverse Vertical Curves
Reverse vertical curves should be avoided on main line track. If reverse vertical curves are used, the minimum vertical tangent
distance as described in Article 3.5.8.3 should be used.

3.5.8.6 Special Trackwork
Special trackwork (turnouts, crossovers and track crossings) are normally installed within horizontal and vertical tangents.
Exceptions are made in some cases because of restricted clearances or existing topographic conditions. See Article 3.5.1 for
additional information.
3.5.9 SIGNAL CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3.5.10 GROUNDING/STRAY CURRENT (2006)
3.5.10.1 General Description
Electrical current discharged into the ground by electric rail transit systems can cause corrosion problems for nearby utility
systems. In addition, such electrical discharges can result in rapid deterioration of structures, both of the rail system and other
nearby structures. Many electric rail systems and their neighbor utility companies have come together as members of
“electrolysis” or “corrosion control” committees, with the primary intention to work together in a cooperative manner to
identify “stray current” problem locations and to find solutions to eliminate or mitigate detrimental effects.
Various measures have been implemented to achieve this mutual objective on older transit systems. In many locations, rail
transit systems have been eliminated, and with their elimination, so have the cooperative committees that were knowledgeable
of the techniques that have been employed. In other instances, the interrelationship between the existing rail system and the
surrounding utilities has achieved a stabilized condition, inviting the opportunity for complacency and reduced attention that 1
existed when problems were being searched out initially. As a result, with the recent resurgence of reconstruction of existing
rail transit systems and the creation of new electrified rail transit systems, a renewed awareness of the implications of stray
current is essential in the design of new and reconstructed electric rail transit systems.
3.5.10.2 Source of Stray Current
Stray current results from the leakage of current from some electrical system so that part of the current path is through the 3
earth. Whenever another utility facility or other conductive structure lies within the current path, the current can enter and
leave the facility or structure. When the current leaves the facility or structure, loss of metal (i.e. corrosion) is the end result.
This can cause leaks to occur in pipe lines and loss in structural strength to occur in bridge and tunnel structures due to the loss
of rebar and structural steel.
A misconception can exist relative to current return systems on a rail system. It is often assumed that if the rail is adequately
bonded to provide a positive return path for the current, no problems will occur. This, unfortunately, is not always true.
4
Electrical current does not follow the “path” of least resistance. In actuality, if more than one parallel path is available, the
current will divide itself between them inversely as the resistance. The resulting damage can be significant.
3.5.10.3 Design Conditions
Pre-existing Systems
Evaluation of existing stray current mitigation installations.
Implications of changes to existing system on such installations.
New Transit Construction
Identification of potentially affected utility structures.

Rail Transit
Identification of new construction structures needing protection.
Analysis of System
Methods to identify existence of, or potential for, stray current.
Identification of types of stray current mitigation.
For structures.
For third party facilities.
Implementation Methods
Conditions that can affect the selection of certain methods.
Coordination efforts that should be in place among affected outside agencies.
3.5.11.1 General
Turnouts and special trackwork in rail transit applications require the engineer to assess and address conditions not necessarily
found in a freight rail environment. These include conditions in and around passenger platforms and boarding areas,
specialized appurtenances to protect and aid in the longevity of switch areas, and passenger comfort requirements discussed
elsewhere in Chapter 12.
It should be recognized that many transit agencies and authorities have their own geometric standards that differ from those
identified in the Portfolio of Trackwork Plans. While most make use of AREMA standards for switchpoint details (Detail
5100, et al.), frog angle and number, the similarities often stop there. Whenever possible, the authority’s switch and turnout
standards should be followed when developing new or replacement strategies so as to:
Minimize the variety of replacement components that must be maintained for the system as a whole.
Minimize the need for maintenance forces to be trained in the proper installation, adjustment and maintenance of
differing components.
3.5.11.2 Location of Special Trackwork
Special trackwork in light rail transit is frequently incorporated into the paved cartways of city streets, often as part of a
“trolley” system. The location of special trackwork in such urban environments should, as much as practicable, take into
consideration the nature and location of typical vehicular traffic patterns. When diverting from one street to another it is
desirable to have the transit vehicle follow the path of roadway vehicles to avoid crossing opposing vehicular traffic at
locations other than at roadway intersections. Diverging transit routes should, as much as practicable, mimic the lane
assignments of the roadways.
In street track conditions, the location of turnouts should also be coordinated with the traction power requirements to ensure
that the overhead trolley wire can be properly supported and aligned to provide continuity of power through the turnout route.
In rail transit applications the locations of special trackwork in interlockings very frequently coincide with passenger stations
and terminals. The location of switches in such circumstances should be coordinated with the signals personnel and operations
personnel to coordinate the special trackwork locations and configuration with the requirements of terminal capacity and
desired system flexibility.

3.5.11.3 Vertical Grades
Special trackwork should, as a rule, be installed only on vertical tangents or grades. There are exceptions that could be made
in cases of extreme clearance or topographic conditions. In those cases, it is highly desirable to restrict the vertical curvature
to very “flat” curves, commonly limited to parabolic curves with a rate of change of 0.01 or less. Vertical curves should be
kept out of the switch portions and the frog area of turnouts to avoid the need for specialty castings and fabrications.
If necessary to locate the special trackwork in an area of changing profile, vertical curves leading into the point of switch
should end a reasonable distance before the point of switch to ensure proper housing of switchpoints and undercut stockrails.
Similarly, vertical curves behind the frog should not begin until after the last long timber of the turnout whenever possible.
Turnouts should be located on flat gradients as a rule to aid in reducing maintenance by keeping switch components aligned
longitudinally. Grades on transit properties often exceed those found on freight lines, and special care should be taken to
restrict the location of special trackwork to relatively flat portions of the alignment. Transit properties often restrict the
location of special trackwork to grades of not more than 1.5%.
It is often desirable, especially in heavy rail environments, to provide a “sawtooth” profile to allow gravity to assist in slowing
trains by entering uphill into a station and in accelerating trains by exiting downhill out of a station. Care should be used in
locating station crossovers and special trackwork in such a manner that the desire to provide such a sawtooth profile does not
compromise the grade restrictions associated with special trackwork.
3.5.11.4 Horizontal Geometry
It is good practice from a passenger comfort perspective to allow a section of horizontally tangent track between adjacent
special trackwork elements, especially between the points of switch of turnouts that are adjacent and point to point. The
1
minimum length of these tangent sections should be governed by the vehicle manufacturer’s allowable torsion limits.
Whenever possible, the tangent section between turnouts should be increased to at least a length equal to the truck centers of
one car to allow one car to “recover” before entering the next diverging route.
When considering the tangent length required, all special trackwork should be considered as a unit, with the most severe
combination of curved diverging routes (especially reverse curve conditions) used to determine the minimum tangent length 3
required.
Special trackwork should never be superelevated, even if the track from which it diverts is superelevated.
3.5.11.5 Clearances
Transit environments present an unusual set of clearance issues for special trackwork that must be addressed. 4
Turnouts are often located immediately adjacent to station platforms in order to facilitate system flexibility and
maneuverability into the station. Special attention should be paid to the end overhang and mid-ordinate shift (sometimes
called end excess and center excess) of transit vehicles as they travel through the diverging route of such special trackwork to
ensure that adequate clearance is provided to station platforms and utility walkways.
In a similar manner, the diverging routes in street track turnouts should be reviewed for clearance considerations with respect
to on-street parking, utility poles and surface transit loading areas.
Clearances for mid-ordinate and end overhang conditions should also be carefully reviewed for turnouts and crossovers in
underground tunnels to ensure that the structural supports are located in such a manner that they are outside of the clearance
zone required for the vehicle to negotiate through the diverging route.
Lateral and vertical clearance considerations applicable to any track should be applied to both the tangent route and the
diverging route of all special trackwork. One should keep in mind that in transit applications it is often the rail vehicle

Rail Transit
appurtenances, such as rear-view mirrors and pantographs, and not the vehicle car body itself, which govern minimum
clearance requirements.
3.5.12 SPECIAL TRACKWORK COMPONENTS (2006)
Special trackwork in street or embedded track often makes use of tongue and mate switches to eliminate the number of moving
parts required to direct vehicles through the diverging route of a turnout (see Plan No. 980-02 et al in the AREMA Portfolio of
Trackwork Plans.). These designs have only one moveable “tongue” which replaces the traditional switchpoints. Typically,
the tongue is placed on the inside, or diverging route side, of the turnout.
In selecting the type of switches and materials for filling between the rails of embedded switches, consideration must be given
to the flangeway opening provided by the switch and how that will affect the safety of pedestrian traffic in the area.
Housetops are used on a number of transit properties as a means of additional protection for switchpoint of a traditional split
switch. The housetop is typically a stationary manganese casting that is mounted on the gage side of the straight switchpoint
on the diverging route of the turnout. It is essentially that a shelf serves to protect the switchpoint when it is aligned for the
diverging route. When the switchpoint is in the open position, it slides under the housetop, which protects it from contacting
the backside of a wheel that may be “hunting” as it travels along the curved stockrail. When the switch is aligned for the
tangent route the switchpoint is simply housed under the stockrail and the housetop is set to allow for passage of the wheel
flange.
The selection of the type of turnout can have a large affect on the quality of the ride experienced by the passengers. As with
any turnout, the use of a “standard” switch, straight or curved, includes a “kink angle” of 1° or more that provides an abrupt
change in direction for a wheel traversing the diverging route. If a large proportion of the transit traffic is expected to use the
diverging route through the turnout, or if a high speed diverging move is required, a tangential geometry switch should be
considered.
In a tangential geometry turnout, the rail vehicle traverses a continuous curve that is tangent to the track at the point of
divergence, creating both a smoother ride and a more gradual curve to negotiate. The downside of a tangential geometry
turnout is that, in order to provide the gradual turnout curve, the lead distance is often considerably longer than that for the
corresponding standard turnout. As such, spatial restrictions may be as big a consideration as passenger comfort in certain
circumstances.
SECTION 3.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
3.6.1 SCOPE (2010)
This section provides a suggested approach for considering the requirements of future line extensions or expansions in the
initial design and construction of a rail transit line. The concepts discussed are relevant to all rail transit modes. Application
of these concepts should be tailored to fit the technical characteristics of each mode and the site-specific conditions unique to
each project.
Many times in rail transit planning and design, the scope of a given project is limited to address immediate needs, such as for
initial construction of a starter line or expansion of an existing system into a new corridor. Efforts naturally concentrate on
designing and building only that infrastructure necessary to support the defined project. Little thought may be given to what
the next step in rail system development may be, and what role the current project may eventually have in the expanded
system.

Infrastructure issues associated with future route extensions, new lines and provision of additional capacity on existing lines
are often not considered during rail project planning and design phases. This circumstance arises from cost and funding
considerations, the uncertainties inherent in future expansion plans, and the need to focus on immediate tasks. The results of
this approach can be unfortunate, however, as the following examples illustrate:
• Relocation of electrification poles to accommodate double-tracking of an existing single-track line segment.
• Construction of station platforms to accommodate longer trains, or provision of space for future platform
lengthening as demand grows to require longer trains.
Resolution of these problems required disruption to existing infrastructure, generated additional construction cost, and
impacted passenger transportation services. While in some cases these problems could not reasonably have been avoided, in
many cases pro-active anticipation of these issues and appropriate action during planning, design and construction could have
saved time and money.
Forward-looking design can ensure that facilities are designed and built with future expansion in mind, with interface points
designed for expansion as efficiently and economically as possible. The additional expense of forward-looking design and
anticipatory construction does not have to be high, yet can save large amounts of money, time and aggravation later.
This section discusses means by which accommodations for potential infrastructure expansion can be considered as an integral
part of project planning, even if no follow-on projects are anticipated in the near term.
3.6.3 GENERAL APPROACH (2010)

1
An overview of the suggested approach is provided below:
• Assume planning and design for the current construction project is well defined but not “final”.
• Review the detailed design plans for all infrastructure elements.
• Review plans for future expansion. Recognize that future infrastructure plans will likely be conceptual and may in 3
fact be somewhat speculative. Make reasonable assumptions where necessary.
• Overlay future plans on current infrastructure construction project.
• Identify points of interface and overlap – junction locations, interlocking locations, trackage shared by multiple
lines, expansion beyond currently planned end-of-track, shared shop facilities, and similar situations.
4
• Develop a consolidated infrastructure plan which incorporates both current and potential future construction.
• What does the consolidated infrastructure plan look like? How does it differ from the current infrastructure design?
What are the interfaces?
At this point, it is useful to assess the interfaces between current and future infrastructure construction plans from at least two
perspectives:
• How complex are the individual interfaces? In other words, how much time and expense are involved to
accommodate these items now rather than later? Perform cost/benefit analysis to determine how much to construct
now vs. how much to build later. Consider construction cost, constructability, and impacts of later construction on
revenue service. Many of these topics can be effectively addressed on a conceptual level (using historical costs and
comparable projects) without the need for detailed design study.

Rail Transit
• How viable is each of the planned expansions? How likely are they to occur? What is the anticipated time frame for
construction? Evaluate based on transportation needs, anticipated funding, community acceptance, political will,
and other local factors.
Based on this assessment, the interfaces can be ranked as illustrated below on a conceptual basis:
Table 12-3-1. Project Ranking Interfaces

Interface Type Relatively Easy/ Relatively Difficult/
Project Viability Inexpensive Expensive
Relatively Strong Strong candidate for Review costs/benefits
inclusion in current versus schedule,
construction project constructability impacts
and available budget.
Decide accordingly (“pay
me now or pay me later”).
Relatively Weak Review costs/benefits and Review cost/benefit,
incorporate if justifiable schedule and budget
(e.g., low cost; “cheap impacts. Decide
insurance” if built; no harm accordingly (probably do
if future project never nothing).
occurs)
The actual analysis should be as detailed as necessary to accurately reflect the relative costs and impacts among the options
(and relative viability of the expansion schemes) so that decision-makers can proceed with confidence. Interfaces which pass
scrutiny should be considered for incorporation into the current project.
3.6.4 SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED (2010)
3.6.4.1 Overview
The general concepts discussed above should be applied to the specific design situations associated with each project. Typical
examples of the situations to be addressed are noted below:
3.6.4.2 Land Acquisition and Right-of-Way
• Right-of-way widths should accommodate double track (or multiple tracks) and allow room for potential turnbacks
and loops.
• Footprints should be provided for additional signal bungalows and traction power substations at junctions.
• Recognize the potential need to accommodate “infill” stations and parking lots.
• Preserve the ability to provide “infill” substations in the event of increased service frequencies.

3.6.4.3 Track
• Designate the track footprint based on the anticipated facility plan; keep other fixed infrastructure elements (stations,
substations, signal equipment) out of this footprint.
• Maximize utility of the starter line infrastructure in the expanded system. Consider future junction locations in initial
track design; arrange trackage to fit the footprint of future interlockings, so that new turnouts and specialwork panels
can be installed in the initial track alignment as seamlessly as possible; designate starter line trackage to be
considered sacrificial in the event of expansion.
• If single track, locate sidings and interlockings to gracefully accommodate second track; minimize need for
demolition of existing facilities to accommodate double track expansion.
• Consider future siding locations.
• Think constructability – design the track layout to accommodate future construction and cut-and-throws.
• For street trackage, arrange construction joints in trackwork, support slabs and pavement to accommodate the future
track arrangement. Done properly, the “cut lines” on the design drawings for the new infrastructure will already
have corresponding construction joints present on site.
3.6.4.4 Traction Power Substations
• Locate substations to avoid possible track expansions, junctions, etc.

1
• Design and locate section breaks to support expansion and addition of intermediate junction points.
• Design power supply cables, duct banks and manholes to readily accommodate “infill” substations. Or alternatively,
provide space for additional substation capacity at existing substation locations.
3.6.4.5 Electrification Poles 3

• Keep poles out of the potential track footprint.
• At future junction sites, arrange poles to accommodate the more complex future overhead line arrangement.
3.6.4.6 Signal Systems

4
• Arrange signal system to accommodate junctions, interlockings, and additional blocks as necessary.
• Locate facilities outside of track footprint.
• Size bungalows for anticipated needs (or leave area for convenient expansion).
• Consider impact of future road widening schemes on location of grade crossing warning systems – it is one thing to
relocate gates, another thing to relocate bungalows and cables.
• Consider signal sight lines in view of future infrastructure installations.
3.6.4.7 Stations
• Coordinate station locations with other infrastructure; avoid the footprints of future junctions.

Rail Transit
• Identify and preserve future “infill” station locations; these stations may be deferred pending agency funding or
awaiting third-party investments (e.g., offices, housing, health care facilities) that will generate ridership.
• Recognize the potential need for platform extensions.
3.6.4.8 Parking
• Coordinate design details with other infrastructure.
• Recognize the impact of future ridership; many times ridership is constrained by parking capacity, not line capacity.
• Be aware of land acquisition opportunities for future parking.
3.6.4.9 Utilities
• Consider impact of current and future construction on utilities and utility relocation. Consider relocation beyond the
future project footprint if at all possible - why relocate utilities twice if it can be avoided?
• Promote ease of utility interface to future stations, substations and signal installations.
3.6.4.10 Duct Banks
• Provide capacity for additional cables in future. Consider need for traction power feeders, signal lines, SCADA,
communication lines, etc.
• Provide manholes, pull boxes, etc. as necessary to interface with future construction.
• Route duct banks to accommodate future stations, tracks and interlockings.
3.6.4.11 Maintenance Facility
• Provide space for expansion where possible - additional storage tracks, additional shop bays, more employee
parking, expanded material storage sites, etc.
• Preserve the ability to provide shop connections to new revenue trackage.
• Future expansions may require an additional shop site. Suitable shop sites can be difficult to find due to the need for
sufficient acreage of appropriate shape in proximity to the proposed rail line. When possible, it may be desirable to
identify candidate sites and preserve their availability through some form of public ownership pending rail line
construction.
3.6.5 SUMMARY (2010)
This section provides an overview of points to be considered in balancing the needs of current construction against future
projects. Specific suggestions for individual project elements are also presented. Actual project details, site conditions,
funding realities and local preferences must be considered in applying these concepts.
No one can predict the future with absolute accuracy. No one can identify which proposed rail projects will be built and which
will forever remain in the future. This section does not advocate that all possible future construction plans must be
accommodated in a current project. However, application of common sense and good design judgment can identify areas
where accommodations to benefit future construction may be warranted and should be evaluated. This evaluation should
occur early enough in the design process so that approved accommodations for future construction can be incorporated into
design packages as part of the normal evolution of the design.

Application of forward-looking design principles requires the consideration of many details, but the rewards, in the form of
reduced cost, reduced construction disruption and increased public confidence, can be great.

Rail Transit

12
Part 4
Facilities and Structural Considerations1
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.2 Passenger Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-4

4.2.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-4
4.2.2 Regulatory Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6 1
4.2.4 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.5 Site Considerations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.6 Structural Systems (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.7 Mechanical Systems (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.8 Finish Materials (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6 3
4.2.9 Landscaping (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-6
4.2.10 Amenities (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7
4.2.11 Passenger Information/Signage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7
4.3 Multi-Modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7

4.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7
4.3.3 Circulation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.3.4 Parking (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.3.5 Baggage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.3.6 Amenities (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.3.7 Passenger Information/Signage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10

4.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-10
4.4.2 Maintenance Philosophy (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-17
4.4.5 Environmental Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-28
4.4.6 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-29
4.4.7 Engine Shops (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-29
1
References, Vol 91, 1990, p. 94; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 131.

Rail Transit
4.4.8 Car Shops (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-29

4.4.9 Maintenance-of-Way Shops (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-32
4.4.10 Layover Yards (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-32
4.4.11 Material Yards (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-33
4.4.12 Site Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-33
4.4.13 Utility Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-34
4.5 Bridges and Drainage Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-34

4.5.1 Introduction (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-34
4.5.2 Joint Railroad/Transit Operation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-34
4.5.3 Transit System Loads (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-34
4.5.4 Structure Serviceability Criteria (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-38
4.5.5 Hydraulic and Hydrologic Concerns (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-39
4.5.6 Marine Protection (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-39
4.5.7 Operational Concerns (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-40
4.5.8 Stray Current Effects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-41
4.5.9 Retaining Walls (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-41
4.5.10 Utilities (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-41
4.5.11 Construction (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-41
4.5.12 Alignments and Clearances (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-42
4.5.13 Curved Girder Bridges (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-84
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-87
4.7 Tunnels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-87

4.7.1 Introduction (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-87
4.7.2 Design (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-87
4.7.3 Functional Analysis (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-90
4.7.4 Construction (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-93
4.7.5 Maintenance (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-94
4.8 Segmental Girder Guideways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-94

4.8.1 Introduction (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-94
4.8.2 Design (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-94
4.9 Direct Fixation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-96

4.9.1 Introduction (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-96
4.9.2 Design (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-96
LIST OF FIGURES
12-4-1 Planning Flow Chart - Transit Shop Facility Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-18

12-4-2 Live Loads Questionnaire, Attachment 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-44

12-4-6 Live Loads Questionnaire, Attachment 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-50

12-4-7 Live Loads Questionnaire, Attachment 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-51
12-4-8 Live Loads Questionniare, Attachment 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-52
LIST OF TABLES
12-4-1 Rail Intermodal Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-7

12-4-2 Minimum and Preferred Yard Track Radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-26
12-4-3 Responses to Design Loading Questionnaire Provided by the Following Agencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-35
12-4-4 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - I. Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-63
12-4-5 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - II. Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-66
12-4-6 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - III. Centrifugal Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-68
12-4-7 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - IV. Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-69
12-4-8 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - V. Nosing (Lateral Loads). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-73 1
12-4-9 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VI. Longitudinal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-74
12-4-10 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VII. Station Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-77
12-4-11 Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VIII. Other Miscellaneous Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4-78

Rail Transit
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.1 GENERAL (2006)
4.2.1.1 Check List
Station Location:
Community Considerations. Operational Visibility.

Ease of Access - Highway, Pedestrian, etc. Track Geometry Consideration.
Provision for Expansion. Joint Development.
Intermodal:
Transfers. Traffic Circulation.

Private Vehicle Parking.
High vs. Low Platforms:
Traffic Volume. Sizing.

Clearance Considerations.
Passenger Flow:
Walkways. Elderly and Handicapped Considerations.

Stairs. Access.
Elevators. Location.
Escalators. Specialized Facilities.
Moving Walkways.
Fare Collection:
Free-Paid Areas. Fare Vending Machines.

Attendant Facilities. System Related Items.
Climate Considerations:
Heating/Cooling. Shelters.

Lighting:
Interior. Pickup and/or Parking Areas.

Platform.
Utilities:
Consumption. Panels and Cabinets.

Facilities.
Passenger Facilities:
Rest Rooms. Drinking fountains.

Seating. Vending Machines/Concessions.
Public Phones. Trash Containers.
Internet/WiFi capabilities.
Security:
Fences, Gates, Barriers, Railings. Police Facilities.

Closed Circuit TV Surveillance. 1
Fire Protection:
Fire Codes. Automatic suppression equipment.

Types of Equipment.
3
Communications:
Public Address. Passenger Aid Systems.

Automated/Controlled Information Signs.
Vandalism and Graffiti Protection:

4
Security. Materials.
Building Layout.
Signs:
Type. Standards. Directional Signs.

Informational Signs. Instructional Signs.
Advertising:
Policy. Size and Type.

Location. Joint Usage.

Rail Transit
Landscaping:
Amount and Type. Transit or Community Responsibility.
Emergency Considerations:
Access for Emergency Vehicles. Instruction for Emergency Personnel.

Access for Emergency Personnel. Evaluation.
Special Considerations for Subway and Elevated
Stations.
Safety Evaluation:
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.6 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.7 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.8 FINISH MATERIALS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

4.2.10 AMENITIES (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.2.11 PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.1 GENERAL (2006)
Passenger rail facilities are a significant component of local and national transportation systems. The careful integration of
these various systems can not only improve transportation options for the public at large, but can also increase passenger
loadings on systems that offer these options. Often a synergism develops when sufficient connections are possible such that
prospective passengers will automatically choose an integrated network knowing connections will be coordinated, convenient
and comfortable. This section offers suggestions to accomplish these goals in a cost-efficient manner. See Table 12-4-1 for a
partial list of rail intermodal examples.
Table 12-4-1. Rail Intermodal Examples

1
People Heavy Rail
Between Light Rail Suburban Intercity
Mover (Rapid Transit)
Intercity Newark/Penn Station Boston/South Sta. BAL, BOS, CHI, LAX
Pittsburgh/Penn Sq. Montreal/Central Sta. MlA, MTR, NHV,
San Diego/Santa Fe Sta. Newark/Penn Sta. NWK, NYC, PHL, SJC,
New York/Penn Sta.
San Francisco/Richmond
TOR, WAS (Note 1) 3
Toronto/Union Sta.
Washington/Union Sta.
Suburban Baltimore/Camden Sta. Boston/South Sta. Miami/Tri- Dallas/Union Sta.
Baltimore/Penn Sta. Rail Montreal/Central and
Newark/Penn Sta. Windsor
Philadelphia/11th St. Newark/Penn Sta.
Philadelphia/15th St. New York/Penn and GCT 4
Toronto/Union Sta. Philadelphia/15th and 6th
Philadelphia/Fern Rock
Washington/Union Sta.
Rapid Transit/ Miami/ Baltimore/Lexington Boston/North Sta.
Heavy Rail Government Ctr. Boston/Park and Govt. Philadelphia/30th St.
Cleveland/Term. and Tower
Cleveland/E34 and 55
Los Angeles/7th and Flowers
Philadelphia/69th St.
Light Rail Boston/North Sta. Boston/North Sta. Chicago/Union Sta.
Chicago/Union Sta. Chicago/C&NW Sta. St.
Chicago/C&NW Sta. Louis/lntermodal
People Mover Jacksonville/St. Johns Chicago/O’Hare
Note 1: Intercity/suburban intermodal stations usually exist at numerous points on shared tracks. Systems are indicated for the major city only.

Rail Transit
4.3.1.1 Rail Modals
There are three methods available to connect rail modal services together. The easiest from a facility standpoint is a shared
track arrangement. Although many operational issues must be overcome, shared track allows all passengers to use the same
facilities with little additional directional signage needed. Differences in gauge, car clearances, power supply, signaling, and
brake systems, together with constraints such as dispatching, wheel tread size, minimum curve radii, vehicle and buffer
strength make the sharing of track among various rail modals difficult. Light rail has been combined with Freight rail in a few
cities such as Baltimore and San Diego. Automated people mover systems generally utilize special tracks that cannot be
integrated with conventional rail service.
The second method of integration is shared platform. This allows each rail modal to operate its own track/signal network and
still allow “across the platform” changes to connecting services. Issues associated with this approach include fare control area,
security, and geometric limitations on the right-of-way of each rail line.
The third and most common method of integration is shared station. In this arrangement each modal operates its own boarding
area in separately defined areas of the building. Fare control is separated for each mode. Security concerns are lessened as each
mode can operate independently of the other. The disadvantages to the customer are the longer walk between facilities and
additional directional signage.
Intercity service is characterized by infrequent departures requiring large waiting areas. In addition, ticketing, baggage
handling, manned information centers, concessions, and other passenger facilities are often provided. Fare collection is usually
on-board.
Commuter/suburban service requires smaller waiting areas, as train frequency is usually higher than in intercity service. Also,
due to regular patronage, manning requirements are less. Ticketing and concessions are sometimes provided. Fare collection is
usually onboard.
Rapid Transit (Heavy Rail) systems are characterized by high service frequency and fare collection at the station. High-level
platforms are usually provided, allowing large volumes to be loaded/unloaded in shorter times.
Light rail systems are characterized by lower boarding volumes and sometimes lower frequencies. Station facilities are usually
minimal. Fare collection can be at station, onboard, or honor via platform machines.
Automated guideway transit systems are closer to elevator service in that they usually operate in a demand mode with rather
short waiting times. Because of this, passenger requirements are few. On the other hand, when coordinated boarding doors are
used, the platforms are often enclosed, with station doors lining up with vehicle doors. This necessitates heating, ventilating
and air conditioning systems and other “indoor” services.
4.3.1.2 Other Local System Interfaces
There are three methods available to connect rail mode services with other local systems. The most convenient involves a
hybrid of the shared rail platform design usually called a free fare zone. This area allows passengers to make an across-the-
platform connection from a rail vehicle to a bus or other road vehicle without crossing through fare gates or other barriers.
These facilities work best when fare systems are consolidated between modes, only onboard collection is utilized, or barrier
free (honor fare) systems are used.
The most common method is shared station facility with separate areas for rail and other modes. As with shared rail facilities,
signage, long walks and inconvenience are difficulties to be minimized.
The final method, which is rarely used except in light rail modes, involves shared right-of-way. In this system, rail and road
vehicles share the same lane and therefore the same passenger facilities are used for both. Signaling problems, braking
distances, and electrification limit the viability of this approach.

Transit bus services are the most common systems linked to a rail station. Consideration should be given to the vehicle turning
requirements, berth size, vertical transportation needs, signage, and canopies connecting to the rail station.
Airport bus and tram shuttle needs are similar to transit bus needs except airport services require consideration for luggage
handling between the station and the bus zone (carts, red caps, etc.). Multi-car trains need wide circulation paths and clear
sight lines when boarding.
Taxicabs should be channeled into one or more queues. In busy stations, cab “starters” may be employed to speed operations
or to divide riders into groups. Train information systems and telephone capability should be considered for the “starter” if
used.
Marine ferry service is utilized at some rail station either as a primary or alternate connection. Considerations include marine
environment problems with rail equipment (water, salt, impact); dock height changes due to tides; and vehicle capacity
matching. Examples of some facilities in the United States include Hoboken, New Jersey and San Francisco, California.
Consideration for bicycle storage and access ways should be given for multimodal facilities near residential sites. Outdoor
racks and fully enclosed lockers are often used. Good examples can be seen on the BART system in the San Francisco area.
Pedestrians are often left out of the planning for transit facilities. Although the market may be small, so usually is the
investment. Sidewalks should have light grades and be separated as much as possible from automobile traffic. Stairs and other
impediments should be avoided. Curb cuts are needed for wheel chairs.
4.3.1.3 Other National System Interfaces
The spirit of competition has often limited the ability of communities to merge different transportation companies’ operations.
1
Although each company serves different markets, the combined facility usually adds enough connecting traffic to justify the
added costs of a joint operation. In some cases it may be mandated by franchise agreements. In any case, communication
between all parties during the design phase will greatly lessen the potential for problems after operations commence.
Rail system connections to airports are a relatively new phenomenon. Starting with Cleveland, direct rail-air facilities are now
in place in Washington (Reagan), Atlanta, Chicago, Baltimore, Portland, OR, San Francisco, St. Louis and Philadelphia. 3
Boston, Oakland, LAX, Newark, Minneapolis, New York (JFK), and Baltimore also have rail facilities connected to the airport
via a short shuttle bus ride or people mover connection. There are other systems planned or being constructed, including
Washington (Dulles), Columbus, Phoenix, Seattle (Sea Tac), and others. The Philadelphia airport station has the distinction of
being the only mainline railroad connection to an airport in North America. However, both EWR and JFK are now connected
to mainline railroads with people movers. All the others are serviced by rapid transit (heavy rail), or LRT (light rail), or via
bus and/or people mover links. These facilities are very difficult to design and costly to build and must be closely integrated
with the airport facilities. 4
Intercity bus service has been merged with local rail separations in many communities. Intercity buses require much the same
facilities as intercity railroad stations. Intercity busses do not usually use transit bus loading areas due to luggage handling
needs. Separate areas are usually required.
Although not available in North America, direct rail-ship services are common in Europe and allow rail service to be extended
across large bodies of water without difficult transfers.
4.3.1.4 Automobile Interfaces
Although not often thought of as an “intermodal” service, transfers to automobiles are an important consideration in any rail
facility. Within the building, car rental offices may be desired. Outside, parking areas and circulation routes should be
configured to allow easy access to both arriving and departing patrons. Generous signage speeds flow for both pedestrians and
drivers. Consideration should also be given to adding identification signage to/from nearby arterials.

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(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.3 CIRCULATION (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.4 PARKING (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.5 BAGGAGE (2006)
Considerations for baggage handling should be explored for systems providing links to airports.
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.6 AMENITIES (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.3.7 PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
This section should assist the design professional in the identification of design considerations for new or rehabilitated rail
transit maintenance and service facilities and the related yard tracks. While the section is oriented toward rail transit,
consisting of light rail (LRT) and heavy rail (subway), it may be helpful in design of comparable commuter rail and bus
facilities.
Design of these facilities requires considerable input from a variety of design disciplines, primarily industrial and railway
engineers, who lay out the space requirements for the movement of vehicles and the service operations. The balance of the
disciplines, such as the structural, civil, geotechnical, mechanical, and electrical engineers, and the architects, then fit the
structure and utilities into the design.
Include in all planning and design the non-revenue vehicles that will be used on the system. These may consist of cranes, snow
blowers, tampers, liners, ballast cars, ballast regulators, in-track welders, work trains, stingers for car traction in the shops, and
other work vehicles.
In many ways, transit yards and shops are similar to those used on freight railroads; however, there are some significant
differences for transit systems that must be considered. Transit yards differ from freight yards in that trains are not assembled
or sorted there. Most transit yards support shop facilities, or are used for storage of trains between runs.

It is the purpose of this section to identify these differences so that the transit owner or engineer can address these concerns
effectively, producing a more practical and efficient design. To accomplish this, the designer must begin with a well-defined
objective and goal for the functions to be provided by the proposed yard and/or shops. Once these issues have been resolved,
the engineer can then proceed with the design based on the framework and criteria established.
The following items are the services and features generally found in a transit yard facility. Article 4.4.2 discusses the
arrangement of those services based on the desired operations of the yard.
4.4.1.1 Location
Zoning and Neighborhood
Ideally, zoning for rail transit shop and yard facilities should be light industrial. The activities emit few pollutants and, with
attention to industrial esthetics, can fit into modern industrial park settings.
Isolation from residential neighborhoods is desirable. There will be a low noise level from operating electrical equipment and
from track and coupling movements that can be objectionable if adjacent to housing. Also, there is the question of placing the
facilities out of the way of vandalism, particularly that of the graffiti painters. Yard lighting and use of the local roads by
personnel, delivery and work truck can cause friction with the neighbors. Employee access via transit should be encouraged.
Accessibility to Railway Operations
Two location factors should be considered for railway accessibility. First, the ease of introducing or removing cars from
service should be considered. Some central location with easy access to the entire rail transit network is desirable. The second
factor is reduction of deadhead or empty car movements. These two factors may be in conflict with each other.
1
To minimize empty car movements, it is generally desirable to place car layover facilities at the ends of lines, near the early
morning startup locations. In this manner, cars entering service are immediately gathering revenues and, similarly, they are
completing revenue trips as they are removed from service in the evening. However, this arrangement disperses the equipment
resulting in inefficient maintenance practices; the arrangement makes personnel management more difficult, and may expose
the cars to vandalism. 3
The better practice is thought to be a more central location where organized and complete maintenance can be accomplished.
Also the security of the equipment can be better ensured and daily contact with operating personnel is possible.
The central location may have to be compromised by zoning and real estate values forcing the location to an outlying area. But
as central a location as possible should be sought.
4
Land Area, Shape and Terrain
The land area required must accommodate car storage tracks, inbound service and inspection tracks and shop building(s).
Future system requirements and build-out should also be taken into consideration. Track layouts, building footprints and
auxiliary employee parking or material storage areas will determine the minimum land area required.
The more desirable shape of a parcel is rectangular or trapezoidal with sufficient width to allow a turning loop on the property.
The storage tracks and shop and service facilities can be placed parallel to each other minimizing the time required for
maneuvering cars within the facility.
If available land width is difficult to obtain, a long strip of land with storage and shop/service facilities in series can be used
but the result will be a less efficient operation. If possible, a car turning loop (or mechanical vehicle turntable) should be
included in the design.

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It is important that the land be level or capable of being graded to level. It is recommended that the shop and yard facility
elevation should be slightly lower than adjacent mainline trackage. The level grade and lower elevation are preventative
measures to protect against uncontrolled movements and accidents in the yard and shop area.
4.4.1.2 Yard and Shops Layout
The yard and shop layout is the foundation on which an efficient and cost-effective facility is based. The initial stages for
determining the facility layout should be to identify the purpose and what functions need to be performed at the site. Since
many new yards are constructed in urban areas, many external considerations must also be addressed. As with any foundation,
care needs to be taken to address all of these items, so that the design will be the comprehensive product of trade-offs rather
than a series of “add-ons” to a basic plan.
As indicated above, the first step in the design of the yard layout is to obtain a thorough understanding of the tasks that are to
be performed at the location. Following is a list of questions that should be asked:
How often are the individual tasks performed?
In what sequence are tasks performed?
How long does each task take?
How will equipment be moved between workstations?
Does the equipment have to be moved at all?
What crafts are involved in the work?
What union rules apply to these tasks including the moving of equipment from task to task?
These questions are only a few that must be asked and addressed during this stage. The point being stressed here is to ask
enough questions of all involved to determine all the parameters that must be incorporated into the design. How well this task
is done will not only have an impact on the design itself, but will eliminate costly changes to correct overlooked items during
construction. This will also provide a more efficient facility that will meet the transit systems needs from the first day of
operation.
Listed below is a more specific breakdown of various tasks and facilities that will aid the owner and engineer in completing
this initial stage of design.
Mechanical Functions
Yard configuration, property restraints, operating efficiency, elimination of bottlenecks, alternative or “escape” routes.
Type of equipment serviced – diesel electric motive units, electric motive units – catenary, third-rail or other, vehicles
only, combinations of the above.
Equipment Maintenance. Will work consist of heavy repairs, light repairs, running repairs, or a combination?
Fueling or sanding requirements.
Wheel Truing. Wheels on axles only or attached to equipment?
Wheel and/or truck changing requirements. Are jacks with jacking pads, drop table pits, or a combination of both
required?

Painting. Complete vehicle or parts only?
Load testing of propulsion units.
Test track for self-propelled rail vehicles.
Overnight layovers only? Emergency maintenance only?
Support Shops. Upholstery, plumbing, pipefitting, electrical shop, carpentry shop, paint shop, air brake shop, yard
equipment, radio shop, and associated material storage needs.
What size overhead cranes are required?
Other materials handling: fork lifts, high-reach lifts, mobile cranes, end loader, etc.
Location and height of service platforms, inspection pits.
What utilities are required? Compressed air, electrical, welding, water, fuel, lube oil, etc.?
Cleaning
Vehicle Cleaning. Trash disposal, access by employees and equipment, utilities required?
Vehicle and locomotive washing.

1
Exterior cleaning.
Employee Facilities
Mid-day layover facilities for operating employees.

3
Locker rooms for mechanical and vehicle cleaning employees.
Office and administration facilities.
Is Yard Master’s office required?
Track Layout. 4
Yard configuration.
Switching requirements.
Efficiency of employee access.
Alternate routes in case of derailments or other equipment failures.
Headways of trains into and out of the yard.
Wyes, turntables, transfer tables, loop tracks.
“Lockout” requirements and other clearance and safety considerations.
Power switches or is hand operation adequate?

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Are switch heaters required?
Smallest size of turnout that is acceptable. The determination of a standard turnout is beneficial from both an operating
and material standpoint.
What is the smallest radius curve the equipment can operate over? What should be the design minimum?
Yard location and facility locations should minimize deadhead time.
Can a stub end yard be used or must it be double ended?
Yard access for maintenance (i.e. service platforms, service roadways, track crossings, etc.).
Vertical and horizontal clearances for track and work equipment.
Is switching room required clear of the main line?
Support Facilities.
Maintenance-of-way equipment storage (i.e., snow blowers, track equipment).
Maintenance-of-way material storage.
Wheel storage.
Material handling and storage.
Special protected storage for vintage vehicles, if any.
Catenary and third-rail maintenance.
Is standby power required? Overhead bridge, underground, from catenary or third-rail?
Company vehicle storage, parking or maintenance facilities.
Employee/visitor parking.
Security/visitor control.
Yard Storage Capacity
The transit yard storage capacity is a significant item, generally driven by property constraints. It should be noted that
transit storage is often more restrictive since transit equipment is often operated in set consists, where “doubling” of
consists is undesirable and, therefore, should be eliminated if at all possible. This is further complicated by the
requirement of “married pairs” for some transit equipment. This requires that yard storage capacity be designed with
consist lengths in mind. This should not only be based on today’s fleet but allow also for future growth. This criterion
is often hard to determine and due to property restraints and economic considerations is often determined by factors
other than providing the ideal situation. However, with a good understanding of these requirements, the engineer can
better evaluate the consequences of some of these external pressures to the design.
Extreme Weather

Consideration should also be given for protection of the equipment and maintenance/recovery of operations after
severe weather. Blizzards, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, and hailstorms can damage or immobilize a fleet and the
stored trains and spares.
Miscellaneous Items
Is a station required for employees using the facility?
Do air rights need to be considered?
Track Material.
One area that is subject to some debate is what type of material should be used in the design. In many transit systems,
capital funds are often easier to obtain than funds for operating expenses, even though both may be limited. This fact is
important and evaluation of the economics of the project is critical to the design. Designers do not like the idea of
economics determining their design but this is a fact of life. An economical analysis is, therefore needed to allow the
decision makers to make their determinations based on facts instead of opinions.
Among the items to be considered when evaluating the track design are:
Jointed rail versus continuously welded rail.
Rail section (and if new or fit material).
Type and size of ties.

1
Tie spacing.
Non-ballasted and/or embedded track where needed.
Degree of curvature allowed and its effect on rail wear and maintenance. 3
Use of restraining rail and/or lubricators.
Use of bridge guard rails on structures and at stations.
Accessibility to perform track maintenance.

4
Frog type and size.
Fastening system.
Sub-ballast and ballast type: gradation and depth.
Constructability.
Special track material – derails, switch stands, targets, switch machines, railroad crossings and bumping posts.
4.4.1.3 Utilities and Site Work
As with the yard layout, understanding the purpose for the yard is a prerequisite for determining the utilities that must be
provided. For instance, if the system is not electrified and vehicles are to be stored for long periods, some type of standby
power system must be provided. Also, if the yard is used for vehicle cleaning, sources of hot and cold water will be required at

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various locations throughout the yard. These items are examples of the things that must be evaluated to assure that the yard is
provided with everything it needs to operate efficiently.
Following is a list of several items that should be considered in the design of the yards utilities and site work:
Safety and Security
How much security is required? How much is practical? Is a security office required?
Yard lighting – security only, or will work be performed at night?
Collection pans and oil separation.
EPA requirements for fuel and other hazardous materials.
Snow removal.
Fencing.
Oxygen/acetylene/propane storage.
Protection of gasoline and fuel oil storage & dispensing station(s).
Derails – ‘Blue flag’ requirements, effect on storage capacity.
Noise abatement.
Air quality concerns.
First aid facility.
Yard Utilities
Fire protection.
Service water – hot and cold – potable or non-potable.
Compressed air – tools, blowing down air conditioning units, air brake requirements.
Yard drainage – allowable amount of ponding requirement of storage ponds for runoff, underdrain system, allowable
rates of discharge.
Fuel storage and metering.
Electrical distribution – overhead or underground.
Waste water holding or pre-treatment facilities.
Site Work
Location of office buildings, employee facilities, parking, shop facilities and efficiency of these to yard operations.
Clearance for equipment access in yard – width of equipment, width of service platforms, toleration of obstructions in
platforms.

Trash disposal locations – compactors, trash bins, trash pick up within yard as well as from yard, and recycling.
Type and width of crossings.
Landscaping requirements and maintenance of landscaping.
Vehicle access to yard (i.e. material deliveries, trash pick-up, bulk supplies to train wash facilities, fuel delivery).
Are yard inspection pits, jacking pads, etc., required?
Parking requirements – employees, visitors.
Requirements for any car pullers or trackmobiles.
Delivery & Service vehicles require turning and circulation.
Delivery Bays at shops?
4.4.2.1 Introduction
The needs of shop facilities flow from the cascading of system needs starting with the defined transit service requirements,
combined with the requisite operating plan requirements, down to the detailed requirements for space and shop equipment to 1
support these needs. Article 4.4.1 detailed the service and features found in the transit yard, this section is intended to provide
insight into their physical and operational inter-relationships. Figure 12-4-1 below illustrates these relationships.
Some systems may include both diesel and electric fleets. These could be serviced in common facilities that must be designed
to handle both types.

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Figure 12-4-1. Planning Flow Chart - Transit Shop Facility Design
4.4.2.2 Transit System Service Requirements
The size of shop facilities depends on the transit vehicle fleet size, the hours of transit service that are to be operated, and the
hours of shop operations that are to be staffed. The fleet size itself will depend upon the service frequency, route cycle times
and train sizes. Both the base fleet demand and additional peak-hour demands must be included. If the envisioned extra
services overlap with the peak-hour demands, an additional increment of fleet size will be needed.
The scheduling of this service fleet through the shop determines the basic shop size. Idle fleet time at night, or during off-peak
hours, present opportunities to consider capital investment trade offs in fleet size vs. shop size and the size of the night-time
maintenance operation.
System growth projections should also be considered in determining the future service plan and the eventual size of the
maintenance facility.
4.4.2.3 System Operating Plan
Before the maintenance shop can be designed, a system-operating plan must be developed. This plan will include the number
of schedules or train consists to be operated at any one time, the train sizes for each schedule or consist, and extra trains for
special events that will overlap with peak services.
These plans will determine the minimum available fleet size for operation of the system. To this fleet size, a reserve or “out-of-
service” fleet must be added to account for maintenance time. The size of this reserve fleet is determined by the fleet
maintenance plan.
Both the system operating plan and the system maintenance plan should consider the impact of future system growth, either in
passenger volume or an extended network.

To avoid interruptions in service due to emergencies within the facility or on its access routes, include alternate access to the
mainline in the operating plan.
4.4.2.4 Maintenance Philosophy
The maintenance shop design will depend upon the variety of maintenance processes performed, the frequency and dwell time
for each of these processes and an allowance for queuing between each process. The maintenance philosophy for each process
affects the shop design. Items to be considered include:
Periodic or scheduled maintenance vs. symptomatic or spot maintenance.
The various stages of maintenance (daily tasks, periodic tasks, mileage based tasks, service life tasks, statistical failure
rate or wear related tasks, unscheduled tasks).
Single vehicle maintenance vs. train consist maintenance.
Component change-out practices vs. on-vehicle repairs.
Work to be out-sourced vs. in-house repairs.
Standard vs. custom equipment.
Each of these affects the frequency of occupancy and vehicle dwell time that must be accommodated by the shop design.
4.4.2.5 Division of Work Processes

1
The shop and service facilities must accommodate a variety of processes. These are summarized as follows:
Car cleaning and appearance
Vacuum interior 3
Trash disposal
Exterior car wash
Non-potable or recycled water supply

4
Graffiti control and removal
Oil and wash water control
Fuel or sand supplies, if required
Mechanical Care
Daily inspections
Under-floor blow-down
Wheels and trucks
Electric motors (traction and auxiliary)

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Transformers, inverters and/or choppers, resistors
Controls (air and electric)
Braking system
Couplers
Overhead current collector (i.e. pantograph)
Onboard signal equipment
Onboard communications equipment
Doors and door controls
Seats and upholstery
Body and structural repairs
Painting
On-site inventories to support the above
Hazmat control and disposal
Differentiation of processes
Work station occupancy time for cleaning
Work station occupancy time for inspections
Workstation occupancy time for scheduled maintenance (including component change-out and limited on-board
repairs)
Workstation occupancy time for unscheduled maintenance (body and structural work, unexpected major
corrections, wheel and wear related components)
The maintenance plan, and accompanying shop plan, must separate these processes into different areas or track allocations to
produce a flow-through and a system where quick and predictable process are not hindered by longer term and less predictable
work. Typically a plan will divide the maintenance work processes into three time-related categories for which separate work
areas can be planned within the shop. The routine cleaning processes and running inspections can be accomplished outside of
these areas.
4.4.2.6 Staff Planning
The shop plan and size will be dependent upon staff size and schedule as well as the vehicle fleet size and schedule. A
comprehensive staffing plan is an essential part of determining the maintenance shop design. The staffing plan will consider
the following elements.
Man-hours and schedule for cleaning
Man-hours and schedule for inspection

Man-hours and schedule for scheduled maintenance
Man-hour allotment for unscheduled maintenance
These man-hour allocations must be integrated with the system-operating plan. This integration takes into account when
vehicles are available for maintenance and the dwell times required for each process. Within limits, the maintenance dwell
times can be influenced by staff size. Also, the vehicle fleet size will be influenced by both staff size and staff schedule. A
critical part of these determinations will be deciding which processes will be worked on a one-shift, two-shift or three-shift
basis.
Supervisory, administrative and support personnel (e.g. tool room, parts supply and inventory, janitorial services) should be
included in the front line maintenance staff.
4.4.2.7 Industrial Engineering and Facility Plan
The layout of the maintenance facility can benefit from a good industrial engineering plan. This plan would examine the
various work processes and assemble them into an orderly and efficient workflow. Typical items to be considered include:
In-floor hydraulic jacks vs. under-car open pits
In-floor wheel truing machine vs. out-sourcing or external wheel lathes
In-floor turntables for handling wheels and trucks
Drop tables for removing wheels or trucks

1
Car mover (e.g. small tractor) vs. overhead contact (power) wire in shop
Stingers or corded power supplies for testing (or car movements)
Air, water, power, and industrial gas supplies 3

On-floor computer I/O devices?
In-house machine shop or out-sourced work?
In-house electric shop or out-sourced work?

4
Electronics shop or supplier parts exchange?
Upholstery shop or out-sourced work?
Parts inventory and tool room
On-floor parts and tools accessibility
Paint and hazardous materials storage
Paint booth
Health and welfare facilities (washroom, lockers, lunchroom)
The industrial engineering study is focused upon compilation of a plan for supporting equipment requirements, floor and track
space requirements, support space requirements and the desired work-flows that relate these elements to one another.

Rail Transit
4.4.2.8 Additional Facility Considerations
Other than the strictly maintenance-related elements of the shop facility design, it may be necessary or desirable to locate other
functions within the maintenance shop facilities. These might include:
Administrative offices
Train crew report room and crew dispatch office
Train control center (optional)
CTC or ATS equipment room (optional)
Communications equipment room
Dedicated training room(s) with models, equipment samples & visual aids
Other departmental offices and work spaces (e.g. Operations, Infrastructure)
Combining such facilities at the same location can promote inter-department communications and understanding.
4.4.2.9 Access Facilities
In addition to the planning and design of the maintenance shop facilities themselves, provision must be made for access to
those facilities. Items to be included in the access plan are:
Access roadways
Employee and visitor parking
Heavy equipment and truck access (overhead and lateral clearances, curve radii, grades, parking, and staging)
Receiving or shipping rail vehicles by another serving (freight) railroad; interchange track, unloading ramp, etc.
4.4.2.10 Track Layout
Accessibility and Flexibility
Tracks should be designed to support a flow through of movement from inbound receipt and service, to shop or storage
tracks, and eventually outbound movements back to the mainline. Conflicts between movements should be minimized
to the extent possible. Track layouts should avoid designs that trap one car behind another, particularly in the shop
trackage. Double-ended tracks should be considered although their use may be limited by budget constraints. Double-
ended tracks are more important in the shop facilities than in the car storage area.
Ingress and Egress
If possible, entrance and exit from the facility should provide trackage for entry into the mainline in both directions. If
not possible, a turning or reversing capability may have to be added to the mainline layouts.
Within the yard and shop facility, it is desirable to have separate inbound and outbound tracks in order to allow
separate, non-interfering operations. The inbound track should lead directly to a receiving and servicing location with a
bypass track allowing direct access to shop or storage trackage. The outbound track should lead directly from the
storage tracks to the mainline with the possibility that there may be ready tracks or queuing positions intermediary to
the mainline switch.

In designing the inbound and outbound routes, it is wise to provide inter-connections so that derailments or other
emergencies on one route cannot block and isolate the facility from access to the mainline.
Service and Wash Tracks
Receiving tracks should be provided immediately upon entrance into the facility for inspection and cleaning of the
inbound equipment. The inbound operator should have filled out an operator’s inspection and defect report before
going off duty which report will note serious and routine mechanical problems encountered during his tour of duty. The
receiving mechanic can then handle or schedule any corrections. At the same time routine cleaning can be performed
on the vehicle. If at all possible, the car should be ready for service when it leaves this spot. Queuing space must be
allowed for additional arriving cars and for the period of time required for the inspection and cleaning operations.
Lighting will be required in the service and cleaning areas for nighttime operations. High-level platforms may be
required depending upon the configuration of the rail equipment. Blow down facilities for car cleaning should be
separated from other facilities due to the messiness and residue of the operation.
On exiting the servicing position, it is desirable to have a car washer on the exit path for use as scheduled or as
necessary. The path from the inspection and service position should allow direct movement to both the storage tracks
and the shop facility. Special attention should be given to the selection of corrosion-resistant track materials for the
wash track, which includes using Portland-cement concrete mixes and waterproofing compounds to prevent corrosive
spalling and concrete failure.
Containment and treatment facilities are needed for washing and any other operations where contaminants or oils are
present in wastewaters. Wash water is often cleaned and recycled.
1
Shop Tracks
Shop track layouts may waste a lot of equipment hours depending upon the design and execution of the shop workflow.
Shop work-flow is discussed elsewhere in this Section. The tracks must support this work plan.
The repair or maintenance philosophy will determine shop track lengths. Is it intended to bring in multiple car, 3
operating consists as a whole or will the individual cars be uncoupled for maintenance? If utilizing or expanding
existing facilities, constraints of those facilities may control the maintenance methods.
Shop work is best accomplished by bringing the vehicle or operating unit to the work site where tools and materials are
readily available. This may be on a one spot or assembly line basis depending upon the organization of the work. For a
transit operation, the one spot organization of work is likely to control.
4
The work should also be separated into categories based upon time to accomplish. As a general rule, shop operations
will separate themselves into three categories based upon time:
Unscheduled running repairs
Scheduled periodic maintenance
Heavy repairs
The first two categories are best serviced by double-ended tracks accommodating one or more work positions per
track. Some economies may be exercised by providing wheel and truck removal on only one track. The total number of
work positions will depend upon fleet size, maintenance frequency and standard times to complete repair operations.
The heavy repair tracks need accommodate only one or two cars. They are expected to dwell on the track for an
extended time and the track may be single ended. The total tracks in the shop must be determined from the planned

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future fleet size, maintenance frequency and typical dwell times expected for each operation. Statistics from and visits
to other modernized properties are strongly recommended when establishing the shop size and dimensions.
As mentioned in previous sections, it is recommended that the designer and potential operator visit at least three transit
vehicle repair facilities to gather ideas and understand the successes and failures of previous designs by discussions
with the system operators that have gone before them.
Storage Tracks
The system will need sufficient layover and storage tracks to accommodate the total vehicle fleet, less a small
component that may be kept on the shop tracks. It is also important to anticipate the future fleet size with conceptual
layouts for tracks to be constructed in the future.
The tracks may be single-ended or double-ended. Operationally, moderately long, double-ended tracks are the most
desirable. Train size and length should be considered. The tracks should be some multiple of the common planned train
length (e.g. five 4-car trains). If possible, the storage tracks should be of equal or nearly equal in length.
Single-ended storage tracks will save investment costs by reducing the number of turnouts and switch controls. If
single-ended storage tracks are utilized, they should be shorter than the alternative double-ended tracks to save on the
time and congestion caused by switching. Again the tracks should be some multiple of the planned common train
length.
Design of the storage tracks must also consider access to the cars. Operators must be able to access their vehicles via
pathways between the cars. If it is decided to do follow up mechanical or servicing work on the storage tracks (if at all
possible, corrections and cleaning should be completed at the inbound service position), access for service equipment
must be provided between the tracks.
Running Tracks
Some provision should be made for free access to the whole facility by a thoroughfare or running track. This track
allows unplanned movements throughout the facility to overcome out-of-process work or emergencies. It should not be
used to circumvent planned, flow-through service, shop and layover processes.
4.4.3.1 Code Considerations
Identify the applicable building codes, based on the Uniform Building Code (UBC) at the start of the design. These may
include state and local codes or a combination of the two, in that the most conservative measures out of each may be desired.
Portions of the buildings will support rail cars, so use this manual, the Manual for Railway Engineering. Use the Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges by AASHTO for structures that support trucks, and use the Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, also by AASHTO, for road and driveway design. Some state railroad codes related to minimum
clearances for bridges, building entrances, and narrow passageways may apply to transit facility construction and should be
checked for applicability.
4.4.4.1 Employee And Administrative Facilities
Health and Welfare Facilities
Health and welfare facilities will be required for both maintenance and operating personnel going on and off duty at the
shop and yard facility. These facilities will include as a minimum:

Locker and dressing room
Wash and shower room
Lunchroom
Union or employment agreements should be reviewed to ascertain any agreed to details. State and local laws or codes
may also be applicable.
Operating and Maintenance Supervision
There are management and supervision advantages to be gained by placing both the operating and maintenance
supervision at the locus of the yard and shop facilities. In that manner the two areas of front line management are in
communication with each other and with their employees. Facilities for these operations should be designed into the
shop and yard facility. These will involve office space, conference rooms, computer facilities, and crew reporting
facilities.
Train or Vehicle Dispatching
Train or vehicle dispatching should be centralized. There are two models to follow for centralization:
In the vicinity of the top management and administrative offices
In the vicinity of the front line supervision and operating personnel

1
With modern communications, it is possible to do both. It is recommended that the central control facility be placed in the
vicinity of the front line supervision with electronic duplication at headquarters for display of operating data and visual
monitoring of the current situation. This may be accomplished by GPS or traditional signal installations.
Record Keeping
3
Central record keeping can be accomplished at the system administrative and accounting offices. However, access to
and input to records is essential at the yard and shop facility.
With modern electronics and communications, the record keeping function can be accomplished in a LAN (local area
network) using WAN (wide area network) to shops at various locations. Records can be input and kept in a shared
database. The yard and shop design must accommodate locations for I/O devices, servers, and communications links. It
is recommended that these items be coordinated with the transit district’s MIS department or consultant. 4
4.4.4.2 Track Details
General
The details of track design should be as generally described in Chapter 12, Part 3, Track and Roadway Considerations.
However, certain comments pertinent to the design of shop and yard trackage follow.
Turnouts
Recommended turnouts for shop and yard layouts are those with the minimum radius of curvature and maximum frog
angles that can be negotiated by coupled trains of equipment of the type specified for the system. These will commonly
call for a minimum # 4, #6 frog angle. However, these values must be confirmed for the specific equipment to be
operated.
The importance of curvature and frog angles is the saving of space and track lengths for shop and yard layouts.

Rail Transit
There are a variety of details to choose from for the actual turnouts themselves. Standard AREMA designs are used on
some properties. Specialized transit designs are no longer manufactured in North America but U.S. suppliers have
established connections with European manufacturers where specialized designs continue to be developed and
manufactured. The variety of designs should be reviewed and cost estimates obtained before deciding on final turnout
details.
The turnout designs chosen should be standard designs with long-term support from component manufacturers. There
is no need to adopt one-of-a-kind designs with limited support from one manufacturer.
Power vs. Manual Switches
Recent transit facilities have provided power-operated switches for their yard operations. The expense of these
installations and alternatives to control these expenses should be reviewed early in the design period. Options include
remote control, local control or manual operation from the ground.
Solar powered switches have been successfully used in recent installations. Cost savings have been realized related to
reduction of personnel injuries and installation since no electrical service is run to the solar switches.
If the rail transit development involves high-level equipment with no easy ground access, some sort of power switch
mechanisms must be employed to handle switches and allow variable routings through the yard and shop facilities.
These mechanisms may be either locally controlled by operator-accessible control buttons or from a remote central
control. It is safer not to have both local and remote control. A provision for ground control will also be needed.
It is recommended that the variety of switch machine mechanisms be reviewed with an emphasis on cost and long-term
parts supply. The control question, local vs. remote, and safety should also be reviewed on the basis of cost and long-
term support.
If the rail transit development involves light rail equipment with easy ground access, it is recommended that manual
operation of switches be considered. Manually operated switches will result in a considerable cost reduction. The
switch stands chosen should be of the newer ergonomic designs that reduce the exposure to personal injuries.
Curvature
Track curvature in yard and shop tracks can be of the minimum radius negotiable by coupled equipment of the type
selected for the rail transit development. Minimum radii save space. As all yard operations are conducted at restricted
speed, with caution, speed is not a factor in selecting curve radius. Minimum radius should be verified by reference to
the specifications for the vehicles and maintenance equipment to be operated. The minimum radius for modern
equipment is generally set at 245 feet but should be verified by reference to the specifications for the vehicles to be
operated. The following variations in minimum yard radii highlight the importance of verifying design criteria with
the actual cars.
Table 12-4-2. Minimum and Preferred Yard Track Radii
System Overall Car Radius Range Representative

Category Length Systems
Heavy 75 feet 300-450 feet WMATA
Medium 50 feet 85-100 feet Pittsburge LRT
Light less than 50 feet 45-100 feet Toronto
Grades

It is important that grades be kept to a minimum or flat in shop and yard facilities. Uncontrolled movements will
happen when unmanned cars are improperly secured and the best defense against accidents is level trackage throughout
the service, shop and storage facilities.
General Track Construction
Track construction for yard and shop facilities can utilize different standards than for the mainline tracks. The facilities
will not see the level of usage or the track speeds to which the mainline tracks are subjected. However, it is
recommended that attention be paid to the quality of turnouts and the main yard lead tracks as derailments and delays
in these portions of the layout will cause service disruptions.
The balance of the yard and shop facilities can be built using secondhand rail, lower quality fastenings, wider cross tie
spacing, cut spikes, and low cost cross tie material. It is still recommended that the rails be welded, but it is not
mandatory. Overall, these compromises will produce a low cost, functional facility. Where non-ballasted track, or
embedded tracks are required, such as shop floors, pits tracks, wash tracks, etc., relatively stiff direct fixation
fastenings can be used as the speed and impact factor are both low. Due consideration should be given to the track
fixation system providing adequate levels of stray current protection and isolation.
In cold climates, use switch heating. Frozen switches will strand the cars in the yard.
Stray Currents
Track design should be coordinated with the traction power design to avoid damage to underground utilities or shop
facilities from stray currents.
1
4.4.4.3 Signaling
Applicability
Signaling is a costly aspect of rail transit development. Its purposes are safety and movement control. In rail yard
applications, signaling should be used sparingly. 3
The principal use of signaling in rail yard applications will be for switch indication and control. Lighted indicators can
indicate the position of switches; local push buttons or more complex central controls can be implemented to change
the switch positions. Movements can be governed by standard rules, by verbal instructions or by signal indication.
A secondary use of signaling for yard installations can be track occupancy indications. Track occupancy indication also
implies the use of complex central yard movement control. 4
Signaling Economies
With heavy rail or subway operations using high-level platforms and difficult access to ground level, signaling for at
least switch control is necessary. This can be accomplished with operator-actuated push buttons at the switch or the
more expensive remote centralized yard controls.
In a light rail environment, more economies are possible. Central control is not a necessity because operators can
descend from their cars. For maximum economy, yard facilities can be constructed without power switches. Vehicle
operators can be instructed verbally and line their own routes with manually thrown switches.
Radio Frequency controls with detection loops can be considered either with local or yard office control.

Rail Transit
4.4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS (2006)
4.4.5.1 Environmental Concerns
General
Any rail transit facility must be compatible with neighborhood living standards and must limit release of toxic or
harmful substances into the environment. The first problem comes with the general siting of the yard and shop
facilities. The second problem relates to the design of the facilities to limit release of any toxic or harmful substances.
It is important at the beginning of any project to become fully conversant with State and Federal environmental
protection requirements and to plan the project accordingly.
Drainage
Development of a rail transit shop and yard facilities results in large, flat impervious surfaces that concentrate and
change historic storm water runoff patterns. These patterns must be controlled so that they do not cause downstream
flooding. They must also be designed to avoid carrying oily waste or other harmful substances from the property.
Oil or Chemical Contamination
Transit maintenance facilities can cause contamination from dripping lubricants or waste wash water. Facilities must be
designed to catch and treat these substances. Also, safe disposal processes must be designed for solvents or other
chemicals utilized in the vehicle maintenance process.
Air Releases
Certain maintenance operations result in the release of harmful vapors into the air. Facilities must be designed to limit
such releases. The common problem in rail transit facilities is vapor releases from painting operations.
Noise and Light
Rail yard facilities will emit objectionable noise and light levels. This is particularly so due to their early morning and
late night operations. Noises emanate from movement of the vehicles and the ongoing operations of air compressors
and electric motors on the cars. Diesel switching equipment is noisy, as is the continuous running of engines during
cold weather.
The first line of noise and light mitigation is in the careful siting of the facilities. Facilities should not be near
residential neighborhoods. Beyond careful siting, noise barriers and light shields should be considered, if necessary, to
isolate the facility from its neighborhood.
Safety Concerns
Although not always mentioned as an environmental concern, safety of employees and the public should perhaps be
the largest environmental concern. In regards to facility design, movement of personnel around the facility and the
presence of high voltage trolley or third rail facilities are the most important.
Movement of employees involves defined and maintainable pathways and good footing conditions throughout the
facility. Operators must be able to go to and from the yard tracks without stepping in holes or climbing over obstacles.
Inside the shop, there should be defined circulation paths and defined material storage areas. Pits or holes in the floor
must be protected. Elevated platforms must have railings. Reference to OHSA standards is recommended.
Vehicle movements outside the shop should also be designed to avoid crossing tracks and encountering interference
between rail and highway vehicles.

For systems utilizing third rail traction power systems, the pedestrian movement paths should be segregated from the
third rail presence so far as possible. Inside the shop area, stingers and moveable cables may be used for movement of
cars. These devices must have obvious and well-designed safety controls.
For systems utilizing overhead trolley wires, there is a question of whether to terminate the trolley wire outside the
shop or continue it through the shop. Both practices have been followed in the past. Consultation with other transit
properties is recommended to arrive at a decision.
In all cases, adequate simple warning signs should be designed and strategically placed throughout the property. The
signs should follow recognizable standard patterns.
Historic Preservation
In older systems, preservation of historic buildings and features may become a factor. Modern facilities have been built
in recent years using the facade of an old car barn or transit facility. Cemeteries present a particular challenge to the
transit system planner.
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.4.7 ENGINE SHOPS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT) 1
4.4.8 CAR SHOPS (2006)
4.4.8.1 Shop Buildings
Introduction 3
A multi-discipline team is needed for the design of a shop building. The design of a new or renovated building follows
the type of activities and equipment that the building will shelter. Develop a detailed design criteria and standards
based on any available agency or company standards, but also using the results from the conceptual and preliminary
design.
Shop Management Considerations 4

Interview the managers of the existing shops for their input into the design development process. Using engineering or
architectural drawings to communicate ideas to shop managers may not be effective since managers are typically not
trained to read drawings. Therefore, try other media, such as pictures or models. They may not be accustomed to
providing written comments on designs, so the face-to-face interviews may be the most effective.
Industrial Engineering and Hygiene Considerations
Each piece of maintenance equipment requires a certain volume of space to operate safely, including the people who
will be moving around the equipment. Equipment transmits static and dynamic loads to whatever physically supports
the equipment, such as the floor, columns, foundations or roof trusses. Pits, elevated track sections or rail car lifts
usually are needed in shop buildings.
Various safety stations, such as emergency showers or eyewashes may be needed. Maintenance activities use various
fluids and other substances that may require special treatment and/or storage. These substances may be corrosive,

Rail Transit
caustic or reactive to standard building materials, such as steel and concrete. All equipment requires its own
maintenance.
Study carefully the economic use of the various equipment sets to determine the economical number of each equipment
type to achieve the productivity goals over time, yet minimize the construction costs for the new or renovated building.
The safe use of the building by the people who will work there is of the utmost importance. Take their safety and
productivity needs into account in design of the work areas and the support facilities, such as the locker room,
cafeteria, and the like. Incorporate human factors into the design.
The industrial engineer and hygienist should develop a schedule of equipment with specific requirements for use by all
other designers.
Railroad Engineering Considerations
The railroad engineer provides the data needed by other designers for the movement of rail cars into and out of the
buildings. This includes car configurations and loads, clearance envelopes, power needs, and train control
requirements. Special protocol may need to be developed for the hand-off of train control.
Architectural Considerations
The building footprint should fit the needs determined by the use of the building. These are specialized buildings so the
program development is intense and must be thorough. Each type of maintenance equipment, rail equipment and
activity require a certain volume of space, which will yield the horizontal and vertical clearances needed to locate
column lines and walls, as well as to size door ways.
Base the type, style and color of interior finishes on the recommendations of the industrial hygienist and engineer.
Consider durability, potential for accidents such as collisions and explosions, ease of maintenance, worker response
and cost.
Choose the exterior style by considering the agency or company aesthetic standards, long-term durability, surrounding
building styles, security, vandalism and cost. Obscured windows may be desirable in an area with a history of gunfire.
Most of these buildings are funded by public money, so the final appearance should not be extravagant or grand.
Structural Engineering Considerations
Shop buildings differ from most buildings due to the special static and dynamic loads of the rail cars, special railroad
maintenance equipment, delivery truck, forklifts, and typical industrial equipment, such as overhead cranes. Fuel,
lubricants, cleaners and other substances used by maintenance workers may influence the choice of structural
materials. Equipment may generate high electrical current, necessitating electrical isolation, grounding or bonding of
structural and reinforcing steel.
Frequently, due to the large size of some shop buildings, especially wheeled vehicle storage buildings, floating floor
slabs may be part of the design. These floating floors are expected to settle over time, and are used in areas where poor
soils result in very expensive foundations. The floating slabs, if used, influence the design of the rest of the buildings
structural system. Floating slabs are not recommended for buildings encompassing tracks.
In addition to the standard building codes, portions of the shop buildings may be designed more appropriately by
following the roadway bridge design codes for areas where truck traffic is expected and the AREMA Manual for
Railway Engineering for rail traffic areas.
Civil and Utility Engineering Considerations

The site and building must be properly drained and service utilities provided, such as water, sewer, and electrical.
Stringent geometric design controls may be warranted due to the size and complexity of shop buildings. Consider and
include access road and track alignments in sizing and siting the buildings.
Mechanical Engineering Considerations
Besides standard building heating, ventilation and air conditioning, use of various fuels, flammable gases, paint or
similar substances may be part of the building operations. These needs will be defined by the equipment and the
maintenance, material storage, and personnel activities. Some equipment, such as car washing, will use a large amount
of water, all of which will require drainage. Oil/water separators should be incorporated where needed.
Electrical Engineering Considerations
The design of all electrical systems will follow the requirements for lighting and power for the special equipment, as
well as typical building functions, such as office and locker room space. Traction power, separate from the building
power, may also be needed.
Lighting provides a safe work space and yard security. Yard lights must be designed considering car shadows and the
impact on the neighbors. Good lighting is crucial in the small areas, such as the pits. The designer should consider the
use of portable lighting in the pits and through the facilities.
Adequate stray current control is an important consideration, and will influence how such details as coating reinforcing
steel, grounding metallic building elements, and creating grounding grids with test stations in sensitive areas are
designed and constructed.
1
Geotechnical Engineering Considerations
Rail yards are usually located in areas with poor and contaminated soil conditions. Some settlement may be tolerated
for certain foundations, such as floating slabs. Contamination may discourage large excavations due to soil treatment
costs. Special equipment within buildings may call for special isolated foundations.
3
Conduct a thorough investigation of available existing geotechnical records and if needed, a detailed field soil boring
and sampling program. From this, the geotechnical engineer develops the foundation recommendation report for each
foundation type.
Communications and Security Considerations
Communications and security systems may be tied into the overall railway systems. Vandalism and terrorism potential 4
should be minimized.
There are two concerns to be addressed with communications and security systems. One concern is good
communications for daily operations of the facility. In today’s environment, many of these communications
requirements can be met through the use of some form of portable radios or wireless telephones. Consideration should
also be given to fixed talkback systems at key locations and announcement or alarm systems in the shops or outside
work areas. Operational communications must consider remote computer input/output capabilities as anticipated
throughout the facility.
The other communications need is for security of the facility, the equipment and the employees. Security devices may
include surveillance cameras and intrusion alarms. Around the shop buildings themselves, fire protection systems and
alarms must be seriously considered.
Energy Considerations

Rail Transit
Evaluate the long-term cost of energy for the entire building and all the systems therein. Also consider incorporating
into the design features that will allow the economical switch to alternative energy types, if feasible. Energy is one of
the largest costs of the long-term operation of the buildings.
Backup power to maintain critical services should be considered. These services comprise those processes that are
essential to re-starting the system following a power failure such as communications, controls and electronic records.
Environmental Considerations
These usually focus on the natural environment and hazardous materials. Frequently, there are fuel deposits and there
may be various industrial wastes, such as heavy metals, in the ground, which may be disturbed by excavation. Sites
may also contain wetlands, protected species, archaeological or historic remains, or other legally regulated items.
Therefore, conduct appropriate field studies by qualified personnel to determine what is out there. Then, it may be
advantageous to meet with the permitting agencies with your conceptual layout to determine the types of permit that
may be needed, and the types of mitigation measures that may be required. Changing your conceptual design,
particularly the site layout and foundation types, may greatly reduce the cost of mitigation and construction, and may
lessen the permit requirements. Doing this at the conceptual stage will save on final design change costs.
Typical Shop Building Uses
Propulsion Unit repair
Track work
Wheel truing
Car repair
Car cleaning
Car washing
Under floor cleaning
Paint booth
Hazmat and dangerous materials storage
4.4.8.2 References
TCRP Report 52
TCRP Report 57
4.4.9 MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY SHOPS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.4.10 LAYOVER YARDS (2006)
Layover yards are used to store equipment during the off-peak service periods. The facilities at layover yards vary widely
from system to system. The facility differences are driven by the operations of the system and the maintenance philosophy.
Layover yards are generally placed near the termini of a system or line.

4.4.10.1 Mid-Day Layover Yards
Mid-day layover yards are typically located at the system’s major terminal. The AM peak service trains run from outlying
areas into the terminal and are then shifted into the mid–day layover yard to avoid making non-revenue moves back to the
outlying areas and then back to the major terminal for the PM peak.
Cleaning, light maintenance, and inspections can be performed at mid-day layover yards.
4.4.10.2 Over-Night Layover Yards
Over-night layover yards are typically located at the terminus of a line. Trains stored there are positioned for the start of the
AM peak.
Cleaning, light maintenance, and inspections can be performed at over-night layover yards.
4.4.10.3 Facilities
The facilities that are needed at a layover yard will depend on the operations to be performed. The detailed considerations for
the layover yard facilities are the same as those discussed above for regular yard facilities
Yard Power
The ability to shut down the propulsion power on a train while maintaining environmental conditions (heating and
cooling) in the cars may be desirable to reduce fuel consumption and noise at the layover yard.
1
Crew Facilities
Facilities for the crews at layover yards will depend on the crewing operations of the system. Part-time crews that
provide the staff for peak service may not remain on the property between scheduled runs, whereas full-time crews will
require welfare facilities between runs.
3
4.4.11 MATERIAL YARDS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.4.12.1 Aesthetics
4
General Design
The shop buildings are basically ordinary, wide span industrial buildings with sufficient overhead clearance to
accommodate rail transit vehicles. But they also have to fit into the neighborhood and be politically acceptable.
Consideration should be given to an inexpensive, but attractive, facade to make sure that this otherwise ordinary
building fits into its neighborhood and political environment.
Visibility
Rail transit facilities are best kept out of the public eye. This is first accomplished by careful siting of the facility. But
additional features should also be incorporated. These include high masonry walls and perimeter landscaping. A great
deal can be accomplished with these features, and the shop building facade, whereby the facility will go almost
unnoticed. What notability the facility receives is likely to be complimentary to the transit agency. Open fencing is not
recommended as it attracts criticism and vandalism.

Rail Transit
4.4.13 UTILITY CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Design of bridge and drainage structures is based on the type of equipment that is or will be used on a system. Rail transit
service may share all or some of the system with other services, such as freight. This section highlights some of the design
considerations that are unique to rail transit service and its equipment, and should be used by the engineer or planner in
conjunction with the other pertinent sections of this Manual.
Most rail transit systems have design and planning standards. These standards should be used along with this Manual.
Some rail transit may include design and maintenance responsibilities for structures that will carry truck and automobile
traffic. These structures should be planned and designed using the codes published by local and state governments, and such
national codes as that by the Association of American State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
This section may also serve as a guide in the development of design and planning for new systems.
4.5.2 JOINT RAILROAD/TRANSIT OPERATION (2006)
The most common mixed-use operations are those of commuter rail, intercity rail and freight railroads, such as on the
Northeast Corridor between Washington, DC and Boston, MA. Across North America, the mixes vary greatly, ranging from
light rail with freight to heavy rail with commuter. The planner and designer should fully understand the mix on a particular
line to determine which criteria apply for each design situation.
The major differences between freight and rail transit, besides the size and weight of the vehicles, are that rail transit carries
passengers who must get on and off the trains safely, including in emergencies, and that rail transit schedules are very sensitive
to delays and the headways are very tight between trains.
4.5.3 TRANSIT SYSTEM LOADS (2006)
The results of AREMA’s survey of existing rail transit systems are the basis for this subsection. A table of responses from each
agency is provided for each load type. Prior to starting design or analysis work, the engineer should know what design loads to
use. These loads can be found in the system standards, or must be agreed to by the appropriate authority before starting any
calculations.

Table 12-4-3. Responses to Design Loading Questionnaire Provided by the Following Agencies
No. Transit Agency

1 MTA Baltimore (Light Rail) & (Heavy Rail)
2 Sacramento Regional Transit (Light Rail)
3 Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) (Heavy Rail)
4 Metrorrey, Mexico City (Light Rail)
5 MARTA, Atlanta (Heavy Rail)
6 Metropolitan Transit Authority Houston (Light Rail)
7 San Diego Metropolitan Transit Development Board (MTDB) (Light Rail)
8 Miami MetroDade Transit Agency (Heavy Rail)
9 TriMet Portland Oregon (Light Rail)
10 Toronto Transit Commission (Light Rail) & (Heavy Rail)
11 RCC Metro Red Line, Los Angeles (Heavy Rail)
12 Metro Blue Line, Los Angeles (Light Rail)
13 RCC Metro Green Line, Los Angeles (Light Rail)
4.5.3.1 Vehicle Live Load
While transit structures are designed for transit and maintenance equipment (See Table 12-4-4), structures may also carry
1
freight rail, trucks and other rubber tire vehicles along a maintenance road running parallel to the tracks. A transit system may
share right-of-way with roadway traffic, such as a light rail line in downtown areas. A maintenance road should be seriously
considered, with multiple controlled access points from the local street system, since it will drastically reduce track outages for
maintenance and future reconstruction over the life of the system. The design of the roadway portion of the structures should
be in accordance with local, state and federal roadway bridge standards, such as those published by AASHTO. Most states
issue their own supplement to the AASHTO Standards. 3
4.5.3.2 Impact Load
Responses to the impact questions reveal that the AREMA standards may be high for transit (See Table 12-4-5).
4.5.3.3 Centrifugal Load

4
The positioning of centrifugal loading varies from system to system (See Table 12-4-6).
4.5.3.4 Wind Load
Wind speeds vary across North America, and this variance is rightfully noted in the tabulated responses. The size and
configuration of system cars also lead to varying practices (See Table 12-4-7).
4.5.3.5 Nosing Force or Lateral Load
Some systems do not use nosing forces since transit tracks are set to very small tolerances. This may not be so on a mixed-use
line (See Table 12-4-8).
4.5.3.6 Longitudinal Force
Overall bridge length, individual span lengths, and the number of tracks on each structure influence the application of
longitudinal forces in design (See Table 12-4-9). Some variation in practice is seen in the responses.

Rail Transit
4.5.3.7 Station Loads
Station loading may be influenced by local building codes (See Table 12-4-10).
4.5.3.8 Miscellaneous Loads
Rail transit structures can be subject to a wide variety of miscellaneous loads, as shown in the table and as discussed below.
Other loads not shown here may also be included. Each engineer should know all the loads a bridge is or will be subjected to,
including future loads, and what combination of loads to use for design of the various structural elements (See Table 12-4-11).
4.5.3.9 Derailment Loads
Derailments can occur on a structure or beneath it if the line crosses another rail service. Roadway traffic may also damage
structural supports. Proper and consistently applied protection will not only reduce resulting damage to a structure, but will
also protect the agency from damage claims from errant vehicle operators. The AASHTO publishes manuals on roadside
safety, as do most states and some local governments.
4.5.3.10 Seismic
Generally, seismic loads are determined by the geologic characteristics of the site, which result in ground acceleration loads
and displacements both horizontal and vertical. Chapter 9, Seismic Design for Railway Structures, contains a detailed
discussion of rail considerations and should be used. Local and state agencies usually have classified zones for design and
analysis of structures.
Since rail transit carries passengers, the results of structural failure and distortion due to seismic events can be much more
devastating on the community than may be the case for freight. Therefore, a careful determination should be made as to what
loads to design the structure to withstand. The use of monitoring equipment may be prudent.
Besides the ability of a structure to withstand seismic events, many details of the structure and its attachments can be
influenced by the seismic design loads. Some of these items are listed in Chapter 9, such as the width of bridge bearing seats.
Engineers should select appropriate designs and details for those features that are unique to transit, such as catenary, catenary
supports, and third rail traction power.
4.5.3.11 Systems Equipment
The uniformity of the transit revenue equipment provides the transit bridge designer with the opportunity to design the transit
structures more closely to the actual loads than the typical E80 or higher bridge design loads used for freight railroads. The
transit bridge designer should be aware, however, that the system maintenance and construction equipment might be the
controlling load on the structure rather than the revenue equipment. Maintenance equipment may have considerably shorter
axle and truck spacing for a given gross weight than the revenue equipment. The transit bridge designer has a responsibility to
ensure that the design is adequate for the loads imposed by the construction and maintenance of the transit system.
Transit systems with overhead catenary, trolley wire, or significant portions of underground subway, use specialized track-
mounted cranes with large counterweights that provide the cranes with reasonable operating radii and lift capabilities with a
flat boom. Transit systems with concrete ties that use panelized track for either construction or maintenance have large and
relatively heavy maintenance equipment to handle the panels. Transit systems with standard gage track often use conventional
railroad locomotives and railcars to distribute ballast and track materials.
4.5.3.12 Thermal Loads
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

4.5.3.13 Movable Bridges (Steel Structures)
Movable bridges, such as bascule, vertical lift, and swing bridges that support transit tracks should generally consist of open
deck steel construction. Construction of ballasted track and direct fixation slab track on such movable bridges should generally
be avoided for reasons of the heavier weight for the concrete and ballast, and future maintenance costs.
Continuously welded or bolted jointed rail installed on the movable spans of a bridge is subject to rail movement due to
changes in temperature. Rail expansion joints in pairs per track shall be provided at both ends of the movable span. Open deck
grates and rails shall be anchored to the movable span to prevent their displacement during opening and closing the span.
4.5.3.14 Non-Movable Bridges (Steel and Concrete Structures)
Single span bridges greater than 40 feet in length should be provided with suitable expansion devices to accommodate
movement caused by temperature changes, such as deck joints and expansion bearings. Multiple span bridges, including
continuous spans, should also be provided with expansion devices. Other provisions may be made in the design to resist the
induced thermal stresses. Appropriate bearing devices include rocker, sliding plates, elastomeric pads, pot bearings or other
suitable means. Several long spans have used zero-restraint rail fasteners to allow the welded rail to move longitudinally on
the bridge, with the anchorages located on the adjacent landsides.
For steel and concrete structures, the thermal coefficient for linear expansion shall be taken as 0.000006 per degree F. The rise
and fall in temperature shall be determined for the locality in which the structure is to be constructed, and shall be computed
from an assumed temperature at the time of erection. Due consideration shall be given to the lag between ambient temperature
and the interior temperature of massive concrete structures, and to the increased temperature effects for steel structures. The
range of temperature change shall generally be as follows.
1
Concrete Structures -
70 Degrees F in Moderate Climates, and 80 Degrees F in Cold Climates
Steel Structures –
3
120 Degrees F in Moderate Climates, and 150 Degrees F in Cold Climates
State bridge codes can be a good source for these ranges.
4.5.3.15 Thermal Gradients
The design of unballasted decks on concrete segmental box girders shall include the significant effects of thermal gradients 4
across the section of the box. Sufficient research is currently not available, but the provisions of Appendix A of the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 276, September 1985 are recommended.
4.5.3.16 Utility and Attachment Loads
Transit system corridors in urbanized areas frequently contain public utilities. The public utilities can range from electrical and
telecommunications lines to water and sewer lines to roads and highways. Each of these public utilities has specialized
requirements and differing effects on the transit structures. Freight railroads have had to contend with these utility issues,
however the frequency of transit operations and the transit customers' sensitivity to on time performance makes careful design
of utilities more important on transit structures. The design of the transit structure should include provisions for the
maintenance of the transit structure and the attached facilities without interfering with transit operations.
The transit corridor's use as a preferred route for water, sewer and other piped utilities means that many of the structures will
carry these utilities in addition to the transit loads. Casing pipes, insulation and other attachment details can increase the dead
load that the bridge carries. Future expansion of these utilities should be assumed as a given, and provisions to accommodate
the expansion should be considered. Alternately, the transit agency should require that the new facilities placed on the

Rail Transit
structures be sized for the future to eliminate the need for expansion within the life of the structure. The thermal behavior of
the piped utilities can place additional loads on the transit structure or the substructure at the abutments.
Electric and telecommunications facilities dead loads are lower than the dead loads of the piped utilities, but providing
additional conduits or spaces to meet future needs can increase the dead loading. Provisions for the conduit's thermal
expansion and termination at the abutments and access points to pull cables can change abutment and fill dimensions and
loads.
Structures that carry the transit corridor over roadways make attractive locations to attach highway signs. The implementation
of ‘Intelligent Transportation Systems' in urbanized areas has typically involved the installation 'Variable Message Signs'. The
signs have larger face area and are heavier than traditional highway guide signs. The wind loads and torsion loads from these
signs are significant and may require additional bridge strength or torsion resistance.
4.5.4 STRUCTURE SERVICEABILITY CRITERIA (2006)
4.5.4.1 Vibration
Transit vehicles and construction work on bridges cause vibrations. These vibrations may be transmitted to adjacent structures,
like apartment or office buildings, and may also radiate structure-generated airborne noise. Therefore, it may be necessary to
incorporate into the design damping or isolation features to minimize the transmission of vibrations to other structures.
Also, the structure must be designed to provide a comfortable ride to the passengers. Excessive vibrations that occur while on
the structure may reduce the passenger’s confidence in the soundness of that structure.
4.5.4.2 Noise Abatement
Steel-on-steel train sets can transmit loud sounds due to curvature, rail joints and higher speeds. These sounds may need to be
dampened along the line, including on the structures. In cities, a street crossing may warrant noise abatement when the balance
of the line does not. This may be due to tall warehouse buildings that border the line, abating the noise, except at street
crossings. At these crossings, the noise can travel down the street to other types of buildings and land uses, like schools and
churches. Also, train noise may be very disruptive to passengers waiting on platforms or even inside the transit car. All these
and similar circumstances may warrant the incorporation of abatement measures requiring additional space on the bridge or
more load carrying capacity.
4.5.4.3 Deck Drainage
Poor drainage ruins bridge decks, expansion joints and bridge bearings. Water can have an adverse impact on power lines and
other utilities. All these problems increase maintenance costs and potential service disrupts for the repairs. Design deck drains
with redundancy, easy clean-out access that does not require a track outage, and to be self-cleaning. Grates should keep out
objects that would clog the pipes and that make debris clogs on the grates unlikely. Waterproofing membranes used to protect
the tops of concrete and steel decks on ballasted bridges should be selected only from time-proven products.
4.5.4.4 Deflection
Like vibrations, excessive deflections make passengers feel uncomfortable and unsafe when crossing a bridge. Excessive
deflections can unbalance maintenance crews and equipment. Therefore, follow applicable design criteria for a comfortable
amount of deflection. Check the design deflections with all reasonably expected loads, live and otherwise, on the bridge.
4.5.4.5 Means of Egress
Should a transit train break down on a bridge or along a retaining wall, the passengers may need to be evacuated at track level.
Therefore, the bridge or wall design may need to incorporate a walkway. Putting the walkway above or away from the third
rail (traction power) should be considered. This is especially an important design consideration for single-track structures. The

other tracks on multi-track structures could be used for evacuation, as long as the operations are curtailed and the third rail
power turned off or shielded.
4.5.5 HYDRAULIC AND HYDROLOGIC CONCERNS (2006)
Transit systems should, at a minimum, conform to the drainage practices outlined elsewhere in this Manual for railroads rather
than highway design practices. Transit system drainage should also consider additional items when sizing their structures.
4.5.5.1 Risk Assessment
One of the fundamental issues that must be addressed is the risk tolerance of the transit agency. The larger the selected design
storm, structure, and facility, the less frequently it will have its capacity exceeded and fail. Failure in this context does not
necessarily mean that the structure or track is damaged or destroyed, merely that operations are affected. Freight railroads have
the ability to use other railroad properties to detour trains around areas affected by a drainage facility failure. Transit systems
often do not have the ability to detour trains. Freight railroads typically use the 100-year storm as the design storm. A 100 year
storm has a greater than 50% chance of occurring, or being exceeded, in any selected year. The selection of the design storm
must consider the effect of the failures on the transit operations.
4.5.5.2 Storm Water Management
Many urban and suburban areas have special storm water management practices. These practices range from regional storm
water management to sub-watershed level specified release rates. The sub-watershed upstream from a transit structure may
change dramatically over the life of the structure. New transit systems often spur new development along their routes as
increased transportation options make the property more desirable. A sub-watershed located upstream from a transit structure 1
in an area with modern storm water management practices may actually be required to discharge storm water at rates higher
than the pre-development conditions. Storm water regulations require this to manage the total peak runoff from the entire
watershed by adjusting the time when the peak discharge from the entire watershed occurs. The increased runoff volume may
be nearly double the pre-development volume. The increased runoff volume may affect the transit structure by increasing the
headwater at the structure, increasing the flow velocity through the structure, increasing the water level against an
embankment, or by creating higher tail water conditions due to backwater from other downstream structures. Constructing a
larger structure to address these potential flows will incrementally increase the construction costs of the structure but may 3
reduce the maintenance costs of the structure, or eliminate the need to disrupt service to install a larger more expensive
structure at a later date.
4.5.5.3 Storm Water Event Management Plan
The transit operating plan should address how severe storm events are to be handled. Freight operators typically require
inspections of the track prior to running trains after a severe storm event. A transit system’s schedule sensitivity may make it 4
difficult to delay trains until an inspector can make the inspection. In these cases automatic detection devices integrated into
the control system should be implemented. The types of damage found after a severe storm event can include embankment
failures under the track, slope failures onto the track, water flowing over the track, electric service disruptions due to fallen
trees, and bridge scour resulting in undermined structures.
4.5.6 MARINE PROTECTION (2006)
Transit structures over navigable waterways must conform to the requirements of the United States Coast Guard and the
appropriate sections of this Manual. The designer should consider other features related to the safe passage of revenue
equipment.
Transit structures can be less massive than freight rail structures, and are therefore subject to greater damage from collisions
with waterway traffic. The design of pier bumper systems should reflect the potential for damage to the specific structure
rather than a generic bumper system. The designer and the transit authority should also consider collision damage detection

Rail Transit
systems that are part of the vital transit signal system. The collision detection systems should detect bridge displacement rather
than rail continuity.
4.5.7 OPERATIONAL CONCERNS (2006)
4.5.7.1 Severe Weather
Rail transit either works or it does not work. Slow, partial or one-way service loses patrons and creates political havoc.
Therefore, recovery of full service from severe weather events like tornado, flood, snow or ice is of great importance to
ridership and customer relations.
First, the system or system design must be evaluated for weather vulnerability. These may include snow or ice on the bridges,
platforms, stairs, parking lots and tracks. Inadequately designed culverts and other drainage structures can cause flooding of
tracks, shops, yards, pedestrian tunnels and parking lots. Bridges, retaining walls, culverts, drainage pipes or embankments
over or adjacent to water may be undercut due to moving flood waters (scour) and become unsafe or collapse. The smallest
stream can become a raging flash flood. High winds, earthquake and extreme drought can also damage the bridges and
culverts. List all these vulnerable areas and features.
Second, if possible, design the system with a high degree of reliability. The standards used for freight equipment and structures
may not be conservative enough for the high degree of reliability needed for rail transit. Suspending all service for six hours at
5 o’clock p.m. on a Friday from center city is not a reasonable course of action. Consider monitoring of scour effects on
bridges and other drainage structures and embankments. Monitoring could be placing electronic equipment and should be part
of periodic bridge inspections. This will include use of divers for structures in water.
Third, develop action plans for each severe weather event for the entire system, with special focus on the most vulnerable
areas. Remember that the service will break at the weakest link. These plans should include use of outside services to address
your needs. The local police and fire/rescue should be aware of vulnerable areas and of plans to address problems.
Fourth, practice emergency drills. How quickly can the equipment and personnel assemble on a problem site? Do outside
services know where the site is and how to get there? Top management must participate actively in all practice drills. Debrief
all your participants in practices. Record and analyze the responses to improve the plan. Then tell the participants of the
improvements.
4.5.7.2 Reliability
Transit service typically has very close headways, especially during rush hours. The effects of severe weather conditions,
described above, must be part of the thought process for a high degree of reliability. Other design criteria considerations that
can increase operational reliability include design standards, periodic maintenance, rehabilitation and replacement.
As for severe weather, the key is to analyze the proposed system for potential operational delays in light of the above
considerations. Then adapt a design standard that addresses each potential fault. For example, a light rail system may run on a
city street, highway or freight railroad. Therefore, include review of street, highway and freight railroad design criteria since
these may not be sufficient for the higher reliability needed for transit.
Also, analyze the supporting systems provided by others, such as the power supply and drain systems. These systems may
influence the transit system’s design standards.
The most disruptive periodic operational concerns are maintenance and construction work in the stations and the line
structures, especially bridges. The following should be considered. There may be others.
Track switches for easy bypass of typical work areas.
Horizontal and vertical clearance to minimize track outages.

Separate deck girder bridge for each track.
Express or bypass tracks as part of operational maintenance plan.
How will work at one station or one bridge affect service at the adjacent stations.
Built-in access and safety features to reduce track occupancy duration.
Access roads along and access points to the right-of way to reduce the use of track to get equipment to a work site.
Crane positions and contractor storage areas.
4.5.7.3 Inspection
The greater frequency of operations and the transit customers' sensitivity to on-time performance require that the design of
transit structures allow easy inspection of the critical members without extensive use of track-mounted snooper trucks. Transit
structures over highways should not require extensive lane closures for inspection, if possible. Provisions for safety line
attachment, including anchor points, should be an integral part of the transit structure design. Cat walks and other access
facilities can reduce the time required for bridge inspection and may eliminate operational impacts of the inspection. The
inspection time for a transit structure can be reduced by providing adequate space between members to allow the inspection
team to gain access to all sides of the members.
4.5.8 STRAY CURRENT EFFECTS (2006)

1
Both catenary and third rail traction power systems must be electrically isolated from all structures in the vicinity. This is
especially true for third rail. Currents can travel through soil and other materials not normally thought to be conductive.
Current can arch through the air, especially during wet weather. Frequently, isolation is combined with electrical bonding of all
structural and reinforcing steel used in structures, with monitoring stations provided at critical structures, such as cast-iron
tunnels and steel bridges.
4.5.9 RETAINING WALLS (2006) 3
Stray current effect mitigation must be incorporated into the design of any walls near traction power, as discussed above in the
Stray Current Effects section. Utility attachments or penetrations may also be needed.
4.5.10 UTILITIES (2006)

4
Space must be provided for existing, proposed and future utilities on structures. These utilities may be owned by the transit
agency, or may be owned by public and private companies. See the discussion above.
4.5.11 CONSTRUCTION (2006)
Frequently, the design of a bridge or drainage structure is influenced by how or of what material the structure will be built.
Some items of concern follow.
Access to the site can be by road, rail or water. Does the site access restrict the size of construction material shipments
or the time of day for deliveries?
Is there room to place and store construction equipment and material safely, especially large cranes that should not
interfere with catenary or third rail, and could fall across the tracks or onto adjacent structures and property?
How many hours in the day and on which days can the site be occupied by construction forces?

Rail Transit
What track outages will be allowed by operations, if any?
Will the local community object to the project?
What is a reasonable sequence of construction operations and what equipment and material may the contractor use
effectively given the site constraints?
How can environmental requirements be met cost effectively by employing certain designs, materials or equipment?
Is there room to place and store construction equipment and material safely, especially large cranes that should not
interfere with catenary or third rail, and could fall across the tracks or onto adjacent structures and property?
How many hours in the day, and on which days, can construction forces occupy the site?
What track outages will be allowed by operations, if any?
Will the local community object to the project?
What is a reasonable sequence of construction operations and what equipment and material may the contractor use
effectively given the site constraints?
How can environmental requirements be met cost effectively by employing certain designs, materials or equipment?
4.5.12 ALIGNMENTS AND CLEARANCES (2006)
4.5.12.1 Horizontal and Vertical Alignments
It is most economic to construct bridges that are on vertical and horizontal tangents. Horizontal curves require widening the
deck on ballasted deck structures and designing for eccentric loads. Vertical curves require addition depth between the
running rails and the structure to accommodate the varying grades, resulting in increased dead loads.
The simplified detailing results in lower construction costs and better-constructed quality.
4.5.12.2 Structural Horizontal and Vertical Clearances
The dynamic envelope used for the general roadway clearances should be used as the minimum starting point for the structural
clearances on bridges.
Horizontal curvature on the bridge requires additional structure width. On deck type structures, this equates to a wider deck.
On through structures, this equates to wider spacing between the supporting members, and greater height to accommodate the
superelevation.
Vertical clearances should consider other structural components on the bridge, as well as aerial utilities that may be on or
above the structure.
Walkways and ladder ways for operational and emergency access should also be considered in the vertical and horizontal
clearance determinations.
On large structures, consideration should be given to providing additional electrical isolation clearances and devices to allow
maintenance of the structure without de-energizing the traction power.

4.5.12.3 Under Structure Horizontal and Vertical Clearances
Waterways
All bridges over waterways require vertical clearance (freeboard) above the expected water level of the design storm.
A minimum of 1’ is recommended above the water surface of the design storm predicted by the hydraulic analysis.
Navigable Waterways
All bridges over navigable waterways are required to provide both vertical and horizontal clearances as required by the
governing agency (the US Coast Guard in the United States). The vertical clearance required may be provided by
either a fixed bridge at the proper elevation difference, or by a movable bridge. Movable bridges are expensive to
construct, operate, and maintain. The life cycle costs of fixed vs. movable bridges should be analyzed before selecting
a bridge for crossing a navigable waterway.
Lighting, signage, and marine protection structures are additional items required at a crossing of a navigable waterway.
These items may require adjustments to the supporting structure to provide the required horizontal and vertical
clearances.
Article 4.5.6 of this Chapter also discussed Marine Protection.
Highways
Federal, state, and local requirements apply to the vertical and horizontal clearances at bridges over highways. Many
of these requirements in the United States are based on the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
1
Officials (AASHTO) recommended practices.
Provisions for sidewalks and bicycle traffic may also be required. Protection against structural damage to the under
structure from vehicles may also be required.
Railroad and Transit Facilities 3

Federal, state, and local requirements apply to the vertical and horizontal clearances at bridges over railroad or transit
facilities. The Clearances section of this Manual provides information concerning clearances over freight and
commuter railroads. Clearances at transit facilities should conform to the requirements of the facility’s owner.
These requirements may include additional requirements for service roadways, catenary or third rail clearances.
4

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Figure 12-4-2. Live Loads Questionnaire, Attachment 1

Figure 12-4-2. Live Loads Questionnaire, Attachment 1 (Continued)

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Figure 12-4-8. Live Loads Questionniare, Attachment 7


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AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
Table 12-4-4. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - I. Live Loads
Question 1 - Please indicate by means of a sketch the axle spacings and axle loads that you use as design
live loading for new aerial structures. State the Cooper E designated load, if used for some
structures. Explain.
Question 2 - Are passenger loads included in the above axle loads?
Question 3 - If the answer to Question 2 is no, how are passenger loads accounted for? Do you
differentiate between rush and non rush hour passenger loads? Explain.
Question 4 - For structural member receiving live load from more than one track, please state the design
live load you use in each of the following: (a) for two tracks; (b) for three tracks; and (c) for
four tracks.
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4a Question 4b Question 4c

1 Baltimore Metro See Figure 12-4-2. See Figure 12-4- All structures are Any combination of train Same. Same.
2. designed for loadings which produce
maximum passenger critical design loadings
(crush) load. For shall be used for
Metro (heavy), structural design.
49,000 LBS. For
Light Rail, 40, 000
LBS.
2 Sacramento Regional See Figure 12-4-3. Same. N/A Reduction in load For three tracks: For four tracks:
Transit - LRT intensity due to multiple 90% of 75% of
lane loadings is addressed maximum. maximum.

in Article 7.3.2.10 of the
Sacramento Design
Criteria. We are referred
to __BDS Article 3.12.
For two tracks: 100% of

maximum.
12-4-63
12-4-64
Rail Transit
3 Chicago Transit See Figure 12-4-4. Use Passenger loads All analyses are For two tracks, the typical For three tracks, For four tracks,
Authority 26.5 kips/axle for stress are included for based on maximum analysis is based on rarely governs. Very rarely
analysis and 19.5 fatigue and loads. loading all tracks or any governs.
kips/axle for fatigue and deflection combination of tracks that
deflection analysis. analysis. will produce the greatest
live load stress, fatigue
and deflection for
structural members under
consideration, Loading
cases of AREMA would
be acceptable.
4 Sistema De Transporte Response not available. Yes, passenger No, we do not For two tracks: 100% of For three tracks: No four track
Colectivo Metrorrey - loads are differentiate between live load. 100% of live bridges.
LRT included in the rush and non rush load.
axle loads shown hour, because the
in Attachment 4. most severe
condition is in rush
hour. Based on the
fact that we have all
simply supported
spans.
5 MARTA - Heavy Rail See Figure 12-4-5. Yes. No consideration For two tracks: 100% of For three tracks: For four tracks:
between rush hour live load, whichever 100% of live 100% of live
We do not use Cooper E and non rush hour produces the worse stress load, whichever load, whichever
loadings for the design of passenger loads. in the member. produces the produces the
MARTA aerial structures worse stress in worse stress in
the member. the member.
6 Houston MTA - LRT See Figure 12-4-6. Yes, see We do not For two tracks, LRT For four tracks, For four tracks,
Attachment 6. differentiate between loading is applied to each LRT loading is LRT loading is
rush hour and non track. applied to each applied to each
rush hour passenger track. track.
loads.

7 San Diego MTDB - The type of loading will Yes, passenger Differentiation is Reduction in load For three tracks: For four tracks:
LRT depend upon whether the loads are made only between intensity due to multiple 90% of 75% of
structure is for shared included. loaded and unloaded lane loadings is addressed maximum. maximum.
LRV/Frieght of for cars as prescribed in in Article 2.7.3.19. We
exclusive LRV use. the Figure 12-4-7. refer to AASHTO/BDS
Structures carrying Article 3.12.
freight shall consider
loads of Cooper E60 in For two tracks: 100% of
accordance with the maximum.
AREMA requirements.
For LRV vehicles the lice
load design weights ate as

prescribed in Figure 12-
4-7. Trains of up to four
cars are used.
8 Miami Metro-Dade - Axle spacing: As shown Yes, as noted in Passengers in each As indicated in Section As indicated in N/A
Heavy Rail in Figure 12-4-8. Figure 12-4-8. vehicle: 3.05.2.2. Section 3.05.2.2.
Axle loads: Rush hour: Crush

live load is 250 at
Crush LL: 28.875 kips. 150LBS each =
24,900 LBS.
Normal LL: 25.725 kips.

No Cooper E loading
used for transit.
9 Tri-Met Portland - See Figure 12-4-9. Yes, we assume N/A. For two tracks: use twice Tri-Met does not Tri-Met does not
LRT AW4 passenger the design live load have any three have any four
loading, which shown in Question 1. We track bridges. track bridges.
includes 180 also would assume four
standees (256 car trains.
total passengers
at 155 LBS
each).
10 Toronto Transit See Figure 12-4-10. See Figure 12-4- See Figure 12-4-10. See Figure 12-4-10. See Figure 12-4- See Figure 12-4-
Commission - LRT 10. 10. 10.
12-4-65
and Heavy Rail

12-4-66
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11 Los Angeles Metro See Figure 12-4-11. Vehicle and No differentiation is For two tracks: 100%. N/A N/A
Red Line - Heavy Rail passenger loads made between rush
are shown hour and non rush
separately and hour passenger
combined. loads.
12 Los Angeles Metro See Figure 12-4-12. Yes, a loaded car The maximum is For criteria, refer to For criteria, refer For criteria, refer
Blue Line - LRT includes 76 used. We AASHTO/BDS with to to
seated differentiate between modifications. AASHTO/BDS AASHTO/BDS
passengers, 161 passenger loads, but with with
standing not for the design of modifications. modifications.
passengers and structures.
an operator
(based on 154
LBS/person).
13 Los Angeles Metro See Figure 12-4-12. Cars and Passenger load is the For two tracks: 100%. N/A N/A
Green Line - LRT payloads are maximum load.
shown
separately and
combined.
Table 12-4-5. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - II. Impact
Question 1 - What percentage of load do you use for impact?

Question 2 - Do you agree that the percentages recommended by A.R.E.A. for rolling equipment when
applied to Transit Type Aerial Structures are unrealistically high?
Question 3 - When considering impact, do you differentiate between CWR and Jointed Track? If so,
how?
Question 4 - Do you increase percentages for wheel flat spots? If so, by how much?
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4

1 Baltimore Metro System Simple span < 150’, I=30% No comment No distinction is made. Entire No answer
system is CWR
2 Sacramento Regional See AASHTO/BDS Article 3.8 These values are No distinction is made. No
Transit unrealistically high
3 Chicago Transit Authority Per AREMA Specifications Yes, test data never No distinction is made. No
approaches these values
4 Sistema De Transporte 30% Max per AASHTO Not familiar with AREMA No distinction is made. No
Colectivo Metrorrey code Entire system is CWR
5 Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid AASHTO Art. 3.8.2 AREMA percentages No distinction is made. No
Transit Authority excessively high for transit Entire system is CWR

type struct.
6 Houston - Metro AASHTO Art. 1.2.12C, 30% Yes No distinction is made. No
Metropolitan Transit
Authority
7 San Diego Metropolitan AREMA 2.2.3 (D) Yes No distinction is made. No
Transit Development
Board
8 Metro-Dade Transit Max = 30% Yes No distinction is made. No
Agency
9 Tri-Met Portland Oregon Per AREMA Specifications No comment No distinction is made. Entire No
system is CWR
10 Toronto Transit 30% of static mass No answer No answer No answer

Commission
11 Los Angeles Metro, Red Simple span L<150’, I=30% No comment No distinction is made. No
Line Continuous spans –
1=40% for neg. bending
1=30% for pos. bending

12 Los Angeles Metro Blue 30% Yes No distinction is made. No
Line - LRT
13 Los Angeles Metro Green 30% No comment No differentiation No
Line - LRT
12-4-67
Table 12-4-6. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - III. Centrifugal Load
12-4-68
Rail Transit
Question 1 - AREMA recommends that the centrifugal load be applied horizontally through a point level with the center of gravity of
the car, a point that is 6 feet above the top of the rail. For transit type vehicles, do you agree that the point of application
of centrifugal loads at 4 feet above the top of the rail is more appropriate?
Question 2 - Should each transit property decide for itself the location of the point of application of horizontal centrifugal loads?
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2

1 MTA - Baltimore 5 feet above Top/Rail Yes
2 Sacramento Regional Transit 4 feet above Top/Rail Yes. Strongly recommends 4 feet above T/R for all
horiz. forces wind on LL, longitudinal, centrifugal,
and nosing.
3 CTA - Chicago 4.85 feet above Top/Rail Yes. Use code specified values.
4 Sistema De Transporte Colectivo, 4 feet above Top/Rail Yes
Metrorrey
5 MARTA - Atlanta 3.50 feet above Top/Rail Yes
6 Metropolitan Transit Authority - 3 feet above Top/Rail Yes
Houston
7 MTDB - San Diego C.G. is lower for LRT vehicles than for freight cars. Yes
8 Metro-Dade Transit Agency - Miami 4 ft. 8 ins. above Top/Rail Yes
9 Tri-Met - Portland 5 feet above Top/Rail Yes
10 Toronto Transit Commission ICTS vehicle - 1.1 m. above T/R. Yes
SUBWAY vehicle - 2 m. above T/R.

LRT vehicle - 1.7 m. above T/R.
11 L.A. Metro Red Line 5 feet above Top/low rail Yes
12 L.A. Metro Blue Line 4 feet above Top/low rail Yes
13 L.A. Metro Green Line 4 feet above Top/low rail Yes
Table 12-4-7. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - IV. Wind Loads
Wind on Train
Question 1 - How do you consider horizontal design wind loads on the train?
Question 2 - AREMA recommends 300 P.L.F. of train applied 8 feet above top of rail. For transit cars, do you agree that wind loads of 200 P.L.F. of
train applied 6 feet above top of rail is more appropriate.
Wind on Structure
Question 3 - What design loads do you consider for horizontal wind forces on the superstructure / substructure?
Question 4 - Do you agree with the recommendation that wind loads shall be taken as 20 P.S.F. on the following surfaces:
a. For girder spans 1.5 times the vertical projection of the span?
b. For truss spans, the vertical projection of the span plus any portion of the leeward trusses, not shielded by the floor system?
c. For towers and bents, the vertical projections of all columns and bracing?
d. For columns, whose height exceeds 40 feet above grade, do you increase the wind loads on such columns and, if so, by how much?
Question 5 - When wind loads are considered in combination with other loads, do you increase the allowable stresses by 25%, by 30%, by 33%?
Explain.
WIND ON TRAINS WIND ON STRUCTURE

No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5
1 MTA - Baltimore TRANS. 320 P.L.F. No. Super: No Comment. Group III and IV wind is
LONG. 80 P.L.F. TRANS. 240 P.L.F. reduced to 30%
x Length of train applied 7 feet LONG. 60 P.L.F.
above T/R at axles. Sub:

As above plus 35 P.S.F. of
exposed area applied at the
centroid.
2 Sacramento Regional < 40 feet high No. See AASHTO/BDS Section See CALTRANS 25% increase. Group III
Transit TRANS. 115 P.L.F. 3.15. BDS Section 3.15 and VI wind is reduced to
LONG. 28 P.L.F. 50 P.S.F. 30%
x Length of train applied 6’4” 75 P.S.F.
above T/R at axles. 40 P.S.F.
> 40 feet high No.
TRANS. 126 P.L.F.
LONG. 31 P.L.F.
x Length of train applied 6’4”
12-4-69
above T/R at axles. Increase

above loads by 30% when 2
tracks loaded.
12-4-70
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3 CTA - Chicago TRANS. 300 P.L.F. Could be Per AREMA a. Yes, 30 P.S.F. Yes, per AREMA
x Length of train applied 6 feet considered. b. Yes, 30 P.S.F.
above T/R at axles. c. Yes, 30 P.S.F.
d. No.
4 Sistema de Transporte TRANS. 100 P.L.F. Yes. Super. 50 P.S.F. a. Yes, 20 P.S.F. Yes, per AASHTO table
Colectivo Metrorrey x Length of train applied 6’4” Sub. 40 P.S.F. b. Yes, 20 P.S.F. 3.22.1.A
above T/R at axles. Also per AASHTO code c. Yes, 20 P.S.F.
d. > 40 feet high
increase wind loads
by tests.
5 MARTA - Atlanta TRANS. 270 P.L.F. No. Super: Trusses & Arches a. No. Yes, by 25%
LONG. 60 P.L.F. TRANS. 70 P.S.F. b. No.
x Length of train applied 7 feet LONG. 40 P.S.F. c. No.
above T/R at axles. Super: Girders & Beams d. No.
TRANS. 45 P.S.F.
LONG. 10 P.S.F.
Sub
exposed area applied at
centroid.

6 Metropolitan Transit < 40 feet high Yes. Double Track Girders a. No. Yes, by 25%
Authority - Houston TRANS. 165 P.L.F. TRANS. 70 P.S.F. b. No.
LONG. 40 P.L.F. LONG. 17 P.S.F. c. No.
x Length of train applied 6’6” Trusses d. > 40 ft. high
above T/R at axles. TRANS. 100 P.S.F. increase wind loads
> 40 feet high LONG. 24 P.S.F. by 10% for each 20
Increase above loads by 10% for Single Track Girders ft. above 40 ft.
each 20 foot above 40 foot in TRANS. 50 P.S.F. high.
height. LONG. 12 P.S.F.
Trusses
TRANS. 70 P.S.F.
LONG. 17 P.S.F.
Bents & Col
TRANS. 50 P.S.F.
LONG. 50 P.S.F.
Above pressures are times the
vert. exposed area applied at
the centroid.
Increase all above loads by
10% for each 20 foot above
40 ft. in height.
7 MTDB - San Diego < 40 feet high 300 P.L.F. Super: Girders a. No. Group III and VI wind is
TRANS. 115 P.L.F. x Length of TRANS. 50 P.S.F. b. No. reduced to 30%.

LONG. 28 P.L.F train applied Super: Trusses c. No. Refer to BDS.
> 40 feet high 6 ft. above TRANS. 75 P.S.F. d. No.
TRANS. 126 P.L.F. T/R at axles is Sub: Bents & Col.
LONG. 31 P.L.F. more TRANS: 40 P.S.F.
Increase above loads by 30% appropriate. Also see Caltrans BDS.
when 2 tracks are loaded.
12-4-71
12-4-72
Rail Transit
8 Metro-Dade Transit < 40 feet high Yes. Super: a. No. Yes, by 25%
Agency - Miami TRANS. 165 P.L.F. < 40 feet high b. No.
LONG. 40 P.L.F. TRANS. 75 P.S.F. c. No.
x Length of train applied 6’4” LONG. 18 P.S.F. d. No.
above T/R at axles. > 40 feet high
> 40 feet high TRANS. 84 P.S.F.
TRANS. 182 P.L.F. LONG. 20 P.S.F.
LONG. 44 P.L.F. Above pressures are times the
x Length of train applied 6’4” vert. exposed areas at the
above T/R at axles. Increase centroid.
above loads by 30% when 2 Sub:

tracks are loaded. As above plus 56 P.S.F. of
centroid.
9 Tri-Met Portland Refer to Oregon D.O.T. Yes. Refer to Oregon D.O.T. Refer to Oregon Refer to Oregon D.O.T.
D.O.T.
10 Toronto Transit No Response No Response No Response No Response No Response
Commission
11 L.A. Metro Red Line TRANS. 320 P.L.F. No. Super: Girders & Beams a. No. See A.A.S.H.T.O.
Heavy Rail LONG. 80 P.L.F. TRANS. 40 P.S.F. b. No.
x Length of train applied 7 feet LONG. 10 P.S.F. c. No.
above T/R at axles x The exposed area applied at d. No.
the centroid.
Sub:
centroid.
12 L.A. Metro Blue Line. < 40 feet high No. Super: a. No. No.
Light Rail TRANS. 115 P.L.F. See Art. 3.15.1 and 3.15.3 of b. No.
x Length of train applied 6’4” AASHTO/BDS c. No.
above T/R at axles. Sub: d. No.
> 40 feet high See Art. 3.15.2.2. of
TRANS. 126 P.L.F. AASHTO/BDS.
above T/R at axles.

13 L.A. Metro Green < 40 feet high No. Super: a. No. No.
Line. Light Rail TRANS. 115 P.L.F. See Art. 3.15.1 and 3.15.3 of b. No.
LONG. 28 P.L.F. AASHTO/BDS. c. No.
x Length of train applied 6’4” Sub: d. No.
above T/R at axles. See Art. 3.15.2.2. of
> 40 feet high AASHTO/BDS.
TRANS. 126 P.L.F.
LONG. 31 P.L.F.
above T/R at axles. Increase

above loads by 30% when 2
tracks are loaded.
Table 12-4-8. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - V. Nosing (Lateral Loads)
QUESTION 1
A single mvong concentrated lateral load equal to 25% of the heaviest axle of the specified live load shall be applied separately at the gage
side base of either running rail in the direction of the field side, and at any point along the span, in addition to the other lateral loads
specified. On spans supporting multiple tracks, this lateral load shall be applied on one track only.
The only resulting stresses to be considered are:

• axial stresses in bracing and cross-framing provided for flanges of stringer, beam, and girder spans;
• axial stresses in the chords of truss spans;
• lateral bending stresses of flanges of stringers having no bracing system.
Other resulting stresses, to be disregarded, are:
• lateral bending stresses of flanges between braced points;
• axial stresses in flanges between braced points;
• all vertical effects on bearings.

12-4-73
Please comment on the above entire Question 1.

12-4-74
Rail Transit
AGENCY Question 1
1 Baltimore Metro System No Comment
2 Sacramento Regional Transit No Comment
3 Chicago Transit Authority Per AREMA Specifications
4 Sistema De Transporte Colectivo Metrorrey No Comment
5 Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority Track & Wheel gauges set to exacting tolerances to prevent this load.
6 Houston-Metro Metropolitan Transit Authority* AREMA not used. Transit Live Load Less (E-10)
7 San Diego Metropolitan Transit Development Board No Comment
8 Metro-Dade Transit Agency No Comment
9 Tri-Met, Portland, Oregon No Comment
10 Toronto Transit Commission No Comment

11 Los Angeles Metro, Red Line No Comment
12 Los Angeles Metro, Blue Line* Question 1 is written in context of steel bridges
13 Los Angeles Metro, Green Line No Comment
MARTA in Atlanta does not require the applications of a nosing load. The nosing load is caused by an excessive difference between the wheel
flange gauge and the track gauge, causing the truck to wobble or hunt. The impact of the flange striking the rail causes this load. Since ride
smoothness is crucial to successful operations of MARTA, track and wheel gauges are set to exacting tolerances to prevent wobble or hunting.
*Question 1 has been taken from AREMA Chapter 15, Steel Structures, but has been modified to apply to any aerial structure regardless of weight
or material composition.
Table 12-4-9. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VI. Longitudinal Forces
Question 1 - What percentage of the live load, without impact, do you use for longitudinal forces?
Question 2 - Is the magnitude of the longitudinal force computed differently for acceleration and for declaration? If so, what
percentages do you use for either?
Question 3 - Is the longitudinal force applied at the base of rail as uniformly distributed over the length of the train, or over some
other longer length? Explain.
Question 4 - In your design for aerial structures, do you consider the possibily critical loading condition whereby a span (or spans) is
subject to longitudinal forces, without the simultaneous application of vertical live load forces?
Question 5 - For multiple track, structures, do you give consideration to various combinations of longitudinal forces due to
acceleration and deceleration applied in the same direction?
Question 6 - Do you agree with the following suggested “worst case” loading conditions for design purposes, for longitudinal forces
applied in the same direction?
a) One track structure - one track deceleration.
b) Two track structure - one track deceleration plus one track acceleration.
c) Three track structure - one track deceleration plus two tracks acceleration.
d) Four track structure - two tracks deceleration plus two tracks acceleration.
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6

1 MTA Baltimore. No comment. No. Applied over Yes, thermal & rail break Yes. No comment.
Light & Heavy Rail. structure length forces applied on CWR.
equal to train length.

2 Sacramento Regional 15% of train crush load, No. Applied over entire No. See AASHTO/BDS Yes. Agree with cases
Transit. without impact, applied at length of structure, Groups III & VI service a) and b).
Light Rail. 5’-0” above T/rail on all at 5’-0” above T/rail. load & load factor are Cases c) and d)
tracks. For used. are unlikely.
CWR/ballasted track 50%
of this force may be
applied to structure
outside the train.
3 CTA Chicago. 19% of 10 car design load Deceleration = Applied over 1200 Yes. Yes. Agree with all
Heavy Rail. over 1200 ft. length. 200k ft. length of structure four cases.
Acceleration = at B/rail
100k distributed

1200 ft. length.
4 Sistema De Acceleration = 10% Yes. Applied over train Yes. See AASHTO Table Yes. Agree with cases
Transporte-Colectivo Deceleration = 13% length. 3.22.1.A loading a), b) and d).
Metrorrey. combination V. Don’t agree with
Light Rail. case c).
5 Metropolitan Atlanta Acceleration = 16% Yes. Applied over train No. Yes. Agree with all
Rapid Transit Deceleration = 21% length at T/rail. four cases.
Authority. Heavy
Rail.
6 Metorpolitan Transit Acceleration = 16% Yes. Applied over train No. Yes. Agree with all
Auth. Houston. Deceleration = 21% length at B/rail. four cases.
Light Rail.
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12-4-76
Rail Transit
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6
7 Metropolitan Transit Light Rail = 15% No. Applied 5 ft. above No. Yes. Agree with cases
Dev. Board. San Heavy Rail = Area T/rail over length of a) and b).
Diego. 2.2.3(J) structure. Don’t agree with
Light Rail. cases c) and d).
8 Metro-Dade Transit 15% No. Applied 4’-8” above No. Yes. Agree with cases
Agency Miami. T/rail over length of a) and b).
Heavy Rail. train.
9 Tri-Met Portland, OR. Acceleration = 16% Yes. Applied over train Yes, if loading controls. Yes. Agree with cases
Light Rail. Deceleration = 21% length at T/rail. a) and b).

Emergency braking =
46%
10 Toronto Transit 30 kN/vehicle. No. Applied over train No answer. All combinations No answer.
Commission. length at 1.7m above of loads to be
Light & Heavy Rail. T/rail. considered.
11 Los Angeles Metro 15% No. Applied over train No. Yes. Agree with all
Red Line. length at 5’-0” above four cases.
Heavy Rail. T/rail.
12 Los Angeles Metro Acceleration = 16% Yes. Applied over train Yes., when CWR is used. Yes, at Agree with cases
Blue Line. Deceleration = 21% length at T/rail. Engineer’s a), b) and d).
Light Rail. discretion. Case c) should be
two tracks
deceleration plus
one track
acceleration.
13 Los Angeles Metro Acceleration = 16% Yes. Applied over train No. Yes. Agree with all
Green Line. Deceleration = 21% length at T/rail. four cases.
Light Rail.
Table 12-4-10. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VII. Station Loads
Question 1 - What design live loading do you use for places of public assembly such as station platforms, mezzanines, pedestrian
ramps, stairways, and other pedestrian areas?
Question 2 - What design loadings do you use for railings in areas of public assembly?
Question 3 - What design live loadings do you use for service footwalks between tracks, primarily used by maintenance personnel?
Also loadings for railways, if any, attached to such footwalks?
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3

1 MTA Baltimore. 150 P.S.F. 150 P.L.F. - Horiz. 170 P.L.F. for 2 ft. wide safety walk.
Light & Heavy Rail. 100 P.L.F. - Vert.
2 Sacramento Regional Transit. Use latest Uniform Buiding Code and Use UBC Table 16-B 50 P.L.F. - See BDS 3.14.
Light Rail. other local codes. Horiz.
Pt. load 200 lbs. applied anywhere
in any direction.
3 CTA Chicago. 100 P.S.F. Single Element Railing: 100 P.S.F. - generally
Heavy Rail. For supports, use 85 P.S.F. for tributary 75 P.L.F. - Horiz. 150 P.S.F. - in areas where track
areas > 300 S.F. Multiple Element Railing: materials are stored. For footwalk
50 P.L.F. - Horiz./Each Element railings see answer to Question 2.
50 P.L.F. - Vert.
Pt. load 300 lbs. applied anywhere
in any direction.
4 Sistema De Transporte-Colectivo 100 P.S.F. See AASHTO 2.7. 30 P.S.F.
Metrorrey. For railings see AASHTO 2.7.

Light Rail.
5 MARTA - Atlanta. Use Standard Building Code. Use Standard Building Code. 85 P.S.F.
Heavy Rail. For supports 60 to 85 P.S.F.
For railings 50 P.L.F. - Horiz.
6 Metorpolitan Transit Auth. Houston. 100 P.S.F. or Pt. load of 2,000 lbs. 50 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
Light Rail. applied anywhere for platforms For railings see AASHTO 2.7.3.
100 P.S.F. for other areas
7 Metropolitan Transit Dev. Board. San No specific criteria used. Loadings 50 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
Diego. specified for each project. For supports, use 60 P.S.F. for
Light Rail. tributary areas > 50 S.F.
8 Metro-Dade Transit Agency, Miami. 100 P.S.F. 100 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
12-4-77
Heavy Rail. For stairways use load of 300 lbs.

anywhere on each tread as alternate.
12-4-78
Rail Transit
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3
9 Tri-Met Portland, OR. No comment. No comment. No comment.
Light Rail.
10 Toronto Transit Commission. 150 P.S.F. No comment. No comment.
Light & Heavy Rail. Without impact
11 Los Angeles Metro Red Line. 100 P.S.F. 50 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
Heavy Rail. For stairways use Pt. load of 300 lbs. 50 P.L.F. - Vert. For supports, use 60 P.S.F.
anywhere on each tread as alternate. for tributary areas > 50 S.F.
For railings in work areas, use Pt.
load of 200 lbs. applied anywhere in
any direction.
12 Los Angeles Metro Blue Line. 100 P.S.F. 100 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
Light Rail. For stairways use Pt. load of 300 lbs. 50 P.L.F. - Vert. For railings in work areas, use Pt.
anywhere on each tread as alternate. load of 200 lbs. applied anywhere in
any direction.
13 Los Angeles Metro Green Line. 100 P.S.F. 100 P.L.F. - Horiz. 85 P.S.F.
Light Rail. For stairways use Pt. load of 300 lbs. 50 P.L.F. - Vert. For railings in work areas, use Pt.
anywhere on each tread as alternate. load of 200 lbs. applied anywhere in
any direction.
Table 12-4-11. Design Loading Questionnaire Responses - VIII. Other Miscellaneous Loads
Question 1 - What provisions, if any, do you consider for possible derailment loads sustained by the aerial structure?
Question 2 - If the columns of the aerial structure are located in streets and other public thoroughfares, what provisions, if any, do you consider for possible
collision with vehicular traffic?
Question 3 - If the columns of the aerial structure are located between active railroad tracks, what provisions, if any, do you consider for possible collision
with trains?
Question 4 - What criteria do you use for maximum allowable simple span deflection due to live load plus impact? For pure cantilever arms?
Question 5 - For longitudinal flexural members subject to a fatigue stress range caused by passage of rapid transit trains over aerial structures, what number
of constant stress cycles do you consider for various span lengths, as being the life of the structure?
Question 6 - When pot bearings are used as span supports, what uplift forces, if any, do you consider as acting thereon? Please explain. What factor of
safety against uplift do you use, and how do you calculate it?
Question 7 - Given that differential settlement and other deformations in aerial structures could cause considerable track maintenance problems (espeically
for direct fixation track) in the future, what maximum total settlements and differential settlements do you allow for in the design?
Question 8 - For direct fixation track on aerial structures, what design criteria do you use for transverse and longitudinal thermal forces, due to temperature
variations in CWR running rail? These forces are assumed to be applied in a horizontal plane at the top or the bottom of the low rail? Please
explain your design philosophy.
Question 9 - For the design of aerial structures and bridges to resist earthquake motions, do you follow the recommendations of the Standard Specifications
for Highway Bridges Relating to Seismic Design of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials? What other
earthquake design references do you use and when?
No. Agency Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6 Question 7 Question 8 Question 9
1 MTA Baltimore. Concentration load Column is Column is Simple span 3 million cycles of No answer. Max. Longitudinal thermal N/A
Light & Heavy of 23,000 lbs. designed for protected by deflection max. stress. differential forces applied at top of
Rail. located anywhere on vehicular crash wall if < SPAN settlement low rail.
slab. impact if centerline 1000 < 1/4”. TL = 0.65 PxL per rail
within 6 ft. track to face of Cantilever TL = 191 kips per rail

from curb column is 25 < SPAN R
line. ft. or less. 375 where R = radius of
curvature in ft.
P = clamping force per
D.F. per foot
L = Average length of
two adjacent spans.
2 Sacramento See section 7.3.2.3 Column is Provide Simple and Assume 100 year life Pot bearings Max. Longitudinal thermal See Caltrans
Regional Transit. of design criteria. protected by clearance from continuous spans 18 hour day. 15 min. not used. allowable forces not considered Bridge Design
Light Rail. Equiv.static concrete or centerline deflection intervals. Uplift shall settlement: because rail fasteners do Specs. Sec.
derailment load for metal barriers. track to face of < SPAN No. of cycles: not exceed Spread not impart direct 3.21 which are
one track = 100% column 1000 = 100(365)(18)(4) 50% of dead footings = fixation. modifications
vert. impact factor = 11 ft. on Cantilevers = 2,628,000 cycles load. 1/2”. of AASHTO
added to vehicle curves. < SPAN Generally aerial Columns and specs.
load. For second = 10 ft. on 375 structures are pile groups =

track no impact is tangent. If pedestrians use reinforced concrete i.e. 0”.
added. See Provide track bridge above limits cyclic stresses not as
AASHTO/BDS load with guard shall be SPAN and important.
case XI for rails. See SPAN
derailment loads. AREMA for 1000 375
For barrier walls 3 ft. collision wall respectively.
clear of vehicle or requirements See BDS 8.9.3.1 and
less apply horiz. 2.
force 2 ft. above
T/rail = 40% of
single vehicle weight
along 10 ft. length of
wall. For tracks with
guard rails apply this
force to guard rails.
12-4-79
12-4-80
Rail Transit
3 CTA Chicago. Not normally a Concrete pier Collision Simple span > 2 million stress Resistance to Design No CWR on aerial Earthquake
Heavy Rail. factor for open deck is raised 2 ft. barriers are deflection cycles. Some elements uplift at any follows structures. loads not
elevated structures. +/- above provided. < SPAN receive 3 to 20 cycles support = settlement considered.
grade when 640 per train and over applied uplift recommend-
replacing Cantilever 50,000 trains/year. force + ations in soils
column < SPAN 100%. report.
footings. 320 Usually shim
if exceeds 1”.
4 Sistema De Lateral excursion Collision Columns are Max. allowable Our system is a We do not Max. total and Longitudinal thermal Yes, but in our
Transporte- shall vary from 4” protection is located outside deflection = SPAN prestressed concrete have uplift differential forces applied at B/rail = zone wind
Colectivo min. to 3 ft. max. for provided by railroad 2000 structure, and we do forces. settlement 100 tons per 60 meters loads govern,
Metrorrey. tangent and curved special R.O.W. not have stress = Height of of rail. because
Light Rail. (R > 5000 ft.) tracks. structures. reversals. For fatigue Column seismic risk is
Vertical derailment we consider 2 million 2000 zero.

load = vehicle load + constant stress cycles.
100% for 2 to 4
vehicles. Horiz.
force = 40% of
single vehicle weight
applied 2 ft. above
T/rail.
5 Metropolitan Derailment load = Collision Collision Simple span Not addressed in Dead load of Differential See attached section Seismic loads
Atlanta Rapid live load + impact protection is protection is deflection shall not MARTA design super- settlement 18.3.9C of MARTA not currently
Transit Auth. applied parallel to provided by provided by exceed 2” under all criteria. structure at between tow design criteria. addressed.
Heavy Rail. track and 3’-6” from special special permanent dead bearings > adjacent piers Station design
edge of slab. measures. measures. loads, and one span 1.5 x net shall not follows local
in any 3 consecutive uplift. exceed: Standard
spans, not more than See Sum of 2 adj. Buiding Codes
1.4”. No track is AASHTO span lgths and application
supported on and 1200 of seismic

cantilever girders. applicable loads depends
building on its location.
codes.
6 Metorpolitan Derailment load = Protective Reinforced See AASHTO Over 2 million N.A. Differential See AREMA Manual. N.A.
Transit Auth. L.R.T. vehicle curb is conc. pier is Section 10.6. applications of max. settlement See WMATA, Dade Co.,
Houston. applied parallel to installed provided. design load is between tow MARTA design criteria.
Light Rail. track and 2 ft. off around the assumed. adjacent piers
centerline track at column and at shall not
either side. least exceed:
3”-0” from Sum of 2 adj.
face of span lgths
column. 1200
7 Metropolitan None Collision Provide Simple and Assume 100 year life Pot bearings Max. Longitudinal thermal See Caltrans
Transit Dev. Board. protection is clearance from continuous spans 18 hour day. 7-1/2 min. not used. allowable forces not considered Bridge Design
San Diego. provided by centerline deflection: intervals. Uplift < 50% settlement: because rail fasteners do Specs. Sec.
Light Rail. concrete or track to face of < SPAN No. of cycles: of dead load. Spread not impart direct 3.21 which are
metal barriers. column 800 = 100(365)(18)(60/7.5) footings = fixation. modifications
= 11 ft. on Cantilevers = 5,256,000 1/2”. of AASHTO
curves. < SPAN Generally aerial Columns and specs.
= 10 ft. on 300 structures are pile groups =
tangent. If pedestrians use reinforced concrete i.e. 0”.
Provide track bridge above limits cyclic stresses not as
with guard shall be SPAN and important.
rails. See SPAN
AREMA for 1000 375
collision wall respectively.

requirements See BDS 8.9.3.1 and
2.
8 Metro-Dade Transit See Section 3.05.2.6 None in None in See Section 3.05.5 See Section 3.05.6 See Section See Section See Section 3.05.2.12 Earthquake
Agency Miami. particular. particular. 3.05.4 3.05.9.4 forces not
Heavy Rail. Special Special considered.
protection protection
provided provided when
when needed. needed.
9 Tri-Met Portland, No answer. Provide No answer. No answer. No answer. No answer. No answer. We do not have D.F. No answer.
OR. concrete track.
Light Rail. shoulder
barrier, or
impact
attenuator.

10 Toronto Transit No answer. Columns to be No answer. Simple and No answer. No answer. No answer. No answer. No answer.
Commission. designed for continuous spans,
Light & Heavy road vehicle deflection shall not
Rail. collision exceed SPAN
forces. 800
Cantilever span
SPAN
300
12-4-81
12-4-82
Rail Transit
11 Los Angeles Metro Concentrated load of Not addressed Not addressed Simple and 3 million cycles of Use 0.9 x Total Horiz. thermal forces Yes, AASHTO
Red Line. 23,000 lbs. anywhere in RCC in RCC continuous spans, max. stress. dead load settlement not applied at top of low specifications
Heavy Rail. on slab. See RCC criteria. criteria. deflection shall not See RCC criteria and 0.75 x greater than rail.
criteria article exceed SPAN article 2.6.3.C. earth 1”. Longitudinal = TL =
2.6.2B. 1000 pressure to Differential 0.65 x P x L per rail.
Cantilever arm resist uplift. settlement not Transverse = TT = 191
SPAN See RCC greater than kips per rail
375 criteria 1/4”. See R
See RCC criteria article RCC criteria where:
article 2.6.4.B. and 2.6.3.D. article 2.6.6. R = radius of curvature
2.6.3.A. in ft.
P = clamping force of
D.F. per ft.
L = average length of
two adjacent spans

12 Los Angeles Metro Lateral excursion Collision None, except a Depends on No answer. No answer. Not greater No answer. Yes.
Blue Line. shall vary from 4” protection is separation of structure. than 1/4”.
Light Rail. min. to 3 ft. max for provided by distance
tangent and curved barriers. between
(R > 5,000 ft.) railroad and
tracks. Verical column.
derailment load =
vehicle load + 100%
for 4 vehicles.
Horiz. force = 40%
of single vehicle
weight applied 2 ft.
above T/rail and
along 10 ft. length of
barrier wall 3 ft.
clear of vehicle or
less. See Section
10.3.3.
13 Los Angeles Metro Same as L.A. Blue Columns No specific Simple and 3 million cycles of Use 0.9 x Total Horiz. thermal forces Yes, as
Green Line. Line above. See normally criteria. continuous spans, max. stress. dead load settlement not applied at top of low modified by
Light Rail. Section 10.3.3. located within Follow deflection shall not See Section 10.6.4.C. and 0.75 x greater than rail. Caltran’s
curbs at AREMA exceed SPAN earth 1”. Longitudinal = TL = AASHTO/
sidewalks. manual as 1000 pressure to Differential 0.65 x P x L per rail. BDS. See
needed. Cantilever arm resist uplift. settlement not Transverse = TT = 191 Section 10.3.4.
SPAN See Section greater than kips per rail
375 10.6.4.D. 1/4”. See R
See Section Section where:
10.6.5.A & B. 10.6.7. R = radius of curvature
in ft.
P = clamping force of
D.F. per ft.
L = average length of
two adjacent spans

12-4-83
Rail Transit
4.5.13 CURVED GIRDER BRIDGES (2007)
The purpose of these provisions is to identify special requirements that should be considered during the design and
construction of Curved Girder Bridges for rail transit applications. These rail-transit guidelines are written as supplementary
criterion that augments or supersedes the provisions established by the referenced design codes.
These provisions are intended for Curved Girder Bridges that carry rail-transit revenue service, and associated system
maintenance vehicles.
4.5.13.2 Design Codes
Curved Girder Bridges shall be designed using the current edition of the following codes, in the following order of precedence:
a. (AREMA) Manual for Railway Engineering, by the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way
Association.
b. (AASHTO Guide Specifications) AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway
Bridges, published by the American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials.
c. (AASHTO) Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, published by the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials.
4.5.13.3 Materials
Construction materials and their corresponding design properties shall conform to AREMA recommended practice.
High strength bolts shall be used for field connections or splicing of primary structural steel members, including diaphragms
and cross frames.
Uncoated steel bars shall be used for reinforced concrete to facilitate installation of corrosion control systems that are used to
resist stray current.
4.5.13.4 Loads
4.5.13.4.1 General
Loads shall be in accordance to AREMA Chapter 8 Design Loads and Loading Combinations.
4.5.13.4.2 Live Load
Criteria for vehicle live loads should be established by individual transit agencies, based on the anticipated revenue service
trains. Ideally, the design vehicle live load should be representative of the actual revenue service vehicles, based on the AW4
design- or crush- load characteristics. Transit agencies must be cognizant of changing vehicle characteristics, and over time,
may need to update design vehicle live load criteria, and possibly modify or strengthen existing structures to satisfy current
strength and serviceability requirements.
In addition, curved girder bridges must also be designed for maintenance vehicles. A maintenance vehicle is an occasional,
controlled load, and therefore the structure should be designed using AREMA Group Load Combinations with an allowable
overstress, or load factor reduction. Transit agencies should select maintenance equipment with care, to avoid excessive loads
that may potentially control the structural design of numerous components.

4.5.13.4.3 Derailment Load
Structures shall be designed to resist derailment loads according to the provisions specified by AREMA, Chapter 12. The
geometric characteristics of a horizontally curved girder bridge tend to reduce global stability, which should be carefully
examined for the derailment condition.
4.5.13.5 Structural Analysis and Design
4.5.13.5.1 General
Steel curved girder superstructures shall be designed according to the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved
Steel Girder Highway Bridges. Concrete curved girder superstructures shall be designed in conformance to the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. Curved girder bridge bearings, substructures and foundation components shall
be designed using the recommended practice specified by AREMA Volume 2.
4.5.13.5.2 Foundations
If practical, eccentric configurations should be used for foundations to counterbalance dead load overturning.
4.5.13.5.3 Substructure
Columns must be checked for full factored uplift, which may generate critical axial-bending load combinations.
To minimize potential uplift loads, pier caps and abutment bridge seats should be arranged with a radial orientation.
1
For structural efficiency, longitudinal traction and seismic loads are often resisted through a multiple series of fixed
substructure units. An efficient design requires a careful balance between structural flexibility and capacity.
4.5.13.5.4 Bearings
Manufactured spherical or pot bearings are generally used to support horizontally curved rail-transit bridges, because they are 3
subjected to relatively large, variable-range applied loads, in conjunction with moderate displacement demands.
The bearings and bearing anchor bolt design should account for full potential uplift. The bearing design and anchorage system
should allow for future bearing replacement based on a prescribed procedure that can be performed within a specified time
duration.
The geometric alignment of guided bearings must be carefully evaluated, and should include a mechanism for field 4
adjustments. Resultant thermal movement is assumed to coincide with a longitudinal chord that intersects the transverse mid-
point of the subject span supports.
4.5.13.5.5 Superstructure Geometry
Curved girder bridges must be designed for the increased clearance requirements imposed by the track geometry that typically
includes horizontal tangent, spiral, and circular curved sections with vertical superelevations and possible vertical curves.
Clearances must accommodate the additional mid-ordinate offset and end-overhang throw of the transit vehicle.
Horizontally, the geometric design of a curved girder superstructure should be configured using a series of best-fit compound
curves. The track will be constructed to satisfy the final alignment design, so the relative location of the rails will deviate
between various transverse sections to accommodate the slight geometric differences between the circular bridge
superstructure and the actual track alignment.

Rail Transit
Vertically, the girders and bridge deck should be designed and constructed in a horizontal plane that follows the top-of-low rail
profile. Transversely, the girders and bridge deck should be level; and required superelevation provided by variable-depth
ballast or direct-fixation rail plinths.
4.5.13.5.6 Diaphragms
The diaphragms or cross frames function as primary members to transfer torsion induced forces between the curved
longitudinal girders or box webs. Consequently, the diaphragms, cross frames, and their connections must be fully analyzed
and designed according to the respective provisions for steel or concrete bridges.
In certain situations, the steel diaphragms or cross frames may qualify as Fracture Critical Members.
4.5.13.5.7 Fatigue
The controlling sections or components of rail transit bridges are typically designed with a capacity that satisfies the demand
of each passing train. Therefore, the fatigue design of all curved girder bridges must satisfy AREMA recommended practice
specified by Chapters 8 or 15.
4.5.13.5.8 Deflections and Vibrations
Transit guideways shall be designed to satisfy AREMA Chapter 12 requirements for deflections and vibrations. Curved girder
superstructures must be investigated for frequency of vibration characteristics to ensure that the system rail vehicles, operating
within design speed range, will not induce resonance.
4.5.13.5.9 Joints
To minimize potential uplift forces, pier caps and corresponding deck joints should be arranged with a radial orientation that is
orthogonal to the bridge superstructure. Adherence to this provision will improve the detailing and performance of direct
fixation trackwork.
For transit guideways that use Continuous Welded Rail (CWR), the bearing arrangement and corresponding expansion joint
placement will dominate the interactive rail force, which is generated by differential thermal movement between the jointed
superstructure and the theoretically fixed, continuous rail. Curved girder bridges must be designed for this interactive force to
verify that the rail stress and pier capacities are not exceeded during normal thermal cycles, and to confirm that the rails are
sufficiently restrained to control gap lengths in the event of a rail break.
4.5.13.6 Construction
4.5.13.6.1 General
Curved Girder Bridge construction shall conform to the guidelines specified by the respective reference design codes.
4.5.13.6.2 Stability
Check the stability of the various girder configurations, with and without decks, expected during construction. Single curved
girders tend to rotation along their chord. Continuous curved girders can rotate and exhibit uplift at the bearings.
To satisfy static equilibrium, steel girder bridges shall be designed and constructed using at least two girders at every cross
section. To facilitate construction, additional steel girders should be furnished as pairs or in multiples of two, when they are
needed by design to support wider cross sections.
Single curved, steel- and concrete-box girders are permissible, because static equilibrium should be achieved by providing
independent bearings beneath each web.

4.5.13.6.3 Loads
The vertical track tolerance for a direct-fixation rail transit guideway is typically +/- 0.125 inches. Consequently, the sequence
of construction for a curved girder bridge, which usually entails multiple continuous spans, must be carefully planned and
controlled to obtain an as-built deck profile that satisfies track installation tolerances. The Constructor shall prepare stress and
deflection calculations that demonstrate how the superstructure responds during each stage of construction. This sequence-of-
construction plan shall be implemented and monitored by the Constructor.
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
SECTION 4.7 TUNNELS
The design of a rail transit tunnel is based on the type of equipment that will use the tunnel. This Section discusses the design
considerations that are presented by transit equipment and operations. The designer should review this Section with the goal 1
of identifying rail transit design criteria. Other sections of this manual and other references should be consulted to complete
the design criteria.
Though the discussion that follows focuses on traditional tunnel construction, it can be applied to the design of the following
general types of underground rail transit facilities.
Traditional tunnels through rock or very stable soil built using tunneling or mining techniques and equipment, such as
3
boring machines. This type of construction does not disturb the surface transportation and building systems, except at
isolated locations. It is usually used when alignment designs require the tracks to be far below the surface or to avoid
disturbing the surface or building foundations.
Sunken tubes usually are used to build a tunnel beneath a river with a soft bottom. Here a trench is dug in the river
bottom and sections of the tunnel lining, typically made of steel, are sunk or placed in the trench, connected to form the 4
tunnel or tube, and then de-watered.
Cut and cover tunnels usually are used in urban settings and where the alignment design requires the tracks to be close
to the surface. These consist of opening the surface of an existing street using open trenching techniques to create the
subsurface space for the tracks. The excavation may extend 20 to 40 feet below the surface. This subsurface space is
then closed with a structure that supports the street and/or ground, completely isolating the tracks from the surface and
other conflicting modes of transportation.
4.7.2 DESIGN (2006)
Most transit systems start on paper as a set of design standards that define the various aspects of the system needed by the
engineer to design the track alignment, and the requisite structures and appurtenances for an operational system. These
standards define the dimensions (height, width, offset) and structural loads for the system. The standards can also include
architectural finishes, mechanical, electrical and other such equipment.

Rail Transit
The defining aspect of rail transit standards are the rail cars that will use the system. These include the revenue cars for
passengers, and all the maintenance and other types of equipment that the owner/authority will use for the life of the system.
Some times other entities, such as freight railroads, will operate equipment on the system.
Tunnels and the associated design standards may accommodate running or line tracks (local and express), storage tracks, yard
and maintenance tracks, station platforms, work and evacuation platforms, passenger services (ticketing, rest rooms), or
connections to private property, such as office buildings.
The designer must apply the design standards consistently using sound engineering judgment.
4.7.2.1 Lining Systems
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Maintainability and Maintenance Costs
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Site Conditions
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Ground
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Groundwater Leaking and Corrosion
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.2.2 Deflections
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Earthquake
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Settlement
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Tunnel System
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Adjacent Structures
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.2.3 Hazardous Materials
Hazardous materials arise as problems in transit tunnels in two instances. The first arises during design and construction. The
soils to be excavated must be free of hazardous materials otherwise; the plans, schedules and estimates must include the extra

costs of handling and disposal of excavated materials. Failure to investigate and plan for these conditions will give rise to
contractors’ claims and schedule slippage. Adequate investigation and fair contract provisions are needed before startup of the
job.
The second problem arises in operations in the case of underground gases. Designs must be adequate to seal the tunnel lining.
Also, air quality detection and monitoring systems may be required. Ventilation systems should be planned to evacuate
explosive gasses in such areas.
4.7.2.4 Community Interface
Underground tunnels are not completely immune to community interface problems and benefits. The interfaces arise at station
locations or where ventilation or utility facilities emerge from the underground.
Of these, station interfaces are the most important. Serious community planning is required as to space for access trunks and
foot traffic flows to and from the underground station. Station access into a sidewalk is often a compromised design. The
sidewalk space may be too narrow to accommodate the surface foot traffic. The stairway to the underground may have to be
overly narrow to accommodate the subway traffic flow. Better solutions are to be found by incorporating the vertical access
inside the adjacent buildings. This can sometime be a significant benefit to the building owner by providing direct access to
his business from the underground station. If plazas or open areas are adjacent to planned station locations, they can be ideal
areas of access facilities.
Once underground, foot traffic needs lateral access for emergence on two or more sides of busy streets. This is accomplished
with mezzanines between the street level and the subway level. Well-planned mezzanines with multiple accesses can
substantially improve the interface between the subway and the community’s surface developments.
1
A special requirement can be found for handicapped access. This is normally an elevator. The elevators must be coordinated
with the fare collection method and the subterranean platform access. This access trunk may require separate shafts between
the street level and the platform level connecting in some way on the mezzanine level.
The other prominent surface feature that arises from the underground tunnel is the ventilation facilities. These may be street or
sidewalk grates. For large forced airflows, intake and exhaust must be above street level to avoid uncomfortable winds and 3
temperatures at the sidewalk. Like stairway or escalator access, the ambience of the community is improved if the ventilation
facility is housed in the side of an adjacent building.
The other utility features, power, communications, and fire protection, can usually be located in a manner to avoid community
disruptions on the surface.
4.7.2.5 Vibration 4
Vibrations from the movement of underground trains are often disturbing to the activities in the adjacent buildings. Proper
tunnel planning requires that the nature of the buildings along the planned route and the activities therein be surveyed in the
beginning. Certain facilities such as hospitals or operations utilizing sensitive instruments will not be tolerant to underground
vibrations. Based upon data from operating systems, the expected level of vibration from the new tunnel should be
determined. Also, tolerance levels of the sensitive facilities along the route need to be determined.
If amelioration is needed, systems have been developed in the U.S. and Europe to reduce vibrations. These have been systems
for elastic rail mounting or the fastening of the rails to floating concrete slabs supported on elastomer pads. It is suggested that
existing operators be contacted to determine the effectiveness of their individual systems. When adopting vibration damping,
long-term maintenance, such as replacing devices under floating concrete slabs, should also be determined.
4.7.2.6 Electrolysis
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

Rail Transit
4.7.2.7 Car Equipment Clearances
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Car Equipment
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Revenue (Passenger and/or Freight)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Work Equipment
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.2.8 Curvature Clearances
Two primary considerations must be given to curvature in transit tunnels, radius and loading gauge.
Curves
The first consideration, curve radius, will first be determined by the standards for the system as a whole. These are
limited by the characteristics of the rolling stock as discussed above. The second limitation on radius is that of fitting
an underground tunnel into an urban environment.
Following a tangent alignment under an existing street is not difficult except for the normal underground obstacles met
in urban construction. Going around a corner under urban streets can be more difficult. Underpinning of adjacent
buildings becomes more important. To negotiate the corner, it is often necessary to purchase and demolish the
structures on the inside of the curve in order to obtain a sufficient curve radius. In such constructions consideration
should then be paid to incorporating a substructure for future above ground buildings once the subway tunnel is
completed.
Loading Gauge
The second consideration for underground curvature concerns the clearance envelope or loading gauge. Reasonable
care must be exercised in design and construction to provide for chording, end swing, superelevation and limits of
rocking of the equipment to be operated in the tunnel. Loading gauge becomes more critical in curves than on
tangents. It becomes important to double check the design and to monitor the construction progress with special care.
Consideration should be given to possible future rolling stock designs (survey the manufacturers’ catalogues) and to
unusual equipment such as work equipment and maintenance machinery.
4.7.3 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS (2006)
4.7.3.1 Train and Car Capacity
4.7.3.2 Crisis Management
Underground infrastructure must accommodate crisis management. A number of situations must be met- stalled trains, loss of
power, derailments, collisions, and worst of all, fires.

In all cases the objective is to rescue the passengers without injury or loss of life. If the transit vehicle can be pulled out of the
tunnel without delay, this is an operating problem and no additional infrastructure is needed. But other situations must be
provided for.
A means of coordinated egress from the transit vehicles must be designed into the tunnel. This is usually with a floor-height
walkway along the side of the tunnel to a point of exit. The point of exit may be a nearby station or may be a vertical stairway
access to the surface.
The emergency escape route must also be fitted with a handrail along the wall, emergency lighting and periodic emergency
telephone stations.
Underwater tunnels may provide a separate escape tunnel parallel to the railway tunnel with periodic connections to the
railway tunnel walkway similar to the vertical access provisions on land.
4.7.3.3 Fire
The worst situation involves tunnel fires and the possibility of asphyxiation by the combustion products. NFPA Code 130
specifying ventilation requirements to prevent loss of life covers this situation. To comply, underground transit tunnels must
provide ventilation plants for bi-directional air movement meeting the required flow characteristics. Furthermore, these plants
must have control and communication provisions so that they may be quickly activated and most important, that they blow the
smoke in the opposite direction to the evacuation route. For successful operation, the railway signal system must then provide
an accurate location of the train in the tunnel.
To complete the fire safety requirements for infrastructure, fire mains and access for fire fighters must be incorporated into the
tunnel design. The stations and vertical escape trunks must also allow access for fire fighting and the necessary gear. Water
1
mains must be fitted to the tunnel walls or floor and provision must be made to shut off traction power.
4.7.3.4 Loss of Power
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
3
4.7.3.5 Train Crash
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.6 Flooding
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT) 4
4.7.3.7 Emergency Evacuation
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.8 Security
To discuss security it is first necessary to separate the focus on security as being of somewhat different character than safety.
Safety is concerned with preventing accidents. Security is concerned with preventing undesired access or undesired acts by
individuals with anti-social intent.
The matter of undesired access deals with preventing access to the non-public areas of the underground system. This means
that access trunks, equipment rooms and administrative spaces should be protected with doors and locks that are not easily
tampered with. The problem becomes one of preventing vandalism and at the same time protecting the safety of the vandals.
Access doors should be fitted with alarms that communicate with the railway system’s central control.

Rail Transit
The easier access for vandals is through the stations. It is a simple matter to enter the tracks from a station and that possibility
should be made as difficult as reasonable. This is usually done with access gates at the end of platforms and warning signs.
The warning signs need to communicate two messages; “Danger” and “Entry Forbidden”. In trouble areas, it may be desirable
to install TV monitors and presence detectors.
The other element of security is to discourage anti-social acts of thieves and muggers. This is a matter of station design.
Passenger Safety
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Trespassers
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.9 Maintenance Requirements
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Lighting
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Material Storage
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Track Capacity for Maintenance
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Foot Walks or Other Access for Personnel
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.10 Mechanical Systems
Mechanical Systems and Equipment Rooms
There are a number of systems vital to transit operation that must be incorporated into the tunnel design. These
include traction power equipment, signal equipment, communications equipment, pump rooms, and ventilation
plants.
Traction power requires connection to the local power net. It is assumed that the transit system will be operated on
650v DC current or similar, as is the common worldwide practice. Provisions must be made for transformers and
electrical DC conversion equipment. This equipment may be either above ground or below ground. One of the
early design problems to be overcome is coordinating these installations with the local power company.
Subway tunnels require drainage. This is accomplished with pumping systems. Pumping systems usually require
underground equipment rooms sufficient to accommodate the equipment estimated to prevent flooding. Outlet for
the expelled water must also be found in the urban utility system. Some older systems also incorporate equipment
for compressed air. It is not likely that compressed air will be needed in new transit systems due to the common
use of electrical pumps.

Ventilation plants must also be designed into the tunnels. These plants will be handling large volumes of air. The
plants themselves may be either above or below ground. But their exhaust emerges onto the surface and must be
designed so as not to be a community nuisance. The exhaust trunks are sometimes incorporated into the sides of
buildings above street level where the airflow is less objectionable.
HVAC
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Plumbing
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Maintenance Access
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.11 Utilities Needed to Support Tunnel Operations
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.3.12 Communications and Train Control
The railway signaling system will require provision for both equipment rooms and trackside equipment. Equipment rooms
will be needed for interlockings and control locations. The trackside equipment will vary with the type of signal system
1
selected. It will require connection boxes, relay or computer cases and possibly radio equipment. These must be coordinated
during preliminary design with the signal engineering. The system may or may not require accommodation for lineside
signals depending upon the system chosen.
The communications equipment parallels the signaling component. Communications requires equipment rooms (possibly
shared with signal equipment) and periodic facilities along the tunnel. The emergency telephones along the escape walkways 3
are one facility. There may also be working telephones for maintenance and operations. In the evolving electronic
environment, all but the emergency telephones are likely to be serviced over radio circuits.
The tunnel must be fitted with appropriate antennae for radio communications. This can take multiple forms. The first is a
radio system to connect the train drivers with system control. A closely related system will be for maintenance
communications. If a radio based signal system has been chosen, it must be coordinated and accommodated. Lastly, there will
be a public demand for cell phone compatibility in the tunnel. 4
An important tunnel feature, particularly for signaling, communications and traction power, is the incorporation of duct banks
or some means of longitudinal cabling. These are often accommodated by incorporating multiple wireway conduits in the
walkway bench along the tunnel wall. It is wise to include more conduits than thought necessary. Some systems have had
commercial success by leasing their excess conduits, as the subway tunnels can be attractive paths for other utility providers.
4.7.4.1 Variability of Substrata
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Geologic Investigation
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

Rail Transit
Construction Flexibility
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.4.2 Groundwater
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Structural Impact
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
De-Watering
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Leak Mitigation
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.4.3 Utilities
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Interface With Existing Utilities
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Tunnel Operations Impacts
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
Maintenance Access
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4.7.5 MAINTENANCE (2006)
SECTION 4.8 SEGMENTAL GIRDER GUIDEWAYS
Segmental Girder Guideways have become quite common for light rail transit systems. Freight, Commuter and Intercity
Passenger railroads do not typically employ this type of structure.
4.8.2 DESIGN (2006)
The design of Segmental Girder Guideways should conform to the recommended practices of AASHTO Guide Specifications
for the Design and Construction of Segmental Bridges, Second Edition 1999 as amended by AASHTO E-19-GSCB-2-I1 and
as modified below.

4.8.2.1 Seismic Criteria
The seismic design of Segmental Girder Guideways should be governed by the seismic criteria contained in Chapter 9,
Seismic Design for Railway Structures of this Manual.
4.8.2.2 Loading
The loading of the structure should conform to an HS-25 loading at a minimum. The HS-25 loading shall be developed by
multiplying the AASHTO HS-20-44 loads by 1.25. The designer shall verify that the HS-25 loading is appropriate for the
equipment that is to be operated on the structure.
4.8.2.3 Track Loading
For the purposes of applying the AASHTO design methodology, the term traffic lane shall be taken to mean a single track.
4.8.2.4 Derailment Loading
When checking any component of the superstructure or substructure that supports two or more tracks, only one track shall be
considered to have a derailed train. The remaining tracks shall be loaded with stationary vehicles.
Reduction of positive moments generated by derailment loads on adjacent spans of continuous structures shall not be taken.
Vertical
The derailment load shall be that produced by a fully loaded train placed with each vehicle's longitudinal axis placed
1
parallel to the track.
For tangent track and curves with radii greater than 5,000’ the excursion shall vary from a minimum of 4” to a
maximum excursion of 36”.
For curves with radii less than 5,000’ the excursion shall be a minimum of 4”. The maximum excursion shall be the 3
lesser of 36” or 8’ from the nearest barrier, or the edge of the deck.
Where derailment-limiting devices such as guardrails of catch rails are installed the maximum excursion shall be the
limit provided by the derailment-limiting device. Even if derailment-limiting devices are employed, one truck shall
have the maximum excursion listed in the preceding paragraphs. The truck placement shall be selected and placed to
result in the critical loading.
4
Horizontal
For cross sections having clearance between the train and barrier wall of 6” to 36”, the derailment force shall be taken
as 40% of a single, fully loaded vehicle acting at the greater of 2’ or the floor height above the top of the rail and
normal to the barrier.
Impact
A vertical impact factor of 100% of the crush load vehicle weight shall be applied in computing the equivalent static
derailment load.
The entire deck shall be designed for the load from one truck located anywhere on the deck with a vertical impact
factor of 100%. The selection of the truck shall give the critical loading.

Rail Transit
4.8.2.5 Emergency Loading
Emergency conditions may require a more restrictive loading regime than typical operations. In an emergency, a second full
train may be coupled to a disabled train to pull it into the nearest station for evacuation of the passengers. Both trains could be
at their full crush load rating if the emergency occurred during the peak rush hour. The designer shall ensure that the guideway
is designed to safely carry maximum loading developed by this arrangement of trains.
SECTION 4.9 DIRECT FIXATION
Direct Fixation refers to a wide range of products and installations. The term Direct Fixation used in this Section of the
Manual shall refer to rail fastening systems that are attached to the structure using either cast-in-place or post-installed
fasteners or anchors.
Systems where the rail, ties or tie blocks are integrally cast into the structure, often referred to as embedded track, are not
discussed in this Section.
Direct fixation is used in tunnel inverts, bridge decks, concrete crossings, and slab on grade track sections.
4.9.2 DESIGN (2006)
The design of Direct Fixation installations should conform to the requirements contained in TCRP Report 71, Volume 6 as
amplified and modified below.
4.9.2.1 Concrete Specifications
Concrete used for structures and plinths shall conform to Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations of this Manual.
4.9.2.2 Plinth Configuration
On direct fixation installations that employ plinths, there are several issues that need to be considered beyond the structural
integrity of the plinth.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement and stirrups tying the plinth to the deck shall be placed to provide adequate distance between the
fastener and the reinforcement to minimize stray currents and to prevent damage during the installation of post-install
fasteners. The design should also allow for additional cover to prevent slight misplacement of stirrups and rebar from
resulting in inadequate cover.
Drainage
Gaps between plinths provide areas to control cracking and also act as drainage pathways. In locations where storms
of high intensities occur, adequate space between the plinths and under the rail is required to drain the track structure.
Maintenance

Plinth height affects the maintenance of the track structure. A nominal plinth height of 6” places the top of rail at
approximately 14”. Working over and around tall plinths can be difficult. The presence of tall plinths presents tripping
hazards.
Emergency Access and Egress
As the plinth height increases, the distance from the car body floor or lower step increases. The height of this step can
be an impediment to efficient evacuation of a train in an emergency.
Similarly, tall plinths are an obstacle to movement across the tracks to exit stairs, and for access by emergency crews.
4.9.2.3 Corrosion
The design of the metal parts of the Direct Fixation System should consider the effects of roadway salt spray from adjacent
roadways or when installed in marine environments. Conventional railroad tie plates have high copper content to resist
corrosion. Steel components of custom-designed direct fixation systems can exhibit high corrosion rates not normally
associated with railroad track materials.
Great care should be taken in designing the track fixation system to be sure all components will actually retain adequate
electrical isolation over the design life to minimize future stray current transmission and resulting component and/or structure
degradation.

Rail Transit

12
Part 5
— 2006 —
FOREWORD
Part 5, Vehicle Considerations is under preparation at this time.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1

3
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5-2

Rail Transit
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

12
Part 6
Considerations
— 2006 —
FOREWORD
Part 6, Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Considerations is under preparation at this time.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.3 Signal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2

6.5.1 Introduction (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.5.2 Eletric Traction Systems Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.5.3 Electrification System Design Characteristics (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.5.4 Traction Power Equipment (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-2
6.5.5 Special Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-3
6.5.6 Testing and Analysis (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6-3

Rail Transit
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
SECTION 6.3 SIGNAL SYSTEMS
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
6.5.2 ELETRIC TRACTION SYSTEMS CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
6.5.3 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
6.5.4 TRACTION POWER EQUIPMENT (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

6.5.5 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
6.5.6 TESTING AND ANALYSIS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

Rail Transit

12
Part 7
— 2006 —
FOREWORD
Part 7, Maintenance of Way Considerations is under preparation at this time.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1

7.1.1 Safety/Security (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3 3

7.2.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.2.2 Reliability Under Adverse Weather Conditions (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.2.3 Program Maintenance and Spot Repairs (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.2.4 Effects on Revenue Operations and Customers (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.2.5 Effects on Adjacent Land Uses (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3

7.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-3
7.3.2 Signals (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.3.3 Track (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.3.4 Structures (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.3.5 Traction Power (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4

7.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.4.2 Maintenance of Way Equipment (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4

7.5.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-4
7.5.3 Ride Quality (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.5.4 Gage Limits (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5

Rail Transit
7.5.5 Vertical Deviations and Variations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5

7.5.6 Horizontal Deviations and Variations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.5.7 Compound Wear Limits (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.6 Track Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5

7.6.1 Track Maintenance Operations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.6.2 Severe Weather Inspection Protocol (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.6.3 Normal Inspection Protocol (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.7 Structures Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5

7.7.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-5
7.8 Signal and Communications Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-6

7.8.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-6
7.9 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-6

7.9.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-6
7.10 Facility Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-7

7.10.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-7
7.10.2 Cleaning (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-7
7.10.3 Snow and Ice Removal (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7-7

(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.2.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.2.2 RELIABILITY UNDER ADVERSE WEATHER CONDITIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
1
7.2.3 PROGRAM MAINTENANCE AND SPOT REPAIRS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.2.4 EFFECTS ON REVENUE OPERATIONS AND CUSTOMERS (2006)

3
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.2.5 EFFECTS ON ADJACENT LAND USES (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4
SECTION 7.3 INSPECTION, EVALUATION, AND PLANNING
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.3.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

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7.3.2 SIGNALS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.3.3 TRACK (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.3.4 STRUCTURES (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.3.5 TRACTION POWER (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.4.2 MAINTENANCE OF WAY EQUIPMENT (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.5.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

7.5.3 RIDE QUALITY (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.5.4 GAGE LIMITS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.5.5 VERTICAL DEVIATIONS AND VARIATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.5.6 HORIZONTAL DEVIATIONS AND VARIATIONS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.5.7 COMPOUND WEAR LIMITS (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
1
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.6.1 TRACK MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS (2006)

3
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.6.2 SEVERE WEATHER INSPECTION PROTOCOL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
4
7.6.3 NORMAL INSPECTION PROTOCOL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.7.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

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(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.8.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.9.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.10.1 GENERAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.10.2 CLEANING (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
7.10.3 SNOW AND ICE REMOVAL (2006)
(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)
1

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12
Part 8
Embedded Track
— 2011 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-2

8.1.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-2
1
8.2 Embedded Track Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-4
8.2.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-4
8.2.2 Vehicle Interface (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-4
8.2.3 Horizontal Alignment (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-5
8.2.4 Vertical Alignment (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-7
3
8.3 Wheel Rail Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-8
8.4 Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-8

8.4.1 Rail Considerations (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-8
8.4.2 Standards Organizations and Relevant Standards or Recommended Practices (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-14
8.5 Rail Fixation (Fastening) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-22
8.6 Support Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-22
8.7 Special Trackwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-22
8.8 Stations, Stops, Passenger Access & Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-22
8.9 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-23
8.10 Appendix A - Commentary on Analysis of Lateral Acceleration and Jerk Rate for Establishing Superelevation
and Spiral Length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-23

Rail Transit
LIST OF FIGURES
12-8-1 Typical Flangeway Guarding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-12

12-8-2 Historic Domestic Girder, Grooved Girder & Grooved Girder-Guard Rails. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-13
12-8-3 Rail Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-17
LIST OF TABLES
12-8-1 Revised Standard Nomenclature of Grooved Rails and Construction Rails per CEN Standards EN-14811 and EN-
13674 (Partial List) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-15
12-8-2 Table of Properties - Grooved Rails and Construction Rails per CEN Standards EN-14811 and EN-13674 & Some
Proprietary Items (Partial List) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8-20
8.1.1 GENERAL (2010)
This section of Chapter 12 deals specifically with the planning, design, construction and maintenance of facilities and tracks
used for what is commonly called “street running,” where the tracks are embedded in pavement or other road surface, and
generally the paving surface is even with the top of rail. Two types of street running track will be covered herein. Type 1
Embedded Track is founded on a concrete slab, similar to non-ballasted track (covered elsewhere), and the paving infill is
usually concrete or asphalt, but can also be pavers, paving stones, grass, etc.. Type 2 is herein called “Paved Track” and is
ballasted track of various types (concrete, wood, steel or plastic ties in crushed stone ballast, etc.) covered with either asphalt,
concrete or other type of pavement. Both types of track may be used by a wide variety of steel wheeled vehicles including
light rail vehicles, streetcars, trolleys or trams (the name depending on local preference), and sometimes shared use with
freight trains, and the track structure must accommodate the types of traffic anticipated, including heavy-axle load rubber-tired
traffic.
As the variety of vehicles that might use the tracks covered in this Section of Chapter 12 of the Manual for Railway
Engineering are myriad, the following verbiage will be used to describe the typical vehicles:
• Light Rail Vehicle (LRV): a vehicle of modern design, sometimes with four axles but frequently articulated and
having six or more axles or pairs of independently rotating wheels, used in street running but primarily intended for
relatively high-speed travel between fairly widely spaced stations, often operated coupled in trains, top operating
speed in the 55-65 mph range, and usually limited to minimum curve radii of 82-83 ft.
• Streetcar: a vehicle of either heritage or modern design, frequently having four axles, but sometimes articulated and
having six or more axles, used primarily in mixed traffic, street running in downtown circulator operations, based on
the tracking capabilities of the Electric Railways Presidents’ Conference Committee Car (usually called PCC), top
operating speed in the 30-45 mph range, and usually capable of negotiating curve radii down to 35-39 ft.
As all recommendations in this Section are related to hypothetical vehicles, not specific ones, it is absolutely essential that the
designer and specifier be fully conversant with the operating and tracking capabilities of the vehicle(s) that will actually use
the tracks, and to verify suitable track geometric and alignment criteria that will interact and work properly. It is equally
essential that the track designer be constantly aware that there may be characteristics of the shared street civil or architectural

Embedded Track
design that may be detrimental to the design of good and safe track alignment, and that any conflicts should be resolved as
early as possible in the planning.
Embedded track requires special planning and design approaches to integrate the rail facilities into the urban streetscape
successfully and to have the rail vehicles interact efficiently and safely with the rubber-tired traffic in the shared roadway,
while maintaining the appropriate balance between the needs of the rail transit system and other stakeholders in the busy urban
environment. This starts with careful planning to be sure there are no glaring safety issues caused by the track alignment or
facilities and that the rail vehicles will mesh well with the overall traffic plan and signaling. Further, that the installation in the
streets will not significantly degrade the operation of the rail vehicles, such as excessive street surface drainage crossfall and
curves without spirals. The planning should also include considerations of ancillary facilities such as locations and designs of
overhead contact wire system poles, stations, stops, traction power substations, pedestrian crosswalks, safety zones, etc.
The design involves developing a comprehensive alignment plan and construction details that cover the unique requirements
of street running, generally described as:
• Types of rail traffic; vehicle loadings and geometric requirements, wayside clearances, safety issues.
• Locations and details for special trackwork, with particular attention to inspection and maintenance, as well as the
interfaces and potential hazards associated with placement of special trackwork in areas shared with motor vehicles
and/or pedestrians.
• Traction power, TP wayside facilities, stray current and corrosion control.
• Integration of the track into the street design physically, operationally and esthetically.
1
• Special considerations such as bridges, tunnels, viaducts, especially passenger/pedestrian safety issues.
• Track maintenance inspection, access and repair considerations.
• Traffic and rail signal integration; vehicle and pedestrian grade crossings, parking lanes and safety zones.
3
• Station, stops and their amenities, including safe pedestrian access and protection from auto and rail traffic.
• Maintenance and repair management considerations; life-cycle costs.
The planning and the design items listed above are covered in detail in the sections following, and with references to other
Chapters of the Manual for Railway Engineering and other authoritative sources, such as AASHTO, State PUC’s, and local
ordinances. These may dictate design features, especially those related to truck and bus pavements, bridge design, street 4
utilities and drainage provisions, and the like. These recommendations are based not only on theory but also on documented
experience from both successful and unsuccessful embedded and paved track and facilities projects and rail transit properties
operating extensive embedded and paved track operations. Where criteria or plans are quoting a specific Agency’s standards,
it will be noted, and the reader should be aware that such standards tend to be property-specific and should be thoroughly
investigated as to their appropriateness for any other project. The following excerpt from the 1923 issue of the American
Transit Engineering Association Engineering Manual, Way and Structures Division “W”, recognized the limitations of that
Manual. Part 8 of Chapter 12 will be developed with this in mind and recognizing that such limitations remain valid today.
“This specification is intended to cover the construction of electric railway track in paved city streets. It is obvious
that no general specification can be prepared for such work to cover all special types of track construction, or to meet
special conditions. The scope of this specification has therefore been limited to an expression of the fundamental
principles which should be followed out in constructing track in paved streets.”

Rail Transit
SECTION 8.2 EMBEDDED TRACK ALIGNMENT
8.2.1 GENERAL (2010)
Alignments for embedded track in streets are frequently more constrained than for other light rail transit (LRT) track types
(ballasted and direct fixation.) Embedded tracks follow streets within traffic lanes and curb offsets, make tight turns within
street intersections and follow pavement cross sections and profiles.
The primary objectives of any track alignment are cost effectiveness, operating efficiency and passenger safety and comfort.
The alignment recommendations in this section include worst case criteria for application to embedded track alignment. Like
all alignments, the absolute maximum/minimum alignment criteria herein are to be avoided in favor of longer tangents, flatter
curves, and longer spirals wherever possible. Where the costs of street modifications are minor, they should be incorporated if
they will improve the alignment. Extensive use of absolute maximum/minimum values results in slower operations and higher
maintenance costs.
It is recommended that these worst case criteria be combined with more conservative criteria into a single criteria document
for any specific project. Alignment criteria may be found in Chapter 3 of Transit Cooperative Research Project (TCRP) Report
No. 57, Transit Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, and in both Chapter 5, Part 3, and Section 3.5 of this Chapter of the
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering. Developing a general criteria that includes worst case allowable criteria will
reduce the time consuming effort required to grant variances from the general criteria that are often needed otherwise. As
stated above, these worst case criteria should be applied only when general criteria will not produce a feasible design. Even
with comprehensive criteria containing desired values, minimum/maximum values, and absolute minimum/maximum values,
field conditions will occur requiring engineering analysis of alternatives, judgment and compromise to arrive at a safe,
efficient solution.
The criteria in Section 8.2 are based on a typical light rail vehicle (LRV). If possible during preliminary design, the vehicle
parameters affecting alignment criteria should be established. For final design, it is imperative that the vehicle parameters
affecting alignment criteria be established and the project alignment criteria adjusted accordingly. For trolley cars (both new
and restored vintage) due to their greater variance of vehicle parameters compared with LRV’s, the advice in this paragraph is
of even greater importance.
Street running embedded track speeds are usually limited to the legal speed of the roadway traffic which is seldom over
35mph. For embedded track in open running territory where the typical LRT vehicle is capable of a sustained operating speed
of 55mph or higher, more conservative (lower maximum and higher minimum) values should be considered for alignment
criteria although the absolute maximum/minimum values given here are still applicable.
Combinations of any of maximum grade, maximum unbalanced superelevation, minimum horizontal curve radius and
minimum vertical curve radius should be avoided. (Further guidance on this issue is to be developed.)
These criteria assume standard gauge track (56.5 inches.) plus or minus small adjustments for tight gauge and gauge widening.
Many of the criteria stated herein are excerpted from or derived from information in TCRP Report No. 57 which is available
from the US Transportation Research Board (TRB).
8.2.2 VEHICLE INTERFACE (2010)
These embedded track alignment criteria reflect the operating limitations of typical modern LRT vehicles. Circulator system
vehicles (street car and trolley car are used synonymously herein) are often capable of tighter radius horizontal and vertical
curves than an LRV.
Individual vehicles may be significantly different in one or more operating characteristics than the typical values given here.
This is known to be specifically true for vehicles with trucks having independently turning wheels.

Embedded Track
These criteria, based on typical values for an LRV, may be considered useful for preliminary design but they should be
adjusted as the actual operating characteristics are established. It is imperative for an efficient final design that the vehicle
specification (or consultant or manufacturer) be consulted as to vehicle limiting operating characteristics. Alignment criteria
for final design must be compatible with the selected vehicle. Vehicle characteristics should be based on worst case of new or
deteriorated condition. For example, minimum clearance under the vehicle which affects allowable crest vertical curve radius
may be reduced for worn or collapsed suspension compared with new conditions.
For an average, modern, bi-directional, coupled, fully loaded, articulated LRV, typical limiting operating characteristics are:
Maximum vehicle operating speed 55mph
Maximum allowable grade 7%
Minimum horizontal curve radius 82 feet
Minimum vertical curve radius crest: 820ft, sag: 1150ft
Maximum allowable rate of twist 1 inch in 25ft
Maximum vehicle roll angle < 1.5 degrees (stabilized suspension)
Typical truck spacing 22 to 30 ft
For comparison, typical trolley car limitations are:

1
Maximum vehicle operating speed 35mph
Maximum allowable grade 9%
Minimum horizontal curve radius 35 feet, centerline of track. (Some trolley minimum radius
criteria are stated as inside rail radius, which is also sometimes 3
used to designate turnout radius.)
Minimum vertical curve radiuscrest: 310 ft; sag: 560 ft.
Maximum allowable rate of twist 1 inch in 12.5 ft
Maximum vehicle roll angle Varies 4

Typical truck spacing 22 ft
8.2.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT (2010)
Horizontal alignment consists of tangents, circular curves and spirals in various combinations.
8.2.3.1 Tangents
• The desirable minimum tangent between curves should be the truck spacing plus axle spacing of a truck (overall
wheelbase) so that a vehicle will have adjacent trucks exit one curve before entering another. No portion of the
tangent should be superelevated.
• The absolute minimum tangent between curves is zero so long as the resultant geometry does not exceed the vehicle
coupler maximum angle, the speed does not exceed 20 mph and the adjoining curves are unsuperelevated.

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• If adjoining curves are superelevated, they must have spirals or intervening tangent of sufficient length to meet
superelevation runoff requirements.
• The foregoing criteria apply to reverse curves. For curves in the same direction, a smoother ride results from a
compound curve rather than a short tangent between the two curves. Compound curves should have spirals
connecting the different radius portions of the curve. The spiral shall begin with the radius of one curve and
uniformly increase/decrease to the radius of the other adjacent curve and not be back to back spirals meeting at a
common tangent.
8.2.3.2 Curves
• The desirable minimum curve radius is 1.5 times the absolute minimum radius.
• The absolute minimum radius is that radius at which a coupled vehicle will negotiate the curve.
• The desirable minimum length of circular curve (in feet) is three times the normal operating speed (in mph) of the
curve. For spiraled curves this is the length of the circular curve plus one half the sum of the lengths of the spirals.
• For unsuperelevated spiraled curves the minimum circular curve length is zero, ie back-to-back spirals.
Street running track does not often allow for design of actual superelevation (Ea) based solely on operating speeds. While
actual superelevation is not precluded on street running track, it is likely that the superelevation will have to accommodate the
cross slope of the street as well as the desired superelevation. Negative superelevation can occur and speed should be adjusted
accordingly.
Since street running requires frequent speed reductions and stops to accommodate street traffic, the maximum Ea should not
exceed 3 inches. Exceptions to this maximum, such as roadway curves with larger than 3 inch of cross slope in the roadway
and where frequent stopping of trains is unlikely offer opportunities to use higher actual superelevation. On tangents the
maximum cross slope should not exceed one inch. On tangents and curves, the differential between the street cross slope and
track cross slope/superelevation should not be greater than one inch.
8.2.3.4 Allowable Speed on Curves
Based on ride comfort for short trips and assuming well maintained alignment on LRT embedded track systems, the
recommended maximum lateral acceleration is 0.1g (6 inches of unbalance). This limit may be increased, on a case by case
evaluation of critical locations, to a lateral acceleration of 0.15g (9 inches of unbalance superelevation). The Commentary at
Appendix A of Part 8 provides further considerations for a case by case evaluation.
Allowable speed on a curve is:
V = √E / 0.0007 D
Where V = speed in mph
E = total superelevation in inches, the sum of Eu + Ea - Er
Where Er = equivalent car body roll allowance which for a stabilized vehicle is 1.5 inches and for unstabilized suspensions is
3 inches. See Section 8.10, Appendix A - Commentary on Analysis of Lateral Acceleration and Jerk Rate for Establishing
Superelevation and Spiral Length for further analysis of Er.
Eu = design unbalance: up to 6 inches (0.1g) with up to 9 inches (0.15g) for approved specific locations

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Ea = actual superelevation in inches.
D = degree of curvature (5730/radius in feet)
8.2.3.5 Spirals
Spirals should be used on all mainline (passenger carrying) embedded track curves. For zero actual superelevation on
embedded track curves, spiral length is determined based on the rate at which lateral acceleration (unbalance) is introduced.
The maximum rate of change of lateral acceleration (jerk rate) is 0.1g/s. The absolute minimum length spiral Ls is therefore:
Ls = 0.29 V Eu
Where Ls = length of spiral in feet
V = velocity in miles per hour
Eu = unbalance from the curve computation in inches
When curves have superelevation in them, the rate of attainment should not exceed a vertical acceleration rate of change of
0.1g/s. The equivalent formula is:
Ls = 0.29 V Ea
The ability of the vehicle to withstand twist must also be considered when Ea is used. For a typical LRV with an allowable rate
of twist of 1 inch in 25 ft, the formula is:
1
Ls = 25Ea
The longest spiral computed using these three formulae determines the actual spiral length to be used. The more conservative
formulae given in Section 3.5 of this Chapter should be used where they do not cause excessive cost to implement.
3
There are many different methods for computing spiral parameters. The notations and formulae in Chapter 5, Part 3 are
recommended for spiral layout computations.
Many different philosophies have been used to proportion Ea and Eu on curves. See TCRP Report No. 57 for applicable
formulae.
8.2.4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT (2010) 4

Vertical alignment is comprised of tangential gradients joined together by parabolic vertical curves.
8.2.4.1 Tangent Grades
• Maximum gradient must be based on vehicle braking and tractive effort. Typically for LRVs this requires that
sustained grades over 2500 ft long not exceed 6% and shorter sustained grade not exceed 7%.
• Minimum tangent length between vertical curves; desired 100ft; minimum is truck spacing plus axle spacing on a
truck (overall wheel base), usually about 40 ft. Absolute minimum is zero.
• Desirable grade at stations is 0% to 0.35% and in the United States may not exceed 2% in order to comply with
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) provisions.

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Vertical alignment must follow street grades including crown of cross streets unless the streets will be re-graded and re-
crowned as part of the track construction. The critical vertical curve is the minimum radius the vehicle will accommodate for
sag and crest curves. The minimum vertical curve must allow for clearance of the underside of the vehicle adjusted for wear
and collapsed suspensions.
A typical LRV’s vertical curve radius limit is usually around 820 ft for crests and 1150 ft for sags. Using these values, the
equivalent minimum curve length (LVC) can be determined from:
LVC = 0.01AR
Where A = algebraic difference (using the percent grade as whole numbers, i.e. 2.0 % = 2, -2.0% = -2 and 0.35% = 0.35) of
gradients connected by the curve, and
R = Limiting radius in ft
For example, crossing a street with a 2% crown (1:50 cross slopes) the minimum LVC = 0.01 x (2 minus -2) x 820 = 32.8 ft.
This length LVC would fit a 40 ft wide street.
The minimum crest LVC is
LVC = AV2/25
Where V = design speed in mph
The minimum sag LVC is
LVC =AV2/45
Using the above sample curve, the speed for the 32.8 ft long crest LVC should not exceed 32.8 = 4V2/25. V = 14.3 mph.
Back to back reverse curves are acceptable as long as the above minimums are met by each curve.
SECTION 8.3 WHEEL RAIL INTERFACE
Under Development
SECTION 8.4 RAIL
8.4.1 RAIL CONSIDERATIONS (2010)
This section discusses rail sections and provides information and recommendations for their application in embedded track.
Both tee rails and grooved rails are used in constructing embedded tracks. Grooved rails have the advantage of a built-in
flangeway, but tee rails are equally satisfactory when properly applied and more economical, and are now used by most
systems for rehabilitation and new construction. In order of frequency of use, the four major types of embedded track and rail
usage in North America are as follows:

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a. Tee rail (nearly all 115RE) in concrete with formed flangeways, frequently installed with rubber/plastic coverings and
sometimes rubber/plastic flangeways that are part of the rail electrical isolation system, also occasionally embedded in
elastomeric grout.
b. Grooved rails of various heights and weights, frequently installed with rubber/plastic coverings and sometimes
embedded in elastomeric grout; all are usually part of the rail electrical isolation system.
c. 115RE with a flangeway formed using “Strap Guard”, mountings similar to a. & b.
d. 115RE on the high side and a grooved guard rail on the low side of guarded curves, mountings similar to a. & b.
8.4.1.1 Rail Selection Criteria
When considering the specifications for a rail section or sections for use in embedded track the following six most important
considerations should be used to evaluate tee and grooved rails sections:
a. Suitability for the application:
(1) Beam strength.
(2) Head profile to match wheel profiles and have recommended gauge face angle.
(3) Projected wear life of plain and premium rail.s
(4) Height of section which impinges on excavation and paving depth details.
1
(5) Applicability to the project paving and rail mounting details, and providing a suitable, ADA-compliant flangeway
that is architecturally pleasing and maintainable.
(6) Requirement for guarding, either curves or fully guarding all tracks.
3
(7) Matching prior rail usage on the property.
(8) Adequate cross section area and conductivity for negative return without excessive voltage drop.
b. Cost factors:
(1) First cost. 4

(2) Premium feature first cost.
(3) Projected life-cycle cost.
(4) Projected future cost for repair or extensions.
(5) Added cost for guarding devices where needed.
c. Availability:
(1) Rolling frequency.
(2) Projected long-term availability.
(3) Multiple sources preferred.

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(4) Availability of premium features and long lengths.
(5) Compliance with Buy America provisions, if applicable.
d. Metallurgy & maintenance
(1) Weldability, electric flash-butt and thermite.
(2) Requirements for special treatment of welds such as post-weld hardening.
(3) Ease of compromise welding to rails of different metallurgy.
(4) Running surface hardness achieved by alloying or heat-treating, or both.
(5) Subject to brittle fracture (especially in cold climates).
(6) Grinding – are grinders available to be used for corrugation removal and re-profiling.
e. Adaptability to special trackwork
(1) Availability of matching cast and/or built-up components.
(2) Adaptability to machining and pre-curving.
(3) Section height suitable for use of asymmetric switch tongues/points.
(4) Suitability for laying in plates or DF Fastenings.
f. Quality Assurance
(1) Availability of industry recognized quality standards & inspection techniques.
(2) QC requirements that lend themselves to normal field inspection methods.
(3) Availability of trained inspectors and suitable equipment to verify the QC requirements.
8.4.1.2 Use of Tee or Grooved Running Rails
Based on the criteria above, many properties in North America have selected the 115RE tee rail section for use in embedded
track. The selection was based on the following considerations:
a. Suitable for most applications regarding strength, head profile, wear life, height, etc.
b. Interfaces well with the AAR 1B wheel profile; reasonably well with ATEA-type wheel profiles.
c. Readily available from several producers; Buy America compliant.
d. Initial cost; reasonable delivery times.
e. Available head-hardened and in long lengths; some mills furnish CWR.
f. Easy to weld, both flash-butt and thermite.
g. Some matching special trackwork appliances available.

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h. Adequate current capacity for most operations.
i. Dimensions, properties and quality are controlled by AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering Chapter 4
specifications, which are well respected and understood in the industry
It is recommended that the designer or specifier give proper consideration to all the factors listed above, and apply proper
weighting of those factors based on project-specific criteria, including the historical or aesthetic concerns. The 115RE rail
section is normally more cost-effective than grooved rail, and can be used where practical. Alternatively, other tee rail
sections can also be used, such as 85 ASCE, 90 ARA-A, or 100 ARA-B, if available, either new or Class I condition relay.
However, there are situations where grooved rails are preferred, and may have attributes that offset some or all of the
additional cost of the rails, such as:
a. The integral flange guard, in the old days called “the tram”, provides additional protection against wheel-climb
derailments, especially on sharp curves and in special trackwork.
b. Having the infill paving, especially asphalt, flush with top of rail on each side reduces the potential for raveling or
chipping and spalling of the pavement.
c. The relatively small flangeway opening reduces the tripping hazard for pedestrians and bicycles vs a large, tooled
flangeway.
d. Grooved rail is much easier to lay in elastomeric grout embedment, as it doesn’t need a separate flangeway formed in
the grout.
e. Concrete placement/finishing with modified paving machinery is easier with grooved rail.
1
It should be noted that using tee rail in embedded track requires a means to maintain a suitable flangeway opening in the infill
paving, such as:
a. In Portland cement concrete, a blocked-out, troweled or screeded flangeway of appropriate dimensions and shape can
be easily formed in the concrete. 3
b. In less rigid paving infills, such as hot-mix asphalt, pavers, brick, crushed stone, a flangeway guarding device will be
required such as shown in Article 8.4.1.3 or a rubber or plastic flangeway former.
c. In rails mounted in polyurethane or similar resilient polymers, a flangeway must be formed in the polymer, by pouring
the polymer low on the gauge side, by use of a flangeway forming blockout, or a flangeway forming device as shown
in Article 8.4.1.3. 4
8.4.1.3 Typical Flangeway Guarding Methods & Appliances
When tee rail is used, a flangeway can be tooled into the concrete; however, this is not always acceptable. Therefore, other
methods of forming the flangeway are shown in the four figures below. These are only four of many possible methods, some
proprietary, which will produce a satisfactory flange guard. Where curves are to be guarded, a restraining guard rail device
must be added to the tee rail. Flange guard must not be confused with restraining guard rail; some of the designs shown are
configured correctly and are robust enough to act as restraining guard rail, such as the three sections shown below employing
guarding rails. The section using bolt-on strap guard is not. A careful choice must be made as to the appropriate design for
service as a restraining guard rail and the specifications should cover in detail the proper mounting method and required
hardware.

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Figure 12-8-1. Typical Flangeway Guarding
Note: There are other methods, as noted above, available to provide a flangeway, some proprietary. See additional details
including electrical isolation techniques in Section 8.5, Rail Fixation (Fastening).

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8.4.1.4 Discussion of Girder Rail and Grooved Rail Usage
Figure 12-8-2. Historic Domestic Girder, Grooved Girder & Grooved Girder-Guard Rails 3
Prior to the 1940’s, domestic steel mills produced plain girder, grooved girder or grooved girder-guard rail sections in several
heights and weights, as shown in the cut, above. After the 1980’s, when only two sections were available then that were
originally intended for freight service, there has not been any grooved girder rail rolled in North America. None of the
4
Sections shown on AREA Plan 1003-40 are available new. Therefore, if tee rail with or without a flangeway guarding
device/method is not a viable option, either for practical or architectural reasons, it will be necessary for the designers and
builders of embedded tracks to use grooved rails of non-domestic manufacture. Because this situation has lasted a long time,
the usage of European specialty rails purpose-designed for use as grooved running rails, restraining guard rails and switch
points has become fairly common. Although the term “girder rail” is commonly used to describe these grooved rails, they are
technically not girder rails, and should be referred to with proper nomenclature in plans and contract documents. Information
on most of these rails is in the following section.
8.4.1.5 European Grooved Rails and Special Trackwork Rail Profiles
The grooved rails produced primarily by European rolling mills are not currently covered by AREMA specifications; they are
covered by several European standards organizations, which control both the design and manufacture. Article 8.4.2 will
provide information on the standards organizations and their respective specifications and recent changes in those
organizations’ responsibilities. This is furnished as information only, not an AREMA specification. It is the responsibility of
the designers and users to familiarize themselves with the appropriate, current specifications for rails and special rail sections

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contemplated for use in North American projects that will be rolled in non-domestic mills, and with the terminology used. This
section will cover the topics listed below:
a. Information on the standards organizations controlling the specifications applicable to grooved rails and special rail
sections produced primarily in non-domestic mills and to which AREMA specifications do not presently apply, and
limited details of those specifications and/or recommended practices.
b. The changes in nomenclature applicable to certain rails and special sections produced to European or other standards
that are frequently used in North America.
Typical manufacturing specifications, tolerances and testing of the rails noted in a., and b., above
a. Drawings and physical characteristics of certain rails and special sections produced to European or other standards that
are frequently used in North America.
b. General recommendations for selection of appropriate rails and special sections.
c. Special considerations related to handling, welding (both field and shop), laying and de-stressing of embedded rails.
8.4.2 STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS AND RELEVANT STANDARDS OR

RECOMMENDED PRACTICES (2011)
8.4.2.1 Standards Organizations
a. UIC - The International Union of Railways (UIC is a French acronym for, “L’Union Internationale des Chemins de
fer“) is an international organization based in France whose purpose is to promote the interests of railway transport on
a worldwide basis, including technical cooperation. Prior to the creation of the European Union, many rail standards
were controlled by the UIC, and rail sections were named with UIC in the nomenclature, such as UIC-60 and UIC-33.
That role is now filled by the CEN (see below). The UIC is similar to the AAR combined with the focus on passenger
transport of APTA.
b. VDV – The Association of German Transport Undertakings (in German = “Verband Deutscher Verkehrsunternehmen“;
formerly “VöV”) is an organization of German-speaking public transit and freight rail groups to provide cooperative
technical guidance similar to AREMA; the specifications they publish are recommended practices, not standards.
Grooved rails were, and in some cases still are, supplied per VDV specifications, and tramway special trackwork is still
controlled by VDV.
c. CEN – The European Committee for Standardization (languages: English, German, French) is based in Brussels,
Belgium, and publishes standards for a multiplicity of technical endeavors, including rails controlled by the steel
committee. The CEN is like ASTM, ACI, ASME, IEEE, SAE, AAR, AREMA, etc. rolled into one standards
organization. The signatory countries, now more than thirty, are required to accept the “European Norm” standards as
their own without alteration. These standards have “EN” plus an identification number and date of approval in the
name; in the case of grooved rails and special “construction” sections, the CEN standard is EN 14811:2006, which
replaced both UIC and VDV specifications in most cases. If the standard has “pr” before the name, such as prEN
14811:2006, that indicates a “provisional” status; the provisional standard has been approved by the sponsoring
committee, but has not been approved by all the signatory countries. However, it is generally considered to be in effect
as approved standards drafted by the designated controlling committee(s) are seldom rejected by the signatories. The
information following is based primarily on the CEN EN 14811:2006 standard with some additional information from
CEN standard EN 13674:2005 which covers tee (Vignole, also called flat bottom) rails and special sections of interest
such as restraining guard rails, STW construction rails, and asymmetric switch point sections.
d. For domestically produced tee rails the relevant standards are controlled by:

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(1) American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA) – domestic tee rails only.
(2) American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) – lighter tee rail sections, mainly 85 AS, primarily an industrial
section, but rolled regularly.
8.4.2.2 Applicable European CEN Standards EN 14811, EN 13674, and VDV
The nomenclature of grooved rails and certain special construction rail sections have been standardized and harmonized per
Table 12-8-1, below. All drawings, plans, specifications and procurement documents should reflect the proper CEN Standard
nomenclature, where applicable, to avoid confusion and errors. If the profiles are per VDV standards, the same information
noted should appear in all documents.
Table 12-8-1. Revised Standard Nomenclature of Grooved Rails and Construction Rails per CEN
Standards EN-14811 and EN-13674 (Partial List)
CEN Standard Prior Profile Designations

Generally Applicable To Fig.
Profile Designation (VDV, UIC, etc.)
51R1 Ri 52-R13, Ri 52 Running rails, H = 130 mm 1
53R1 R1 53-R13, Ri 53 Running rails, H = 130 mm 2
55G1 35 GP Running rails, H = 152.5 mm 3
56R1 Ri Ic Running guard rails, H = 160 mm 4

59R1 Ri 59-R10, Ri 59 Running rails, small g.c. radius³, H = 180 mm na
59R2 Ri 59-R13, Ri 59N Running rails, large g.c. radius³, H = 180 mm 5 1
60R1 Ri 60-R10, Ri 60 Running rails, small g.c. radius³, H = 180 mm na
60R2 Ri 60-R13, Ri 60 N Running rails, large g.c. radius³, H = 180 mm 6

62R1 NP4aMod Running guard rails, H = 180 mm 7
67R1 Ph 37a Running rails, large flangeway, H = 180 mm 8
49E1A1 Zu2-49 Switch tongue profile, H = 116 mm 9
3
61C1 Ri Ii STW const. grooved rail, flange-bearing, H = 160 mm 10
75C1 BA 75 STW const. grooved stock rail, H = 180 mm 11

76C1 VK Ri 60 STW const. blind groove guard rail, H = 180 mm 12
33C1 U69, UIC33, RI 1-60 Frog guard & restraining rails, H = 93 mm 13
Fz 36¹ Fz 36, Zu 36 Switch tongue profile, H = 75 mm 14
GGR-118² GGR-118 Running grooved guard rails, H = 168,3mm (6.625-in) na 4
Footnotes:1) Section is not controlled by standards; produced per producing mills’ and/or users’ designs & specs.
2) Section is no longer rolled but is in track on several NA properties, as info only; not a CEN standard.
3) g.c. is gauge corner.
General notes:
a. The rail sections listed above either are being or have been used in North America with some regularity.

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b. Not all sections listed in Table 12-8-1 are illustrated on the following pages. In addition, many more rail sections
(profiles) not listed here are available from some manufacturers. Those have not been included here because they have
either not been adopted as CEN standards or have seen little or no use in North America. For other sections available,
refer to mill catalogues and to the referenced CEN standards, or other standards if not covered by CEN.
c. Sections including the letter “R” in their designation are grooved rails; in German, “Rillenschiene”. Grooved rails,
commonly known in North America as “girder rails”, are rolled with an integral flangeway in the head of the rail, and
used in the construction of ordinary embedded track. Sections including the letter “C” in their designation are known
as “construction rails” and used in the fabrication of special trackwork. When fabricating STW using construction
rails, the flangeways and head contours are machined (see Fig. 12). Additional details of embedded special trackwork
construction are in Section 8.7, presently under development, which also covers designs outside the scope of CEN and
VDV standards.
d. For a more detailed discussion of the application of grooved rails in LRT construction, especially as relates to wheel
profile/rail groove matching, please see Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report #57 “Light Rail Track
Design Handbook”.
8.4.2.3 Rail Profile Drawings with Properties of the Sections/Profiles
Figures 1 through 14 shown below have the principal dimensions called out, along with basic section properties. Some
sections are not shown where they are almost identical to another section, with the key differences noted. For complete
dimensions and properties, please refer to the appropriate CEN or VDV Standard, or the producing mill’s drawings or catalog.

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Figure 12-8-3. Rail Profiles

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Note: Profiles 59R1 and 60R1 are similar to 59R2 and 60R2, respectively, except that the gauge corner radius is 10mm (0.394-
in), rather than 13mm, and the flangeway is approximately 3-5mm narrower
Figure 12-8-3. Rail Profiles (Continued)

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Figure 12-8-3. Rail Profiles (Continued)

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8.4.2.4 Properties of Grooved and Construction Rail Profiles/Sections
Table 12-8-2. Table of Properties - Grooved Rails and Construction Rails per CEN Standards EN-14811
and EN-13674 & Some Proprietary Items (Partial List)
CEN Linear Mass Area I xx (Note 2) I yy S head S base Rail Lg/Unit Wt

Profile kg/m lb/yd cm ² in ² cm 4 in 4 cm 4 in 4 cm ³ in ³ cm³ in³ m/tonne ft/gr ton
51R1 51.37 103.6 65.44 10.14 1289 30.93 695.6 16.69 198.4 12.10 198.1 12.08 19.47 64.86
53R1 52.98 106.8 67.49 10.46 1326 31.82 738.4 17.72 208.3 12.71 199.9 12.19 18.87 62.92
55G1 54.77 110.4 69.78 10.82 2076 49.82 681.5 16.36 285 17.39 260.5 15.89 18.26 60.87
56R1 55.98 112.9 71.31 11.05 2477 59.45 802 19.25 349 21.29 278 16.96 17.86 59.52
59R1 58.97 118.9 75.12 11.64 3267 78.41 886.2 21.27 373.8 22.80 352.8 21.52 16.96 56.52
59R2 58.14 117.2 74.07 11.48 3211 77.06 757 18.17 363.1 22.15 350.5 21.38 17.2 57.32
60R1 60.59 122.2 77.19 11.96 3353 80.47 928.6 22.29 391.4 23.88 355.4 21.68 16.5 54.99
60R2 59.75 120.5 76.11 11.80 3298 79.15 920.1 22.08 380.6 23.22 353.3 21.55 16.73 55.76
62R1 62.37 125.8 79.45 12.31 3535 84.84 1042 25.01 427.6 26.08 363.3 22.16 16.03 53.42
67R1 66.76 134.6 85.04 13.18 3554 85.30 1250 30.00 436 26.60 360.8 22.01 14.98 49.92
49E1A 63.14 127.3 80.43 12.47 1098 26.35 681.9 16.37 165.3 10.08 221.7 13.52 15.83 52.76
61C1 60.79 122.6 77.44 12.00 2631 63.14 834 20.02 394 24.03 283 17.26 16.45 54.82
75C1 75.23 151.7 95.84 14.86 3596 86.30 967.5 23.22 398.3 24.30 400.8 24.45 13.29 44.29
76C1 72.73 146.6 92.65 14.36 3949 94.78 1049 25.18 529.6 32.31 374.6 22.85 13.75 45.82
33C1 32.99 66.52 42.02 6.51 297 7.13 218.8 5.25 83.7 5.11 51.8 3.16 30.31 101.01
Fz 36 33.99 68.53 46.8 7.25 933.7 22.41 1190 28.56 NA ##### NA #### 29.42 98.05
GGR-118 58.3 117.6 74.3 11.52 2640 63.43 777 18.65 321.5 19.61 283.2 17.3 17.15 57.16
Note 1: values are valid to only three significant figures at this writing; they should be verified prior to performing stress
calculations and writing firm procurement or construction specifications.
Note 2: Some sections show the Moment of Inertia to the IX-X axis (the base), not the Ix Neutral Axis; see appropriate
producer’s drawing to verify the geometric properties of the section/profile of interest.
8.4.2.5 Manufacturing Methods, Tolerances and Testing
All European specifications for grooved rails and construction rails require the use of steel produced by the continuous casting
process, with vacuum-degassed steel specified for rails to be head-hardened; however, there are some substantial differences in
the philosophy behind the specifications:
a. Manufacture:
(1) EN 14811 is performance-based, rather than prescriptive, wherever possible.
(2) The six grades of non-alloyed rail steels are classified by hardness, not tensile strength; three grades are as-rolled,
three grades are heat-treated.
(3) The hardnesses specified range from 200-240 HBN to 340-390 HB.

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(4) The allowable mass of included hydrogen is specified for each grade in PPM, and is controlled by testing the
blooms.
(5) Alloyed rails are covered by agreement between customer and producer.
(6) EN 14811 references other CEN standards to specify steel grade nomenclature, and tensile and hardness testing.
(7) Quality management is based on the producer adhering to the requirements of EN ISO 9001.
b. Tolerances:
(1) Rails are produced to two different tolerance levels, analogous to railroad vs. industrial quality.
(2) Many more measurement points on the profile are required in EN 14811 than prior standards.
(3) The profile and straightness tolerances are generally greater in EN 14811 than in AREMA Manual for Railway
Engineering, Chapter 4, Table 4-2-2 (i.e. in EN 14811, height of rail ±0.059-in [±1,5mm] vs. Chapter 4 + 0.030-
in. [0,76mm]/- 0.015-in [0,38mm] based on the premise that the traffic is relatively low speed.
(4) Construction rails used in making special trackwork have tighter tolerances than running rails.
(5) Both minor upsweep and downsweep are acceptable.
(6) Rail length tolerance is much tighter than Chapter 4.

1
c. Testing:
(1) Testing procedures are generally similar to AREMA practice.
(2) For the as-rolled profiles, hardness testing is required on the running surface only; for heat-treated, both running
surface and internal hardness testing is required. 3
(3) Purpose-designed gauges are used for profile checking.
(4) No tests are specified to determine residual stresses.
8.4.2.6 Additional Considerations for Grooved Rail Selection

4
a. The selection criteria listed in Article 8.4.1.1 are equally applicable to grooved rails of non-domestic manufacture.
b. Investigate the popularity of a candidate profile/section regarding how often it is rolled, by how many producers, etc.,
as this has important implications regarding long-term availability and cost.
c. Determine the chemical composition and hardness of a candidate section to make sure that welding will not be difficult
or require special procedures, such as post-hardening; if special procedures are required, make sure they are covered in
the construction specifications.
d. Obtain proper handling information from the producer regarding slinging long rails with spreaders and put this
information in the specs.
e. Determine compatibility of candidate section with the wheel profile(s) to be used; note, for instance, that 59R1 and
59R2 have different gauge corner radii and slightly different groove widths, important considerations in sharp curves.

Rail Transit
f. Determine that shipment of a candidate section will be done so as to protect the rails from salt-spray corrosion during
transit, and that an appropriate spreader is available to unload the rails without damage.
8.4.2.7 Special Considerations Regarding Handling, Welding, Laying and De-stressing Rails
a. The recommendations in Chapters 4 and 5 should be followed faithfully, plus some special considerations listed below.
b. Handling: special care should be taken when lifting or moving grooved rails, as the thin web and base flanges make it
easy to cripple the base or web if the rails are overbent in handling (see 8.4.2.6.c and 8.4.2.7.d), or to twist it beyond the
yield point.
c. Welding: care should be exercised in both flash-butt and thermite welding to make sure the web and base are not
overheated, or base droop and/or web curling may occur.
d. Laying: welded strings should not be dragged around sharp corners or otherwise mishandled as noted in 8.4.2.7.b to
prevent kinking or twisting the rails.
e. De-stressing: there is no common agreement at this time whether embedded rails need de-stressing in the conventional
sense specified for open track, as sun-kinks are not likely; however, it is prudent to lay the rails at something near the
average ambient temperature to reduce any tendency to have pull-aparts. This practice is also recommended for all
running rails in embedded tracks.
SECTION 8.5 RAIL FIXATION (FASTENING)
Under Development
SECTION 8.6 SUPPORT STRUCTURE
Under Development
SECTION 8.7 SPECIAL TRACKWORK
Under Development
SECTION 8.8 STATIONS, STOPS, PASSENGER ACCESS & SAFETY
Under Development

Embedded Track
SECTION 8.9 OTHER
Under Development
SECTION 8.10 APPENDIX A - COMMENTARY ON ANALYSIS OF LATERAL

ACCELERATION AND JERK RATE FOR ESTABLISHING SUPERELEVATION AND SPIRAL
LENGTH
a. Introduction
The US rail industry standard for lateral acceleration and jerk for a long time has been 0.1g (g = force of gravity) and
0.03g/s respectively. The standard used by railroads and transit properties in the US is based on research conducted 50
years ago and was applicable to all types of cars including dining cars where a smooth ride was essential. Today,
several European countries allow higher rates. SNCF (French National Railways) uses 0.15g for lateral acceleration
and 0.1g/s for jerk for its railroads including the high speed TGV system. Some higher values for jerk rate have been
suggested by research on high speed rides but do not seem to have been put into practice. Subjective experiments of
ride comfort on curves were judged as "noticeable lateral acceleration" at 0.1g and "strongly noticeable but not
uncomfortable" at 0.15g. For short LRT rides, strongly noticeable lateral acceleration now and then would seem to be
an acceptable ride condition. While the data is less conclusive for jerk, several studies support a higher rate with some
research suggesting it is not a factor in ride comfort at all. It therefore seems reasonable to consider a somewhat higher
jerk rate as well.
1
Increasing maximum allowable lateral acceleration equals use of a higher limit for unbalanced superelevation (Eu, cant
deficiency) on curves and correspondingly higher speeds regardless of actual superelevation.
Jerk rate is one of three parameters (jerk, twist, and rate of twist) used to establish minimum spiral length. Allowing a
maximum higher jerk rate will allow shorter spirals. In unsuperelevated curves common to embedded track, jerk is the 3
only parameter used to determine spiral length.
Various researchers from Hirshfeld (1932) and Code (1955) to more recent studies for high speed rail travel in the US,
France, Germany and Japan (1989 to 2004) have examined ride comfort versus unbalanced superelevation on curves
and jerk rates for spirals. The results of those studies produced recommended rates that range from less than 0.1 g to
0.16g for lateral acceleration. For jerk rate, the studies recommendations range from 0.03 g/s to 0.25g/s with additional
other limitations for the higher jerk rates. Analyses of ride comfort relative automobile and airplane performance under 4
situations somewhat analogous to railroad curving have been made. Analyses of ride comfort versus vibration levels
and uneven ride conditions (lateral jolt due to track irregularities) have also been made and comparisons made to ride
comfort on railroad curves. The overall conclusion of these studies is that severe jolts and long term vibrations have
more to do with rider comfort than reasonable lateral acceleration levels and spiral jerk rates. Safety (rather than
comfort) limits were examined in one report which suggest that as jolt rates (and spiral jerk rate) increase, the lateral
acceleration must be decreased so that the two in combination do not produce an unsafe ride. Unsafe meaning some
standing riders would loose their footing.
Ride comfort is a subjective parameter, and while for the sake of analysis, it is equated with precise values of
acceleration (g) it is not really a precise parameter. Ride comfort is affected by the vehicle characteristics as well as the
track design. Vehicle characteristics vary significantly from one design to another. Code used a wide variety of
passenger cars in his ride comfort studies and in the end, simplified the varying performance of the cars into just two
classes, those with loose suspensions and those with stabilized suspensions. These two factors – the subjective nature
of ride comfort evaluation and the variability of the cars to affect ride comfort - make research to establish values for
all systems problematic. A better approach is to evaluate ride comfort for a given system by operating its vehicles at
varying speeds around a number of curves to decide, for the specific system what constitutes a comfortable ride.

Rail Transit
b. Lateral Acceleration Discussion
Ride comfort on the body of a curve is determined from a combination of vehicle roll and unbalance of the curve. A
0.1g value is equivalent to 6 inches total unbalance. For a loosely sprung vehicle, up to 3 of those 6 inches is consumed
by vehicle roll leaving 3 inches Eu as a maximum design value for alignment criteria. For more stable cars (ie those
with suspensions that limit roll to 1.5 degrees or less per AREMA Chapter 5 test procedure), the Eu max for design
rises to 4.5 inches since the vehicle roll uses 1.5 inches or less of the total of 6 inches allowable unbalance.
SNCF uses 0.15g for lateral acceleration. This has been a suggested acceptable level by others in the US but does not
appear to have been implemented. SNCF also commits to maintaining track alignment to limit lateral jolts due to
misalignment to less than 0.025g/s. A USDOT Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) sponsored 1991 ride safety (not
comfort) study indicates that it is safe to operate at speeds equal to 0.15g lateral acceleration if track alignment is well
maintained so as not to introduce excessive jolts due to misalignment into the ride. It concluded up to 0.183 g/s jolt
with 0.15g lateral acceleration as safe. The safety study was based on analysis of ride quality on many curves at various
speeds.
Using the higher 0.15g value for lateral acceleration allows increasing the allowable maximum unbalance from 6 to 9
inches. The formula E = 0.0007V2D is used to compute velocity (V, in miles per hour) for a given value of E (total
superelevation in inches). See note at end of this section on D (degree of curve) vs R (radius of curve in feet). A clearer
presentation of the formula should include Er (for roll) when computing V. By including the Er value, the design
formula becomes Ea+(Eu - Er)= 0.0007V2D. This is in effect the same relationship described by Code but in clear
mathematical terms. The ride comfort is a limited to a combination of maximum unbalance based on a maximum
lateral acceleration reduced by unbalance value for the roll angle. As roll angle increases the maximum unbalance
decreases for any given degree of ride comfort. Code’s simplified solution was to reduce the 6 inch Eu (0.1g) value by
3 inches for unstabilized car suspensions and 1.5 inches Eu for stabilized suspension cars. Modern air suspension
systems may result in a roll angle value for unbalance approaching zero depending on the air suspension performance.
As stated earlier, the optimal means of establishing the relationship of ride comfort to speed is to test the specific cars
on a variety of curves and then use the formulae given herein to extrapolate that ride comfort level to all curves.
The matter of whether or not increasing allowable lateral acceleration increases the risk of wheel climb derailment or
overturning has been considered. Wheel climb is caused by wheel/rail angle, angle of attack, and suspension stiffness.
Lateral acceleration due to speed (unbalance) if increased indefinitely leads to vehicle overturning not wheel climb.
This is so because the higher lateral force on the wheel due to higher lateral acceleration is offset by more of the vehicle
weight transferring to the vertical component on the wheel. TCRP Report No. 57 has formulae for analyzing
overturning which may be used for comparison with the proposed lateral acceleration/Eu values. Using the TCRP
formula, the overturning speed for an 82ft radius, unsuperelevated curve is 26 mph or about twice the proposed
maximum operating speed of 14mph. Furthermore, safe speed is defined in TCRP Report No. 57 as the speed at which
the vehicle becomes unstable and in danger of derailment upon introduction of any anomaly in the track which
momentarily increases angle of attack. The maximum safe Eu value, using the TCRP formula for safe speed is 9.6
inches Eu which is greater than the proposed maximum of 9 inches. A 2008 Transportation Technology Center, Inc.
(TTCI) research effort demonstrated that wheel climb derailment potential is virtually unaffected by unbalance
whereas lower rail angle and track perturbations are the principle causes of wheel climb. Embedded track, once built to
accurate alignment, should retain the accuracy of that alignment indefinitely.
For example, increasing the allowable lateral acceleration from 0.1g to 0.15g and, where appropriate, using a roll
angle value of zero for optimum air suspension vehicles for the Er value in the speed computation will result in an
allowable safe increase in speed from 10 to 14 mph for an 82 ft radius unsuperelevated curve. Based on observations by
trackwork engineers riding on various LRT systems, this modest adjustment to the design criteria will do no more than
reflect actual operating conditions on systems where operators frequently increase speed before a train has cleared a
curve.
(Note: The standard formula E = 0.0007 V2 D uses D based on D = 5730/R. This formula was derived when curves
were surveyed with transit and tape methods and defining a curve by “Degree of Curve” was useful in the field for
staking curves. As noted in surveying texts this method of staking a curve becomes progressively more inaccurate as

Embedded Track
radius of curve decreases. It is accurate, however for converting R in feet to D for use in the above formula for
computing speed (V) or total superelevation (E) even at the small radii anticipated for LRVs and trolley cars. In other
words, D should not be used to “define” the radius of a curve of less than 300 feet but may be used to convert R to D in
the above formula.)
c. Jerk Rate Discussion
The jerk rate establishes the time needed to introduce the lateral acceleration or unbalance of a curve at the beginning
and end of a circular curve. A constantly increasing amount of lateral acceleration beginning at zero and ending at the
desired lateral acceleration value for a curve is achieved through the passage, at a constant speed, of a vehicle traveling
along a constantly increasing degree of curvature, ie a spiral.
The length of the spiral determines the time required to go from zero lateral acceleration to the lateral acceleration of
the circular curve. It has been demonstrated that the amount of lateral acceleration (Eu) is more important to ride
comfort than the rate at which it is introduced (spiral length). Never the less, an unreasonably high rate of introduction
of lateral acceleration (jerk rate) is undesirable, especially for high levels of Eu. If no spirals are used, the jerk rate is
theoretically infinite. In reality, the play between the wheels and track gage along with dynamic response of the vehicle
reduces this infinite rate to a jerk rate that is measurable though high.
The current US standard of 0.1g lateral acceleration, coupled with an 0.03g/s jerk rate dictates the introduction of Eu
over 3.33 seconds. This, for a typical maximum Eu of 4.5 inches transforms into the familiar formula for determining
spiral length: Ls = 1.09VEu.
In the US, just as with lateral acceleration, a conservative low jerk rate of 0.03 g/s was adopted as standard. However,
numerous studies, beginning with Hirshfeld, concluded that higher jerk rates were acceptable with respect to ride
1
comfort. The FRA Ride Safety Study of 1989 concluded that jerk rate was not significant to ride comfort and that rates
(either jolt or jerk) as high as 0.183 g/s were safe for lateral acceleration values up to 0.15g. The 1978 North East
Corridor study of ride comfort endorsed the SNCF’s values of 0.15g and 0.10 g/s with a limit on jolt of 0.025 g/s. The
2004 FRA Study for high speed rail between Richmond and Charlotte endorsed the same SNCF values and noted that
a jerk rate as high as 0.25 g/s would be acceptable so long as no track irregularities were to occur that would
momentarily raise the jerk rate to a higher level. 3
The conclusion from these studies is that a jerk rate of 0.10 g/s would not produce an unacceptable ride on embedded
track which, once properly constructed to a smooth alignment, would preclude any unusual jolt values from occurring.
In fact, a jerk rate of 0.10 g/s is conservative compared with some recommendations.
For a lateral acceleration maximum of 0.15g, a jerk rate of 0.1g/s means the spirals need to be long enough to introduce
the Eu over 1.5 seconds. The spiral formula for a 0.15 g lateral acceleration and 0.10 g/s jerk rate becomes Ls = 4
0.29VEu.
To put this in perspective an 82 ft radius unsuperelevated curve could have the following designs:
(1) Existing standard of 0.1g and 0.03g/s: E = 4.5 inches (stabilized suspension vehicle)
E = 0.0007 V2 D V = 9.6 mph
Ls = 1.09VEu Ls = 47.1 ft
Spiral Offset: 1.12 ft
(2) Proposed rates of 0.15g and 0.10g/s Total E, adjusted for roll, of 7.5 inches (stabilized suspension vehicle)
E = 0.0007 V2 D V = 12.4 mph

Rail Transit
Ls = 0.29VEuLs = 26.9 ft.
Spiral Offset: 0.46 ft.
(3) Proposed rates of 0.15g and 0.10g/s and with E of 9 inches (vehicle with no roll), the results are:
E = 0.0007V2DV = 13.6 mph
Ls = 0.29 VEuLs = 29.9 ft
Spiral Offset:
d. Summary
Based on the foregoing analysis the following should be considered when selecting an allowable lateral acceleration
and jerk rate.
(1) Operating needs should be evaluated to determine if there are benefits from using a higher lateral acceleration
value.
(2) The allowable usual lateral acceleration of 0.1g may be safely increased to 0.15g which corresponds to 9 inches of
allowable unbalance.
(3) For computing speed, E should be computed as Ea + Eu – Er in the formula E = 0.0007 V2 D, that is,
V = √ (Ea+Eu-Er)/0.0007D
(4) Vehicle roll angle should be determined for a homogeneous fleet and Er value determined from the roll angle.
(Lacking field measured roll angle, the conservative values proposed by Code should be used, that is Er = 3 inches
for loosely suspended vehicles whose roll angle is probably greater than 1.5 degrees and 1.5 inches for stabilized
vehicles whose roll angle is probably less than 1.5 degrees.)
(5) The allowable jerk rate for spiral design may be increased from 0.03 g/s to 0.10 g/s and the spiral length based on
not less than 1.5 seconds to traverse the spiral where shorter spirals would have benefits.
(6) Application of these higher values for lateral acceleration and jerk imply a commitment to high quality
construction and maintenance of track alignment.
(7) These considerations apply only to standard gauge embedded track.

12
Chapter 12 Glossary1
— 1996 —
The following terms are used in Chapter 12 Rail Transit and are placed here in alphabetical order for your convenience.
Access-way
That portion of the ground, any floor, passage, stairway or other recognized fixed foothold, affording approach to high
voltage electrical equipment, and on which it is intended that a person shall walk or stand while such electrical equipment is
“alive.”
ACSR
A stranded “Aluminum Conductor, Steel Reinforced,” used for the messenger wire, and for return and feeder wires.
Actual Span
Span length as measured on the ground and not determined from the arithmetic difference of the two pole locations.
1
Air Break Switch/Isolator
A switch or isolator, the contact of which make and break in the air.
Alive
When an electrical conductor is at a potential different from that of the common return or any other conductor of the system
of which it forms a part. 3
Along Track Movement
The motion of catenary induced by counterweights and due to thermal expansion or contraction.
Anchor
• Anchor bolt – a large bolt inserted into a drilled hole in rock or concrete and grouted to form a strong attachment.
• Deadman – an anchor buried in ground, usually a rectangular block of concrete, to which a down guy is attached.
• Plate – a buried plate at the end of an anchor rod used with down guys.
• Rock anchor – an anchor used for down guys installed in holes drilled in rock which may have an expanding
section at the end tightened into the rock by turning its anchor rod.
• Screw anchor – a screw type blade at the end of an anchor rod used with down guys, installed by screwing into
soil
Auxiliary Wire
An additional wire in a catenary system, installed between a messenger wire and the contact wire, used for high speed
electrification.
1
References, Vol. 97 p. 122

Rail Transit
Berm
Top edges on each side of an embankment.
Block
See “Pulley.”
Blow Off
See wind blow off.
Bolted Base
A method of attaching foundations to poles and stanchions by a bolting process.
Bond
An electrical connection between metal hardware to eliminate static discharge.
• Bond, impedance – a magnetic impedance device with center tap connected to grounding or return wire systems,
itself connected across rails for signalization purposes; offers high resistance to AC current and almost no resistance
to DC current.
• Bond, rail – electrical connection between adjacent lengths of rail.
Booster Transformer
A type of transformer with one winding in the catenary system, the other in the return wire circuit to absorb current from
rails to the return wire; also known as suction transformer; not to be confused with auto-transformer used for raising voltage
towards the receiving end of the line.
Bracket
Termed as Pole Bracket or Cantilever.
• Fixing – the means by which the crossarm assembly is attached to the structure.
• Swing mounting arm – the hardware used for attaching the crossarm to a pole which allows movement along the
line by allowing the end away from the pole to swing.
Bull Ring
A circular steel bar providing termination for multiple wires.
Cable
A length of single insulated conductor (solid or stranded), or two or more such conductors, each provided with its own
insulation, which are laid up together; the insulated conductor or conductors may or may not be provided with the overall
mechanical and/or insulating protective covering.

Glossary
Camber
A preset defection curvature or the hog of a beam that maintains aesthetic appearance even after the beam is loaded.
Cantilever
See “Bracket.”
Carbon Collector
The carbon strip top of the pantograph or insert of a harp assembly on trolley poles which ride along the contact wire.
Catenary
• American use – the combination of conductors, hangers and in-span hardware of the overhead contact system, not
including supports and crossarms.
• British use – the wire from which the contact wire is suspended by means of droppers or hangers, called
“messenger wire.”
• Compound catenary – comprising a contact wire supported from the auxiliary wire, which is supported from the
messenger wire.
• Dictionary meaning
– the curve assumed by a perfectly flexible cord of uniform density and cross-section hanging freely from two fixed
points; 1
– something in the form of a catenary.
• Simple catenary – comprising a contact wire supported from the messenger wire.
• Stitched – an inverted Y or bridle arrangement, used at the supports of a catenary system to improve dynamic
characteristics. 3
• Trolley – comprising the contact wire only.
Chainage
The stationing or mileage marking along an alignment or track.
4
Chicago Grip
A tool for temporarily gripping and dead-ending wires under tension.
Clamp
• Parallel clamp – a piece of hardware used to clamp two parallel wire together.
• Pipe clamp – a piece of hardware used to attach various type of components to a pipe.
• Strain clamp – a piece of hardware used for dead-ending a wire.
• Suspension – a piece of hardware used to support a wire in hanging arrangement.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 12-G-3

Rail Transit
Clearance Profile (or envelope), Open Line

The clearance envelope around a vehicle, pole, or contact wire system where it is clear of intrusion.
Clipping In
Sagging an overhead wire to correct tension and clamping it at the support and fixing hangers.
Coffin Hoist or Chain Hoist

A construction tool used for pulling and adjusting wires under tension operated by a lever arm and a ratchet.
Co nd u c t o r
Any body or substance specifically provided for the purpose of conducting an electric current.
Constant Tension
Constant tensioned conductors, normally provided by counterweights, spring tension, or by pneumatic and hydraulic
tensioning devices.
Contact Bridge
A rigid bar about 5 ft long fixed closely above the in-running contact wire forming a slot for a second contact wire to pass
through.
Contact Rail System

The positive electrical distribution system for transmission of traction power to the transit vehicles (third rail); an electrical
conductor located alongside the track, designed to carry energy for the propulsion of trains.
Contact Wire
The overhead wire with which the pantograph or current collector is designed to make contact, also called trolley wire.
Contact Wire Height

The height of the underside of the contact wire above a road or rail level when not uplifted by the pantograph or trolley
pole.
Copperweld Conductor
A wire or a stranded cable made out of several wires, with a steel core and layer of copper fused around it.
Counterbalance
Another name for a counterweight (see “Counterweight”).
Counterpoise
A buried wire or a configuration of wires to provide a low resistance to grounded systems not covering as large an area as a
ground mat.
Counterweight
The weighted tensioning device at each end of the tension section, sometimes called counterbalance.

Glossary
Creep
The ongoing permanent stretch of wires under tension for long periods of time.
Crosby Clip
A wire rope clip.
Cross Span
Indicates anything that crosses the overhead contact system or rails at catenary level.
Crossarm
The support frame and registration assembly supporting the catenary.
Crossovers
A casting for trolley contact system or in trackwork a track connecting parallel track (see “Frog”).
C.T.
Indicates current transformers
Current Collector
See “Carbon Collector.”
Curve
1
• Horizontal – curvature of a street or track.
• Transition – a curve of increasing radius that connects from a curve to a tangent or another curve.
• Vertical – the vertical curvature of the street road paving or the track.
Curve Segment 3
See “Segments.”
Dead
Isolated and grounded.
Dead-End/Fixed End 4
A tensioned conductor termination without automatic tension devices such as counter weights or springs.
Disconnect
An off-load/“no-load” type electrical switch for disconnecting electrical power feed from a line section.
Drop Bracket
An assembly fixed below a registration pipe that permits the heel of the steady arm to be adjusted for height.
Dropper
British term for hanger.

Rail Transit
Earth, Earthing, etc.

British term for ground, grounding, etc.
Electrical Clearance
• Passing – air clearance between live parts of either the vehicle or the overhead contact system (OCS) and grounded
parts of the fixed structures; it exists during the passage of the trolley, trailer, locomotive or car.
• Static – air clearance between live parts of an overhead install-system structure and grounded parts of a fixed
structure.
Electrical Section
All streets or sections of railway lines provided with overhead contact system (OCS) equipment for electric traction
purposes; term normally used in a catenary system indicating the distance between the lowest and highest energized
conductor at a point of suspension (i.e. at a pole).
Encumbrance
See “System Height.”
Envelope
A theoretical form which is greater than the actual item (see “Clearance Profile”).
Equation
The mathematical relationship between two chainages along diverging at a given point – may be due to routes accumulating
differential chainage at a point of reconvergence.
Feeders
Conductors which supply power to or augment the power-carrying capacity of the OCS conductors in a supply system.
Field Drill
When necessary to drill a hole by the constructors.
Fixed End/Dead-End
See “Dead-End.”
Flange
The flat sides of an “I” beam or the edge of a railroad wheel extending outward from the tread area.
Floating
A section of insulated wire with no proper electrical connections to a power supply or to a grounding circuit.
Foundation
• Side bearing – a laterally loaded foundation (i.e. pier type).
• Spread – a foundation with a predominantly vertical load.

Glossary
Frog
A device where two running rails intersect and which provides flangeways to permit wheels and wheel flanges on either rail
to cross the other; also an overhead piece of hardware providing the same function for trolley contact wires.
Gage or Gauge
• Loading – the envelope around a track or road vehicle within which all loaded vehicles must remain while static or
in motion.
• Track – the distance between the inside running edges of a pair of rails of a track system at a particular distance
below the head of the rail.
Gantry
Usually applied to cranes having two vertical legs with horizontal members supporting the lifting mechanism or a similar
structure supporting equipment across railroad tracks.
Gradient
• Contact wire – the average slope of the contact wire between two supports.
• Track/pavement – slope of the track or pavement longitudinally in respect to level.
Ground
The conducting mass of the earth. 1
Ground Connection
A conductor installed or applied (in terms of these instructions) to ensure that electrical apparatus or components are
grounded.
Ground Mat
A buried grid covering a fairly large area for substations and power plants where low grounding resistances are required.
3
Ground Rod
A metal rod with ground wire connection to disperse currents into the ground for safety.
Ground Wire
The conductor installed for the purpose of providing electrical continuity between the supporting structures of the overhead 4
contact system or transmission lines and the common return of the system or grounding system.
Grounded
Connected to the common return of the system and/or the conducting mass of the earth in such a manner as will ensure at all
times an immediate discharge of electrical energy without danger.
Grounded Drop Vertical

The rigid member fixed under the beam of a portal to which the crossarm is attached.

Rail Transit
Grounding
The act or operation of applying a ground connection.
Grout or Levelling Grout

A fine cement mixture used for base plates at foundations.
Guy
A steady or positioning wire.
• Down or back guy – a wire attached high on a pole and coming down at an angle to an anchor.
Hanger
A fitting providing vertical support connection by means of which the contact wire is suspended from messenger or
auxiliary wire or bracket.
• Auxiliary – the support between auxiliary and contact wires.
Harp
A trolley pole collector shoe assembly.
Head Span Wire

A wire between two points to support OCS but not anchored to ground.
Heel of Steady Arm

The end opposite the contact wire clamp.
High Voltage (h.v.)

A voltage normally exceeding 600 volts.
Hi-Rail Equipment
Rubber tire mounted cranes, trucks, etc., with added flanged steel wheels that can be operated on tracks or on roadways.
Hog
To arch upward in the middle (opposite of sag).
Horns
The bent or angled downwards portion of the pantograph at either end of the carbon collector.
Impedance Bond
An electrical bond between rails that has a high reactance to high frequency currents.
Insulated Joint
A rail joint in which electrical insulation is provided between adjoining rails.
Insulating Neutral Section or Isolating Neutral Section

See “Phase Break.”

Glossary
Insulation/Insulator
Any body or substance provided and designed for the purpose of surrounding or supporting a conductor so as to restrict the
flow of electricity to a desired path.
• Disc – a bell-shaped insulator of glass or porcelain used singly or in strings.
Isolate
To disconnect from all sources of supply.
Johnnie Ball
Usually a ceramic interlinking insulator in guy application.
• Pin insulator – an insulator, usually upright, fastened by a pin, not suspended.
• Spool insulator – glass fiber (spun) strain.
• Standoff insulator – a solid core insulator with structural strength to use in tension, bending or compression
situations, usually of porcelain over a fiberglass core unit.
• Stick insulator – strain insulator – fiberglass; reinforced epoxy.
• Strain insulator – an insulator or a string of disc, dirigo or fiberglass insulators used in line with a tensile loading
capacity by a conductor in a horizontal position.
1
• Strut insulator – same as “standoff insulator.”
• Suspension insulator – an insulator or string of discs which are suspended in vertical position.
• Synthetic insulator – an insulator made from fiberglass and plastic or some epoxy resin matrix for skirts.
Jumper 3
Generally an internal electrical connection in the overhead contact system, a short conductor installed to provide electrical
continuity.
• Full current jumper – a jumper of equivalent capacity as the OCS.
• Overlap jumper – a full current jumper at tensioning overlaps.

4
• Potential equalizer – a light internal jumper in the OCS to elevate components to similar voltage levels.
• Trolley jumper – jumper between contact wire normally support from two adjacent crossarms.
Keeper – Keeper Piece

A locking piece.
Knuckle
A short rigid bar interconnecting transferring forces and stabilizing adjacent conductors.

Rail Transit
Lattice Structure
A structure built up from standard steel sections as primary and secondary members.
Level Crossing
A British term for grade crossing; a road, walkway or railway crossing the track at rail level for motor vehicles, rail
vehicles, animals or pedestrians.
Live
An electrically energized circuit (see “Alive”).
Loop
A secondary bypass systems installation to a main.
Low Voltage (l.v.)

A voltage normally not exceeding 600 volts D.C. or an energized circuit potential below normal voltage level.
Lug
• Crimped – an attachment to the end of a wire for an electrical connection using a gripping or crimping tool.
• Terminal – a crimped or a soldered piece to terminate a wire for electrical connection.
Mast
A pole of timber or metal erected vertically as part of a derrick or other structure to act as a support.
Maximum Sag
The sag of conductors based on either the maximum temperature or a given radial ice loading, whichever is the greater, in
accordance with local conditions.
Messenger
The catenary wire from which the contact wire is suspended by means of hangers or a guy with carrier lashed cables.
Midpoint (Anchor) Structure

The structure between two counterweights at which a constant-tension catenary is fixed.
Midpoint Guy
The span guy that provides the midpoint restraint.
Midpoint Guy Pole

The pole, normally with a down guy, that takes the strain from the midspan guy.
Midspan Offset
The deviation of the contact wire from a curved alignment or the superelevated centerline of track at midspan.

Glossary
Neutral Section
See “Phase Break.”
No-Bo
A contact wire insulator or sectioning device for trolley or LRV pantograph systems.
O.C.B.
Indicates an Oil Circuit Breaker in a substation.
Offset
Deviation of the contact wire from a curved alignment or the superelevated centerline of the track.
Offset Pole
The pole next to the counterweight structure within an overlap section that carries the radial load of the anchoring
equipment.
Open Overlap Span

That portion of the overhead track equipment between two main structures, where the contact and catenary wires of two
adjoining sections overlap and terminate, and where an electrical break between those sections can be effected by means of
switching operations.
Out-of-Running Equipment
A catenary that does not provide primary passage for the pantograph (see “In-Running”). 1
Overhead Contact System (OCS)
That part of the overhead equipment comprising of the contact or trolley wire, catenary, supports, foundations,
counterweights or tensioning devices and other equipment and assemblies that delivers electric power from the substation
to the light rail or heavy rail vehicles.
Overhead Line Track Equipment 3

All equipment included in the circuit between substation positive and negative feeder cable terminals and all support work
provided specifically for supporting such equipment, but excluding tie-stations, tie-stations feeder cables and all track
equipment feeders erected on independent structures.
Overlap Pole
The structure which positions the two contact wires in parallel within an overlap section.
4
Overlap Section
The portion of the overhead contact system between two main structures, where the contact and catenary wires of two
adjoining sections overlap and terminate.
Pantograph
The current collector apparatus mounted on top of a light rail or heavy rail vehicle.
Pantograph Sway
Lateral displacement of the pantograph induced by vehicle roll and lateral shock loads.

Rail Transit
Pantograph Up-Thrust
The nominal upward force exerted by the pantograph on the overhead wire.
Periscope Bracket
A clevis type bracket to hold a small pin insulator and used on contact wire only systems.
Phase Break
An arrangement located between two sections of the overhead contact system fed from different phases under which a
pantograph may pass without shorting the phases.
Pole Brackets
See “Bracket.”
Portal
A passage for entry as into a railroad or tunnel.
Pr e s a g
The static difference between the average contact wire height at the end droppers in a span and the height at midspan.
Prestress
To apply to a ductile alloy conductor a higher tension than for normal to accelerate creep effect; the period may vary from
15 minutes to 48 hours according to requirements.
Prestretch
Same as “Prestress.”
Pull Off/Push Off

The registration of a contact system towards or away from centerline for pull or track in relation to the pole.
Pull Over
See “Steady Arm.”
Pulley System
The combination of block(s) and sheave(s) and its attachment(s) used in messenger support and catenary termination
systems.
Radial Load
Transverse or across-track horizontal loads induced by conductors due to deviation from a projected centerline.
Rail Bond
A conductor connection between sections of rail.
Rake
A preset lean of the pole from vertical above a foundation.

Glossary
Registration
The process of lateral restraint of conductors.
Registration Pipe
The horizontal pipe to which the drop bracket or heel of the steady arm is attached.
Return Wire
A conductor, normally mounted directly on the rail that provides a low impedance return to the substation.
Ropelay
A type of extra flexible stranded wire conductor made of a large number of fine wires.
Ruling Span
A weighted average span of a given section used in sagtension calculations.
Saddle
The fitting supporting a wire in a post insulator or a hanger or dropper on a span or messenger wire.
Sag
The vertical deviation of a conductor between two supports or the process of wire tensioning when employing the
magnitude of sag measurement as a means to obtain a preset tension in a conductor.
Section 1
The electrical circuit beyond one or between two or more switching points.
Section Break or Gap

An electrical break in the overhead contact system permitting isolation of a section.
Section Insulator
A device for dividing a contact wire or catenary system into electrical sections which maintaining mechanical continuity 3
and continuous path for trolley poles or pantograph collectors.
Sectioning
The dividing of an electrical distribution system or network into electrical sections.
Segments 4
A curve segment is a device employed in special works to provide a smooth circular path for trolley bus collectors.
Shield Wire
A wire, often galvanized steel, strung over a conductor system for lightning protection.
Signal Rail
The track rail used as the conductor for the track circuits controlling signalling appliances, and not used for traction return
current.

Rail Transit
Signalling
A low voltage system used for train operation signals.
Skirt
The protruding discs around the core of an insulator.
Sleeve
• Chaffing – a sleeve around a conductor to reduce damage from abrasion.
• Foundation – a concrete circular tube placed in a drilled hole to provide a foundation; occasionally refers to a
smaller diameter pipe fitted into a larger diameter pipe.
• Repair – a sleeve around a conductor to repair local electrical damage.
Snub
To dead-end fix or fix temporarily.
Spacers/Adjustable
An adjustable spacer is employed on trolley wire assemblies to maintain separation of parallel contact wires and fitting.
Span Length
Distance along an alignment or track between supporting structures.
Span Width
Distance across an alignment or track between the masts of a portal, cross-span or headspan.
Spiral
See “Curve Transition.”
Sprawl
The stringline of the contact wire on inclined catenary.
Stagger
The offset of the contact wire from a projected centerline at a support due to registration.
Stagger Effect
Contact wire deviation from a projected centerline due to the combination of unequal staggers and wind.
Static Position of Wire

The position of the wire without uplift and without wind.
Stay
A short rod or wire providing restraint; a guy.
Steady Arm
The lateral restrainer on the contact wire at a structure also known as pull over.

Glossary
Stringing
Installation of overhead wires.
Stringing Blocks
Sheaves used in pulling wires during stringing with one cheek that can be opened for inserting wires and pull lines.
Stringline
The distance between the centerline of track arc and its chord at midspan.
Switch
• Electric track – a trolley wire switch providing alternate path for trolley bus collectors electrically actuated.
• Feeder – a switch for feeding or sectioning electrical circuits.
• Frogs – a trolley wire switch or crossing for trolley bus collectors.
• Isolating – an air-break switch provided for isolating and grounding electrical apparatus and circuits.
System Height
The distance between messenger and contact wire of a catenary system normally at the support structure, also known as
encumbrance.
Tail Wire 1
• Tail guy – the wire that with an insulator joins the yoke plate to the counterweight assembly.
Tangent
The straight portion of the alignment or track between curves or spirals.
3
Tangling
The hazard to trolley poles and pantograph where another conductor is in lateral proximity to the inrunning contact.
Tension Section
• Tension length – the length of contact system between its mechanical terminations.
4
Tensioning
The method of controlling sag from supported wires by pull or weight.
Thimble
• Closed – the loop with its two ends close together.
• Open – a loop to wrap wires around with the two ends spread apart.
T.O.R.
Signifies “top-of-rail” used for measuring vertical heights.
Track Gage
Distance between the inside running edge of the rails of a track system.

Rail Transit
Track Tolerance
• Cross level – allowable variation between height of each rail.
• Lateral – allowable variation in the track alignment.
• Vertical – allowable variation in track height.
Transition
See “Curve Transition.”
Traveller
See “Stringing Blocks.”
Trolley
A current collector using a pole with a wheel making contact with the feeder wire rather than a sliding shoe or a pantograph.
Trolley Wire
See “Catenary,” “Trolley” (term sometimes used for contact wire).
Turnout
A track arrangement consisting of a switch and a frog with connecting rails by which engines and cars can pass from one
track to another.
Uplift
• Dynamic – lift of the conductor due to the passing of trolley poles and pantographs.
• Static – lift of the conductor due to the stationary trolley poles and pantographs.
Vertical Reference Point

That point on centerline exactly midway between the two elevations where there is superelevation.
Warning Portal
A portal placed at level crossings to warn traffic of the high voltage overhead wire danger.
Web
The connecting area between two flanges of a steel beam or guides; the area of a steel rail between the head and base.
Wind Blow-Off or Throw-Off

Lateral movement of wires due to wind pressure.
Yoke
A plate or casting whereby two or more wires or insulators terminate on one side and continue with one wire from the
opposite side – usually yoke-shaped and with lever action to distribute loads from a counterweight as required.

0
CHAPTER 14
YARDS AND TERMINALS1
FOREWORD
This chapter deals with the engineering and economic problems of location, design, construction and operation of yards and
terminals used in railway service. Such problems are substantially the same whether railway’s ownership and use is to be
individual or joint. The location and arrangement of the yard or terminal as a whole should permit the most convenient and
economical access to it of the tributary lines of railway, and the location, design and capacity of the several facilities or
components within said yard or terminal should be such as to handle the tributary traffic expeditiously and economically and
to serve the public and customer conveniently.
In the design of new yards and terminals, the retention of existing railway routes and facilities may seem desirable from the 1
standpoint of initial expenditure or first cost, but may prove to be extravagant from the standpoint of operating costs and
efficiency. A true economic balance should be achieved, keeping in mind possible future trends and changes in traffic criteria,
as to volume, intensity, direction and character.
Although this chapter contemplates the establishment of entirely new facilities, the recommendations therein will apply
equally in the rearrangement, modernization, enlargement or consolidation of existing yards and terminals and related
facilities. Part 1, Generalities through Part 4, Specialized Freight Terminals include specific and detailed recommendations 3
relative to the handling of freight, regardless of the type of commodity or merchandise, at the originating, intermediate and
destination points. Part 5, Locomotive Facilities and Part 6, Passenger Facilities relate to locomotive and passenger facilities,
respectively. Part 7, Other Yard and Terminal Facilities has been moved to Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities as Part
17, Other Yard and Terminal Facilities.
1
concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signals and communications) and allied services and facilities.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Generalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-1
1.1 Joint Yards and Terminals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.2 Air Rights (1982). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.3 Automatic Equipment Identification (AEI) (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.4 Environmental Provisions (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.5 Security Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.6 Fire Prevention in Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
2 Freight Yards and Freight Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-1

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-3
2.2 Track Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4
2.3 Yard Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4
2.4 Hump Classification Yard Design (Full Automatic Control) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-7
2.5 Flat Classification Yard Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-25
2.6 Terminal Design Considerations for Run T hrough Trains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-29
2.7 Yard Design for Remote Control Locomotives (RCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-33
3 Freight Delivery and Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3-1
4 Specialized Freight Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-1

4.1 Rail/Water Transfer Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-3
4.2 Design of Intermodal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-12
4.3 Automobile and Truck Loading/Unloading Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-35
4.4 Bulk-solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-47
4.5 Bulk-fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-53
4.6 Merchandise Terminal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-62
4.7 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-66
4.8 Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-71
5 Locomotive Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-1

5.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-2
5.2 Servicing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-5
5.3 Inspection Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7
5.4 Diesel, Diesel-Electric and Electric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7
5.5 Main Line Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-8
6 Passenger Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-1

6.1 Terminal Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2
6.2 Station Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2
6.3 Passenger Train Yards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-8
6.4 Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-R-1

INTRODUCTION
1


14
Part 1
Generalities1
— 2004 —
FOREWORD
This part deals with the general conditions, factors, features and requirements which may be basically common to or directly
related with the planning, design, construction and function of yards and terminals and their associated facilities.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
1.1 Joint Yards and Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2

1.1.1 Economy (1982). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.1.2 Analyses (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2 3
1.1.3 Agreement (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.2 Air Rights (1982). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.3 Automatic Equipment Identification (AEI) (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.4 Environmental Provisions (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-2
1.5 Security Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3

1.5.1 Fire Protection (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.5.2 T heft and Vandalism (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.6 Fire Prevention in Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3

1.6.1 Introduction (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.6.2 Building Fire Protection (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-3
1.6.3 Rolling Stock Fire Protection (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-5
1.6.4 Fire Prevention and Planning (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-5
1.6.5 Summary (1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1-6
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 84, 1983, p. 417; Vol. 88, 1987, p. 86. Reapproved with Addition of Section 1.6, Fire
Prevention in Yards, 1987

Yards and Terminals
SECTION 1.1 JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS
1.1.1 ECONOMY (1982)
a. It is not axiomatic that a joint yard or terminal under one management can be operated more economically and
satisfactorily than two or more separately operated yards or terminals of the same aggregate capacity.
b. In a joint yard or terminal, a single organization should control all construction, operation, maintenance and other
activities within the terminal zone. All employees, including those of the participating railways, while functioning
within the yard or terminal zone should be subject to the control of the appropriate officers.
1.1.2 ANALYSES (1982)
a. A joint yard or terminal should not be undertaken without thorough analyses of what may be attained in expedition,
economy and convenience, under the arrangements to be surrendered and under those proposed.
b. A joint yard or terminal may be undertaken where analyses justify anticipation of its economy as compared with other
available alternatives, or where governmental authority or popular demand has substantially the force of mandate.
1.1.3 AGREEMENT (1982)
A joint terminal agreement should anticipate and definitely cover all relationships between and among the owners, the users
and the management of the joint facilities. With a view to discovering weaknesses and omissions which may be overcome in a
new agreement, it will be found helpful, before drafting it, to examine existing agreements and consult those charged with
their administration.
SECTION 1.2 AIR RIGHTS (1982)
At yards and terminals centrally located in the larger cites, space over the facilities can often be made available, with
advantage and profit, for commercial purposes such as post offices, office buildings with store frontage on the streets, hotels,
certain manufacturing enterprises, and the like. These will help materially in carrying the charges on capital investments and
tax assessments for the real estate occupied.
SECTION 1.3 AUTOMATIC EQUIPMENT IDENTIFICATION (AEI) (2004)
Improved yard and terminal efficiencies and performance, including total terminal control, can be achieved with an Automatic
Equipment Identification (AEI) system.
SECTION 1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROVISIONS (1982)
Any yard and terminal design must consider the environmental factors and provide for the minimum controls established and
required by federal, state and local laws, directives and ordinances applicable to land, water, air and noise pollution.

Generalities
SECTION 1.5 SECURITY REQUIREMENTS
a. Hydrants with hose houses and equipment should be located at various points within the yard or terminal so as to
permit the use of at least two streams of water on any structure. Such facilities should comply to applicable codes and
regulations.
b. Water mains and hydrants should be located with due regard to future yard or terminal expansion.
c. Water mains should be built in loops, if practicable.
d. Chemical extinguishers should be conveniently placed to afford protection, especially against oil and electric fires.
e. Fire lanes should be provided for access to all buildings by fire fighting equipment.
1.5.2 THEFT AND VANDALISM (1987)

Protective measures must be carefully considered in the design of each individual situation. A report on the subject of theft and
vandalism is contained in the Proceedings, Vol. 75, 1974, pages 609 to 611, incl. Information on this subject may be obtained
from the Transportation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., report No, 487, Crime and
Vandalism in Public Transportation – 5 Reports (1974), ISBN 0-309-02273-8, 64 pp.
1
SECTION 1.6 FIRE PREVENTION IN YARDS

a. In terminal design high priority should be given to fire prevention. Also, it is essential that, should fire occur, proper
equipment and access be provided, and employees know in advance how to react. 3
b. In most areas local fire codes must be considered in planning and design. Where there are none, or they are not
specific, the “National Fire Protection Association” National Fire Codes may be used. In either case, railroad yards are
typically categorized as heavy industrial by local zoning ordinances.
c. As heavy industrial, certain fire fighting assumptions are made. Fires in rolling stock within classification yards, for
example, are not typical heavy industrial fires. A railroad may not want a fire department fighting a fire within a 4
classification yard. It is not desirable to have fire trucks driving into, or hoses being strung across yard tracks whether
or not a yard is in operation. Rather, special car handling guidelines should be established along with water access and
fire fighting procedures. These may differ from local applicable codes so it is suggested that local fire officials be
consulted on such exceptions.
1.6.2 BUILDING FIRE PROTECTION (2004)
1.6.2.1 Design and Construction
In the design of all new buildings or in remodeling existing buildings, local building codes must be considered for fire
protection criterion. Refer to AREMA Manual Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities for additional recommended
practices on fire protection in railroad buildings.

Yards and Terminals
1.6.2.2 Maintenance
A program of regular maintenance is suggested for building and surrounding areas to prevent fire hazards. Items for
consideration are:
a. Flammable material storage.
b. Fuel Storage.
c. Weed and brush control.
d. Heating plant.
e. Electrical wiring.
1.6.2.3 Fire Alarms
Local fire codes prescribe various types of alarm systems depending on the type of building and the building’s use. These
types may include:
a. Smoke detectors.
b. Flame or heat detectors.
c. Manual set within building.
d. Automatic set within building.
e. Remote alarm (fire department and/or company security).
f. Remote alarm by building location (computerized).
1.6.2.4 Fire Extinguishers
Local fire codes normally provide for the number and type of extinguishers required depending upon building type size and
use. A program to regularly check and recharge the extinguishers, if necessary, should be established. It is important that the
type of chemical extinguishers used will provide protection against expected types of fires while minimizing damage to
computers and other expensive electronic equipment.
1.6.2.5 Water Sources
a. Water available for fire fighting may come from any of the following sources:
(1) Water main.
(2) Well.
(3) Surface water.
(4) Tank storage.
b. One or more of these sources may be provided in design depending upon local fire codes and availability.
Consideration should be given to the distances of hydrants or other water sources from buildings to provide proper
water pressure and volume. It is suggested that water sources be identified to employees and local fire departments
through the use of maps or prints.

Generalities
1.6.2.6 Building Accessibility
Buildings are normally accessible by road, however, access roads should be designed to accommodate fire trucks. Road width,
turning radii, and railroad crossings should be considered. Procedures should be established to cut crossings for immediate
emergency access.
1.6.3 ROLLING STOCK FIRE PROTECTION (1987)
1.6.3.1 Car Handling
If a car(s) has started on fire it is essential that before anyone gets near the car(s) that the commodity burning be identified.
This information is necessary in determining how to handle the car and is information necessary for the fire department to
extinguish the fire properly. Once the commodity is identified and known to be safe for movement, it is suggested that a
procedure be available and known to affected employees on how the car will be handled. This should be done with the use of
buffer cars between the engine and burning car(s). The crew should take the car(s) to a predetermined location for fire fighting,
possibly an isolated spur track.
1.6.3.2 Fire Department Notification
It is suggested that one responsible company officer be designated during a fire to coordinate activities with the fire
department. Instructions should be in place for quick, accurate notification of the fire department. The fire department should
be advised of the commodity burning, the exact location of the car(s), and any other relevant information.
1.6.3.3 Car Access

1
As in building accessibility, access for fire trucks to yard locations should be considered in design. These should include width
of roadways, turning radii for fire trucks, and instructions for clearing crossings. It is suggested that this may be coordinated in
advance of any emergencies with local fire officials.
1.6.3.4 Water Sources
As in building fire protection, an adequate water source for rolling stock fire fighting should be considered. The source(s) may
3
be integrated into overall plans for fighting fires of rolling stock. In any case, it is suggested that local fire codes be reviewed
for hydrant locations and pressure and volume requirements. It is likely that classification yard needs are considerably
different from fire codes covering heavy industrial areas, so it is suggested that fire officials be consulted.
1.6.4 FIRE PREVENTION AND PLANNING (1987)

4
Areas which should be considered in fire prevention and planning are:
a. A regular program of weed and brush control.
b. Fuel storage tanks and fixtures be designed to be fire resistant and have necessary dike(s) to hold volume of tank(s).
c. Materials stored in areas free of unnecessary flammable materials.
d. Waste materials be placed in designated areas and be disposed of regularly.
e. Proper procedures be in place for employees required to use welding and cutting torches.

Yards and Terminals
1.6.5 SUMMARY (1987)
In design and planning of yard areas it is suggested that a definite plan of action be established for fire emergencies. This may
include written instructions which are distributed to key employees outlining what action be taken including fire department
and agency calling, handling of cars, clearing crossings, and most importantly, employee conduct for safety. It is suggested
that in any fire prevention plan that regular communication be maintained with fire officials. They may be informed of usual
commodities handled and changes to buildings or yard areas, so that they can provide the best protection possible.

14
Part 2
Freight Yards and Freight Terminals1
— 2010 —
FOREWORD
This part deals with the engineering and economic problems of location, design, construction and operation of all the facilities
provided by a railway company, or by railway companies in common, or acting jointly, as the case may be, to handle freight to
or from or through and within a given district on behalf of such railway company or companies.
Conditions of demand and feasibility vary widely, and generally each case of constructing an altogether new layout on a large
scale, or of remodeling or consolidating an extensive existing layout, constitutes an essentially basic problem.
1
Each of these features and its appurtenances, with a full knowledge of the average and maximum demands to be made upon it,
must be carefully designed to fulfill its particular functions expeditiously and economically.
The designation “freight yard” (sometimes called marshalling yard) and “freight terminal” as used herein are only relative to
their location within a railway system, have similarity in meaning and may perform like functions. The term “yard” as opposed
to “terminal” may be used in a certain interpretation or within a certain geographical area to designate an essential unit, a 3
supplementary adjunct or a tributary to a terminal.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-3

2.1.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-3
2.2 Track Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4

2.2.1 General (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 84, 1983, p. 98; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 188; Vol. 94, p. 85; Vol. 96, p. 65. Adopted 1976.

Yards and Terminals
2.3 Yard Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4

2.3.1 Receiving Yard (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4
2.3.2 Classification Yard (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-4
2.3.3 Departure Yard (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-5
2.3.4 Repair Yard (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-5
2.3.5 Local Yard (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-6
2.3.6 Miscellaneous Yard Tracks and Facilities (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-6
2.4 Hump Classification Yard Design (Full Automatic Control) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-7

2.4.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-7
2.4.2 Intermittent Car Speed Control (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-10
2.4.3 Continuous Car Speed Control (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-12
2.4.4 Hybrid Car Speed Control System (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-13
2.4.5 Objective (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-14
2.5 Flat Classification Yard Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-25

2.5.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-25
2.5.2 Gradients (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-26
2.5.3 Design Factors (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-27
2.5.4 Ladder Track Yards with Car Speed Control (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-28
2.6 Terminal Design Considerations for Run Through Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-29

2.6.1 Characteristics of Run T hrough T rains (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-29
2.6.2 Run T hrough T rain Operation (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-30
2.6.3 Yard Facility Functions (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-30
2.6.4 Design Objectives (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-30
2.6.5 Design Features (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-31
2.7 Yard Design for Remote Control Locomotives (RCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-33

2.7.1 Characteristics of Remote Control Locomotives (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-33
2.7.2 General Yard Design or Redesign (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-34
2.7.3 Isolation of RCL Operations (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-34
2.7.4 Lighting (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-35
2.7.5 Walkways (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-35
LIST OF FIGURES
14-2-1 Typical Classification Track Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-8

14-2-2 Intermittent Car Speed Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-11
14-2-3 Continuous Car Speed Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-13
14-2-4 Track and Profile Diagram (Intermittent Control) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-16
14-2-5 Track and Profile Diagram (Continuous Control) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-18
14-2-6 Change in Velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-22
14-2-7 Sketch of Time vs. Distance Curves (Intermittent Control) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-23
14-2-8 Sketch of Time vs. Distance Curves (Continuous Control). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-24
14-2-9 Flat Yard for Single-Direction Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-26
14-2-10 Typical Track Diagram and Gradient Profile Ladder Track Yard with Car Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-29

Freight Yards and Freight Terminals
14-2-11 Through Train Track Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-31

14-2-12 Example Layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2-32
2.1.1 GENERAL (2004)
a. To meet traffic requirements a yard or terminal should be able, even in peak periods, to receive trains promptly upon
arrival, perform any auxiliary service (such as weighing, making running repairs, etc.), switch cars into their proper
classification without appreciable delay, and dispatch these cars in their proper position in outgoing trains in minimum
time.
b. The number of yards should be as few as is consistent with the efficient handling of traffic.
c. An additional yard is warranted only when it will result in greater economy than the enlargement or reconstruction of,
or substitution of a new yard for, an existing yard or yards.
1
d. Yard or terminal layouts should provide for future expansion so that the number and length of the tracks in them may
be increased as required with minimum interference with operation or minimum relocation of existing trackage.
e. An existing yard or terminal which is inadequate to handle the current or immediately anticipated traffic should be
enlarged, or redesigned and rebuilt, or abandoned in favor of a yard or terminal in a different location, according to
which of these alternatives will result in the greatest economy.
3
f. With the advent of articulated rail cars it is difficult to establish an average car length to determine track car capacities.
Single car lengths generally vary from 40 feet (12 m) to over 95 feet (29 m) while some articulated intermodal cars
exceed 300 feet (91 m) in overall length. Therefore average car lengths do not have as much purpose as they once did
in yard design unless the same type of equipment is to be switched in the yard. A determination needs to be made on
car types before track capacity can be established.
4
g. Yard lighting is desirable. The economical distribution of light over the area involved, so as to provide proper intensity
of illumination, requires careful design. Recommendations of the AAR Engineering Division Committee on Electrical
Facilities – Fixed Property, should be consulted.
h. An adequate drainage system is essential.
i. Signal and communication systems, such as control signals, power operated switches and derails, radios, intercoms,
pagers, talkback speakers, telephones closed circuit television, AEI and other devices should be considered to expedite
yard and terminal operations.

Yards and Terminals
SECTION 2.2 TRACK ARRANGEMENT
2.2.1 GENERAL (1982)
a. Main tracks should bypass yards.
b. Connections to the main track from the receiving, classification or departure tracks should be as direct as practicable.
c. Crossovers should be provided as required to facilitate all normal and regular movements in the yard or between the
yard and main track, and so located to result in minimum interference between simultaneous movements.
d. In order to keep the distance to clearance to a minimum, the angle between a ladder track and the body tracks should be
as large as possible.
e. Ladder tracks should be spaced not less than 15 feet (4.5 m) center to center from any parallel track, and when such
parallel track is another ladder track, they should be spaced not less than 18 feet (5.5 m) center to center. The
requirements of governing bodies must be observed.
f. Body tracks should be spaced not less than 14 feet (4.2 m) center to center, and when parallel to a main track or
important running track, the first body track should be spaced at least 15 feet (4.5 m) center to center from such tracks,
subject however to state regulations on clearances.
SECTION 2.3 YARD COMPONENTS
2.3.1 RECEIVING YARD (1982)
a. The number of receiving tracks should be sufficient to accommodate arriving trains.
b. The length of receiving tracks should be such that each will accommodate a complete train, including assisting
locomotive where used. It is desirable in some yards to have a few short receiving tracks located on the side of the yard
near the running track.
c. The gradient of the receiving track should be such to avoid use of hand brakes.
d. Consideration may be given to track indicators and remotely controlled switches at the entrances to the receiving yard.
e. If motorized inspection is planned, sufficient width between tracks should be provided to permit passage of vehicles
used for such inspection.
2.3.2 CLASSIFICATION YARD (2004)
a. The type of yard which should be adopted in any given case depends upon the volume and character of traffic to be
handled through it, and the train schedules. The decision should be based on a thorough traffic analysis and economic
study.
(1) A single flat yard is adapted for handling traffic where the total number of cars is small and the number of
switching cuts per train is also small.

(2) A double flat yard is adapted for handling traffic where the total number of cars is large but the number of
switching cuts per train is small.
(3) A gravity yard or a hump yard is adapted for handling traffic where the total number of cars is large and the
number of switching cuts per train is also large – also in special cases where the total number of cars is relatively
small but normally received in a short period of time, and the number of switching cuts per train is large.
(4) In special cases due to the location of the yard, the character of traffic, or the arrangement of schedules, it may be
necessary to provide a double flat yard or a hump yard, because of limited time for handling.
b. The number of classification tracks should be such that there will be at least one available for each important
classification. Where cars of single classification do not accumulate enough to be assigned a separate track, the design
features should permit rehump or stage switching to make the required blocks.
c. The length of classification tracks should be such that each will normally hold all accumulated cars of the assigned
classification until they are to be moved off the classification track under normal operation.
d. Where cars of single classification accumulate rapidly enough to permit forwarding them in whole trains, it is desirable
to make up and dispatch trains from the classification tracks.
2.3.3 DEPARTURE YARD (1988)
a. Departure tracks may be located as part of the classification yard or in a separate yard, depending upon the type of
trains dispatched. It is sometimes preferable to provide dual- purpose receiving-departure yards. 1
b. The number of departure tracks should be such that there will be one available for assembling a departing train
whenever necessary.
c. The length of departure tracks should be such that each will accommodate a complete train, including assisting
locomotives where used.
3
d. The gradient of departure tracks should be level, if possible. If adverse to the forward movement of a train, it should be
at least 20% less than the ruling gradient to be encountered by that train during its road trip.
e. Compressed air at suitable pressure should be piped along the departure tracks, and sufficient outlets should be
provided to permit the testing of the air brake equipment on the cars of departing trains.
f. Consideration should be given to the installation of shove indicators located at clearance point of each departure track. 4
g. If motorized inspection is planned, sufficient width between tracks should be provided to permit passage of vehicles
used for such inspection.
2.3.4 REPAIR YARD (2004)
a. The location of the car repair yard should be such that the movement of bad-order cars will be as direct as practicable,
that switching the repair yard will not interfere with other work, and that repaired cars may be returned readily to the
classification or departure yard, as required.
b. The capacity of the repair yard depends on the number of cars to be repaired daily. Tracks should be as short as
possible. In computing capacities, a minimum of 55 feet (17 m) should be allowed for each uncoupled car.

Yards and Terminals
c. Repair tracks should be connected at both ends where feasible. The tracks may be alternately spaced on narrow and
wide centers, the narrow spacing to be not less than 18 feet (5.5 m) and the wide spacing to be such as to accommodate
motorized equipment.
d. A paved driveway should be placed between the repair tracks with wide centers, and paving is also desirable between
the tracks with the narrow centers. The elevation of the driveway is usually the same as the top of rail. Crossings
should be spaced at approximately 8-car intervals.
e. Consideration should be given to the “one-spot” repair yard, where cars are moved by mechanical means to the repair
building, one at a time, repaired and removed. This system is usually adaptable to one or more tracks. In computing the
capacity of the track holding the cars, the types of cars to be repaired needs to be identified first before car length
capacity can be determined. Single car lengths generally vary from 40 feet (12 m) to over 95 feet (29 m) while some
articulated intermodal cars exceed 300 feet (91 m) in overall length. As noted in Section 2.1 Introduction in this part of
the manual, with the advent of articulated rail cars it is difficult to establish average car lengths. If no articulated cars
or extreme length cars are to be repaired, an average car length of 55 feet (16 m) to 60 feet (18 m) can be considered for
track capacity.
f. Blue flag or similar protective or warning measures should be utilized for the safety of carmen in the repair yard.
2.3.5 LOCAL YARD (1988)
a. A local yard may be defined as one which handles cars to nearby destinations and from nearby origins. It generally acts
as a sub-terminal and is often part of, or attached to, another Terminal Yard.
b. Extra care must be taken in its design because insignificant changes in industry switching patterns, traffic volumes and
through train scheduling may have considerable impact on the efficiency of its operation.
2.3.6 MISCELLANEOUS YARD TRACKS AND FACILITIES (2004)
2.3.6.1 General
All miscellaneous tracks should be located so that the use of them will cause minimum interference with other operations in
the yard, particularly road trains entering and leaving the yard.
2.3.6.2 Switching Leads
Switching leads should be designed to give the enginemen working on them a clear view of switchmen passing signals along
the ladder track. This may not be necessary where yard crews are equipped with engine-to-ground radio communication.
Multiple parallel leads with well placed crossovers should be provided where traffic is heavy.
2.3.6.3 Caboose Tracks
The use of cabooses has generally been discontinued on Class I railroads. However, if there is a need to provide caboose
tracks, they should be double-ended and located so as to permit easy access to departure tracks.
2.3.6.4 Wrecker Equipment Track
A double-ended track for the storage of the wrecker equipment should be provided.
2.3.6.5 Other Tracks
a. Advance tracks somewhat longer than the maximum train length, or freight main tracks extending to or beyond the
outside of the yard, in either or both directions, should be provided as required.

b. Thoroughfare tracks should provide access to all parts of the yard and between the locomotive terminal and the yard.
c. Scale tracks should be so located to permit the weighing of cars with minimum delay to yard operation.
d. Storage tracks may be required to ease yard operations where many cars are held to supply local industries or on-line
customers.
e. Tracks may be provided in hump yards for bypassing the hump with certain cars, or to provide an “escape” route from
the retarder area to the receiving yard for hump engines.
f. Material supply tracks for Stores and Maintenance of Way departments.
2.3.6.5.1 Locomotive Fueling and Servicing
Facilities for the fueling and servicing of locomotives should be provided as outlined and specified in Part 5, Locomotive
Facilities, particularly Section 5.1, General and Section 5.2, Servicing Facilities.
2.3.6.6 Allied Facilities
Various types of lading transfer facilities such as automobile trans-loading facilities may be located in or adjacent to freight
yards. A separate analysis should be made of switching needs of each of these facilities so that ready access can be provided
between the facility and the freight yard if required.
SECTION 2.4 HUMP CLASSIFICATION YARD DESIGN (FULL AUTOMATIC CONTROL)
2.4.1 GENERAL (2010)
a. A hump classification yard should be designed for the volume and character of traffic to be handled and should provide 3
for continuous movement while humping with minimum loss of time between successive humping operations; also for
the movement of cars by gravity from the crest to their proper tracks in the classification yard without damaging
impacts.
b. Tracks at the outbound end of the classification yard should be connected to ladders so that classifications normally
assembled in one train may be assigned to permit gathering from one ladder, thus providing for minimum movement of
trim-end engines. A sufficient number of ladders, with lead connections to departure tracks, should be provided to 4
permit working at least two trim-end engines where required with minimum interference. In many yards the
throughput of the facility is determined by the rate you can remove cars from the classification yard; refer to Figure 14-
2-1.
c. Where required, a lead track from the receiving yard to the hump crest can be designed to provide an under-car
inspection, set-out track for explosive and hazardous commodities and a connection to release road locomotives. A
second track leading from the receiving yard to the hump will permit the use of a second hump locomotive for
continuous humping operations. If trains from two or more directions are to be humped in one direction over the hump,
provision should be made so that cars can be moved into the end of the receiving yard next to the hump with minimum
interference with humping operations.
d. It may be desirable to make up and dispatch trains from the classification tracks if local conditions permit, and such a
method of operation usually expedites movements through the yard and reduces the expense. This requires that a
sufficient number of classification tracks be long enough for each to accommodate a full-length outgoing train, or that
lead tracks be provided at the outgoing end such that the combined length of a classification track and a lead track be

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-2-1. Typical Classification Track Layout

sufficient for a full-length train, thus avoiding unnecessary doubling over or interference with hump operation. This
may involve a temporary reassignment of classification during the inspection and preparatory time of a departing train.
e. Departure tracks may be required for making up and dispatching trains, depending on local conditions.
f. The average gradient of a track leading to the crest of the hump should be such as to permit pushing the longest and
heaviest train at humping speeds consistent with the proposed available power.
g. A good walkway surface should be provided at the hump crest on both sides of the track for the pin-pullers. If only one
pin-puller is to be used then the walkway can be on the right hand side, when moving toward the hump. (It is desirable
that cars be uncoupled from the right hand side so that the forward knuckle will be open, as the impact of normal
coupling will often close the rear knuckle.)
h. Adequate lighting will be required throughout the yard.
i. Access routes to switches, retarders and buildings within the yard may be needed for automobiles, trucks and
maintenance vehicles.
j. Two outer roadways running the length of the yard, and parallel with the tracks can be ideal to facilitate ease of vehicle
movements from one end of the yard to the other.
k. Tracks can be set with extra wide centers between adjacent groups to give access for maintenance vehicles to move
into the body of the yard.
l. The outer and inner roadways can be connected across the yard by constructing level grade road/rail crossings at the
narrow ends of the track layout and where the minimum number of tracks need to be negotiated.
m. For movement across the yard at the hump-end a tunnel may be constructed under the hump itself.

n. Adequate car parking facilities for employee and company vehicles at the various office and workshop locations
should be a consideration.
o. If the identification numbers of incoming cars are to be read and recorded by a video camera system, then special
purpose high-density illumination should be provided at the camera location.
p. Modern automated hump classification yards fall into two principal categories, Intermittent Car Speed control or
Continuous Car Speed control systems. A third category can be a hybrid system which combines Intermittent and
Continuous control systems.
(1) Intermittent Car Speed Control System
(a) Intermittent car speed control systems in which powered, electronically supervised clasp retarders are located
at discrete positions to control the velocity and progress of the cars traveling through the yard.
(b) The position and speed of the cars is constantly measured, monitored and predicted by the electronic
supervisory system which commands the modes of the clasp retarders.
(c) The principal retarders, located in the switching area, are usually powered electrically or pneumatically.
(d) Other types of supplementary retarders may be needed such as tangent point retarders located at the entrances
to the classification tracks, and retarders located at the exit ends of the tracks to prevent car run-outs.
(e) The automatic control of the switches, to route the cars into predetermined classification tracks, is invested in
the supervisory system along with other operational functions. 1
(2) Continuous Car Speed Control System
(a) Continuous car speed control systems in which speed sensitive hydraulic retarder units are distributed along
all tracks to continuously monitor and control the velocity of the cars traveling through the yard.
(b) This type of retarder is self-contained and needs no exterior power supply or electronic supervisory system. 3
(c) These retarders are mounted in close proximity along the tracks from the hump, through the switching area
and for a selected distance down into the classification tracks.
(d) Installing this type of retarder at the exit ends of the classification tracks to prevent car run-outs can form
arrester zones.
4
(e) An electronic control system is needed for automatic switch operation and to supervise other operational
functions.
(3) Hybrid System
(a) A hybrid system that combines an intermittent control system with a continuous control system, paragraph (1)
and paragraph (2), can be employed to develop a yard having high car speeds in the switching area and
accurate coupling speeds in the class tracks.
(b) In such a yard design the velocity and progress of the cars in the switching area would be controlled by an
intermittent car speed control system. The function of this part of the hybrid system would be to ensure
adequate separation between cars so as to permit movement of the switches for routing; and to predict,
monitor and control the speeds for the cars arriving at the classification tracks.

Yards and Terminals
(c) The velocity of the cars in the classification tracks would be controlled by a continuous car speed control
system. The function of this part of the hybrid system would be to ensure a maximum allowable coupling
velocity of the cars, to promote full car closure in the tracks and to prevent car runouts from the trim-end.
2.4.2 INTERMITTENT CAR SPEED CONTROL (2010)
2.4.2.1 Hump Control Tower and Buildings
a. A control building can be located near the hump to house a control tower and offices. This control tower would be
positioned to allow the operators a good overall view of traffic movements throughout the yard.
b. The control tower may need to accommodate a variety of facilities such as:
(1) A control room, at the top of the building, in which to locate a control panel for the manual operation and
monitoring of signals, switches and retarders. Operational offices with associated communications, signaling and
automatic yard control systems.
(2) Electrical relay room and electrical power supply equipments with their required cable routes and ducting.
(3) Utility services equipment for the building.
(4) Staff amenities accommodation.
c. A process control system located in the hump control tower can be employed to supervise the greater part of the yard’s
operational procedures and communications needs. The system would encompass the monitoring and control of the
retarders to provide automatic car speed control, and to sequence the movement of powered switches for automatic
route selection to direct the cars into designated classification tracks.
2.4.2.2 On Track and Trackside Equipment – Refer to Figure 14-2-2
To support a central process controller it may be necessary to install a variety of peripheral hardware at locations on the track.
2.4.2.2.1 Car Identification Equipment
This may be a video camera system or an electronic transmitter/receiver unit to interrogate car mounted identify transponders.
2.4.2.2.2 Hump Signal
To control train movements toward the hump crest.
2.4.2.2.3 Rolling Resistance
The rolling resistance of a car can be expressed as a coefficient, a force per weight ratio or an equivalent percentage gradient,
i.e. 0.0003 = 6.0 lb/ton = 0.3%.
2.4.2.2.4 Car Monitoring Equipment
• Pole mounted photoelectric cells and track mounted wheel detectors to monitor car cut lengths.
• A weigh rail installed in the track to measure axle loads.
• Electrical track circuits to form a rolling resistance test section.
• Radar speed detectors to monitor car speed.

2.4.2.2.5 Track Scale
May be needed for the commercial weighing of cars. Weight information can also be for input to car speed control system. The
scale would need to be installed on a suitable concrete foundation.
Figure 14-2-2. Intermittent Car Speed Control System

4
2.4.2.2.6 Car Speed Control
a. Switching area and tangent point retarders mounted in the track to control the speed of cars at strategic locations. These
can be electrically or pneumatically powered.
b. An air compressor house or an electrical supply facility to power the type of retarders chosen can be constructed in the
vicinity of the retarders.
2.4.2.2.7 Switches
Powered switches would be needed to route the cars from the crest into the classification tracks. Electrical track circuits or
proximity loops, and/or wheel detectors can be included in the switching area to monitor the progress of the cars and provide
switch movement protection as required.

Yards and Terminals
2.4.2.2.8 Distance to Couple
The classification tracks may be equipped with electronic circuits to determine the distance a car must travel to couple.
2.4.2.2.9 Cable Routes
a. All the above signaling and monitoring equipment would require electrical cabling enclosed in trenches, troughs,
conduits or directly buried.
b. Trackside electrical equipment cases would be needed at various locations.
2.4.2.2.10 End of Track Retarders
These may be used at the trim-end of the classification tracks to prevent car run-out.
2.4.2.3 Trim-End Tower
a. In large yard developments with extended classification tracks, a trim-end tower building may be required to house an
elevated signal and traffic control room from which operations in the departure end of the yard may be supervised.
b. The trim-end tower may need to contain a number of facilities such as:
(1) A signal and control room with allied signaling and communications equipment.
(2) Electrical relay room and electrical power supply equipment with their required cable routes.
(3) Utility services equipment for the building.
(4) Staff amenities accommodation.
2.4.3 CONTINUOUS CAR SPEED CONTROL (1993)
a. A control building can be located near the hump to house a control tower and offices.
b. The functions of this building could be similar to that described in Article 2.4.2.1 with the following exceptions:
(1) There would be no console or equipment for the manual control of the retarders.
(2) There would be no electrical equipment or process control system for the automatic control of the retarders.
2.4.3.2 On Track and Trackside Equipment – Refer to Figure 14-2-3
a. Car identification equipment as per Article 2.4.2.2.1.
b. Hump signal. To control train movements toward the hump crest.
c. Continuous car speed control system. Hydraulic type retarders bolted to rails at close intervals throughout all the
tracks.
d. Switches as per Article 2.4.2.2.7.

e. Cable routes. The signalling and track circuit equipment would require cabling as per Article 2.4.2.2.9.
In large yard developments a trim-end tower may be required as described in Article 2.4.2.3.
Figure 14-2-3. Continuous Car Speed Control System

3
2.4.4 HYBRID CAR SPEED CONTROL SYSTEM (1993)
a. A control building can be located near the hump to house a control tower and offices. 4
b. The description and functions of this building would be similar to that described in Article 2.4.2.1.
2.4.4.2 On Track and Trackside Equipment
a. To support the Intermittent Car Speed Control part of the system it may be necessary to install in the switching area a
variety of peripheral hardware at locations on the track.
b. For a description of the type of equipment that may be included refer to Article 2.4.2.2.
NOTE: Article 2.4.2.2.8 and Article 2.4.2.2.10, distance to couple circuits and end of track retarders respectively
would not be required.
c. For the Continuous Car Speed Control part of the system hydraulic type retarders would be needed in the classification
tracks as described in Article 2.4.3.2c.

Yards and Terminals
In large yard developments a trim-end tower may be required as described in Article 2.4.2.3.
2.4.5 OBJECTIVE (2010)
a. The objective for constructing and equipping an automated hump yard is to facilitate an efficient and expedient method
of automatically routing free running cars into designated classification tracks for the formation of outbound trains.
b. To achieve this objective it is necessary to meet certain design criteria within the overall concept.
2.4.5.1 Design Criteria
a. To provide a hump of sufficient elevation to ensure that all cars, having a practical rolling resistance value will
penetrate far enough into the classification tracks to achieve a high percentile of closed couplings. It may be necessary
to relax this requirement under severe weather conditions such as extreme cold, snow or high winds; but the minimum
need is for all cars to run beyond the clearance points.
b. To form accelerating gradients from the hump that will promote separation between successive cars to facilitate the
operation of switches between cars.
c. To form a series of gradients throughout the switching area of the yard so that the car speeds are compatible with the
specified humping rate (car throughput) and with the chosen retarder system.
d. To automatically control the velocity and destination of the cars by providing car retarder and route selection systems
respectively.
e. To form gradients in the classification tracks that will assist the cars to penetrate the tracks fully and couple at 4.0 mph
maximum.
2.4.5.2 Design Methods
a. Although it is a range of rolling resistances that influence the gradient profile of a yard, it is the retarder system that
assumes the prime role in yard design by the fact of measuring and monitoring the car speeds to achieve the desired
throughput, controlling acceleration, maintaining separation in the switching area and determining car performance in
the classification tracks.
b. Because of this important role the suppliers of retarder systems have, over the years, acquired comprehensive computer
aided programs with which to design the profiles and plot car performance curves for a yard based upon fundamental
equations of energy and motion, accepted constants that affect car behavior and specified variable parameters.
2.4.5.3 Typical Retarder Control Systems
2.4.5.3.1 Intermittent Control System
2.4.5.3.1.1 Automatic Yard
a. In the automatic yard employing intermittent retarders and a process controller system the cars are weighed and
classified after leaving the crest of the hump. Rolling resistance measurements are taken on test sections of track on the
approach to the primary retarder (tangent track rolling resistance) and on the approaches to the group retarders (curved
track rolling resistance). This information is stored for reference in predicting the car exit velocities from the group
retarders.

b. The computed value for the tangent rolling resistance is interpolated with that for the curved rolling resistance to
provide a modified value which will be used to predict the car exit velocities from the group retarders.
2.4.5.3.1.2 Primary Retarder
a. The primary retarder is used to adjust the velocity of the cars in order to maintain adequate separation between them;
and to assist the speed control function of the group retarders by providing suitable exit velocities from the primary
retarder.
b. As a car passes through the primary retarder, the braking shoes are applied at the maximum pressure allowable for the
car’s weight category. Radar units measure the speed of the car moving through the test section and transmit
information to the process controller in the form of a servo loop to continuously monitor car speed and determine the
retardation force required.
2.4.5.3.1.3 Speed Control Method
a. The speed control method is the same through the group retarders as for the primary retarder except that in this case the
exit velocities must cater for the cars running varying distances down the classification tracks to finally couple at 4
mph maximum.
b. The rolling resistance value of the car, based upon the information collected at the tangent and curved test sections, is
modified in accordance with track, car weight and car type characteristics. The track resistance characteristics are
determined from computer models and practical tests made prior to the system being operational.
c. The classification tracks are equipped with electronic distance to couple circuits which monitor the positions and
1
speeds of the cars and transfer this information to the process controller; from this the exit velocity from the group
retarder is determined for each car. This exit velocity will be automatically and continually modified during switching
operations to strive to achieve the maximum performance in closed couplers and 4 mph maximum speed.
2.4.5.3.1.4 Tangent Point Retarders

3
a. For some yards, where the distance from the group retarder to the tangent points, and the distances to couple are
extensive, it is necessary to employ tangent point retarders to attain the required car performance in the tracks.
b. The exit speed from the group retarder is then controlled so that the cars arrive with predicted velocities at the tangent
point retarders. These retarders, being radar equipped will monitor and control the car speed in accordance with the
distance to couple information.
4
2.4.5.3.1.5 Clasp Type Retarders
a. The clasp type of retarders used in intermittent car speed control systems act upon sides of wheels. The brake shoes
apply a frictional force to slow the wheels of the car; this force is controlled in increments that are proportional to the
car weight classes.
b. Variations of these types of retarders are:
• Electrically actuated, spring powered.
• Pneumatically powered.
• Hydraulically powered.
• Hydraulically actuated OFF, and mechanically powered, via a lower system, by the weight of the car wheel – the
retardation force is weight proportional.

Yards and Terminals
c. A primary or group retarder can be of various lengths and is installed on a well-constructed and consolidated
foundation. The mechanical components and associated steelwork are integrated in assembly with special ties that have
custom made supports on which the running rails are attached within the retarder. This type of retarder, due to the
frictional action at the brake shoe to wheel interface can in some instances emit loud noise levels of high frequency.
Dependent upon location, it may be an environmental requirement to construct acoustical barriers in close proximity to
the retarders.
2.4.5.3.1.6 Typical Gradients
Typical gradients associated with this type of yard are illustrated in Figure 14-2-4. In the design of the track profile for a
classification yard, the gradients will depend upon factors such as car throughput, range of car rolling resistance values, track
curvature and turnouts, and local weather conditions. Due to the steep grades a the crest, it may be desirable to add a short
section of +0.50% grade between the approach grade to the crest and the -2.5% grade descending into the classification yard.
This will reduce the amount of binding in the knuckles and allow easier uncoupling of the cars.
Figure 14-2-4. Track and Profile Diagram (Intermittent Control)
2.4.5.3.2 Continuous Control System
a. In a yard employing the continuous control method the car velocity for the switching area, i.e. from the hump to the
tangent points, is selected during the yard design stage. This switching area velocity is dependent upon the humping

rate, separation between cars, range of car rolling resistance values, range of wheel diameters, the track characteristics
and the length of the switching area. The hydraulic retarder units are then calibrated during manufacture to control all
cars constantly at this selected velocity.
b. Hump.
(1) The hump, for this type of yard will compromise concurrent concave and convex vertical curves and finish at the
first switch.
(2) The hump is used to accelerate cars to the switching area velocity and the installation of the retarder units
commences in the sag curves at the point where the minimum rolling resistance car attains the switching area
velocity.
c. A constant gradient is formed from the first switch to the tangent points in the classification tracks. This gradient is
designed for a modified rolling resistance value comprising car rolling resistance plus air, wind and track characteristic
resistances. These characteristics, together with the maximum car weight will determine the quantity of retarder units
needed to provide continuous speed control.
d. At the tangent points, or in some instances the clearance points, deceleration zones are used to slow the cars from the
switching area velocity to a 4.0 mph coupling velocity and are situated on the initial gradients at the beginning of the
classification track.
e. The quantity of retarders needed for each zone will depend upon the change of velocity required, the maximum car
weight and the initial classification track gradient.
f. Typically, the initial classification track gradient can continue for approximately one third of the total track length with 1
retarders installed along the track to prevent the heavy, low rolling resistance cars from accelerating above 4 mph. This
initial gradient will assist the penetration of cars down into the tracks and provide a high percentile of coupling.
g. The hydraulic retarders used in continuous control systems are relatively small units installed at close intervals along
the tracks. They are fixed to the inside of the running rails and actuated by the wheel flange.
h. Typical gradients associated with this type of yard are illustrated in Figure 14-2-5. In the design of the track profile for 3
a classification yard the gradients will depend upon factors such as car throughput, range of car rolling resistances,
track curvature and turnouts, and local weather conditions.

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-2-5. Track and Profile Diagram (Continuous Control)
2.4.5.3.3 Hybrid Control System
a. The formulation of a hybrid system of car speed control is based upon the use of the clasp type of retarders, with
process controller, in the switching area to perform the duties of maintaining separation and controlling the group
retarder exit speeds; and a continuous control system that commences with deceleration zones in the classification
tracks and continues with coupling speed control zones.
b. The intermittent control system in the switching area would be as described in Article 2.4.5.3.1.1, Article 2.4.5.3.1.2
and Article 2.4.5.3.1.3 with a modification to the group retarder exit speed requirements, and the distance to couple
circuits would not be needed. The group retarder exit velocities would be controlled to provide a bandwidth of velocity
for the cars arriving at the deceleration zones, with the lower limit of velocity being applied to the low rolling
resistance cars and the higher limit to the high rolling resistance cars in order to produce a zone that is economic in
retarders; and also to ensure good penetration of the light cars through the zone.
2.4.5.4 Design Parameters
In preparing for a classification yard design it is necessary to ascertain the parameters.
a. Car throughput, the rate at which cars will be expected to pass over the hump. This can be expressed as the humping
velocity. For example 2 MPH = 3 - 60’ cars per minute.
b. The vertical convex and concave curves for the hump profile should be specified in order to ensure adequate clearance
from the car structures and prevent binding of car knuckles.

c. The maximum and minimum car weights should be stipulated in association with car types, length and wheel diameter.
d. Details of the weigh scale length should be ascertained, with the minimum response and record times, in order to be
able to specify the minimum time that a car must occupy the scale to produce valid recordings.
e. One of the most important parameters is the range of rolling resistance values for the variety of cars to be humped.
Detailed research and analysis should be undertaken to determine practical values. A good source of information is the
printouts from existing control systems that are already operating in established yards. The basic tangent rolling
resistance values for the total car population should be ascertained and specified.
f. In the event of a catch-up between leading and following cars, the movement of the automatic switches is locked in
position to prevent derailments. Various types of electrical switch protection circuits can be employed to guard the
switches. In order to be able to specify the minimum separation distance between cars it is necessary to ascertain
details of the circuits, such as occupation length and response time, along with the response and operating times for the
switch machines.
g. It is the usual practice, where clasp retarders are used, to provide sufficient retardation so as to be able to stop the
heaviest car in the event of an emergency in the yard, a derailment for instance. Designing for both primary or group
retarders alone to be capable of stopping a car can cater to this requirement. A more economic solution, and the one
usually adopted, is to design for the primary and group retarders in unison to have sufficient retardation to stop the
heaviest car. The preferred requirement should be specified.
h. In yards employing a continuous speed control system it is not possible to cater for emergency stopping; but because
the car speeds are relatively slow, avoidance action can be taken by manually routing cars away from danger.
1
i. The geometric data of curves and turnouts for all tracks will need to be specified for a well-designed yard layout. The
layout for curves and turnouts are designed to make the distance from crest to clearance point as short as possible. This
will reduce the height of the hump, which reduces the amount of retarders required. The shorter distance also improves
yard performance by shortening the time a car is in the switching area and reduces the chance of catch-ups..
j. Additional gradient, to compensate for curve resistance, may be added with advantage to the long curves that lead to 3
the outer groups of tracks.
k. Standard turnouts should be preferred to any of special design as these may not be readily available in a future
emergency if a replacement switch panel is needed.
l. In the interest of safety a combination of end track retarders or arresters, with a prevent rollout gradient, should be
considered to avoid car run outs. The retarder, or arrester capacity must be designed to stop a heavy car at a specified 4
maximum velocity; but in practice, with intermittent control systems, cars will at times arrive at the trim-end traveling
in excess of 4 mph.
2.4.5.5 Theory
2.4.5.5.1 Car Velocity
a. The velocity of a car traveling along a gradient can be determined at any point by the equation
V2 = 2gh
where:
V = car velocity, ft/sec

g = gravitational acceleration, i.e. 32.2 ft/sec2

Yards and Terminals
h = energy head, ft
b. The energy head, h can be the potential energy, due to the elevation on a gradient, that will accelerate a car to velocity,
V (ignoring resistance losses); or it can be the velocity head, in which case it is the energy invested in the car velocity;
for clarity, let H feet = velocity head and h foot = potential head, refer to example Article 2.4.5.5.4.
c. This basic energy equation needs to be modified to include two coefficients that affect the movement of a car, these are:
• The rolling resistance coefficient, R.
• The coefficient k, to allow for the rotational kinetic energy of the wheel sets.
2.4.5.5.2 Rolling Resistance
a. The rolling resistance of a car can be expressed as a coefficient, a force per weight ratio or an equivalent percentage
gradient, i.e. 0.003 = 6.0 lb/ton = 0.3%. This expression states that a car with a rolling resistance coefficient of 0.003,
or 6.0 lb/ton resistive force, would travel with constant velocity on a 0.3% gradient tangent track. The total rolling
resistance value for a car is the sum of the tangent rolling resistance + curve and turnout resistance + air and wind
resistance.
b. Typical rolling resistance coefficients are:
Tangent rolling restistance = 0.0005 min. to 0.006 max

Curve resistance = 0.0004 to 0.0005/degree
Air resistance = 0.00016 per ft/sec velocity
Wind resistance = 0.0001 per ft/sec wind velocity
NOTE: In a Continuous Speed Control system an additional factor must be introduced to allow for the idling
resistance of the retarder units when operating below their threshold control speed.
2.4.5.5.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy
a. The coefficient:
k = 1+ (16wr2 / WD2)
where:
w = weight of wheel set, lbs

r = radius of gyration of wheel set, in.
D = wheel tread diameter, in.
W = Car weight, lbs
b. For an estimate of car performance on a given gradient a simplified value for k can be determined from:
k = (W + 4000) / W, for a 4-axle car
c. Typical car weights are 270,000 - 315,000 lbs. max. to 40,000 lbs. min.

2.4.5.5.4 Change in Velocity
a. To determine change in velocity refer to Figure 14-2-6.
let:
V0, V1 and V2 = velocity, ft/sec

H0, H1 and H2 = velocity head, ft
h1, h2 and h3 = potential head, ft
D1 and D2 = distance, ft
G1 and G2 = gradient coefficient
R = total rolling resistance coefficient
b. To determine V1:
V21 = (2 g H1) / k
H1 = H0 + h1 – (D1 R)
also H0 = 0 and h1 = (D1G1)
subs. H1 = D1 (G1 – R)
1
then V1 = [ (2 g H 1 ) ⁄ k ] ft / sec
c. To determine V22:
V22 = (2 g H2) / k
H2 = H1 + h2 – (D2 R)
3
also H1 = V2 k / 2 g and h = (D G )
1 2 2 2
subs. H2 = H1 D2 (G2 – R)
then V2 = [ (2 g H 2 ) ⁄ k ] ft / sec
4

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-2-6. Change in Velocity
2.4.5.5.5 Car Separation
The lengths of the Intermittent Control retarders and the weigh scale, and the safe operation of the switches make it necessary
to predetermine the separation of the cars as they travel from the crest of the hump to clearance points in the class tracks.
NOTE: With a Continuous Control system only the separation needed to operate the switches has to be
considered and as all cars travel, after the initial acceleration, with approximate constant velocity, on a
constant gradient, the design for separation is relatively simple.
2.4.5.6 Time/Distance Curves
a. Each car must be accelerated away from the hump to produce adequate separation distance between cars and this
distance must be maintained at a minimum length throughout the switching area. In order to study and analyze the car’s
performance and separation it is necessary to compute Time/Distance curves and to introduce retardation at critical
points in order to adjust speeds and maintain separation.

b. In order to design for a “worse case” situation it is necessary to take into consideration the separation changes between
a light, high rolling resistance car when followed by a heavy, low rolling resistance car, each routed to adjacent class
tracks. There must be adequate separation down to the last level of switches; and finally, a following car must not
coincide with a leading one until after the clearance points.
c. For Intermittent Control systems, retarders must be located at the critical points of the Time/Distance curves in order to
adjust car speeds and prevent catch-up between cars of varying rolling resistance values. The exit speeds from the
group retarders must be varied to match the distance the cars must run to couple in each class track; when a track is
nearly full these exit speeds will be relatively slow and this must be allowed for in the Time/Distance curve by plotting
a heavy, low rolling resistance car followed by a light, high rolling resistance car that may need to run un-retarded;
refer to the sketch of Time/Distance curves in Figure 14-2-7.
d. In Continuous Control systems the car velocity, after initial acceleration, will be nearly constant with little change in
separation; it is however, necessary to allow for a speed control bandwidth due the variation in wheel diameters; refer
to the sketch of Time/Curves in Figure 14-2-8.
Figure 14-2-7. Sketch of Time vs. Distance Curves (Intermittent Control)

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-2-8. Sketch of Time vs. Distance Curves (Continuous Control)
2.4.5.7 Retardation
a. A typical Intermittent retarder yard will comprise a master retarder and a number of group retarders: the master will be
situated near the hump and its function is to adjust speeds for separation control. The groups, located at the end of the
switching area gradient, control the speeds of cars entering the class tracks; their prime function is to release cars at
predicted speeds in order to achieve 4.0 mph coupling at varying distances down the tracks. This method of operation
is often referred to as “target shooting” and employs Distance to Couple circuits in the tracks, combined with computed
exit velocities from the groups. If tangent point retarders are used at the entrance to the tracks, then the groups will
“target shoot” to these and the tangent point retarders will then control the final distances and coupling speeds.
b. The minimum retarder energy necessary between the hump crest and the last control point for car speed control is:
Retarder energy = (H2 – H1) (Max weight car), feet ton
where:
H1 = Head losses of low rolling resistance car from crest to last control point
H2 = Hump Height - Crest to last control point

With this equation, we get a negative number. If designed properly, the VH0 of High Rolling at clearance is zero.
c. In a Continuous Speed Control system the retarder units are installed at regular intervals throughout the switching area
and for distances down into the class tracks. The quantities of retarders needed to provide speed control are dependent
upon the control velocity, and are directly proportional to the effective gradient (gradient minus total rolling
resistances) and the maximum car weight.
Retarder density = A(G – Rmin) / E, units / ft
where:
A = Maximum axle load, ton

G = Gradient coefficient
Rmin = Minimum total rolling resistance coefficient
E = Retarder energy, ft ton / unit at specified control velocity
d. At the tangent points the retarders are installed in dense banks, forming deceleration zones to slow the cars from the
switching area velocity down to a 4.0 mph coupling speed.
Quantity of retarders/zone = A(V2SA – V2CV)k / (2gE)
where:
1
VSA = Switching area velocity, ft/sec
VCV = Allowable coupling velocity, ft/sec
e. As a slight accelerating gradient is usually extended down into the class tracks it is necessary, in order to maintain a
coupling speed of 4.0 mph maximum, to continue with a speed control section comprising an appropriate quantity of
retarder units. The retarder density can be determined by applying the formula used above to calculate unit density in 3
the switching area.
2.4.5.7.1 References
References used in this Part are located at the end of this chapter. See Reference 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
SECTION 2.5 FLAT CLASSIFICATION YARD DESIGN
2.5.1 GENERAL (2010)
2.5.1.1 Objective
The ideal objective is the design of a series of gradients so that each car will roll to and stop at the far end of the classification
yard, or will roll to coupling at an acceptable speed. The following objectives are the minimum to be expected.
a. Deliver cars having a practical maximum rolling resistance to the clearance point under adverse weather conditions.
b. Deliver cars of the most frequently-occurring rolling resistance to the far end of the yard, or to some desired
intermediate point, if the block sizes do not require filling the track.

Yards and Terminals
c. Permit maximum switching rate and acceptable coupling speeds.
2.5.1.2 Rolling Resistance
The designer must be familiar with car rollability and the factors which can contribute to rolling resistance. See Article 2.4.5.4,
Design Parameters and Article 2.4.5.5, Theory (including car velocity, Rolling Resistance, Rotational Kinetic energy, and
velocity formulas).
2.5.1.3 Commodities and Equipment
The design should reflect the type of equipment to be used and the commodities to be handled.
2.5.2 GRADIENTS (2010)
The following data are presented to assist in the design of a flat yard with optimum gradients for the switching of cars. The
various segments of a flat yard with letter designations are shown in Figure 14-2-9.
Figure 14-2-9. Flat Yard for Single-Direction Switching
2.5.2.1 Segment A & G: Switching Lead or Drill Track
Gradient here is not critical. Cars are normally released on or close to the ladder (segment B). However, since this segment
accommodates constant bi-directional movement, the gradient should be relatively flat, with 0.00% preferred.
2.5.2.2 Segment B and C: Ladder and Switch to the Clearance Point
The preferred gradient is “slightly” accelerating; which means that the grade must descend sufficiently to overcome rolling,
switch and curve resistances. The preferred gradients for these segments range from –0.20% to –0.30%. In special cases,
gradient on the ladder can be level if cars are to be released near the switch of their classification track.
2.5.2.3 Segment D: Clearance Point to Clearance Point
The preferred design gradient for this segment is “slightly” decelerating ranging from –0.10 to 0.00%.
2.5.2.4 Segments E, F and C: Leaving End of the Yard
a. Segments E and F should have sufficient adverse (uphill) gradient to prevent rollouts and thus minimize the need for
retarders or skates. Approximately 300 feet of 0.3% grade is suggested.
b. When conditions permit it is highly desirable to design a flat yard for switching at both ends even when current
operations might not require double-ended switching. A flat yard for double-ended switching would have gradients in

segments G, F and E the same as those in segments A, B and C respectively, and gradient in segment D would be either
level or “slightly” descending from each end toward the middle. The yard profile would resemble a saucer.
c. In a flat-yard drilling operation, the car, when it is uncoupled, is not unlike the car leaving the group retarder in a hump
yard in that each car has just departed from its last point of external control, unless the ladder leads tracks are equipped
with one of the multi-unit distributive type of the retarder systems as discussed in section 2.5.4. Hence, the basic
formula for the hump yard from the group retarder to the clearance point could be applied to the flat-yard design as
follows:
Drop from uncoupling point to clearance point = SRe, + ΔC + NSW + a
where:
S = Distance in feet (meters)

Re = Rolling Resistance of easy-rolling car expressed decimally
Δ = Curvature in degrees of central angle
C = Curve resistance in feet (meters) of drop per degree of central angle
SW = Switch resistance in feet – 0.06 foot per turnout (0.0183 meters per turnout)
N = Number of switches
a = Difference in velocity head at clearance and velocity head at uncoupling point for easy-rolling cars.
NOTE: If metric units are used for any items, they should be used for all items in the formula. 1
d. The gradients in the body tracks must not produce unacceptable acceleration of easy-rolling cars.
2.5.3 DESIGN FACTORS (2010)
2.5.3.1 Yard Configuration 3

a. If possible, a track should be designated for each classification to be made. However, it should be remembered that a
flat yard is best suited to a situation where the number of switching cuts is small. While fairly large volumes of cars can
be handled in a flat yard, a large number of cuts reduce its effectiveness.
b. Body tracks should preferably be on a tangent and of sufficient capacity to hold the volumes of each classification
under normal circumstances. 4
c. Ladders should be designed to minimize distance to clearance point and provide maximum yard capacity. Switches
should be as close together as possible for efficient handthrowing. Multiple-frog-angle ladders allow the designer to
provide a compact layout; however, when hand-throw switches are used, the layout should be such that all switch
stands are on the outside of the ladder. Inside switch stands should be used only when power switching is provided.
2.5.3.2 Drainage
a. The flat yard will have a natural tendency to retain water, since its profile will usually take the shape of a saucer. Good
drainage is imperative to maintain designed track grade, alignment and structure. In most cases, a subsurface drainage
system will be required, unless the subgrade is very porous.
b. The grades of segments B and C in Figure 14-2-9 are between –0.2 and –0.3%. As more tracks are added to the design,
the drop in elevation to the outside tracks increases. This drop may require an extension of the grade further into the
body tracks of the first tracks on the lead than is desired (segment C). If that is the case, then consideration should be

Yards and Terminals
given to lowering the elevation of each track from 0.4 to 0.5 foot which would drain the yard to the outside of the
classification tracks. The yard would drain with equalizer pipes put through the grade at the lowest elevation.
2.5.4 LADDER TRACK YARDS WITH CAR SPEED CONTROL (2010)
When designing, what has traditionally been known as a flat yard, it is not possible to select a gradient for the ladder lead
tracks that is compatible with the rolling resistance values of all cars. If the gradient selected is suitable for the average
rollability car, then those with a low rolling resistance coefficient will accelerate to unacceptable speeds and conversely, those
with a high rolling resistance coefficient may stall on the track before reaching their switch destination.
2.5.4.2 Car Speed Control on Ladder Lead Tracks
A method of overcoming this problem is to introduce the multi-unit type of hydraulic retarders and distribute them throughout
the length of ladder lead tracks to provide continuous car speed control. It is then possible to select a gradient that has
sufficient inclination to ensure that the high rolling resistance coefficient cars will reach the farthest clearance point in the
classification tracks, but at the same time, the retarders will control the acceleration of the low rolling resistance coefficient
cars and limit their velocity to a predetermined maximum.
For yards constructed in warm and temperate climates, typical ladder track gradients can be in the order of 0.4% to 0.45%; and
for locations where low temperature conditions are experienced typical gradients can be 0.5% to 0.75%. If possible, the
lengths of the ladder tracks should be restricted to around 1,000 feet from the king switch1 to the last switch to minimize the
number of stalled cars during inclement weather conditions. These typical parameters are based upon a car velocity of
approximately 6.0 mph; if higher speeds are selected then the gradients could be less, or the length of the ladder lead tracks
extended; if lower speeds are chosen then the inverse applies. The use of tandem turnouts can limit the length of the ladder
lead tracks and provide for about 32 classification tracks.
2.5.4.3 The Addition of a Mini-Hump
The efficiency of the switching operation can be enhanced by constructing a mini-hump on the switching lead track. This
hump would assist the uncoupling procedure and enable a continuous humping process, replacing the normal flat yard
‘drilling’ method of operation. A hump profile of around 200 feet x 1.0% could be used to accelerate all cars to 6.0 mph
retarder control velocity on the ladder tracks; if higher speeds are required, then the hump elevation can be increased to give
additional potential head. A number of retarders would be needed on the hump to control the acceleration of the minimum
rolling resistance cars.
2.5.4.4 Additional Coupling Speed Control
If a maximum allowable coupling speed is an operational requirement in the classification tracks, then this can be achieved by
extending the retarder system to include these tracks. Retarders can be located at the tangent points to decelerate the cars to the
specified coupling speed. To further enhance both the coupling speed control and the car penetration down the classification
tracks, suitable gradients can be constructed with retarders distributed along the tracks to form continuous speed control
sections. There are many combinations of track gradients and length of speed control sections that can be employed; the final
solution would be dependent upon the degree of coupling speed control that is specified.
2.5.4.5 Diagram 1
A Ladder Track Yard with Car Speed Control is illustrated in Diagram 1. All values are typical only, but the plan and profiles
are based upon an actual design for a yard located in a warm climate area; the parameters for that design included:
1
The colloquial term designated to represent the first or primary switch, usually located near the crest of an automated switching yard, from which all other
lead switches originate.

a. Maximum car weight = 270,000 lbs.
b. Range of Rolling Resistances = 2 lbs/ton minimum to 8 lbs/ton maximum
c. Coupling speeds = 4 mph average & 6 mph maximum
A mini-hump was added to enhance the switching operation and to accelerate the cars to 6 mph at the King Switch. The 650
feet x 0.25% gradient in the classification tracks was included to assist car penetration and the 400 feet x 0.35% reverse
gradient was constructed at the trim end to prevent car run-out.
Figure 14-2-10. Typical Track Diagram and Gradient Profile Ladder Track Yard with Car Speed Control
4
SECTION 2.6 TERMINAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR RUN THROUGH TRAINS
2.6.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF RUN THROUGH TRAINS (1993)
Run through train operations involve the handling of service from the train origin to train destination with bypass of normal
intermediate yard humping or reclassification. Many variations of the definition for a run through train exist in current rail
operations. “Pure” run through trains operate from the shipping origin as a protected “unit” to the receiving destination on a
loaded cycle. Many times the train is assigned as a dedicated train set and cycles from origin to destinations. Variations in train
operations for unit run through trains include:
• Single Origin – Various Local Destinations.
• Various Local Origins – Single Destination.

Yards and Terminals
• Various Local Origins – Line Haul – Various Local Destinations.
2.6.2 RUN THROUGH TRAIN OPERATION (1993)
The operation of these trains in a terminal will likely have an impact on the support yards’ efficiency, depending on the
required handling of the particular run through trains. In addition, the handling of these trains likely will impact main track
operations in and around the terminal. It is important, therefore, that as terminals are laid out or reconfigured that consideration
be given to minimizing the impact on yard and main track operations.
2.6.3 YARD FACILITY FUNCTIONS (1993)
The primary functions involved in the handling of the bypass or run through trains at a yard facility are crew change, power
change, train changes, train inspection and train servicing.
2.6.3.1 Crew Change
Terminals are likely locations where run through trains change crews. The timing of these changes will be affected by the
amount of work to be done with the run through train in the terminal.
2.6.3.2 Power Change
Generally, run through train power consists are handled without change at intermediate terminals. Exceptions to this would be
power requiring change due to failure on line of road or power change necessary to handle route alignment or train tonnage
alteration. Power requirements for the departure trip route is governed by increase or decrease in ruling grades.
2.6.3.3 Train Changes
Generally run through trains are handled as a unit from origin to destination. Exceptions to this would be short unit trains such
as grain trains that will be filled with additional blocks at intermediate terminals. Other conditions affecting train changes
would be ruling grade restrictions requiring reduction and filling of the train on either side of the grade. In these cases, set-out
and pickup tracks should be made available adjacent to tracks occupied by the run through train.
2.6.3.4 Train Inspection
Inspection of run through trains may be necessary at the terminal depending on where the train originated or other FRA and
local requirements. This is accomplished through a vehicle or walking inspection as necessary.
2.6.3.5 Train Servicing
Run through train power may be serviced intact. Those that are may have fuel, sand and water added as well as supplies for the
locomotive. The end of train device (ETD) may also be serviced.
2.6.4 DESIGN OBJECTIVES (1993)
2.6.4.1 Access to Main Lines
Where run through trains are routed or held on other than main tracks, those bypass tracks should be adjacent to the main line.
Turnouts should be designed to provide entrance and exit to these tracks at 25 to 30 MPH to minimize train delay. Power or
spring switches should be considered at these locations.

2.6.4.2 Access to Main Yard
Consideration should be given to the proximity of where the run through trains are routed or held to the main yard. Cars for
pickup or set-out for the run through trains will likely travel through the main yard or nearby support yards. Movement to and
from these yards should cause minimal impact to the main line operation.
2.6.4.3 Access to Crew Office
Crew change locations for run through trains should be close to crew facilities to minimize delays. Consideration should be
given to roadway access at these locations to minimize trains blocking crew vehicles and provide easy turnaround.
2.6.4.4 Access to Locomotive Shop
Track layout should provide direct access to the locomotive shop, where applicable, for power change-out on run through
trains. Route should minimize delays due to yard or main track movements.
2.6.4.5 Access to Car Shop
Consideration should be given to the proximity of the Car Maintenance facility. Bad order cars on run through trains will
require placement and pickup for the nearest car shop. Train inspection personnel may likely be headquartered at the
maintenance facility as well.
2.6.4.6 Train Inspection
Inspection roads and access should be provided to allow for both rolling and walking inspection of the through train. 1
Inspection access should provide the ability to perform light repairs to the intact train if the repair condition can be handled
without switching.
2.6.4.7 Train Servicing
Train servicing facilities generally include access for power consist fueling and spot maintenance. The run through handling of
unit trains may require power or car setoffs. Consideration should be given to allow for switching tracks at both ends of the 3
holding tracks assigned for run through trains. Also servicing of end of train devices (ETD) and protection of employees
including that required by “Blue Flag” rules should be considered.
2.6.5 DESIGN FEATURES (1995) See Figure 14-2-11 and Figure 14-2-12.
Figure 14-2-11. Through Train Track Layout

Yards and Terminals
VIEW A
VIEW B
Figure 14-2-12. Example Layout

2.6.5.1 Bypass Yard and Siding Tracks
These tracks should be designed to handle the maximum train length. They should be accessed through standard lead ladders
with turnouts sized to permit 25 to 30 MPH speeds. The rail in these tracks should be sized to permit these track speeds as
well. Where expected train volume would warrant power or spring switches they should be considered.
2.6.5.2 Engine Tracks
Consideration should be given to providing trackage for temporary locomotive storage. This trackage could be utilized to stage
locomotive changeouts or for fueling and servicing locomotives. It should be in close proximity to the bypass yard.
2.6.5.3 Fueling and Servicing
The requirements should be considered for run through train power. A fueling station on the engine track may be necessary to
provide quick access to fuel and light engine service, including locomotive supplies. It may be feasible to fuel and service at
the locomotive shop or by a mobile truck. For any of these options, ease of access, proper fueling equipment, environmental
protection and protection of employees working on engines should be considered.
2.6.5.4 Yard Air
Yard air may be required on the bypass tracks for expediting train movement. A review should be made of the type of car set-
outs and pickups and the duration these train blocks will be required to await movement.
2.6.5.5 Roadways
1
Roads should be built to provide access to crew change locations, inspection along bypass yard tracks and easy access to other
terminal facilities. They should be preferably hard surfaced, low maintenance roads and include the necessary clearances and
signage around crossings and adjacent to tracks for safe vehicle movement.
2.6.5.6 Lighting
3
Adequate lighting should be considered for bypass yard leads, crew change points, engine tracks or other locations where
regular activity will occur.
SECTION 2.7 YARD DESIGN FOR REMOTE CONTROL LOCOMOTIVES (RCL) 4
2.7.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF REMOTE CONTROL LOCOMOTIVES (2007)
Remote control locomotives (RCL) are used by Class 1, 2, and 3 railroads and by many industries. The use of RCL equipment
places the operator near the point of coupling and uncoupling which reduces the chances of lading damage, and also reduces
manpower required in yard operations. RCL equipment is operated by a radio control unit carried by the operator or at a fixed
control location, and can only be used on locomotives or locomotive consists equipped with a radio receiving unit matching
the frequency of the operator’s control unit. The control unit usually features forward and reverse, throttle, and braking
controls, plus sand, headlights, and horn. In some industrial applications, a remote control uncoupler mechanism is installed
on one or both ends of the locomotive. The control units also incorporate a trip stop feature to immediately stop the RCL unit
if the operator trips or falls. The locomotives may or may not be equipped with indicator or strobe lights on the side or top of
the unit to indicate when RCL is in use, and direction of travel.

Yards and Terminals
2.7.2 GENERAL YARD DESIGN OR REDESIGN (2007)
New yards may be designed for RCL equipment, but many existing yards have been or will be converted to RCL use. These
existing yards may not be ideally configured for RCL use, but the following guidelines may be used to modify an existing yard
to the extent practical for RCL use. Remote control switches are part of potential yard design or redesign issues.
2.7.2.1 Lead Tracks
Yard leads or “pullback tracks” should be as long as the longest yard track, or as long as the longest cut (block) of cars to be
handled plus the length of the power consist plus safe stopping distance. A slight curve toward the direction of the yard’s
ladder tracks will aid an operator standing along the ladder switches to view the position of the far end of the locomotive and
cut of cars. In any case the operator must be able to judge the position of the far end of the cut in relation to the end of the lead
or pullback track. Positive stop equipment may be installed on track and locomotives to provide more security against
exceeding travel limits by automatically halting the locomotives and cars approaching the limit of travel. Additionally, remote
control switches should have a clearly visible indication system to allow the operator to see switch positions from a distance.
2.7.2.2 Radio Reception
RCL units depend upon line of sight radio communication. Potential obstacles to radio communication should be removed. If
a radio communication analysis or survey reveals obstacles to radio transmission that cannot be removed, a repeater unit
should be provided to eliminate loss of radio communication between the operator’s control unit and the locomotive. The
repeater unit should be mounted as high as practical to gain maximum range for the signal.
Similarly, voice radio communications between the yard crew and other yard operations is essential for safety of RCL
operations, and repeaters should be positioned for voice radios as well according to the communications survey. Note that
yard crews that formerly depended on the locomotive radio for voice communications will now have to rely solely on their
portable units.
2.7.2.3 Ladder Tracks
Ladder track turnout areas should be free of trip and stumbling hazards, and should be laid out so that the pullback track or
tracks are visible from the ladder switch area. RCL operators should not be required to stoop to throw switches to eliminate
inadvertent activation of the “tilt stop” feature of the control unit. Power-operated or power-assisted push-button switches in
the ladder tracks are recommended. Indicator lights or other devices to indicate switch point position from a distance are
suggested to aid operators who may be some distance from the switch while operating. In areas where snow inhibits switch
operation, switch heaters or blowers are suggested to enhance yard operations during snow conditions.
2.7.2.4 Track Centers
It is essential that operators on the ground be able to see and judge car or engine position during coupling and switch moves,
and to be able to freely move between ladder tracks when coupling or uncoupling cars. Therefore, ladder tracks should have
wider centers to allow this visibility and to minimize exposure of the operator to being struck by loose banding or shifted
loads.
2.7.3 ISOLATION OF RCL OPERATIONS (2007)
Since some RCL equipment differs in operational safety procedures from regular switching operations, the trackage where
unoccupied RCL equipment operates is required to be separated from other railroad operations. RCL equipment must be able
to operate without point protection (crewmember on or observing movement of the lead car in the direction of movement)
without concern for other conflicting yard movements. The following requirements apply.

2.7.3.1 Signage
Warning signs must be posted at all entry points where RCL operations may occur. These signs should be placed at known
roadway entry points, at locations where trespassers are known to enter the yard, and where unoccupied locomotives operate at
or near sidewalks and roadways parallel to the RCL zone location. At times when RCL operations are underway, additional
signage must be applied to warn railroad personnel and others that RCL equipment is in operation. Signage should be placed
at all locations where track entry points occur into the RCL zone to warn train crews of RCL operations. In particular, signage
should be placed at every point a non-pullback track enters the remote control zone of operation, whether facing or trailing
movements. Care must be observed to avoid creation of close clearances when placing the signage.
2.7.3.2 Grade Crossings
In general, grade crossings should be avoided where RCL operations are contemplated. Where crossings are unavoidable RCL
operations proposed over grade crossings should take into consideration how movements over the crossing will be observed
by the RCL operator. Crossings utilized by yard or plant operating and maintenance crews should be marked with additional
signs to advise that RCL equipment may be in use. Cameras and monitors could be employed to provide operators with a view
of the crossing.
2.7.3.3 Signaled Trackage
Unoccupied RCL operations are not allowed within the limits of interlocking plants, signaled trackage, or controlled trackage
without proper authority. All trackage within the zone of RCL operation must be under the sole control of the RCL foreman or
operator that occupies the zone of RCL operation.
1
2.7.4 LIGHTING (2007)
Lighting along pullback tracks and along ladder areas should be similar to that for other lead tracks or hump tracks. Good
lighting is necessary for the operators to see the ends of cuts of cars or the locomotive and to help prevent trips, slips or falls
along the lead and ladder tracks. The guidelines set forth in Chapter 33, Part 10 should be followed for the applicable areas in
RCL yards.
3
2.7.5 WALKWAYS (2007)
Care should be taken to provide an unobstructed walking surface for RCL operators. Ballast for leads, ladder areas, and
walkways along ladder tracks should be AREMA size 57 or similar yard ballast for good footing and drainage.

Yards and Terminals

14
Part 3
Freight Delivery and Transfer1
— 2004 —
FOREWORD
This subject involves the engineering aspects of freight (commodities, merchandise, etc.) handling at the points of origin and
delivery, in carload lot or less-than-carload (LCL) lot, or in the consolidation of LCL freight from a greater to a lesser number
of cars, or vice versa. Generally the actual handling of the freight itself has not been a function of the railroads. Separate
entities or freight forwarders have taken over this function. Coordination with these businesses is necessary however to
minimize shipping delays.
1
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 91, 1990, p. 107.

Yards and Terminals

14‘
14
Part 4
Specialized Freight Terminals1
— 2004 —
FOREWORD
This part deals with the engineering and economic problems of location, design, construction and operation of freight
terminals for the expeditious handling of a single type commodity or merchandise as opposed to the handling of several types
of commodity or merchandise as in Part 3, Freight Delivery and Transfer.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article Description Page 1

4.1 Rail/Water Transfer Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-3
4.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-3
4.1.2 Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-3
4.1.3 General Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-5
4.1.4 Commodity Specific Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-6
4.1.5 Terminal Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-11 3
4.2 Design of Intermodal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-12
4.2.1 Introduction (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-12
4.2.2 Facility Types and Equipment (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-14
4.2.3 Design Factors (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-19
4.3 Automobile and Truck Loading/Unloading Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-35

4.3.1 Automobile Loading/Unloading (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-35
4.3.2 Truck Chassis Loading/Unloading (1989). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-41
4.3.3 Military Vehicles (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-42
4.3.4 Containerized Shipping (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-42
4.3.5 Security (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-43
4.4 Bulk-solid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-47

4.4.1 Grain Elevators (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-47
4.4.2 Design of Bulk Granular Solids Terminals (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-48
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 85, 1984, p. 157; Vol. 88, 1987, p. 86; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 91; Vol. 91, 1990, p. 107; Vol 94, p. 109;
Vol. 97, p 157.

Yards and Terminals
4.5 Bulk-fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-53

4.5.1 Introduction (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-53
4.5.2 Site Selection (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-54
4.5.3 Unloading and Loading Facilities (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-55
4.5.4 Commodity Storage (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-56
4.5.5 Buildings (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-57
4.5.6 Security (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-57
4.5.7 Environment and Maintenance (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-57
4.5.8 Terminal Configuration (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-58
4.6 Merchandise Terminal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-62

4.6.1 Produce Terminals (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-62
4.7 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-66

4.7.1 General (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-66
4.7.2 MSW Rail Haul Equipment (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-66
4.7.3 Site Selection (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-66
4.7.4 Construction of Facilities (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-67
4.8 Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-71

4.8.1 General (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-71
4.8.2 Configuration (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-71
4.8.3 Design Considerations (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-72
4.8.4 Facility Types (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-73
LIST OF FIGURES
14-4-1 Low-Volume Terminal with End Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-20

14-4-2 Low-Volume Terminal – Side Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-20
14-4-3 Medium-Volume Terminal with Side Loading and Outside Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-21
14-4-4 Side Loading Double Stack Cars Between Parallel Tracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-21
14-4-5 Medium-Volume Terminal with Side Loading and Inside Parking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-22
14-4-6 High-Volume Terminal, Crane Loading with Outside Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-23
14-4-7 Long Span Crane, Single Track with Double Stack Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-23
14-4-8 Short Span Crane, Single Track with Double Stack Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-24
14-4-9 Typical Rubber Tired Gantry Crane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-25
14-4-10 Typical Container Handler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-26
14-4-11 Automobile Loading/Unloading Site Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-38
14-4-12 Typical Layout or “A” Frame Truck Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-42
14-4-13 Suggested Automotive Handling Facility (Standard or End Loading) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-43
14-4-14 Suggested Automotive Handling Facility (Perimeter Loading) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-44
14-4-15 Bulk Fluid Transfer Terminal – Single End Switching Capacity: 80 Cars Spotted. 11± Plus Storage/Support Yard
................................................................................... 14-4-59
14-4-16 Bulk Fluid Transfer Terminal – Double End Switching Capacity: 80 Cars Spotted. 11± Plus Support Yard 14-4-60

Specialized Freight Terminals
LIST OF TABLES
14-4-1 Range and Average for Reach-Stackers, Side-Lift and Gantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4-27
SECTION 4.1 RAIL/WATER TRANSFER FACILITIES
4.1.1 GENERAL
Rail/water transfer facilities provide for the transfer of shipments or cargoes from ship or barge to railroad cars or trucks, and
from railroad cars or trucks to ships or barges. The facilities at a terminal typically consist of docks with loading and unloading
equipment, suited for general or specific commodities, railroad tracks and roadways, and support buildings and equipment for
transfer purposes.
In designing rail/water transfer facilities, consideration must be given to the type and quantity of freight to be handled. Some
facilities may be designed purely for the transfer of commodities to other modes or directly to a customer, whereas other
facilities may provide intermediate storage between modes, or storage on behalf of the customer. Individual customers may be
served at a terminal or multiple customers may share the terminal and its facilities.
One or more different commodities may also be handled in the same terminal. Some docks and facilities may be designed to 1
specialize in the handling of a single commodity, such as ores, coal, grains, fruit, automobiles or other vehicles, and general
merchandise.
4.1.2 SITE SELECTION

The site for the terminal should be selected to accommodate both near and long term development of the facility to handle the 3
volumes of traffic projected for each commodity. Ease of access for customers and all modes of transportation involved are
critical in selecting a suitable site. Site selection and configuration should allow for economy in movement of materials,
unloading and loading equipment, and transportation equipment.
The following factors should be considered during selection, planning and construction of the site.
4.1.2.1 Environment 4
Various chapters of the Manual discuss environmental considerations in detail. Environmental items which typically impact
facility design that should be considered include:
a. Air pollution (vapor and dust control and collection)
b. Water pollution (rainfall runoff, spill containment, treatment facilities)
c. Spill containment (for liquids and solids)
d. Noise levels (impact on terminal employees and surrounding areas)
e. Light pollution (from terminal lighting, vehicles, equipment)
f. Proximity to archaeological and historical sites

Yards and Terminals
g. Proximity to residential areas
h. Proximity to ecologically sensitive areas including wetlands
i. Elevation of facility relative to ocean tides and storm surges, or stream flood stages
4.1.2.2 Size
The site selected for a terminal and its facilities should have sufficient land area to allow for future expansion and
development. Sizing of equipment and structures should also allow for expansion and flexibility of operation.
The duration of time allocated to load and unload vessels, railroad cars, trucks and storage areas, and the frequency of
transportation services, will impact the sizing of various elements of a terminal.
4.1.2.3 Access
4.1.2.3.1 Roads
Highways, streets and other roads to be used for access must provide an efficient route for customers. Routes to the site should
be carefully studied for their ability to accommodate trucks and equipment that will serve the terminal. Weight restrictions
including seasonal restrictions, pavement width, curves, intersections and existing traffic volumes and patterns should all be
considered relative to the size and type of trucks and equipment that will use them.
Routes for trucks serving the terminal should also be carefully studied to determine whether they will pass or be near schools,
hospitals, parks, community centers, residential areas, and other sensitive areas. Local ordinances may exist that prohibit truck
traffic on certain roads. Also, site selection should consider public opposition that may prevent new or additional traffic on
certain roads.
Site access for emergency vehicles should also be considered, incorporating specific access roads or gates into the site plan as
necessary for use by emergency vehicles only.
4.1.2.3.2 Waterways
The terminal may be located at waterside of an ocean, an estuary, or a lake or river, but is usually on a harbor of one of these.
The site for a rail/water transfer terminal should be on a regular water shipping route accessible to vessels of the type and draft
that carry the commodities to be handled, and where necessary maritime services, such as pilots and tug boats, are available to
the water carrier.
Water access should provide sufficient draft, maneuvering and turning basins, and berthing space for the size and type of
vessels to serve the terminal.
Seasonal restrictions to certain waterways in northern climate should also be considered in designing storage facilities.
4.1.2.3.3 Rail
Rail access should be designed to efficiently accommodate rail traffic serving the terminal’s customers. The length of cars,
locomotives and trains, frequency of switching movements, serving the terminal, and the characteristics of existing mainline
train movements and other operations, should be considered.
The site should be accessible to rail switching from a line which is free of clearance restrictions for the size (length and height)
railroad cars and other equipment expected to serve the terminal. The sharpness or degree of curvature of the track (including
turnouts) should be considered as well so as to not restrict the use of rail equipment. The line’s capacity should also be
carefully studied and considered to provide for short-term service needs and allow for future growth.

Modification of an existing yard may permit utilization of little used assets and use to advantage a site with good access. In
other instances, selection of an active, new or undeveloped location may be prudent.
4.1.2.4 Utilities
Utilities required for the site should be considered during the site selection process. Water will be necessary for fire protection,
employee washdown (i.e., showers, eye washout), dust control, equipment cleaning and employee facilities, along with
sewage disposal. Electrical power and/or natural gas will be needed for commodity handling equipment, lighting,
heating/cooling/ventilation equipment and other equipment. Telecommunications lines will also be needed for voice and data
transmissions for within the terminal and to the outside.
A backup power system for the terminal may also be desirable, particularly for security, telecommunications, fire protection,
and other critical systems requiring power during primary system outages.
4.1.2.5 Zoning and Permitting
Many government agencies have enacted laws which may impact the selection and construction of waterfront terminals and
facilities. Proposals to locate this type of terminal in areas not properly zoned or near residential, commercial, or recreational
areas including schools and hospitals are frequently controversial to the public. Public hearings and other legal processes
frequently become necessary when a controversial site is selected.
Permits of some description are required at nearly all locations.
Schedules for placing a terminal in-service should consider the time associated with such hearings and legal processes and
obtaining permits. In situations in which the timely completion of a terminal is critical, it may be prudent to select a site that
1
will minimize controversy.
4.1.3 GENERAL DESIGN
4.1.3.1 Marine Docks

3
A dock is a marine structure at which ships or barges are moored. It may consist of a series of breasting and mooring dolphins
with a structure for the shiploader/unloader, a dock with a rail mounted traveling shiploader/unloader, or an intermediate type.
A dock constructed parallel to the shoreline is typically called a “wharf”, while a dock constructed at an angle, ranging from
acute to right to the shoreline, is called a “pier”. Wharves and piers may be open or covered, depending on the protection
needed for the commodity handled.
Wharves may be served by tracks located parallel to the wharf adjacent to the water’s edge to allow goods to be handled 4
directly between ship or barge and railroad cars.
Piers are usually provided with tracks located at their center or along the edge.
At locations where rail equipment is to be transferred to and from ships, car floats or ferries, transfer bridges will be needed.
4.1.3.2 Terminal Track
Railroad trackage and its layout should be designed to allow switching of various segments of the terminal as efficiently as
possible without interfering with the operations at other segments of the terminal. Depending on the size of the terminal,
remote or separate tracks for railroad cars may be needed to support switching movements at rail/water facilities. Storage
tracks may be needed for cars held for loading or unloading, and to accumulate cars carrying a specific commodity destined
for a particular ship or barge. A terminal handling a variety of commodities may require a separate group of tracks or yard for
classification. Car repair tracks and supporting facilities may also be needed. Separate tracks or tracks for interchange between
rail carriers may be needed if multiple carriers are to serve the rail/water transfer terminal.

Yards and Terminals
4.1.3.3 Commodity Handling
Docks should be equipped with necessary conveyors, pipelines, car dumpers, crane, hoppers and any other equipment for
handling special products. Large structural cranes may be needed to extend over docks and ships or barges to facilitate the
handling of loads. Conveyor systems may be required to move products in bulk or units.
All equipment along railroad tracks, including loading booms and unloading connections, must be retractable to ensure that it
meets the guidelines found in Chapter 28 of the Manual for clearances.
Adequate ground, pier, and/or warehouse storage areas are essential for products awaiting shipment. The location and
arrangement of the storage space is important so there will be minimal interference with other terminal operations in handling
the commodities.
4.1.3.4 Government Inspections
Certain products may be subject to inspections by government agencies having jurisdiction over customs, agriculture, food,
drugs, and other items. These agencies often must be provided with enclosed heated and air-conditioned offices, and with
inspection areas having prescribed cleanliness, temperatures, lighting, plumbing, lifting and cutting equipment and other tools,
refrigerated storage rooms, locker rooms, rest rooms, and other facilities. Means for holding and disposing wastes and rejected
products must also be provided. Such offices and inspection facilities are often located within or adjacent to transloading
buildings and facilities.
The following factors should be considered during design of facilities for specific products.
4.1.3.5 Fire Protection
Water lines and hydrants are typically needed throughout the terminal for fire protection. Local fire protection agencies should
be contacted to determine design requirements for sizing fire waterlines and locations for hydrants.
Contingent upon the level of potential fire hazards and outside emergency response capabilities, it may be prudent to provide a
self-contained fire fighting unit in the terminal. Also, consideration should be given to providing on-site water storage.
4.1.4 COMMODITY SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS
4.1.4.1 Granular Agricultural Commodities
The handling of granular agricultural commodities is typically in bulk shipments using unit trains or blocks of railroad cars.
Some commodities, such as flour, may be handled in bags. Rail/water terminals handling bulk shipments typically require
large grain storage bins at or near the dock to serve as an intermediate holding or “surge” facility for shipments to be
transferred between transportation modes. In addition, an elevator may be required for mixing certain commodities or grades
of commodities to fulfill the needs of customers.
4.1.4.1.1 Ship Loading and Unloading
Ships may be secured at a wharf or pier and loaded/unloaded by a traveling machine or by cranes on the dock. Ships may also
be loaded/unloaded by a machine which is fixed in position with the ship moving itself fore and aft on its own lines to present
successive hatches to the machine.
Barge loading/unloading is generally similar to that for ships, except that barge moving machinery and loading/unloading
equipment is typically shore mounted.
Shiploaders/unloaders should be designed and sized to handle the required transfer rates, with a reasonable margin and
allowance for maintenance, movement between hatches and other time out-of-service. Equipment selection may be

commodity specific to the exclusion of efficiently handling other materials. Ship unloaders may be grab bucket, various
arrangements of bucket elevator or marine leg, screw conveyors, pneumatic equipment or vacuum unloaders. Use of
traditional ship’s gear may be encountered. Site-specific environmental regulations may control or limit the choice of type, and
may further require extensive sound and dust suppression.
4.1.4.1.2 Railroad Car Loading and Unloading
Facility switching costs will be minimized by having both loaded and empty tracks equal in capacity to a day’s production.
Railroad cars may be moved through the loading facility by road locomotives with appropriate control equipment, yard
locomotives, plant locomotives, car movers, or gravity. Conveyors, gravity loading chutes or pneumatic loaders may be used.
Unless a dedicated supply of cars is used, cars delivered for loading may not be compatible with the commodity to be loaded
and accommodations for cleaning of these cars will be required.
For unloading, the track arrangement and car progression are generally similar to those for car loading. Car unloading may be
by rotary dump, coupled or uncoupled, by bottom dump into conveyor pits, stationary or in motion, or by mechanical
excavators. Choice of equipment will be dictated by the volume and physical properties of the commodity to be handled.
4.1.4.1.3 Moisture Content
While temperature is not usually of concern during the handling of granular agricultural commodities, moisture content affects
the weight and value of the product and should be considered in the design of all handling facilities. Grain drying equipment
may also be needed to alter the moisture content.
4.1.4.1.4 Other Design Considerations

1
It is essential to eliminate or minimize open storage, spillage, and any other practice which may lead to contamination of
surface or ground water. Often regulations governing these are very stringent. Water treatment, to conform with these
discharge regulations, can be very difficult and expensive to provide.
Aside from the terminal being located at waterside, many of the design considerations for waterfront granular agricultural
terminals and facilities are the same as for inland terminals. The design considerations for grain elevators are covered in the 3
bulk-solid segments of Chapter 14. For specific subjects, refer to Section 4.4.1.
4.1.4.2 Automobile and Other Vehicle Loading/Unloading
A waterfront automobile and vehicle terminal provides facilities for the transfer of shipments of vehicles from ship or barge to
railroad car or trucks, and/or from railroad car or trucks to ship or barge. The terminal consists of one or more docks (pier or
wharves), operating buildings, roadways and vehicle parking areas and railroad tracks. Generally, this terminal will be separate 4
from other cargo facilities, to ensure protection and security of the vehicles being handled.
4.1.4.2.1 Terminal Size
The size of the waterfront automobile and other vehicle loading/unloading terminal will depend on the number of vehicles to
be loaded/unloaded within a specific period of time, the length of the time vehicles are to be held at the terminal, and the
method of operation. The terminal will generally require greater parking capacity than a similar land terminal.
4.1.4.2.2 Loading and Unloading
The loading/unloading of ships or barges is generally accomplished through the use of onboard ramps which allow the
vehicles to be driven or towed from the dock onto the ship or barge, or from the ship or barge onto the dock. Paved areas
adjacent to or on the dock are often necessary to land the ramp and vehicles.

Yards and Terminals
The site should be accessible to railroad switching from a line which is free of clearance restrictions for multi-level railroad
cars typically used for automobile and truck loading.
Sources of airborne dust and pollutants which could damage vehicle finishes should be considered.
Aside from the terminal being located at waterside, many of design considerations for waterfront automobile terminals and
facilities are the same as for inland terminals. These design considerations are covered in Section 4.3 of Chapter 14 entitled
“Automobile and Truck Loading/Unloading Facilities”.
4.1.4.3 Bulk Fluids
Waterfront bulk fluid terminals are specialized freight terminals which are used to transfer bulk shipments of fluids between
ship or barge and railroad cars, or other modes of transportation.
This section is applicable to bulk liquids such as chemicals, petroleum, fertilizers, food-grade liquids and oils. Also, this
section will apply to some dry bulk solids such as powders and granules, which have physical characteristics similar to a
liquid, and are handled as fluids rather than as solids.
These commodities could transported in single or multiple railroad car block, or in unit train service. Some commodities, such
as petroleum products, may be transported in railroad cars with interconnected piping to allow unloading and loading of
several cars from a single point.
Factors affecting terminal and facility design include number and types of materials to be handled, the size of shipment (i.e.,
unit train, multiple car, single car, ship or barge), the physical characteristics of the site, and the degree of processing and
storage to be done on the site.
Loading and unloading facilities at terminals may vary from low-volume, single, or multiple car customer systems to high-
volume systems for unit trains. Contingent upon the function of the terminal and the commodities to be handled, the transfer of
commodities may be between railroad car and truck, railroad car and storage tank, and/or truck and vessel. In any case, the
terminal and its facilities must be carefully designed to meet the needs of its customer or customers.
For low-volume terminals, intermittent unloading of commodities is common and will impact the equipment needs for the
terminal. For larger terminals, high-capacity equipment may be necessary.
In any situation, typical railroad car and truck length should be determined for the installation of loading booms or unloading
connections at the appropriate interval. Careful consideration must be given to the type of commodity and railroad cars, trucks,
vessels and loading/unloading equipment to ensure compatibility. Also, a careful analysis of the equipment, piping,
connections, storage tanks, and other facilities should be done to ensure that they are composed of materials that will not
corrode or deteriorate when exposed to the commodity.
surface and ground water. Often regulations governing these are very stringent. Water treatment, to conform with these
discharge regulations, can be very difficult and expensive to provide.
Spill containment slabs or pens, and a system for collection and treatment of spills is often required beneath loading booms
and unloading connections.

Aside from the terminal being located at waterside, many of the design considerations for waterfront bulk fluid terminals and
facilities are the same as for inland terminals. These design considerations are covered in Section 4.5 of Chapter 14 entitled
“Bulk Liquids”.
4.1.4.4 Coal and Bulk Ore
The terminal may consist of a series of mooring dolphins with a structure for a shiploader/unloader, a pier or wharf with a rail
mounted traveling shiploader/unloader, or an intermediate type.
4.1.4.4.1 Ship/Barge Loading and Unloading
Ships may be secured at a wharf or pier in position one time and loaded/unloading by a traveling machine, by ship’s gear, or by
cranes on the dock. Ships may also be loaded/unloaded by a machine fixed in position with the ship moving itself fore and aft
on its own lines to present successive hatches to the machine.
Ship loaders commonly are belt conveyor type, with appropriate slinger or other equipment to distribute cargo around the
ship’s hold. Barge loading/unloading is generally similar to that for ships, except that barge moving machinery and
loading/unloading equipment is typically shore mounted.
Shiploaders/unloaders should be designed and sized to handle required transfer rates, with a reasonable margin and allowance
for maintenance, movement between hatches and other time out-of-service. Equipment selection may be product specific to
the exclusion of efficiently handling other materials. Ship unloaders may be grab bucket, various arrangements of bucket
elevator or marine leg, belt or screw conveyors, pneumatic equipment or vacuum unloaders. Use of traditional ship’s gear may
be encountered. Self unloading ships exist which mount a slewing belt conveyor boom to deliver bulk material to shore.
1
Site-specific environmental regulations may control or limit the choice of type, and may further require extensive noise and
dust suppression.
4.1.4.4.2 Railroad Car Loading and Unloading
Facility switching costs will be minimized by having both loaded and empty tracks equal in capacity to a day’s production. 3
Railroad cars may be moved through the loading facility by road locomotives with appropriate control equipment, yard
locomotives, plant locomotives, car movers, or gravity. Conveyors, gravity loading chutes or pneumatic loaders may be used.
Unless a dedicated supply of cars is used, cars delivered for loading may not be compatible with the commodity to be loaded
and accommodations for cleaning of these cars will be required.
For unloading, the track arrangement is generally similar to that for car loading. Car progression may be with road
locomotives with appropriate control equipment, yard locomotives, plant locomotives, car movers or gravity. Car unloading 4
may be by rotary dump (coupled or uncoupled), bottom dump (stationary or in motion), or by mechanical excavators. Choice
of equipment will be dictated by the volume and physical characteristics of the commodity to be handled.
Unloading of materials that stick to the inside of the cars by excavating machines may require devices to secure cars, with a
rapid set and release mechanism. Cleaning facilities may also be required. Unloading in winter may require cars and lading to
be thawed in thawing or heating sheds.
4.1.4.4.3 Material Stacking, Reclaiming and Handling
Equipment selected should be suitable to the material to be handled, to the site, and to the other facility equipment. Conveyor
belt systems, level and inclined, with or without bucket elevators, are useful for many types of commodities. Use of air slides
and airlifts, suitable for some commodities, provide a fully enclosed system with good dust control capability.

Yards and Terminals
surface and ground water. Often regulations governing these are very stringent. Water treatment, to conform with these
discharge regulations, can be very difficult and expansive provide.
4.1.4.5 Intermodal
Aside from the terminal being located at waterside, many of the design considerations for waterfront intermodal terminals are
the same as for inland terminals. These design considerations are covered in Section 4.2 of Chapter 14.
4.1.4.6 Perishables
Perishables commodities handled at ports may include fruits, fruit juices, juice concentrates, vegetables, meats, poultry, fish,
dairy products, candy plants, cut flowers, pharmaceuticals, photography supplies, and chemical. Perishable commodities may
be handled in bulk, usually in cartons with or without pallets, or in refrigerated railroad cars, containers or truck trailers. Some
of these are shipped frozen at low temperatures, and others fresh at controlled temperatures to prevent overheating or freezing.
In all cases, it is important to minimize the time taken to transfer one transportation mode to another to prevent spoilage.
4.1.4.6.1 Buildings and Docks
Enclosed buildings are required to break, and sometimes mix bulk commodities for transloading to or from ships, rail cars,
containers and truck trailers. Temperature controlled storage rooms are also required in such buildings if the commodity is
temperature sensitive and delays in transloading are possible. These buildings should have exterior doors at rail car height and
at truck height, and should be equipped with extendible shrouds which provide seals between railroad cars or trucks and the
building to provide a protected environment during handling.
Outside docks should be wide enough to provide adequate maneuvering room for loading equipment. Lighting should be
provided for night time operations.
See AREMA Chapter 6, for additional related information.
4.1.4.6.2 Containerized Shipments
Containerized perishable commodities use refrigeration or heating units, ranging from -20 F (-29C) to +80F (+27C), which
require electric outlets on shipboard, typically 460V, 60hz, 3. On docks, these containers may be plugged into on-shore power
outlets provided specifically for that purpose, or powered by diesel-electric motor generator units, typically having a capacity
of approximately 18kva, which are either fastened onto the top front nose of the container using fork lift, or mounted on the
underside of the trailer chassis. If on-shore power is subject to interruption, a reliable stand-by power source should be
provided.
Containers on railroad cars may utilize refrigeration equipment powered by individual, nose mounted motor generator units or
by a central, removable power unit, typically 113kw, mounted in a container flat car which feeds up to nine containers on the
same articulated car.
Most refrigerated truck trailers carry their own, built-in motor generator. Some equipment modifies its internal atmospheric
pressure and is charged form tank trucks or gas bottles which may require storage areas at the terminal.
A facility should be provided near the facility for the cleaning, fueling, maintenance, repair, and preparing of railroad cars,
containers, trailers, chassis and refrigeration and motor generator units. It should have technical equipment for testing,
diagnosing and recording equipment performance. A secure, fenced and well lighted area should be provided for storage of
spare parts and MG units.

See Section 4.2 of Chapter 14, for additional related information concerning containerized and truck trailer terminals.
4.1.4.7 Phosphate Rock and Phosphate Chemicals
Phosphate rock and phosphate chemicals are different commodities which will likely have to be handled in separate areas to
meet customer requirements. These materials must be handled, transported, and stored in a dry state. Prevention of moisture
intrusion and contamination is essential. Facilities should be designed to avoid product degradation.
4.1.4.7.1 Environmental Considerations
Dust collection is essential for all storage facilities and transfer points. Dry dust collection is strongly preferred because the
product can be returned to the system. Wet scrubbers should only be considered to meet the most stringent air quality
requirements. Fully enclosed dumpers and conveyor transfer points with dust collection should be provided. Telescoping
chutes with encapsulated dust collection must be provided for ship or barge loading. Measurement of loading point air quality
(opacity) is a less-than-precise science which should be considered in attempting to meet local air quality standards.
Local air quality standards may specify the annual amount of pollutants that may be discharged into the air which in turn may
limit the hours of operation for a particular transfer terminal.
surface and ground water. Most states or municipalities have laws or regulations which stipulate the amount of nitrogen or
phosphate that can be contained in water discharge. Often these regulations are very stringent. Water treatment, to conform
with these discharge regulations, can be very difficult and expensive to provide.
4.1.4.7.2 Storage
1
Storage facilities must be enclosed from the weather, and provide compartments to separate rock and various grades of
chemical. Additional separation may be needed if there is more than one customer. Dust collection may be needed and curtains
may be required to prevent transport of dust between rock and chemical.
4.1.4.7.3 Rail Equipment 3

Phosphate rock and chemicals are normally transported by rail in covered hoppers. Unloading is usually done by rotary
dumping to allow elimination or sealing of bottom hatches. Cars should be dry cleaned, mainly to avoid the environmental
difficulties associated with disposal of wetted product.
4.1.4.7.4 Maintenance
4
Special attention must be given to prompt cleanup of material resulting from normal or accidental material spillage. Scheduled
maintenance to clean pulleys, rollers, dumping equipment, pipes, chutes, etc. must be provided to assure efficient operation
and extend equipment life.
4.1.4.8 Other Miscellaneous Cargoes
Aside from the terminal being located at waterside, many of the design considerations for other cargoes are the same as for the
inland merchandise terminals. These design considerations are covered in Section 4.6.
4.1.5 TERMINAL MAINTENANCE
Bulk materials facilities should be designed to minimize maintenance and provide for adequate housekeeping. Areas where
material spills are likely should provide access for loaders and trucks for easy removal of spillage. Particular attention should
be given to the prevention of dust accumulation. Materials used in construction should be resistant to deterioration from the
commodities handled.

Yards and Terminals
Every effort must be made to avoid product discharge into harbor waters, not only to maintain compliance with regulations,
but also to avoid contamination and special handling of dredge materials when maintenance dredging is required.
The design of the terminal should include provisions for ongoing maintenance and staged replacement of components. Areas
should be provided within the limits of the facility for storage and easy access to routinely used maintenance materials and
equipment. Fueling and maintenance facilities for mobile and fixed equipment should also be provided.
Use of secondhand rail, ties, or turnouts should be kept to a minimum and used only in areas where track can be easily
removed from service without unduly restricting the overall use of the facility. The main switching leads and areas that will be
either paved over or located immediately adjacent to fixed elevation pavements or mechanical systems, should be constructed
with new premium or first grade material. Care must be taken during track maintenance to hold the elevation of the rail to
within the designed tolerances.
Drainage structures and pavement slopes should be designed to avoid temporary ponding of water and allow easy removal of
debris. The use of subsurface drains should be included in confined areas, such as track roadbeds within paved areas, to
provide an outlet for moisture infiltration.
SECTION 4.2 DESIGN OF INTERMODAL FACILITIES
Intermodal terminals are specialized freight terminals designed to efficiently transfer trailers and/or containers to and from rail
cars. Trailer on flat car/container on flat car (TOFC/COFC) operations involve mounting trailers or containers on specially
equipped flatcars. Double-stack intermodal operations involve placing one container on top of another on specially designed
rail cars that support the containers at a height of about one foot above the top of the rails. Intermodal terminals integrate rail,
highway and waterway transportation modes. For additional pertinent information on design of TOFC/COFC Facilities, refer
to Bulletin 696, Proceedings Volume 85, May 1984, Pages 157-190.
4.2.1.1 General
Factors influencing the facility location and design are accessibility to major highways and water routes, and capacity and
clearance capability of the serving rail lines. The location studies must consider the equipment type, the traffic volume,
railroad operations, highway traffic patterns and central location with respect to market area. There must be a commitment
from railroad management concerning the general area where an intermodal or TOFC/COFC terminal is desired.
4.2.1.1.1 Operational Concept
a. The design of an intermodal or TOFC/COFC terminal will be governed principally by the volume of intermodal traffic,
the land available, storage requirements and the existing layout for expansion projects.
b. A waterfront terminal serving a port handling container ships usually requires more storage/parking area than an inland
terminal unless the operations of the two facilities are closely coordinated. Waterfront terminals will frequently be
called upon to handle high volumes of movements on peak days and stand idle the remainder of the week. Operations
commonly handling perishable loads have different needs since electrical outlets and additional fuel supplies are
required to keep the refrigerated units running.

c. Standards should be developed to permit efficient truck-trailer movement between the terminal gate and the parking
areas. A computer program to help locate and retrieve trailers and containers will permit more efficient location
assignments for incoming and outgoing trailers.
d. A centralized management information system will facilitate trailer handling, spotting, preblocking and all associated
paper flow.
4.2.1.1.2 Rail Equipment Considerations
a. A variety of specialized rail equipment is used in the transport of trailers and containers. Trailer carrying railcars
provide a supporting platform for the trailer wheels and a stanchion to support the trailer at the king pin. The stanchion
latches the king pinto provide longitudinal restraint to the trailer. Some of these railcars have continuous platforms and
short bridge plates to span the gap between coupled cars, thus allowing the trailers to be driven onto and across the
cars. Lighter cars have platforms only at specific support points and require that all trailers be lifted on and off the cars.
b. Containers are carried on two basic types of cars. These are single-level cars similar to those used for trailers and
double stack cars specifically designed to carry two containers stacked one on top of the other. Single level cars have
special fittings that support and secure the corner castings of standard containers. Two types of double-stack car
designs are in use. Both carry the lower container in a “well” with the bottom of the container supported approximately
one foot above the top of rail. Bulkhead cars restrain the top container from longitudinal and lateral movement with
bulkhead guides at all four corners of the container, holding the lower one foot of the container in place. The weight of
the container is sufficient to prevent the container from bouncing out of the guides. Double-stack cars without
bulkheads require the use of twist-lock inter-box-connectors (IBC’s) to secure the upper box to the lower box. The IBC
provides both horizontal and vertical restraint for the upper box. All containers must be lifted on and off the rail cars
using various types of lift equipment that is generally dedicated to use at a given intermodal terminal.
1
4.2.1.2 Site Selection Planning
a. Many of today’s TOFC/COFC terminals are inadequate because they were originally designed to conform to an
available site. This approach should be avoided if at all possible.
3
b. Layout and planning for the facility should include the following elements:
4.2.1.2.1 Environment
Environmental factors to be considered include:
a. Air. 4
b. Water.
c. Noise and Lighting.
d. Rainfall Runoff.
e. Archaeological and Historical Sites.
f. Housing Displacement.
g. Proximity to Residential Areas.
h. Wetlands.
i. Floodplains.

Yards and Terminals
j. Difficult soils conditions.
4.2.1.2.2 Economics
The ideal facility topography is relatively level with good cross drainage and stable foundation material. The site should allow
a design that facilitates through train pickup and set-out, or termination and origination where possible. A minimum of switch
engine moves should be used to assure the most economical return.
4.2.1.2.3 Traffic Volume
Projected traffic volumes and possible future volumes will influence layout and traffic circulation plans.
4.2.1.2.4 Size
The size of a terminal depends on the number of trailers/containers loaded and unloaded in a specific time period, the length of
time the trailer/container is held at the facility and the method of operation. Space is often limited and expensive, which
therefore leads to more mechanized storage and handling systems.
4.2.1.2.5 Standardization
Standardizing certain elements of a TOFC/COFC terminal is desirable. This will permit the future transfer of terminal
equipment from one terminal to another.
4.2.1.2.6 Highway Access
Good highway access is essential to the proper TOFC/COFC terminal siting. Highway load restrictions and clearances must be
considered.
4.2.1.2.7 Rail Access
The approach tracks should be free from rail traffic congestion and have the proper rail clearances. If the daily volume of an
intermodal terminal exceeds the track capacity of that terminal, additional support yard trackage will be required to
accommodate arriving and departing trains and additional car storage.
4.2.1.2.8 Zoning
Most governmental jurisdictions have zoning laws that govern constructing the facility. It is highly desirable to avoid sites near
residential areas or sites that require rezoning, as this is often a lengthy process with limited prospects of successful results.
4.2.2 FACILITY TYPES AND EQUIPMENT (1993)
a. Committee 6, Assignment 1 entitled “Buildings, Platforms Ramps, Paving, Lighting and Other Facilities for Piggyback
Terminals,” in Bulletin No. 625, Proceedings Volume 71, January 1970 describes mechanical loading considerations,
loading methods and yard design considerations.
b. There are three types of TOFC/COFC facilities: end, side and overhead loading and unloading. Each has different
cycle times.
4.2.2.1 General
The approximate cycle time for each method during typical TOFC/COFC loading/unloading operations is five min. for end-
loading: two and one-half to three min. for side-loading (TOFC): and one and one-half to two min. for overhead loading
(TOFC).

4.2.2.2 Volumes
Three ranges of TOFC/COFC facility volumes are discussed and are defined as the total number of trailers or containers
loaded or unloaded in each 24-hr day.
4.2.2.2.1 Low Volume – Less than 100 Lifts/Day
Low volume terminals are characterized by infrequent train service. Some parking or yard space is necessary. In many cases,
trailers can be ramped as they arrive.
4.2.2.2.2 Medium Volume – 100 to 300 Lifts/Day
Medium volume terminals are designed to maximize the availability of trackside parking. Ramps can be used although cranes
and side-loaders are preferred.
4.2.2.2.3 High Volume – 300 and More Lifts/Day
a. High volume terminals are distinctly different from low and medium level terminals in configuration, equipment and
method of operation. They are usually designed to use side-loaders or overhead cranes for loading and unloading.
b. When a trailer enters the terminal area, the trucker may be directed to leave the trailer in a specific parking area or
deliver it to trackside for loading. Hostlers pick up trailers from assigned parking spaces and spot them at trackside
before loading operations begin.
c. The rail unloading cycle works in a similar manner but in reverse. 1

4.2.2.3 End-Loading (Fixed or Portable Ramps)
Railroad cars are end-loaded by backing the tractor-trailer combination onto a flat car or string of cars using a platform or ramp
constructed at car-floor height. The reverse procedure is used to unload trailers.
4.2.2.4 Side-Loading 3
Side-loading and unloading can be done by a forklift truck, a platform at car-floor height, a depressed track or by special
equipment which permits separating the trailer body from its wheels and placing the body on a flat car.
Side-loaders have poor weight distribution which increases both the subsurface density and paving thickness requirements,
and thus, greatly increases construction costs.
4
Side-loader characteristics vary depending upon the manufacturer. The following list displays key information regarding the
major types of side-loaders now in use:
a. Capacity: 44,000 to 90,000 lb.
b. Minimum aisle: 30 to 55 feet.
c. Ideal aisle: 55 to 75 feet.
d. Turning radius: 20 to 52 feet.
e. Transport to storage area: Yes.
f. Speed: 9 to 26 mph.
g. Stacks containers.

Yards and Terminals
4.2.2.5 Overhead Loading
a. Gantry cranes permit overhead handling of containers and trailers. The cranes may be rubber-tired or rail-mounted,
either of which permits picking up trailers or containers from the roadway adjacent to the track and longitudinal
movement from car to car. Rubber-tired cranes often require reinforced concrete runways to support the wheel loads,
while a rail-mounted crane requires a firm foundation to support the crane rail.
b. In an overhead crane operation, a trackside parked trailer or container is lifted vertically and moved laterally to the flat
car, and lowered onto the car. Ground operations supporting container loading/unloading operations are more complex
because the bogies or chassis must be brought trackside.
c. The characteristics of gantry cranes vary depending upon the manufacturer. The following list displays key information
regarding the major types of gantry cranes now in use:
(1) Capacity: 50,000 to 100,000 lb.
(2) Span (rubber-tired): 32 to 76 feet.
(3) Transport to storage area: possible with rubber-tired units.
(4) Stacks containers: four high (maximum; however, not normally desired).
(5) Turning radius: generally five feet over gantry width.
(6) Number of lifts per day: 360.
d. Straddle carriers (Van carrier) also provide overhead loading capabilities. Unlike the gantry crane, the straddle carrier
provides both the lifting and transport functions. The straddle carrier picks up the trailer or container at its current place
of rest by straddling it and lifting it. The straddle carrier then transports the unit to the end of the string of railcars to be
loaded. The unit then travels over the railcars, straddling the track and car, carrying the trailer or container in an
elevated position. Upon reaching the car to be loaded, the unit is lowered into position. The process is fully reversed for
unloading.
e. The characteristics of straddle carriers vary depending upon the manufacturer. The following list displays key
information regarding the major types of straddle carriers now in use:
(1) Capacity: 50,000 to 100,000 lb.
(2) Span (rubber-tired): 15-20 feet.
(3) Transport to storage area: eliminates the need for an independent hostling vehicle.
(4) Lift height: One trailer over trailer on flat car; one container over two containers on a double-stack car.
(5) Turning radius: 35 feet outside radius.
(6) Number of lifts per day: Depends on travel distance to staging area.
(7) Travel speed: 23 mph.
f. The choice of equipment characteristics must be made in concert with other facility development issues, such as: track
centers, traffic flows and operating volumes.

4.2.2.6 Parking/Staging Equipment
4.2.2.6.1 Containers
a. Yard tractors include flatbed trucks and trailers/chassis units which move containers from trackside to the parking area.
b. Straddle-carriers are specialized units designed to transport one container at a time between trackside and the parking
area.
c. Heavy-duty forklift trucks are used for stacking and repositioning containers.
d. Travel cranes are mounted on either rubber-tired wheels with straddle widths up to 75 feet or rail mounted with
straddle widths up to 200 feet.
4.2.2.6.2 Trailers
Trailers are usually moved between trackside and the parking area by a yard or road tractor.
4.2.2.7 Standard Rail Cars
The type of railroad cars to be used in the facility must be considered in the design. The 89-foot flatcar is the normal car
presently used for TOFC/COFC service. However, the trend is toward longer cars carrying two of the longer highway trailers
on a flat car.
4.2.2.8 Special Intermodal Cars 1

Various kinds of intermodal cars have been designed to reduce weight, improve aerodynamic efficiency, improve train
handling characteristics to reduce damage to lading, reduce fuel consumption, reduce the number of locomotive units needed
to move a given consist and improve terminal operation. Several types of cars now in common use include:
4.2.2.8.1 Single Platform Skeleton Cars

3
These cars are designed to carry containers or trailers on a lightly framed car. These cars are generally equipped with special
single axle trucks at either end of the car. Each car is capable of carrying one trailer or one long or two short containers.
4.2.2.8.2 Articulated Skeleton Cars
These cars are generally made up of five independent platforms similar to the single platform cars. The five platforms are 4
carried on a total of six two axle trucks. Each platform is capable of carrying one trailer or one long or two short containers.
4.2.2.8.3 Single Platform Double-Stack Well Cars
These cars carry one or two containers in the well and one more container on top of those in the well. The top container is
secured to the lower container(s) with inter-box-connectors (twist locks).
4.2.2.8.4 Articulated Double-Stack Well Cars
These cars consist of five well car type platforms connected with articulated couplings, and carried on six two axle trucks.
4.2.2.8.5 Articulated Double-Stack Bulkhead Car
These cars are very similar to the well type car except that the upper container is held in place by fixed or adjustable bulkheads
located at each end of each platform.

Yards and Terminals
4.2.2.8.6 Articulated Well-cars
Articulated well-cars, some with a mix of trailer and container carrying capabilities.
4.2.2.8.7 Stand-Alone Well Cars
These cars are basically a series of single platform well cars connected with rigid drawbars in order to achieve a train with a
minimum of slack action.
4.2.2.8.8 Dual-mode Vehicles (Rail/Highway Vehicle)
These vehicles are specially designed highway trailers that either have a single rail axle permanently mounted to the trailer, or
connect to a special two axle rail boggie. The individual units are connected to each other in elephant train fashion. A special
connector on the nose of one trailer is used to connect that trailer to a receiving socket at the back of the preceding trailer. A
large pin locks the two units together.
4.2.2.9 Trailers
The size and weight of truck trailers operating over highways are controlled by state and federal law. Federal Law permits up
to 80,000 lbs gross weight, trailers up to 102 inches wide and semitrailer portion of a tractor-semi-trailer combination up to 53
feet long on sections of the federal aid primary system highways. The allowable load limits and the seasonal weight
restrictions on the access roads to the TOFC/COFC terminal are important.
4.2.2.10 Containers
Containers come in a variety of common sizes, however their fittings and securement devices are usually standardized based
on the location of these devices on 20 feet and 40 feet ISO (International Standards Organization) marine containers. Common
container lengths include 20 feet, 40 feet, 45 feet, 48 feet and 53 feet. 24 feet and 35 feet containers are found in the fleets of
some steamship lines. Introduction of a 28-foot unit is anticipated. Widths are generally 96 inches or 102 inches with heights
being 4 feet, 8 feet, 8 ′-6″ and 9 ′-6″.
4.2.2.11 Securement
a. Trailers are secured to the railcar with a stanchion support that locks onto the trailers kingpin. These stanchions may be
a fixed type if the car is only designed for TOFC service. The stanchions are retractable if they also accommodate
container service or if they are designed for loading by the “End Loading” method (Article 4.2.3.1.1). Two types of
retractable tie-down mechanisms or trailer hitches on flatcars are presently in use, the “wrench-operated” and “tractor-
operated.” Trailer wheels are not secured, but lateral movement is resisted by curbs in the wheel support area.
b. Containers are secured in a variety of ways. On flat cars or most skeleton cars, the container is supported on pedestals
at all corners. The pedestal provides vertical support plus lateral and longitudinal restraint. A special spring clip
provides vertical restraint. Double-stack container cars restrain lateral and longitudinal motion of the lower container
with fixed guide pins on the support plate. These pins mate with a standard casting on the container at the 40′ × 96″
location. The container sits deep within the frame of the car so that lift out is not a problem. For well cars, the upper
container is locked to the lower container using standard marine type interbox-connectors at the 40′ × 96″ location. On
bulkhead cars the upper container is also supported on the lower container, but all other restraint is provided by the
bulkheads. A special saddle is being proposed to carry two 28 foot containers in the upper position on double-stack
well cars.
4.2.2.12 Chassis
Provisions for chassis storage should be made in the design for all terminals that will handle containers.

4.2.3 DESIGN FACTORS (2004)
The design factors that must be considered include the type of terminal, layout and configuration, pavement types, parking and
storage, security, facility services, environmental controls, the terminal buildings and the maintenance and service buildings.
4.2.3.1 Terminal Types
The facility should be designed so the truck driver can check in at the gate and then park the trailer in a well-marked parking
area or at an assigned trackside position for subsequent loading.
4.2.3.1.1 End Loading
a. The ramps for stub-end tracks can be constructed from timber, steel, or concrete filled with earth. Tracks for two-
directional unloading can be provided by paving an area level with the top of rail on which a portable ramp may be
maneuvered. Portable ramps can be used to eliminate the need to turn cars. The unloading track must be tangent.
Between-track platforms or platform walkways adjacent to the tracks are desirable. These platforms, which permit easy
worker movements between cars, should be about 2′− 3″ wide and 3′− 6″ high or car floor-height. Laws governing
track clearances affect the width of these platforms.
b. A small efficient low-volume end-loading terminal with the configuration shown in Figure 14-4-1 can handle 30 to 50
trailer loadings per shift. The configuration will vary in accordance with the land available.
4.2.3.1.2 Side Loading
a. The track and adjacent parking configuration shown in Figure 14-4-2 with a length of five to ten cars can easily handle
1
a volume of 50 lifts per shift. This low-volume configuration can be expanded for higher-volume terminals: up to 300
lifts per day can be attained with multiple-shift operations. The single track facility can be readily expanded as shown
in Figure 14-4-3 and Figure 14-4-4. A second track is added about 110 feet from the first track, with its own adjacent
parking area outside of the track area. One-way traffic flow should be provided to minimize interference with the
load/unload operation.
3
b. Traffic control and communications become very important when a medium-volume terminal approaches a volume of
300 lifts a day. An efficient operation will, therefore, require road and parking stall markings and signing.
c. An alternative to the outside parking shown in Figure 14-4-3 is a configuration with adjacent parking between the two
tracks as shown in Figure 14-4-5. The traffic-flow patterns are good with minimum interference with the side-loading
operation.
4
d. Side loading of containers requires the coordinated efforts of the equipment operator and several truck or hostler
drivers as the container chassis must be removed from trackside to allow the equipment to approach the
railcar.
4.2.3.1.3 Overhead Loading
a. Replacing side-loader equipment with crane-loading equipment should be explored when lift volumes approach 250 to
350 lifts per day. Overhead loading is usually provided at high-volume terminals with 300 or more lifts a day. The
high-volume terminal shown in Figure 14-4-6 equipped with two cranes can be used for daily volumes in the range of
300 to 600 lifts a day. This terminal configuration can then be expanded from 600 to 1,200 lifts a day by adding tracks
and cranes. Figure 14-4-7 and Figure 14-4-8 show a configuration for loading double stack rail equipment using long
span and short span overhead equipment.
b. Terminal operators will vary in their opinion regarding the merits of sidelift equipment versus overhead lift equipment.
This is generally a speed vs. flexibility argument. The overhead equipment has faster cycle times and is very efficient
when moving from one end of the track to the other loading or unloading a unit at each position. Side loading

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-1. Low-Volume Terminal with End Loading
Figure 14-4-2. Low-Volume Terminal – Side Loading

Figure 14-4-3. Medium-Volume Terminal with Side Loading and Outside Parking 3
Figure 14-4-4. Side Loading Double Stack Cars Between Parallel Tracks

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-5. Medium-Volume Terminal with Side Loading and Inside Parking
equipment generally has a higher ground travel speed allowing it to move around the facility quicker to handle “Hot”
loads at random locations.
c. Expanding terminals to volumes of more than 1,000 lifts a day should be considered only after a very thorough analysis
has been made of truck-traffic flow-patterns. In major cities where volumes of these magnitudes may be available, the
efficiency of several high-volume terminals located at strategic points around the city should be contrasted with the
efficiency of a single very-high-volume terminal.
4.2.3.1.4 Lift and Travel Loading
Straddle (van) carriers provide a variation on the other mechanical systems in that the lift and travel functions are provided by
a single piece of equipment. This approach allows a terminal to expand through a range of throughput rates without altering
the basic organization of the facility.
4.2.3.2 Layout and Configuration
a. The type of loading-unloading equipment to be used in a terminal influences the terminal layout and configuration.
b. Terminal layouts also affect the efficiency of loading/unloading and parking activities. Rail-mounted cranes require the
least amount of lateral space but may complicate the problem of movement between rail cars. Rail-mounted machines
are used where they can serve several tracks from a single travel path. While portable ramps are inexpensive, access
room is required at the end of the rail cut. Side-loaders are flexible, but need adequate operating space between parallel
tracks. Rubber-tired, overhead-lift equipment can function in a wide range of layout widths, but when configured for
the maximum operating flexibility has the widest site requirement per track. Van carrier systems require the least site
width per track of all the mechanized systems, but always require an independent parking area. The parking area for a

Figure 14-4-6. High-Volume Terminal, Crane Loading with Outside Parking
Figure 14-4-7. Long Span Crane, Single Track with Double Stack Cars

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-8. Short Span Crane, Single Track with Double Stack Cars
van carrier facility requires more land per parking stall than other systems because of pathways required for the carriers
wheels. The requirements of a combination TOFC/COFC facility should be considered when determining the most
effective equipment and layout.
c. Medium-volume terminals consist of multiple parallel tracks with the appropriate space between each set of tracks for
equipment operation. The tracks vary in length from about 1,000 to 3,000 feet and are usually stubbed although some
facilities have flow-through trackage.
d. High-volume terminals have typical track lengths of 3,000 to 8,000 feet with a driveway crossing near the middle for
ease of trailer handling by yard hostlers. High-volume terminals can handle up to 1,000 units per day flowing through
the facility. The typical high-volume terminal does not have the track capacity needed for a full day’s volume of rail car
traffic and cars must be pulled into or out of the facility several times a day.
e. Curves on the approach track should have the longest radii possible, with a minimum allowable radius on a constant
vertical gradient of 441.68 feet (13 degrees). Due to extreme length of rolling stock, design of minimum radius may
result in operating difficulties.
4.2.3.3 Pavement Systems
4.2.3.3.1 General Considerations
There are a variety of requirements for pavement design considerations at TOFC/COFC terminals.
a. The capacity to support parked, loaded semi-trailers and containers based on short and long term projections of
equipment utilization.
b. The capacity to support lifting equipment while carrying and lifting maximum loads. (Side-loading equipment in
particular have heavy concentrated front-wheel pressures when under load, and under the steering wheels when
empty.)

c. The pavement should require minimum maintenance because closing part of the terminal for such work can seriously
impair service to customers as well as cause operating problems.
d. Long and short term planned facility development should be considered as business types (trailer vs. container), and
customer base may effect pavement considerations. Potential changes in labor organization contracts (ports),
operations/ownership, track expansion, ingress, egress, loading equipment, initial capital cost, pavement life, and
serviceability all play a role in pavement design.
4.2.3.3.2 Design Criteria
Most pavement design models incorporate four key components: soil condition, environment, design loads, and pavement
life/serviceability. Of these, the first two are site-dependent, with in-situ mitigation measures the only means to change the
input parameters.
a. Design Loads. Vehicular loading can be classified as four types:
(1) Loading/Lift equipment
Loading equipment generally takes one of four forms; side-loading, reach-stackers, gantry crane, or straddle
carrier. Side-loading and reach stacking equipment, though extremely flexible, have a highly concentrated load
about the front axle. The mobility of these machines generally requires significant increased pavement depth over
a large area (effectively all areas where the equipment can be operated). Further, the tight turning radii relative to
the machine’s size cause significant lateral surface loads, which can lead to rutting and plastic flow of paving
materials. Typical loading ranges and footprints can be found in figures/tables following text.
1
Gantry cranes and straddle carriers generally have a more evenly distributed wheel loading. Furthermore, their
mobility throughout the facility is generally concentrated along defined runways adjacent to the tracks or over
blocks of stacked containers. However, the overall vehicle weight coupled with the concentration of loading
cycles generally results in the paved runways being at least as substantial as pavement designed for side-loading
equipment. Typical loading can be in the area of 120 psi.
3
Figure 14-4-9. Typical Rubber Tired Gantry Crane

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-10. Typical Container Handler

Table 14-4-1. Range and Average for Reach-Stackers, Side-Lift and Gantry
(2) Trailer/container storage (loaded or empty)
Pavement loading considerations for trailer storage must address these four questions:
(a) Is the pavement designed for the parking of full semi-trailers?
(b) Will the aisles between the parking rows be accessed only by truck traffic, or will lift equipment also be
operating in the area for ‘turning’ of containers?

Yards and Terminals
(c) Are the chassis (dolly) wheel pads adequate? (Dolly or chassis wheel pads, usually 5-8 feet in width, are
subject to much higher concentrated loads. The older style, round steel wheels have significantly higher
loadings than do the newer flat-plate style.
(d) Will stacked containers by adequately supported? Stacked container storage (without dollies) will have
concentrated loads at the four lock-down pins located about the base of the containers. The concentrated
loads at these pins will be higher than most any pavement can withstand, resulting in localized punching until
the body of the container is resting upon the ground. The limit of most rail facility loading equipment is a
stack 4-containers high. The aisles in stacked container storage must be designed for side-loading lift
equipment which can exert very high loads.)
(3) Hostlers vs. Over-the-Road trucks
Though similar in nature, hostlers differ from OTR tractors in the incorporation of a single rear driving axle versus
the tandem arrangement employed by OTR’s. This will result in higher loads throughout the facility where
hostlers are driven.
(4) Chassis storage
Empty chassis are generally stored either as parked trailers or in special racks. Where racks are not employeed,
light duty pavements are frequently used.
b. Pavement Life. The life of any pavement is comprised of two factors; load cycles and serviceability. Over the life of
the pavement, it will support a number of load repetitions at a given severity. Each load will damage, or in effect, wear
the pavement. The relationship to load versus frequency is not linear, with a single heavy load causing more wear than
several, or even many loads at half the weight. In summary, every pavement fails, the goal is to ensure maximum
service life for the least overall cost.
As the pavement wears, it cracks, pumps, shifts, ruts, shells, and otherwise deforms from the original flat, smooth
condition that existed when it was constructed. Over the life of the pavement, maintenance measures may be
incorporated to correct the damage, or to reduce its advancement. The point at which a pavement is worn or damaged
beyond the economic effort to maintain it, thus requiring replacement, is the practical end of its service life. This point
is a function of both the level of corrective maintenance applied over the life of the pavement, and the acceptable level
of damage over which facility vehicles can be operated.
The terminal serviceability level of the pavement is defined by the facility operator. This is impacted by the level of
maintenance that will be performed over the life of the pavement. Assuming the number and severity of load cycles
can be calculated, the pavement design can be defined.
From these considerations several conclusions can be deduced:
(1) A facility which will not receive much maintenance over its life due to cost or operational considerations will
require a more durable pavement section than one under like conditions which receives regular maintenance.
(2) Temporary or short-term pavements can be employed which have a lower cost of installation, but they will require
heavy maintenance or frequent replacement. The ultimate choice of a short term pavement versus long term
solution must not only include allowances for changes in area use, but an economic decision of the total cost of the
pavement over the total life of the facility.
(3) Though gate facilities which only handle highway traffic experience light loads over their life, the number of load
cycles in these areas will be significantly higher as all highway traffic must pass through them. Likewise, aisles
and frequently traveled routes will generally require a more durable pavement than parking areas.

(4) The total facility cost of a side-load operation is generally much greater than a gantry only, due to the overall
surface area which is subject to side-loading equipment loads. Careful planning must be undertaken to ensure that
the limits of pavement designed for side-load equipment closely match the actual operation.
(5) The use of ridged pavements under stacked container storage is not advised as the concentrated loads result in the
fracture of the pavement rather than the deformation. Flexible pavements with pockets from loading pins can be
healed without replacement.
4.2.3.3.3 Portland Cement Concrete Wearing Surface
a. Gantry crane runway widths vary from 5 to 10 feet. Thickness will depend upon factors referenced in Article 4.2.3.3.2.
b. Concrete pads for semi-trailers landing gear are often necessary. The pads should be at least 5 feet wide and 8 inches
thick, but actual dimensions should be governed by soil conditions.
c. The consideration of sub-base layers may be as crucial as the design thickness of the concrete.
d. The use of concrete roadways normally provides the following benefits:
(1) Assures stable, non-erodable, skid-resistant, uniform platform surface.
(2) Increases possible uses of overall platform area as business conditions change, assuming this was taken into
account when pavement section was designed.
(3) Historically has longer service life between maintenance cycles if designed properly. 1
4.2.3.3.4 Asphalt-Concrete Wearing Surface
This paving is frequently used for roadways, trailer/container parking space, and for truck driveway maneuvering areas.
a. Use of asphalt-concrete in the roadways, parking, and maneuvering areas, normally provide the following benefit to
the owner or operator of the facility.
3
(1) Lower initial capital cost
(2) Historically lower maintenance costs per individual failure point
(3) Assures stable, non-erodable, uniform platform design 4

(4) Facility disruption is minimized during periods of surface repair
b. Use of asphalt-concrete should use maximum design criteria for local DOT or airport design specifications.
c. As in concrete design, consideration should be given to aggregate type (slag, processed miscellaneous base or large
crushed aggregate) as non-traditional mixes have shown positive results in many cases. Pavement design procedures
link pavement performance to the material’s elastic modulus or stiffness, and Poisson’s ratio, as well as their
performance under load repetitions and environmental changes. These can be summarized in the form of fatigue
performance during service for different temperatures.
4.2.3.3.5 Liquid Asphalt Surface Treatment
This type of paving can be constructed where economy in initial capital expenditures is vital, yet a dust-free surface is
necessary.

Yards and Terminals
4.2.3.3.6 Waterbound Macadam
This is the least expensive type of paving and can give satisfactory performance at small to medium sized ramp-loading
terminals. It can also be used in empty storage areas. After compaction under use, a stronger type of pavement can be overlaid
for facility expansion.
4.2.3.3.7 Roller Compacted Concrete
Roller compacted concrete (RCC) is a zero slump concrete mixture that is mixed, placed, and rolled with the same commonly
available equipment utilized for asphalt pavement construction. Because of low water content, the mix can have similar or
greater strength than conventional Portland concrete cement. Potential problems arise from the fact that few contractors have
experience with the process, it tends to unravel over time, and it cracks continuously making it susceptible to water migration,
hence freezing and thawing. The attendant unsightly cracking, is usually offensive to management.
4.2.3.3.8 Pavers
The use of pavers has had limited use in the U.S. and has been tried at a few port facilities. They are reputed to provide a
highly durable surface, while tending to perform in a manner of flexible pavements.
4.2.3.3.9 Unbound Granular Materials
Granular materials consist of gravel or crushed rock that have a gradation which makes them stable and workable. Recycled
concrete and/or asphalt should not be overlooked as an excellent base material. Dust control and surface maintenance is an
accepted liability with the use of this product.
4.2.3.3.10 Cement Treated Materials
Cement treated materials are produced by adding a sufficient amount of cement to the granular materials or soil to create a
bounded layer with higher stiffness and strength than unbound materials. The layer should not be so thin that it cracks under
load, thereby permitting pumping of underlying soils if water is present.
4.2.3.3.11 Specifications and Construction Procedures
Individual state department of transportation standard specifications can be used with airport pavement and drainage
specifications for constructing the pavement and drainage systems. In most circumstances, ASTM tests are still the standard
testing benchmark for soil and materials testing.
4.2.3.3.12 Soil Treatments
Existing soils play a major role in their potential to influence the type and cost of surface material used on a given site. Certain
fundamental treatments applied to soils have shown to be successful.
a. Lime/Flyash: Incorporated into certain soil types, it can lower the Plasticity Index and actually strengthen the soil. It
will leach out and lose strength if not under a water repellant wearing surface.
b. Cement can:
(1) Provide an impermeable, uniform, support for the pavement.
(2) Eliminate subbase consolidation.
(3) Improve load transfer at joints.
(4) Expedite construction since it stabilizes the working base during adverse weather.

(5) Provide firm support for slipform paver or side forms.
(6) Be cost competitive over granular materials in certain areas.
(7) Increase strength of substandard granular materials.
c. Geo-Webs: Consolidate granular material in confined spaces, bridges sub-standard soil support conditions.
d. Geo-Grids: Combined with layers of granular materials and/or select fill, can bridge substandard soil conditions.
e. Fabrics: See Geo-Grids.
In summary, the sensitivity of subgrade strength to moisture content should be assessed in detail. In general the following
rules apply:
a. For sandy soils, small fluctuations in moisture content produce little change in stiffness/strength or in volume,
b. For silty soils, small fluctuations in moisture content produce little change in volume, but can produce large changes in
stiffness/strength,
c. For clay soils, small fluctuations in moisture content may produce large changes in volume and in stiffness/strength
characteristics.
4.2.3.3.13 Drainage Structures

1
Drainage structures can be of most varieties, but must be able to withstand the loading of lift equipment. Generally, those
grates and drainage structures approved for airport use are readily applied to intermodal facilities.
4.2.3.4 Parking
Parking facilities should be near the loading tracks with additional parking for storage, as required.
3
4.2.3.4.1 Trailers
a. Yard and road tractors are the primary method of moving trailers within a terminal. The trailer parking configuration
shown in Figure 14-4-1, Figure 14-4-2, Figure 14-4-3, Figure 14-4-5, and Figure 14-4-6 should be adequate to
accommodate the daily traffic in each type yard. A 10-by-50-foot parking area should be provided as a minimum for
each trailer. Additional length may be desirable to avoid having 53 feet units encroach upon aisleways. Wider slots 4
may make maneuvering easier but does so at a significant loss in the total number of parking slots that can be provided
on a given piece of land.
b. A trailer parking area of approximately two-and-one-half times the number of trailers handled each day should be
planned. This ratio is based on historical trailer dwell periods experienced at intermodal terminals. The amount of
parking necessary may vary widely for terminals that primarily serve a single customer, such as a marine terminal, the
U.S. Postal Service or UPS.
4.2.3.4.2 Containers
a. A crane is used to move the container from the chassis or flat bed pulled by a yard tractor. Alternatively, the containers
can be left on the chassis. A large number of containers are loaded or unloaded at marine terminals in a short period of
time and the storage-yard capacity will control operational efficiency.
b. There are three basic configurations for parking/stacking the containers.

Yards and Terminals
4.2.3.4.2.1 Herringbone Layouts
Used to store containers either on chassis or on support legs, with no stacking.
4.2.3.4.2.2 Block Layouts
The best use of scarce parking areas; containers are stacked three or four high in a tight block. Block layouts are often used for
storing empty containers and for long-term storage of containers awaiting outbound movements.
4.2.3.4.2.3 Ribbon Layouts
Offer better container selectivity than block layouts.
NOTE: For further information and typical design drawings on container terminals, refer to the report of
Committee 14, Assignments entitled “Terminal Facilities for Container Handling,” in Bulletin No.
635, Proceedings Volume 73, Nov. – Dec. 1971.
4.2.3.5 Security
TOFC/COFC facilities are easy targets for both organized and random burglary. Further, the terminals are often in high-crime
environments where theft operations can be highly organized. Security for TOFC/COFC facilities is therefore essential.
Security measures include fencing, lighting, guards and patrols, closed circuit TV to scan the terminal and sensor systems.
4.2.3.6 Facility Services
4.2.3.6.1 Electrical
a. Lighting and power outlets in the track area may be provided to assist tie-down operations. Parking areas should be
lighted if there are extensive night operations or for security and safety reasons.
b. Typical design procedures and criteria are published in the Illuminating Engineering Society’s IES Lighting Handbook.
4.2.3.6.2 Communications
Communication facilities within and beyond the operation area should be provided for efficiency. In addition to traditional
phone systems and two-way radios, modern communications systems include computer-in-cab systems for both cranes and
yard hostlers, radio frequency automatic equipment identification systems, and localized geopositioning systems.
4.2.3.6.3 Utilities
Underground utilities are desirable to avoid conflict with operation. Sanitary, water, HVAC, electrical utilities and possibly
engine block heaters should be provided in accordance with the facility requirements. Fire Protection should be provided as
stipulated in Part 1, Generalities, Section 1.6, Fire Prevention in Yards.
4.2.3.6.4 Grading and Drainage
a. A typical drainage system layout usually consists of a trunk line parallel to the tracks with lateral lines running under
the tracks at about 200 to 300 feet intervals with catch basins between each track. Inlets should be located at all gutter
low points and at any planned low points in parking areas. Other methods use trench drains between the track and
pavement sections, or slotted drains in large paved areas.
b. Local, state, or national agencies may have drainage-design requirements and may specify certain design procedures.
In the absence of any jurisdictional agency, county or state highway department procedures are suggested for use.

c. It is imperative to follow good engineering practice in all elements of design and construction, including preparing and
compacting of the subgrade, increasing the bearing capacity of soils as necessary, erosion protection, proper sloping of
cuts and fills and surface and subsurface drainage systems.
d. Care should be taken with the design of drainage systems where containers are staged or stored in grounded stacks.
Where possible drainage should be directed away from these areas. Other methods include providing slightly raised
concrete pads to support containers on their corner castings, allowing a few inches of space under the body of the
container for the passage of surface water.
4.2.3.6.5 Water Pollution Control
Water pollution control ranging from oil/water separators to full treatment and pH balancing may be required at the following
service areas:
• Fuel.
• Maintenance Building.
• Outside Maintenance Areas.
• Trailer and Truck Washing Facilities.
• Paved Parking Areas.
4.2.3.6.6 Truck Scale 1
A truck scale meeting state highway specifications may be needed to check the weight of loaded trailers. When required, it
should be installed in the facility entrance/exit area. See AAR Scale Handbook included in this manual for details.
4.2.3.7 Terminal Buildings

3
Complete design criteria available in Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities. However, for information note the
following:
4.2.3.7.1 Offices
The larger-volume operations will require an office for supervisory and clerical staff, with the normal amenities for operating
personnel. Standard office design criteria should be used, including provisions for communications, uninterruptable power 4
supply and employee parking.
4.2.3.7.2 Storage Building
A storage building should be provided for blocking and bracing material for adjusting shifted loads.
4.2.3.7.3 Air Compressor Facilities
Air compressor facilities are required for making brake tests on cars and for the use of air tools.
4.2.3.7.4 Interior Washing Facilities
Interior washing facilities and appurtenances may be necessary if refrigerator trailers are handled in sufficient quantity.

Yards and Terminals
4.2.3.7.5 Container Transloading Building
A container transloading building may be required.
4.2.3.7.6 Guard Building
a. When the office is not located at the entrance, a separate guard building should be provided for check-in and check-out
and equipment condition inspection. If not provided elsewhere, the guard building may also be used to support security
activities and provide for outside communication.
b. There are several methods of making trailer/container roof inspections when required.
(1) Overhead mirrors;
(2) High platforms with ladders or stairways; and
(3) TV cameras monitoring from the interior of the office building.
4.2.3.7.7 Transfer and Customs Inspection Dock
A transfer and customs inspection dock may be provided for transferring loads from damaged trailers and for making customs
inspections.
4.2.3.7.8 Gate Check-in Facilities
High volume facilities require efficiently functioning gates to maintain a smooth flow of vehicles into and out of the terminal.
Special lanes may be provided for bob-tail tractors. Telephone pre-check stations allow drivers to give clerks all necessary
information before they proceed to scales and inspection stations. By executing a pre-check, an interchange document can be
printed at the inspection station before the driver arrives.
4.2.3.7.9 Hazardous Material Containment
A special area of the terminal may need to be set aside where hazardous material can be contained if a leaking container or
trailer is encountered.
4.2.3.8 Maintenance and Service Buildings and Facilities
4.2.3.8.1 Locomotive and Car Maintenance
a. Maintenance operations for locomotives and cars at TOFC/COFC facilities are usually done at nearby service
facilities.
b. Much of the maintenance of both freight cars and locomotives is closely regulated by either the FRA or the AAR, and
it is important to consider their repair procedures in designing a maintenance facility. EPA and state environmental
agency requirements must also be considered. Car repair at a TOFC/COFC facility normally includes light repair
performed in the yard, however with the intense use of double-stack container cars, heavier repairs such as wheel
changeouts are also undertaken while the car is in the terminal rather than sending it to a shop location for this work.
4.2.3.8.2 Trailer/Container and Tractor Maintenance and Servicing
a. The corner-post securing devices (for containers) and the fifth wheel/trailer securing devices must be periodically
checked to ensure the devices are secure. In the case of refrigerated units, diesel-powered generators must be checked.
Tractor maintenance and service may be provided when necessary.

b. Other repairs that may be accommodated at an intermodal facility include:
(1) Watertightness repairs to trailers and containers.
(2) Tire repairs to hostlers, trailers and chassis.
(3) Lamp and lens replacement for chassis and trailers.
4.2.3.8.3 Equipment Fueling Facility
Fueling facilities for equipment should be considered. The equipment requiring fueling facilities are:
a. Tractors.
b. Refrigerated Trailers.
c. Gantry Cranes.
d. Side Loaders.
e. Portable Generators.
f. Straddle Cranes.
g. Other Mechanical Equipment. 1

4.2.3.8.4 Side-Loader/Crane Maintenance Facility
a. A separate building will improve maintenance of this equipment, especially in colder climates.
b. Complete design criteria and additional pertinent information are readily available in Bulletin 696, Proceedings
Volume 85, May 1984, pages 157-190. 3
SECTION 4.3 AUTOMOBILE AND TRUCK LOADING/UNLOADING FACILITIES

4
4.3.1 AUTOMOBILE LOADING/UNLOADING (1993)
4.3.1.1 General
a. The transfer of automobiles to and/or from rail cars (i.e. rail-truck, rail-rail, truck-rail, ground-rail or rail-ground)
generally requires a separate facility to accomplish this task. This separation is required to insure protection and
security of the automobiles.
b. Domestically-produced automobiles are frequently loaded on rail cars within the confines of the manufacturing plant.
Foreign-produced automobiles are usually loaded on rail cars at dock-side. Many transfer variations can be utilized;
however, in each case, securing the operation is of prime concern. This type of facility may also be used for automobile
ferry services.
c. Items to be considered in selecting an automobile loading/unloading (transfer) facility are as follows.

Yards and Terminals
4.3.1.1.1 Location
A site should be selected with easy access to main highways, as well as ease of rail switching. Consideration should also be
given to the potential of vandalism so as to avoid missile damage and theft. Proximity to areas that may generate air pollution
which could damage automobile finishes should also be examined. It is also desirable to not locate in low lying areas to avoid
potential flood damage to vehicles.
4.3.1.1.2 Size
a. The size of the facility, its trackage, ramping and vehicle storage areas, should be large enough to handle the maximum
expected load under the proposed operating conditions. Some of the conditions to be considered are: the average work
week, type and quantity of vehicles handled and the number of agencies using the same facilities. The auto production
and distribution process, by its very nature, requires a considerable degree of advance planning, including volume
predictions. All auto manufacturers can and do make rather good volume predictions which can be utilized for
planning purposes. Future needs should also be evaluated if possible.
b. Factors which affect the sizing of an unloading facility are:
(1) Automobile Parking. Requires estimate of maximum number of vehicles in facility at one time.
(2) Truck Transport Area. The number of truck transport loading stalls must be determined.
(3) Track Capacity. Adequate multilevel rail car capacity should be provided to allow one switch or spot per shift.
(4) Rain Runoff Retention Ponds. Consideration should be given to retaining runoff from the large paved areas to
prevent flood damage to adjoining properties.
(5) Buildings. Office space, washrooms and locker facilities should be determined. Cleanliness of employees handling
automobiles is important to prevent soiling of vehicles. Office buildings or servicing facilities for haul-away
trucks may be necessary. However, separation of these facilities from the primary automobile area is desirable to
maintain automobile security.
(6) Employee/Visitor Parking. Consideration should be given to providing a separate secured parking area.
(7) Miscellaneous. Dead battery parking, damaged vehicle parking, specialized vehicle handling requirements (i.e.
van, truck, luxury and military).
4.3.1.1.3 Security
Since the vehicles are left with the keys in them, security is of prime importance. The entire area should be fenced to
discourage unauthorized entry and theft. Many facilities are arranged so that automobiles can only be driven out of the parking
area over haul-away docks or ramps. Provisions for checking employees and visitors in and out should be made. Parking stalls
should be away from security fence to provide an unobstructed buffer area around inside of fence. Other electronic security
devices can also be utilized. (See Article 4.3.5.)
4.3.1.1.4 Lighting
Lights should be provided for entire area adequate for security and for loading, unloading and inspection, if required. Poles
should not be located in fence line. (See Article 4.3.5.)
4.3.1.1.5 Zoning, Building Codes and Permit Requirements
All Local, State and Federal requirements must be met. Considerable time may be required to obtain some Permits.

4.3.1.1.6 Special Requirements
Customers’ needs or standards should be evaluated.
4.3.1.2.1 Parking
Layout configurations vary from facility to facility. Most patterns are determined by the overall size and shape of the land
available. Four patterns of parking are available. They are 90 degrees head to head, angle parking-head to head or angle
(herringbone) pattern. Parallel line parking, head to tail, is sometimes utilized for direct loading. The advantages or
disadvantages of each must be addressed for each facility.
a. Typical Configurations (right angle parking-head to head). See Site Plan Example – Figure 14-4-11.
(1) Stalls:
• Standard – 10′ × 20′.
• Luxury or Van – 10′ × 22′.
• Dead Battery – 11′ × 20′.
• Damaged Vehicles – 12′ × 22′.

1
• Clearance from security fence – minimum 10 feet.
(2) Aisles:
• Between Stalls, One Way – minimum 22 feet.
• Main Trafficways, Two Way – minimum 30 feet. 3

(3) Number of stalls:
• Approximately 125 vehicles per acre with 10′ × 20′ stalls.
b. Surface Asphalt Paving Recommended:

4
• Many facilities are built with 4 inch asphalt thickness made up of 2-1/2 inch base course and 1-1/2 inch surface
course on a suitable soil or rock subbase.
• However, pavement design, including subbase, should be based on local design considerations with asphalt thickness
consistent with site conditions.
c. Grades.
(1) Grade:
• As near level as practicable but with sufficient slope to promote drainage.
(2) Sub-Grade:
• Consistent with local conditions and adequate to support automobile loading.

Yards and Terminals
d. Row and Stall Identification.
(1) Striping recommended for parking stalls and lanes. Direction arrows may also be desirable.
(2) Rows designated with Capital Letters:
• Desirable to locate row letters on signs (12-inch high letters) at end of rows, minimum 8 feet to bottom of sign.
(3) Stalls numbered with numbers placed on left near aisle.
e. Staging Area – Bumper to bumper staging (aisles 9 feet – 12 feet wide) may be used for common destination
movements.
Figure 14-4-11. Automobile Loading/Unloading Site Example

4.3.1.2.2 Track
a. Grade. As near level as practicable.
b. Centers.
(1) 15 feet minimum.
(2) 25 feet or more where service vehicles drive between rail cars and for placement of bridge plate storage racks.
c. Structure.
(1) Open (unpaved).
(a) Advantages.
1 Ease of maintenance.
2 Easier drainage if ballast above pavement.
(b) Disadvantages.
1 Requires crossings and/or unloading areas every four to six car lengths and unloading configuration is
fixed.
1
2 Ballast must be kept out of roadways.
(2) Paved.
(a) Advantages.
3
1 Can spot rail cars for unloading from either end in any grouping (from one to six cars).
2 Less restricted driving when tracks unoccupied.
(b) Disadvantages.
1 Track maintenance difficult. 4

2 Requires sub-drainage.
3 Additional cost.
d. Lengths.
(1) All (un)loading tracks same capacity if possible for uniformity of switching (approximately 95 track feet required
for typical rail car).
(2) Multiple of four to six car segments with paved (or planked) unloading area (120 feet minimum length) at each
end and between each four to six car segments.
(3) Tangent track required for each multiple rail car spot.
e. Turnouts.

Yards and Terminals
(1) Unpaved for ease of maintenance.
(2) Recessed switch stands where high switch stands might be struck by vehicles.
f. Limits for Rail Car Spotting.
(1) Stripe in paved areas.
(2) Steel bumping posts with heavy impact break-away design.
(3) Wheel stops placed for cars with least end overhang.
(4) Concrete dock with wood or mechanical bumper at coupler level.
g. Other Features.
(1) Auxiliary trackage.
(a) Secondary rail car storage tracks may be necessary, depending on volume of automobile shipments.
(b) Additional tracks may also be needed for rail car inspections and/or repairs prior to loading.
(2) Bridge plate storage racks.
(a) Serve two adjacent tracks.
(b) Should be opposite car couplers.
(c) Can also serve as mounts for fee extinguishers.
(d) Paint bright color to inhibit vehicles striking.
(3) Protection of (un)loading personnel.
(a) Provide Blue Flag protection at entry ends of all (un)loading tracks with rack for unused flag storage.
(b) Provide private locks on entry switches, derails and/or gates.
(c) Provide audible rotating light alarms on rail entry gates.
4.3.1.2.3 Rail Car Loading/Unloading Equipment
a. Should be designed to allow quick drive on/off of automobiles. Automobile manufacturers should be consulted to
determine maximum permissible ramp angles.
b. Typically self-propelled, rubber-tired, ramps used which can be raised and lowered to reach the three levels of a
standard rail car.

c. Consideration should be given to provide concrete pavement or planked crossing surface at loading/unloading area
under portable ramp since area is heavily travelled, has frequent twisting of wheels and is exposed to hydraulic oil and
gasoline leaks.
d. Track or rail-mounted ramps used at same locations either from ground level or on elevated dock.
4.3.1.2.4 Transport Truck Loading/Unloading Area
a. The truck haul of automobiles is normally handled by a separate company or contractor. There are many variations of
transport trucks in existence. It is important to verify transport truck dimensions before designing this area.
b. Provide sufficient space to permit turning and spotting of truck for loading/unloading of automobiles.
c. Volume predictions required to determine number of transport truck spaces. Stalls normally 12 feet wide.
d. Consider use of concrete pavement for durability.
e. Provide physical separation of area from automobile parking-staging area for security. Fence and/or low guard rail
normally used. Guard rail must be low enough to allow placement of ramps over rail and high enough to prevent
driving automobiles over the rail. Verify transport truck dimensions.
f. Ground mounted, adjustable, steel ramps sometimes required to load some types of transport trucks.
4.3.2 TRUCK CHASSIS LOADING/UNLOADING (1989)

1
4.3.2.1 General
Factors regarding location, size, buildings, surfacing, security and lighting enumerated above for automobiles apply equally as
well to truck chassis. The rail equipment and the placement of the trucks on the rail equipment differs. Trucks with cabs, but
without bodies (truck chassis) are commonly shipped in “saddleback” fashion on a specially equipped flat car. Thus, the use of
a crane is required for loading and unloading. While the loading may be done at a plant site exclusively devoted to trucks, the
unloading operation can conveniently be incorporated into and made a part of a typical automobile unloading facility.
3
4.3.2.2 Unloading Track
Truck shipping volumes being considerably less than autos, a single truck set apart from, but adjacent to, auto facilities should
suffice. Volume and economic considerations will dictate the degree of separation from, and/or incorporation within, auto
facilities. 4
4.3.2.3 Unloading Facilities
Trucks loaded in “saddleback” fashion must be removed from the truck they have been set upon and secured to for transport to
a level position on the car deck before being started and driven from the car. The job can be accomplished by a mobile crane of
sufficient capacity operated adjacent to the rail car where volume is light and the need only occasional. Where volumes require
a greater degree of specialization, it is recommended that an “A” frame crane, track-mounted and electrically operated with
running rails located outside of regular track rails, be provided. The “A” frame straddles the car to be unloaded and can be
positioned to handle any car spotted within its reach. Figure 14-4-12 details a tie layout to accommodate the “A” frame.
Access to the unloading track for pre-starting service should be given consideration. Air supply sufficient to release truck
brakes is a necessity.

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-12. Typical Layout or “A” Frame Truck Unloading
4.3.3 MILITARY VEHICLES (1989)
This type of facility may also be used for receipt and transfer of new military vehicles. Special provisions may be necessary to
handle some of these vehicles due to weight, size or other considerations.
4.3.4 CONTAINERIZED SHIPPING (1989)
Some new automobile shipments are also being moved in standardized containers or enclosed trailers. These shipments can be
moved directly from loading point to the dealer’s site without actually handling the automobile while in transit. A TOFC-
COFC facility is more appropriate for these types of shipments rather than the above-noted configurations.

4.3.5 SECURITY (1996)
Rail served auto terminals are specialized facilities designed to transfer autos, trucks, and other vehicles to and from rail cars.
Their designs are as unique or individualized as the companies that construct and operate them. The design criterion, however
unique, has a common denominator, security. Security not only protects the customer’s commodity, but provides a safe
working environment for all employees. Security can be enhanced through various methods, including lighting, fencing,
barriers, gates, alarms, closed circuit television, card access systems, signs, security guards, or through any combination of
these methods.
4.3.5.2 General
The level of security commitment can be a direct result of facility design or operational concept. It is also influenced by citing
environmental demands, local building codes, capital commitment, volume of traffic, history of thefts or vandalism in area,
and combined day/night operation.
4.3.5.3 Influence of Operational Concept
a. Currently there are two major methods utilized by the trucking companies that pick up and deliver vehicles to the
facility:
• standard or end loading (Figure 14-4-13).

1
• perimeter loading (Figure 14-4-14).
Figure 14-4-13. Suggested Automotive Handling Facility (Standard or End Loading)

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-14. Suggested Automotive Handling Facility (Perimeter Loading)
b. Trucks that use end loading never actually enter the vehicle baying or rail car areas. They back their truck up to a fixed
barrier, which should be part of the perimeter barrier, drop their ramps over the barrier, and load or unload vehicles
onto or from their trucks. Fixed ramps are also utilized in the same manner. This method ensures that the integrity of
the vehicle storage area is maintained. No trucks are permitted in the vehicle baying area.
c. Although originally end loading was the standard for most auto facilities, this method is rapidly giving way to
perimeter loading due to perceived operational efficiencies of the latter. Trucks using the perimeter system actually
enter the vehicle storage area, and as a result, security demands are increased due to the required monitoring of the
additional vehicles and personnel in the storage area. This monitoring may require security guards and/or electronic
card reader systems. Exit and entry gate design, as well as camera systems, are influenced by this additional liability.
4.3.5.4 Physical Design Criteria
4.3.5.4.1 Lighting
a. Proper lighting provides a safe working environment for employees and customers. It helps prevent theft and
vandalism of a shipper’s product by enhancing the power of the human or electronic observer. It can also act as an
effective psychological deterrent.
b. At this time, high pressure sodium lighting has proven to be the most efficient and cost effective in security
applications. It provides more than twice the illumination of a standard mercury vapor light. Depending on the size and
shape of the facility, 200, 400, and 1,000 watt high pressure sodium lights should be considered. Every effort should be
made to maintain a minimum of 1 foot candles throughout the facility, with an average of 1.5 feet candles.

c. Additional localized lighting will be required for facilities with camera monitoring or where truck loading, or other
operations, is prevalent at night.
d. All light poles should be located as far from the perimeter fence as possible.
4.3.5.4.2 Perimeter Barriers
a. Perimeter barriers prevent the unauthorized removal of vehicles from the facility. The barrier should be within or a part
of the perimeter fencing and completely encompass the interior except those areas protected by gates.
b. Barrier types include scrap rail, standard highway barriers, pipe, horizontal rails in fences, bollards cable, and concrete.
c. Barriers should be of a sufficient strength and planted to a depth as to withstand a direct impact by a vehicle.
d. In facilities using an end loading or standard concept, barriers in the loading/unloading area should be just low enough
to allow truck ramps to clear.
4.3.5.4.3 Fencing (or Walls)
a. Proper fencing can prevent the unauthorized entry of persons onto a facility. A fence or wall should completely
surround the facility with exit/entry gates incorporated into the system.
b. Chain link fence is one of the most cost efficient and effective types of fence. Fencing should consist of galvanized
steel fabric with horizontal rails and tension wires. Fabric should be at least #9 gage hot dip galvanized per ASTM A-
392, Class 1, 2-inch mesh. Minimum height of fabric should be 8 feet. Tension wires, top and bottom, should be #7 1
gage and conform to ASTM A-824. Posts should be steel pipe per ASTM A-120. Fence should be constructed in a
manner that will not allow deformation to occur. Considerations for maximum fence strength include diameter of
posts, depth planted, bracing, post spacing, fabric tension, and concrete footings.
c. Regardless of fence or wall type, the addition of barbed wire should be considered to compliment the structure. Wire
should be attached to a V or 1/2 V rake, placed on every pole or no less than every 10 feet. There should be a minimum
of three strands of wire per leg of V. 3
d. In high crime areas razor ribbon or concertina wire should be considered in addition to the barbed wire strands.
4.3.5.4.4 Gates
a. Gates should be designed to prohibit the entrance or exit of unauthorized vehicles and persons, and to control the traffic
flow of trucks entering and exiting the facility. Gates are also used to control the entrance and exit of locomotives and 4
rail cars.
b. Gates can be constructed from iron, tubular steel, flat steel, and chain link. They should be at least as high as the
perimeter fence. The structural integrity should be reinforced and greater than the fence alone. They can be opened and
shut by swinging, sliding, or rolling up. Drop bars should be solid steel. All gate hinges should be tack welded to gate
posts to prevent gates from being lifted off.
c. Electronically controlled, motorized gates can be activated on site, from a remote location, or self activating
underground wire using loops and a card reader system. A telephone or intercom will be required at the gate if it is
monitored from a remote site. Gate stability is a primary concern if the facility has a fence alarm system.
4.3.5.4.5 Tire Spikes
a. Depressible spikes can be used at gate areas to control traffic flow and prevent unauthorized exit of vehicles from the
facility. They should be well signed and considered a secondary system.

Yards and Terminals
b. Heavy snow and ice may interfere with the operation of these units and available heating systems may be required,
along with appropriate drainage to carry off melted snow and ice.
4.3.5.4.6 Fence Alarm Systems
a. Fence alarm systems detect the presence of a person or device against the fence. They sound an alarm, either audible,
silent, or both when someone tries to climb, cut or jack up the fence.
b. These systems use point or line sensors, or fiber optic strands to discern impact. A circuit of electricity or light passing
through the sensor or fiber is altered when the fence material deflects or breaks. A processing unit is required to
respond to circuit changes and signal an alarm, either locally or to a remote location, via telephone modem.
c. The system should be installed in zones, the number of which to be determined by the size of the facility.
d. Terrain, environmental, and weather conditions should be taken into account when considering such a system.
4.3.5.4.7 Closed Circuit Television
A closed circuit television system acts as both a deterrent to theft and vandalism, and as a means of obtaining an accurate
record for the investigation of criminal cases. They can be positioned for total or partial coverage of the facility. They can also
work in conjunction with the gates, running continuously or activated only when the gates are utilized. Cameras should be
capable of recording in color, onto a VCR recorder. The use of color cameras will require additional lighting, up to 10 feet
candles.
4.3.5.4.8 Card Access Systems
a. A card access system is an effective method of monitoring or maintaining an inventory of all persons entering and
leaving an auto facility.
b. Authorized persons are issued preassigned cards in advance. Upon entering or departing the facility, they activate the
gate/card system with their cards. The monitoring/gate access decision making can be performed on site or from a
remote location using a computer and phone modem. It is tied directly to the gates, authorizing and monitoring their
functions.
c. The card access system consists of cards, card readers, processing controller, software, and a computer. Each card
reader may contain its own microprocessor that permits memory and decision making at individually secured gates and
doors. It should also include a battery backup system for use in the event of a power failure.
d. The card access system can be tied electronically to the fence alarm system, monitoring both functions.
4.3.5.4.9 Signs
a. Signs placed around the perimeter of the facility can deter trespassing. When placed within the facility they are
beneficial in controlling traffic flow.
b. They should be located as not to obstruct the view of the drivers and other personnel. For easy recognition, they should
be constructed in a manner similar to those recommended by the Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices.
Preferably, signs should be made of aluminum with a reflective backing.
4.3.5.5 Buildings and Employee Accommodations
Accommodations should be provided for security guards if applicable. Parking for employees should be provided in a
separate, secured area.

4.3.5.6 General Comments
a. A maintenance and system testing schedule for all electronic equipment should be developed and followed.
b. Emergency stand-by generators should be considered. This system will provide power for lighting, card readers, gates
and/or the perimeter detection system if desired. It should be actuated automatically upon its sensing the loss of
commercial external power to the facility.
SECTION 4.4 BULK-SOLID
4.4.1 GRAIN ELEVATORS (2003)

4.4.1.1 General
a. Track facilities to serve large grain elevators involve special yard design. Cooperation between the elevator’s engineer
and the railway engineer is essential to the development of a satisfactory plan.
b. The location of elevator site, type and capacity of elevator, topography and local conditions will influence the
arrangement of tracks.
c. When selecting the site, consideration should be given to property values, possible arrangement of connections to plant
tracks, local railway operating conditions, future expansion of elevator plant and of existing railway facilities. 1
d. Proposed method of railway operation should be established and approved by the elevator operating company and
operating officials of the railway.
4.4.1.2 Types
There are three general types of grain elevators, viz.,

3
• rail to rail,
• rail to water, and
• water to rail.
Specific plants may be combinations of these types.

4
4.4.1.3 Tracks
a. The number and capacity of unloading tracks will depend upon the type, arrangement and capacity of elevator
unloading facilities, but may be limited in some cases by the space available.
b. The car capacity of the tracks in advance of and beyond the loading or unloading facilities should be the same.
c. Where the car capacity of the unloading tracks on each side of the unloading facilities is equal to the normal daily
unloading capacity of the elevator plant during the grain handling season, and where the car capacity of the loading
tracks on each side of the loading facilities is equal to the normal daily business handled, the plant switching will be
reduced to a minimum.
d. Double-ended tracks will permit the continuous movement of cars in one direction and facilitate switching.

Yards and Terminals
e. Spur unloading tracks may necessitate switching cars through unloading shed and over unloading facilities, requiring
the use of idler cars. Locomotives should not be permitted to enter the unloading shed.
f. Adverse gradients and curvature in tracks will limit the capacity of car haul and should be avoided. An assisting
gradient to and from the loading and unloading facilities should be provided. A short runoff gradient below the
unloading facilities will speed up the movement of empty cars.
g. Where car unloaders are used, the track arrangement should provide for the relative increased capacity of this device. A
small plant locomotive or other special car handling equipment should be considered in connection with car unloaders.
Flexibility of track layout in the vicinity of car unloader, to facilitate the operation of plant locomotive, should be given
special attention.
h. Loading tracks may be located on the same or opposite side of “workhouse” from unloading tracks.
i. Certain unloading tracks may be used for loading or to augment the capacity of the loading tracks.
j. Some of the auxiliary buildings, such as storeroom and dust house, may be served by the loading tracks.
4.4.1.3.2 Other Tracks
a. A running track, located outside of unloading shed, should be provided where double ended tracks are installed.
b. A separate track should be provided to serve the power house.
4.4.1.4 Storage Yard
a. The use of a separate storage yard will require additional handling of cars; therefore careful consideration should be
given to the advisability of such a yard.
b. Where the elevator is located near an existing yard and sufficient capacity is available, or can be economically
provided, a separate storage yard may not be required.
c. A separate storage yard may be justified where it can be used to augment the existing yard during seasonal increases in
business, or where the elevator is located some distance from the main or an auxiliary yard.
d. The capacity of either the loading or unloading tracks, or both, may influence the necessity for a separate storage yard,
as well as the capacity of such a yard.
e. Facilities for inspection of cars and lading should be provided.
4.4.2 DESIGN OF BULK GRANULAR SOLIDS TERMINALS (2003)
Railroad bulk granular solids terminals are specialized freight terminals which are used to transfer bulk lading from point of
origination to rail cars, transfers from rail cars to point of destination or to transfer bulk lading between rail and other modes.
For additional pertinent information regarding design of bulk granular solids terminals, refer to Bulletin 660, Proceedings
Volume 78, November-December 1976, pages 255-259, and Bulletin 713, Proceedings Volume 88, December 1987, pages
395-424. This section is applicable to dry bulk solids such as aggregates, coal, phosphates, ore, and coke, which suffer little or
no damage from normal handling or from exposure. A search of other bulletins may offer additional information on other
materials or design options.

4.4.2.1.1 General
Factors affecting terminal design include number and types of materials to be handled, the size of shipment (unit train, ship or
barge, multiple car, single car), the physical characteristics of the site, and the degree of processing and storage to be done on
the site.
4.4.2.1.2 Site Selection
The site should be selected to accommodate both near and long term development of the site. The following factors should be
considered during layout and planning of the site.
4.4.2.1.2.1 Environment
Environment factors to be considered include:
a. Air, especially dust control and collection.
b. Water.
c. Noise and lighting.
d. Rainfall runoff.
e. Archaeological and Historical Sites.
f. Adjacent development.
1
g. Proximity to residential areas.
h. Adjacent development.
i. Avoidance of wetlands and other ecologically sensitive areas.

3
4.4.2.1.2.2 Economics
Site selection and arrangement should allow for economy in movement of materials and transportation operations.
4.4.2.1.2.3 Size
The terminal should include sufficient land area to accommodate the ultimate development of the terminal. Sizing of 4
equipment and structures should allow for expansion and flexibility.
4.4.2.1.2.4 Access
a. Design of highway access should consider the requirements for service vehicles and heavily loaded trucks normally
associated with bulk terminals. Water access should include sufficient draft maneuvering space and berthing for the
size and type of vessel anticipated at the terminal.
b. Rail access should be designed for the longest and heaviest anticipated shipments arriving or departing by rail at the
terminal.
4.4.2.1.2.5 Utilities

Yards and Terminals
Siting and planning should account for required utilities at the site. Water will be required for fire protection, dust control, and
washdown. Bulk handling equipment may require a significant amount of electrical power, and some sewage disposal is
generally necessary.
4.4.2.1.2.6 Zoning
Siting near residential, commercial, or recreational areas is almost always a controversial issue, with potential delays from
hearings and other legal process. Many governmental entities have enacted zoning laws that govern construction of these
facilities. It is desirable to avoid areas where rezoning is necessary in order to construct the facility.
4.4.2.2 Facilities
Facilities vary with the size and function of the terminal, but can be classified into the following categories.
a. Unloading.
b. Loading.
c. Storage and Reclaim.
d. Conveyance.
e. Sampling and Weighing.
f. Service Facilities.
4.4.2.2.1 Unloading Facilities
Unloading facilities vary from low volume single or multiple-car systems to the high-volume terminals capable of unloading
unit trains. The unit train terminals may be rotary or bottom dump unloading. In some specialized applications, side-dump
equipment or trains equipped with under-hopper conveyors may be more economically utilized, which simplify or eliminate
fixed unloading facilities.
4.4.2.2.1.1 Unloading Facilities for Single or Small Multiple-Car Shipments
a. A small under-track pit with lading removal by conveyor or small mobile equipment is economical in many cases for
small shipments. Design of a pit of this type is shown in Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Section 8.4, Unloading Pits. Car
shakers may be used to aid in clearing lading from the car.
b. Rotary dumpers can also be used for multiple-car shipments. Rotary dumping may offer advantages if lading tends to
freeze or to clog during unloading from bottom-dump equipment. Rotary dumpers can be equipped to take various
sizes of cars when the cars are uncoupled before dumping.
4.4.2.2.1.2 Unit Training Unloading
a. Unit train unloading facilities must be designed to unload as quickly as possible to take advantage of the high
utilization economies of unit trains. Unloading without uncoupling or switching should also be a high priority in most
instances.
b. Fast unloading automatic bottom dump hopper cars unloading in-motion over a pit or trestle provides the fastest
unloading time of any bulk granular material unloading system. The unloading facilities must therefore be designed for
high mass flows through the facility. Particular attention should be directed to prevention of “bridging” of material in
the bottom of the unloading pit, and reliability of feeders and conveyors to minimize expensive delays in train
unloading.

c. Rotary dump facilities using train positioners and rotary coupler equipped cars also have a high unloading rate. Rotary
dumper systems generally utilize cars with lower tare weights, and thus higher capacities per car. Reliability of the
dumper machinery is a key item in the design of rotary dump unit train facilities to minimize expensive delays in train
unloading. Train positioner design should provide sufficient power to handle the unit train easily during unloading.
4.4.2.2.1.3 Frozen Lading
To aid the unloading of frozen lading in cold weather climates, provisions should be made for thawing lading which is
susceptible to freezing. Additives to the lading, thaw sheds or pits, and car shakers are all methods which have been used to aid
the unloading of frozen lading.
4.4.2.2.2 Loading Facilities
a. For all loading facilities, accurate weighing of lading is essential to take full advantage of the car capacity without
overloading.
b. Loading of small shipments may be accomplished with clamshell-equipped cranes, shovels, or other mobile
equipment. Hoppers over the track, or conveyors can also be used to load single or small multiple car shipments
economically.
c. For unit trains, a high capacity load-in-motion system should be considered to minimize train delays. Weighing bins to
accurately meter lading into each car, based on the car’s empty weight, will allow maximum advantage of the capacity
of the train.
d. In general, excess switching should be minimized during loading operations. 1
4.4.2.3 Storage and Reclaim
a. Most bulk granular materials handling systems require some type of storage and reclaim system. Storage may be
necessary for seasonal or environmental reasons, surges in material flow, blending, or through put demands. Multiple
types of materials may be stacked, and blending of materials may be required. 3
b. Design of storage and reclaim systems should take advantage of gravity flow wherever possible, and also minimize
handling of materials. Stacker/reclaimer equipment should be sized for the expected terminal throughput, so that train
loading and unloading are not limited by this equipment. Covered stacks, silos, or sheds should be utilized to protect
materials from exposure if necessary. Dusty materials should be covered or otherwise protected to control fugitive dust
emissions.
4
4.4.2.4 Conveyance
Conveyors are the links between the functions of most bulk terminals. Conveyor design should consider the desired material
flow rate, material density, and angle of repose. If the terminal may expand at some future date, provisions for dual conveyors
or other necessary facilities should be included in the initial design. Some conveyors may be critical enough to require dual
systems so that delays in loading or unloading trains, ships, or vehicles may be avoided.
4.4.2.5 Sampling and Weighing
Sampling and weighing provisions should be provided where required for each material handled. The AAR Scale Handbook
(included in this manual) provides guidance on weighing facilities.

Yards and Terminals
4.4.2.6 Terminal Tracks
a. Bulk handling terminals will very likely be served by 100 ton cars, with a trend toward larger capacity cars. Trackage
and subgrade in bulk handling terminals should be designed for these heavy axle loadings.
b. For rotary dump installations, heavy anchorage of rail should be used on the inbound side of the dumper to prevent rail
creepage into the dumper platen or other machinery.
c. Rail lubricators may be beneficial for reduction of rail and flange wear.
4.4.2.6.1 Track Geometry – Unit Train Facility
a. For unit train trackage, consideration should be given to train action and conservative curvature and gradient standards.
The following criteria are recommended for unit train trackage design:
• Maximum recommended curvature on loops and lead tracks: 7 degrees, 30 minutes.
• Maximum recommended gradient on approach to loop: 1%, compensated for curvature.
• Gradient on unloading loop: (level), or slight upgrade to unloading trestle or pit.
• Minimum recommended size loop and lead turnouts: Number 10.
• Maximum recommended rate of change for vertical curves: 0.12 per 100 foot station in sags. 0.20 per 100 foot
station in summits.
b. The AAR Train Performance Calculator or other similar programs can be run to verify train performance over the new
design.
c. Trackage affecting the operation of dumpers, train positioners and other material handling equipment should take into
account the requirements and recommendations of the equipment manufacturers.
4.4.2.6.2 Track Geometry – Non-Unit Train System
a. Trackage of non unit-train terminals varies widely with the type of terminal. Switching is more common in this type of
terminal, and trackage should be designed accordingly. Yard design criteria from other sections in this chapter should
be considered in trackage design.
b. Sufficient car storage track should be available to accommodate surges in traffic with adequate room allowed for
switching cars through the loading or unloading facilities.
c. In general, the following track design standards are recommended:
• Maximum recommended curvature: 12 degrees, 30 minutes.
• Minimum recommended turnout: Number 8.
• Lead Tracks: as long as the longest storage track.
• Gradients: preferably flat, unless cars are moved through the dumper by gravity. Grades for storage tracks should be
such that the application of hand brakes is not necessary.

d. In some terminals, where cars are moved by a combination of gravity and barneys or other car movers, the principles of
hump yard design and automatic classification yard design can be used to design the trackage. These principles are
found in Part 2, Freight Yards and Freight Terminals.
4.4.2.7 Structures
Structures in granular bulk material handling terminals should be designed for durability and easy cleaning. Electrical
equipment and other sensitive equipment may require air conditioning and dust-free environment. Clearances for railroad and
mobile equipment should be considered. Additional guidance for structural design and construction are found in the Manual,
Chapter 5, Track; Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities; Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations; and Chapter
15, Steel Structures.
4.4.2.8 Maintenance and Housekeeping
Bulk materials facilities should be designed for easy maintenance and housekeeping. Areas where potential material spills are
likely should provide access for loaders and trucks for easy removal of spills. Particular attention should be given to the
prevention of dust accumulation. Materials used in construction of a bulk material terminal should be resistant to deterioration
from the materials handled.
SECTION 4.5 BULK-FLUIDS
4.5.1 INTRODUCTION (1996) 1

a. Bulk fluid terminals are specialized freight terminals which are used to transfer bulk lading from point of origination to
rail cars, from rail cars to point of destination, or between rail and other modes of transportation. Some terminals may
be designed purely for the transfer of commodities to other modes or directly to a customer, whereas other terminals
may provide intermediate storage between modes, or storage on behalf of the customer.
b. This section is applicable to bulk liquids such as chemicals, petroleum, fertilizers, food-grade liquids and oils. Also,
3
some dry bulk solids such as powders and granules, which have physical characteristics similar to a liquid, and are
handled as fluids rather than as solids.
c. These commodities could be transported in single or multiple railcar blocks, or in unit train service. Some
commodities, such as petroleum products, may be transported in railcars with interconnected piping to allow unloading
and loading of several railcars from a single point.
4
d. Contingent upon the customer service to be afforded and the commodity to be handled, terminals may range in size and
purpose from a single track, single car spot facility to a multiple track facility capable of unloading or loading unit
trains. Individual customers may be served at a terminal or multiple customers may share the facility and its
equipment. One or more different commodities may also be handled in the same terminal.
e. Factors affecting terminal design include number and types of materials to be handled, the size of shipment (i.e. unit
train, ship, barge, multiple car, single car), the physical characteristics of the site, and the degree of processing and
storage to be done on the site.
f. Although consideration herein is primarily directed to such common transfer terminals, design principles may be
applicable to in-plant and other transfer facilities.

Yards and Terminals

a. The site should be selected to accommodate both near and long term development of the terminal to handle the
volumes of traffic projected for each commodity. Ease of access for customers and all modes of transportation involved
are critical in selecting a site suitable for a terminal. Site selection and configuration should allow for economy in
movement of materials, unloading and loading equipment, and transportation equipment.
b. Modification of an existing yard, particularly a team yard, may permit utilization of little used assets and use to
advantage a site with good access. In other instances, selection of an active, new or undeveloped location may be
prudent.
c. The following factors should be considered during the selection, planning and construction of the site.
4.5.2.1 Environment
Various chapters of this Manual discuss environmental considerations in detail. Environmental items relating to a site that
typically impact terminal design that should be considered include:
a. Air pollution (vapor and dust control and collection).
b. Water pollution (rainfall runoff, spill containment, treatment facilities).
c. Spill containment (for liquids and solids).
d. Noise levels (impact on terminal employees and surrounding areas).
e. Light pollution (from terminal lighting, vehicles, equipment).
f. Proximity to archaeological and historic sites.
g. Proximity to residential areas.
h. Adjacent development.
i. Proximity to ecologically sensitive areas including wetlands.
4.5.2.2 Size
a. The site selected for a terminal should have sufficient land area to allow future expansion and development of the
terminal. Sizing of equipment and structures should allow for expansion and flexibility of operation.
b. The length of time allocated to discharge vessels, railcars, trucks and storage areas and the frequency of transportation
service will impact the sizing of various elements of a terminal.
4.5.2.3 Access
4.5.2.3.1 Roads
a. Highways, streets and other roads to be used for access must provide an efficient route for customers. Routes to the site
should be carefully studied for their ability to accommodate trucks and equipment that will serve the terminal. Road
weight restrictions including seasonal restrictions, pavement widths, curves, intersections and existing traffic volumes
and patterns should all be considered relative to the size and type of trucks and equipment that will use them.

b. Routes for trucks serving the terminal should also be carefully studied to determine whether they will pass or be near
schools, hospitals, parks, community centers, residential areas, and other sensitive areas. Local ordinances may exist
that prohibit truck traffic on certain roads. Also, site selection should consider public opposition that may prevent new
or additional traffic on certain roads.
c. Site access for emergency vehicles should also be considered, incorporating specific access roads or gates into the site
plan as necessary for use by emergency vehicles only.
4.5.2.3.2 Waterways
Water access should provide sufficient draft, maneuvering and turning basins, and berthing space for the size and type of
vessels to serve the terminal.
4.5.2.3.3 Rail
Rail access should be designed to efficiently accommodate rail traffic serving the terminal’s customers. The length of cars,
locomotives and trains, frequency of switching movements serving the terminal, and the characteristics of existing mainline
train movements and other operations, should be considered.
The availability of existing tracks or the ability to construct new tracks in yards or along running or main tracks to support the
short and long term needs of the terminal should be considered.
4.5.2.4 Utilities
Utilities required for the site should be considered during the terminal site selection process. Water will be necessary for fire
1
protection, employee washdown (i.e. showers, eye washout), dust control, equipment cleaning and employee facilities.
Electrical power will be needed for commodity handling equipment, lighting, heating/cooling/ventilation equipment and other
equipment. Sewage disposal is likely to also be needed.
4.5.2.5 Zoning and Permitting

3
a. Many governmental agencies have enacted laws which may impact the selection and construction of bulk fluid
terminals. Proposals to locate this type of terminal in areas not properly zoned or near residential, commercial or
recreational areas including schools and hospitals are frequently controversial to the public. Public hearings and other
legal processes frequently become necessary when a zoning change or when a controversial site is selected.
b. Permits of some description are generally required at nearly all locations.

4
c. Schedules for placing a terminal in-service should consider the time associated with such hearings and legal processes
and obtaining permits. In situations in which the timely completion of a terminal is critical, it may be prudent to select
a site that will not arouse controversy.
4.5.3 UNLOADING AND LOADING FACILITIES (1996)
a. Unloading and loading facilities at terminals may vary from low-volume, single or multiple car and customer systems
to high-volume systems for unit trains. Contingent upon the function of the terminal and the commodities to be
handled, the transfer of commodities may be between railcar and truck, railcar and storage tank, railcar and water
vessel, truck and storage tank, and/or truck and vessel. In any case, the facilities must be carefully designed to meet the
needs of its customer or customers.
b. For low-volume terminals, small portable or fixed pump systems may be utilized, and similarly, small portable or fixed
vacuum systems may be utilized for powders or granules. Some commodities being transferred between a railcar and
truck in low-volumes may be handled using the truck’s onboard pump or vacuum equipment. Intermittent unloading of
commodities is also common in smaller terminals and will impact the equipment for the terminal.

Yards and Terminals
c. For larger terminals, stationary, high-capacity equipment may be necessary.
d. In any situation, typical railcar and truck length should be determined for the installation of loading booms or
unloading connections at the appropriate interval. Careful consideration must be given to the type of commodity and
railcars, trucks, vessels and unloading/loading equipment to ensure compatibility. Also, a careful analysis of the
equipment, piping, connections, storage tanks, and other facilities should be done to ensure that they are composed of
materials that will not corrode or deteriorate when exposed to the commodity.
e. All equipment, including loading booms and unloading connections, must be retractable to enable it to clear railroad
tracks pursuant to the guidelines found in the chapter for Clearances of the Manual.
4.5.3.1 Services
a. Certain commodities may require specialized services to effect their transfer between modes or to and from storage,
such as electricity to power transfer machines, compressed air to move powders or granules between vehicles, steam or
hot water to decrease viscosity of liquids, and nitrogen to purge railcars and pipelines. Provisions for these services at
convenient locations along tracks or in other areas must be considered and incorporated in the design of the terminal.
b. Railcars, trucks and vessels, particularly those with special linings, may require specialized cleaning after each
unloading or prior to use for other commodities. Specialized equipment, personnel, and facilities may be necessary to
perform these functions to meet regulatory, customer and equipment owner needs and to protect equipment from
damage and failure.
4.5.3.2 Walkways
Elevated walkways may be necessary to permit personnel to safely access the top of railcars and trucks for unloading and
loading purposes. Retractable, telescoping or hinged walkway sections to reach the tops of railcars and trucks from elevated
walkways parallel to the track or driveways, are common. Typical railcar and truck length should be determined to construct
these sections at the appropriate intervals.
4.5.3.3 Sampling and Weighing
Sampling, weighing or metering provisions may be necessary for certain customers and commodities. The AAR Scale
Handbook (included in this manual) provides guidance on such facilities.
4.5.3.4 Environmental Facilities
a. It may be necessary and required by laws or regulations to construct spill containment systems such as dikes, paving
and other appurtenances at unloading/loading areas and in commodity storage areas. To prevent contamination of the
atmosphere, vapor or gas collection systems may be necessary or agency required. For some powders and granular
commodities, dust collection or abatement systems may be necessary or required. Also, special treatment and pre-
treatment facilities for the discharge of water may also be necessary.
b. Various chapters of the Manual discuss environmental considerations and design criteria in detail.
4.5.4 COMMODITY STORAGE (1996)
a. Most bulk fluid terminals require some level of storage capability to accommodate fluctuations in commodity demand,
unloading and loading constraints between transportation modes, and blending of materials on-site.
b. The transfer and storage systems for a bulk fluid terminal should be designed to utilize gravity, minimize the handling
of commodities as much as possible, and be of appropriate size or capacity to unload or load railcars, trains, vessels
and/or trucks. Covered unloading or loading areas, stacks, silos or sheds may be desired to protect commodities from

exposure and loss. Commodities composed of fine particle size, that are prone to become airborne by wind or other air
movements, should be covered or otherwise protected.
4.5.5 BUILDINGS (1996)
a. Buildings may be required for a variety of purposes. These could include offices and supporting facilities for
employees, commodity storage, enclosure of commodity transfer areas, protection of boilers, water heaters and transfer
equipment, security and any other function or item needed given weather and general site conditions.
b. Structures in bulk material handling terminals should be designed for durability and ease in cleaning. Electrical
equipment and other sensitive equipment may require air conditioning and a dust-free environment. Lighting and
ventilation must be designed to assure the safety of employees and allow the efficient execution of their duties.
Clearances for railroad and mobile equipment should be considered. All structures must meet all applicable OSHA
requirements and any local building and fire codes. Additional guidelines for structural design and construction are
found in various chapters of the Manual.
c. Office buildings should be located for convenience near the entry to the terminal to allow monitoring of traffic in and
out of the terminal, and to monitor the activities within the terminal itself. Separate offices and facilities may be
necessary for outside contractors operating all or various portions of the terminal.
d. Certain customers and environmental regulations may require that commodity transfers be performed within an
enclosure to protect the commodity from degradation or escape into the atmosphere.
e. Buildings for storage and servicing of transfer and other terminal equipment is typically required at most terminals. It
is particularly critical that buildings be provided for equipment handling food grade commodities which require
1
cleaning and protection from contamination. An appropriate work area as might be required for cleaning and
maintenance of equipment, and a storage area with racks for hoses, fittings and other items for maintaining the
equipment, should be provided in the building.
4.5.6 SECURITY (1996)

3
a. In most instances, the commodities handled at bulk material terminals are of a unit value that security concerns address
preservation of purity and protection of equipment.
b. At many sites, no sophisticated security measures are justified, other than to restrict points of entry to the terminal with
perimeter fencing and a limited number of gates to allow ease of monitoring during operating hours and closure of the
terminal during non-operation.
c. Area and perimeter lighting aids in deterring intruders and allows monitoring at night. Lighting levels should be such
4
that shadowed areas are minimized.
d. Undergrowth and trees should be removed as needed around fences to prevent their use to breach or scale fences, and
to allow improved visibility for monitoring the terminal perimeter.
4.5.7 ENVIRONMENT AND MAINTENANCE (1996)

a. Bulk material terminals should be designed in conformance with all federal, state and local environmental laws and
regulations, and to allow easy maintenance of the infrastructure and equipment to minimize the potential and resulting
impact of spills and site contamination. Various chapters of the Manual discuss environmental considerations in detail.
Environmental items relating to the design of the terminal that should be considered include:
(1) Air contamination (vapor and dust control and collection).
(2) Water contamination (rainfall runoff, spill containment, treatment facilities).

Yards and Terminals
(3) Soils contamination.
(4) Noise levels (impact on terminal employees and surrounding areas).
(5) Light pollution (from terminal lighting, vehicles, equipment).
b. Equipment and measures should be employed to control and/or collect airborne particles to prevent pollution of the
atmosphere, dust explosions, adverse affects on employee health, loss of commodity, and deterioration of facilities and
equipment from dust accumulation. The terminal’s equipment and facilities should be constructed of materials resistant
to deterioration from the commodities handled.
c. Areas where commodity spills are likely should be easily accessible for loaders and trucks to facilitate cleanup. Paving
in areas where not structurally necessary may still be desirable to provide a barrier between commodities and the
ground.
d. A drainage system should be provided which will effectively remove stormwater runoff to avoid deterioration of work
surfaces, contamination of commodities, and minimize the impact upon unloading and loading operations. The systems
should be designed to channel runoff to a central location for ease of containment, cleanup and/or treatment of spills,
and should be constructed of materials that will not interact with any potential spill material. Similarly, the drainage
system should be designed to allow the easy removal of any residue or sedimentation to prevent any potential
interaction with any other materials spilled.
4.5.8 TERMINAL CONFIGURATION (2003)
a. The terminal should be configured to provide the most efficient movement of commodities, transfer equipment and
transportation vehicles. Security, safety and environmental facilities and appurtenances appropriate to the commodities
handled should be considered in the design. Service facilities and utilities should be strategically located to allow easy
access without conflicting with other operations, activities or movements within the terminal.
b. The length of time allocated to discharge vessels, railcars, trucks and storage areas and the frequency of transportation
service will impact the configuration of various elements of a terminal.
c. See Figure 14-4-15 and Figure 14-4-16 for examples of bulk fluid terminals.
4.5.8.1 Tracks
a. Bulk fluid terminals may be served by tank cars and/or covered hopper cars of varying lengths and capacities
contingent upon the commodity being carried. At low-volume terminals, railcars tend to be switched individually or in
relatively short blocks or “cuts,” whereas at high-volume or large terminals, larger blocks or unit train movements may
be employed. Track lengths, switching leads and ladders must be designed pursuant to the type of operation or service
planned.
b. The overall design of the terminal, including the track configuration, must provide adequate room to accommodate
driveways for unloading and loading equipment, service equipment and inspections. Also, the design must minimize
any conflicts between trucks, unloading and loading equipment, and rail movements to allow the terminal to operate as
efficiently as possible. Intermittent unloading of commodities is also common in smaller terminals and will impact the
configuration of the terminal.
c. For terminals to receive individual or short cuts, relatively short track lengths for unloading and loading may be
prudent to allow switch engines easy access to individual railcars. Multiple, short tracks may be necessary to enable
switching without having to halt or await the completion of other railcar unloading or loading activities, or move
partially loaded railcars.
d. For terminals to receive longer cuts or unit train service, longer unloading or loading, lead and storage tracks lengths
will be necessary.

Figure 14-4-15. Bulk Fluid Transfer Terminal – Single End Switching Capacity: 3
80 Cars Spotted. 11± Plus Storage/Support Yard
e. In terminals where access is needed only on one side of a track for unloading or loading, tracks may be configured in
pairs with services and lighting required placed between the tracks. Paired tracks must have track centers that provide
clearances which conform with the guidelines presented in the clearance chapter of the Manual and governmental
regulations.
f. Covered hopper cars can be expected to range from 100 to 125 tons, therefore, trackage and subgrade construction
should be of a design to accommodate heavy axle loadings.
g. Blue flag protection should be provided at unloading and loading locations in the terminal, or any other location where
employees will be working on top of, beneath, or inside of railcars.

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-4-16. Bulk Fluid Transfer Terminal – Double End Switching Capacity: 80 Cars Spotted. 11± Plus Support Yard
4.5.8.1.1 Track Geometry – Non-Unit Train Operation
a. Trackage for non-unit train terminals varies widely with the type of terminal. In general, the following track design
standards are recommended:
• Maximum curvature – 12 degrees – 30 minutes.
• Minimum turnout – Number 8.
• Lead tracks – Length should be as long as the longest storage track.
• Gradients – preferably flat or sloping toward the end of track at a grade not to exceed 0.1%; grades for storage tracks
should be such that application of hand brakes is not necessary; a slight ascending grade should be included at either
end of the storage tracks to prevent rollouts.
b. In some terminals where cars are moved by gravity, the principles of hump yard design can be used. These principles
can be found in Part 2, Freight Yards and Freight Terminals.
4.5.8.1.2 Track Geometry – Unit Train Operation
a. For trackage to accommodate unit trains, curvature and gradients should be designed with unit train dynamics
considered. The following criteria are recommended:
• Maximum curvature on loops and lead tracks: 7 degrees – 30 minutes.

1
• Maximum gradient on approach to loop: 1% compensated for curvature.
• Gradient on unloading loop: Level or slight ascending grade.
• Minimum turnout for loop and lead: Number 10.

3
• Maximum rate of change for vertical curves: 0.12 per 100 feet in sags; 0.20 per 100 feet in crests.
b. The AAR Train Performance Calculator or other similar train dynamics simulators can be run to verify train
performance over a proposed design.
c. Trackage affecting the operation of unloading and loading equipment, train and other material handling equipment
should take into account the requirements and recommendations of the equipment manufacturers. 4
4.5.8.2 Driveways
a. At locations where the transfer of commodities between rail and trucks is to occur, driveways of sufficient width must
be provided on at least one side of each unloading or loading track to permit a truck to park. The width allowed for
each truck should be 12 feet plus any width required to angle a truck relative to the track and railcar. Additional width
must be provided to allow other vehicles to safely pass the parked truck and for sufficient space to position any transfer
equipment. Adequate turning radii for trucks must be provided to promote the unobstructed and efficient flow of traffic
and equipment.
b. Parking for employees and visitors should be provided in a separate area from the terminal operations to minimize
traffic congestion and promote security of the terminal’s equipment and supplies. Parking should be located in close
proximity to the office building, but positioned so that pedestrians and vehicles are clear of the circulation of trucks,
equipment and other vehicles.

Yards and Terminals
c. Paving must be designed to support the loads anticipated from fully loaded tractor trailer trucks and transfer
equipment. Selection of pavement materials must be appropriate to the service. Some commodities may damage
pavement if spilled, such as petroleum products in contact with bituminous concrete. Crushed stone or gravel may be
appropriate at smaller terminals, however, some aggregate particles may interact with commodities or its dust may
contaminate commodities. Also, spills onto stone areas can be difficult to clean up and could allow contamination of
ground beneath the stone paving.
d. For guidelines concerning road and pavement design, see the “AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures,”
published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Chapter 4. Paving materials
and construction methods for a given area are typically specified to meet state or local highway authority
specifications.
4.5.8.3 Truck Scale
1. Many customers require that commodities and drayage be weighed at the terminal. The location of the scale should be
carefully planned to allow trucks easy access to the scale without adversely affecting activities elsewhere in the terminal
when entering and exiting the terminal. The location of the scale should also permit trucks to easily return to an unloading
area if necessary to “top off” their load.
a. It may be desired to position the scale in close proximity to the terminal office to allow scale equipment to be placed
within the building for protection and use by office personnel.
SECTION 4.6 MERCHANDISE TERMINAL
4.6.1 PRODUCE TERMINALS (2004)

4.6.1.1 General
a. Produce terminals are designed for expeditious distribution and transfer of various commodities such as fruits,
vegetables, some dairy products, meat and meat products, seafoods and dry groceries between truck and rail modes of
transportation. However, these terminals are generally no longer built and operated by railroads. Separate companies
have taken over this function so that railroads now only provide switching services for the facility. In addition much of
the produce is now handled in refrigerated trailers which are then handled through the railroad’s intermodal facility.
From a railroad perspective, the railroad only coordinates with the shipper or owner of these facilities.
b. Terminals should be located and designed to handle peak business.
c. A union terminal serving the entire trade of a community is preferable.
d. The location must be convenient for dealers, with easy access over wide and well improved highways and easy
gradients. It should have convenient railway connections. A location adjoining a railway terminal yard is
advantageous.
4.6.1.2 Functions of Railway and Marketing Facilities
a. A produce terminal should be considered to include:
(1) railway facilities.
(2) wholesale marketing facilities.
(3) team yards.

b. Railway facilities include the primary units for handling carload shipments prior to distribution or reconsigning. Any
or all of the following facilities may be required:
(1) Receiving and delivery yard.
(2) Hold and inspection yard; with or without supplemental classification tracks.
(3) Team yard.
(4) Buildings for sorting, reconditioning and transferring of lading.
(5) Administration building.
(6) Motor truck sales.
(7) Buildings for coopering and supplies.
(8) Buildings for heaters and supplies.
(9) Rest rooms for yard crews, stevedores, truck operators and laborers.
(10) Incinerator.
(11) Communication facilities.

1
(12) Yard lighting.
(13) Icing facilities.
(14) A track system for serving the yards.

3
(15) A system of driveways for movements to and from the team yard and the hold and inspection yard.
(16) Fire protection facilities.
c. Wholesale marketing facilities include units for the sale and distribution of produce and may be situated adjacent to or
within easy access of the railway facilities. In either case certain units should be served directly by railway tracks. Any
or all of the following units may be required: 4
(1) Buildings divided into separate stores.
(2) Buildings for display and private sales.
(3) Buildings for display and auction.
(4) Auction rooms.
(5) Offices, restaurants, etc.
(6) Cold storage warehouse.
(7) Bulk delivery platforms.
(8) Ripening facilities.

Yards and Terminals
(9) Reconditioning facilities.
(10) Motor truck and other scales.
(11) Incinerator.
(12) Communication facilities.
(13) Fire protection facilities.
(14) Farmers’ market.
(15) A railway track system serving the buildings.
(16) Driveways serving the buildings.
(17) Separate buildings for individual large firms.
(18) Adequate parking areas.
d. The location of a team yard should be such that it will be convenient for use by shippers and consignees, and also as
convenient as possible to a freight house, so that the receipt and shipment of freight may be easily under control of the
freight agent’s force.
(1) Equipment. A crane for handling heavy freight should be provided when required. A motor truck scale, with
office, should be provided near the main entrance to the team yard when required.
(2) Tracks.
(a) Switching tracks for holding and working cars should be provided in the immediate vicinity of the team tracks
and so arranged as to facilitate the switching of these tracks.
(b) The spacing of tracks, where multiple team tracks are built, may be fixed by regulatory bodies, but it is
recommended that the minimum distance between track centers be 14 feet.
(c) The distance between track centers where the driveway is located between tracks should be 16 feet greater
than the width of the driveway.
4.6.1.3 Layouts
4.6.1.3.1 Track
a. The track layout should be as compact and flexible as possible, and extensive enough to take care of traffic without
delay. It is governed by the number of cars handled at peak periods, the different kinds of produce received, and the
average standing time until cars are released.
b. A receiving and delivery yard is sometimes desirable for receiving transfers from various roads and for assembling
outbound empties and reconsigned cars.
c. A hold and inspection yard is sometimes provided. This yard should have two-lane driveways between pairs of tracks
to permit access for inspection and icing from trucks.
d. Inspection platforms are sometimes provided. It may be a separate yard or combined with the receiving and delivery
yard or with a small classification yard.

e. Team yards should have ample standing capacity. Extremely long tracks should be avoided.
f. Track centers should be not less than 14 feet.
4.6.1.3.2 Buildings
a. Ample floor space should be provided for mechanical handling from cars to warehouse floor, display of produce and
assembly of various lots for delivery to trucks.
b. The column spacing should be given careful study and be as wide as possible, consistent with economic design.
c. The backup space for trucks should be as liberal as possible.
4.6.1.3.3 Platforms
a. Platforms used for inspection or jointly for inspection and handling of produce should be not less than 12 feet (3.7 m)
in width, 3′–5″ (1.1 m) above top of rail when the center line of tangent track is 5′–9″ (1.75 m) from the platform, or
4′–7″ (1.4 m) above top of rail when the center line of tangent track is 8′–0″ (2.45 m) from the platform. Platforms
should be covered, and light and water should be provided. Roof supports should be located to minimize interference
with handling crates. Space for crate storage and repairs is usually required.
b. House platforms, when served by both highway vehicles and railway cars, should be 4′–4″ (1.3 m) above top of rail
and 8 feet (2.45 m) from the center line of tangent track.
c. Clearances must comply with state regulations. 1

4.6.1.4 Facilities
4.6.1.4.1 Garbage and Refuse Disposal
Cars should be thoroughly cleaned after unloading, and all refuse and garbage removed from platforms, buildings, etc.
Cleaning of cars may be accomplished on a one-spot basis with mechanized devices. Special equipment such as sweepers, 3
dump carts, etc., should be provided in large terminals. Garbage may be handled by city collection, by contract, or incinerated.
An incinerator, if required, should be of ample capacity to handle each day’s collection in 6 to 8 hr, conveniently located, and
designed to burn garbage having a high water content.
4.6.1.4.2 Mechanical Refrigeration
The cooling and in some cases heating of rail cars and trailers is now provided by mechanical refrigeration units. In some 4
instances rail cars also are treated with various types of gases or chemicals to inhibit deterioration of the produce. Provisions
may be required to perform maintenance functions on this equipment.
4.6.1.4.3 Miscellaneous
a. Ample drainage is essential for buildings and yards.
b. Floodlighting the entire area is desirable in addition to local lighting.
c. The entire area should be strongly and closely fenced to prevent trespass.
d. Definitely assigned entrances and exits should be provided.
e. A cold storage warehouse, if required should have suitable track service and convenient means of communication with
other buildings.

Yards and Terminals
f. Adequate parking space should be provided.
g. Motor truck scales, when required, should be located at a point convenient for the drivers and near the freight office.
The location should not interfere with truck movements in the driveways.
SECTION 4.7 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW) TERMINALS
4.7.1 GENERAL (2000)
a. The conveyance of MSW usually begins and ends with short truck hauls, with a long rail haul in between.
b. Rail haul of MSW may be in unit trains or in cuts handled in regular freight consists.
c. The ultimate destination of MSW may be either a sanitary landfill or a power generating plant.
d. Construction of MSW handling facilities may involve extensive government permitting and public hearings, for which
adequate time should be allotted.
e. MSW handling facilities should be constructed so as to shield the public from offensive odors, sights, lights, sounds,
dust and vermin.
4.7.2 MSW RAIL HAUL EQUIPMENT (2000)
a. The type of container to move MSW is dictated by:
(1) Volume of MSW to be moved.
(2) Configuration of MSW collection system
(3) Proximity of rail terminal to disposal site
(4) Proposed ownerships of facilities and equipment
b. Various containers used for hauling MSW:
(1) Truck trailers on specialized flat cars (TOFC)
(2) Containers on specialized flat cars (COFC)
(3) Convertible road-rail truck trailers
(4) New or used boxcars modified by adding interior dividers and removable roofs.
(5) Hopper and gondola cars
a. Desirable site attributes:
(1) In industrial or rural area

(2) Properly zoned for proposed use
(3) Minimum of environmental issues involved (wetlands, endangered species, etc.)
(4) Good highway access with minimum city street use
(5) Near sources of MSW, with balanced hauls and cycling times for collection trucks
(6) Adequate room for receiving, brief storage, sorting and handling of MSW
(7) Accommodates efficient transfer of wastes between road and rail modes without conflicts
(8) Proper site drainage can be achieved
(9) Room for future expansion
4.7.4 CONSTRUCTION OF FACILITIES (2000)
a. Transfer station – truck to rail car
(1) Consider truck axle loadings and turning radii, and density of traffic to be generated
(2) Develop location of truck entrances and exits with local highway agencies
1
(3) Determine if weighing of entering trucks may be necessary to establish dumping charges
(4) Determine if weights of loaded rail cars:
(a) May be needed if agreed to average lading weights are not to be used
(b) Should be remotely read using electronic coupled-in-motion scales 3

(5) Transferring waste from truck to rail cars:
(a) Minimize exposure of waste to air and light
(b) Move directly from truck to hopper to car, or move from truck onto station floor for sorting out recylables
and/or compostables, and then shredding, baling, and loading wastes into rail cars using front end loaders, 4
grappling hooks, etc.
(c) Use grapples to assist in loading and compacting waste in rail cars, and for removing objectionable materials
(gas, canisters, hazmat, etc.)
(d) For open top cars provide covers (of metal, canvas, plastic, or netting) to restrain waste during transit
(e) For use of trailers or containers on flat cars, refer to Chapter 14, Section 4.2 Design of Intermodal Facilities
b. Unloading (Disposal) Facilities
(1) Place rail car unloading as close as practical to ultimate MSW disposal
(2) Minimize exposure of waste to air and light

Yards and Terminals
(3) Include system for removing car covers, if any, and returning them to transfer station
(4) When using TOFC or COFC, refer to Chapter 14, Section 4.2 Design of Intermodal Facilities
(5) For modified box, gondola or hopper cars:
(a) Movement through (un)loading areas may be by indexer, barney, or cable and winch, mobile car mover or
slow speed locomotive
(b) Unloading may be by rotary dumper, clamshell or backhoe. (see Chapter 14, Section 4.4 Bulk-solid
(6) Transportation of MSW from rail unloading point to sanitary landfill or power generating plant.
(a) Use trailers or containers in which MSW arrives
(b) Unload open top cars with rotary dump, backhoe, grapple, etc.
(c) Use large truck trailers loaded by hoppers, conveyors, backhoes, etc.
(d) Unload containers or trailers at fill using tipping chassis or device
(e) Make final placement of MSW in landfill using grader-scrapers, bulldozers, front-end loaders and patrol
graders
(f) Most sanitary landfill operators are required to cover MSW with earth the same day it is placed.
(7) Sanitary landfills for disposal of MSW
(a) Are usually lined with sealed rubber or plastic membranes underlaid with clay to prevent escape of liquids
(leachate)
(b) May have a system of perforated pipes to collect and convey leachate to storage tanks for holding, treatment
and disposal
(c) If leachate is to be moved from the landfill site by tank car or truck, handling facilities are needed at origin
and disposal locations.
(d) Pipes may be installed to gather flammable gases (usually methane) generated by decomposition of wastes,
for burning as a power source or flare.
c. Aspects common to transfer and unloading facilities
(1) Provide sufficient utilities:
(a) Electric power for: lighting, waste processing equipment, hydraulic equipment, air compressors, maintenance
operations, wastewater pumping and treatment
(b) Water for: sanitary and washdown purposes, fire suppression
(c) Sanitary sewers and treatment facilities (on or offsite) to handle wastewater and car/trailer/container cleaning
effluents
(d) Treatment facilities for stormwater runoff, if contaminated

(e) Compressed air for: cleaning operations charging air brakes
(f) Adequate lighting for night operations, safety, and security
d. Layout of trackage
(1) Make extensive enough to easily handle in simple, direct moves the longest MSW unit trains or cuts of cars
expected
(2) Provide escape track for road-haul locomotives
(3) Provide room for overnight storage of trains or cars, if required
(4) Track curvature and turnout configurations
(a) Make compatible with equipment to be used for waste train and switching operations.
(b) Make (un) loading and holding tracks as straight and level as possible, with grade not more than-0.1% in
direction of movement
(c) Make vertical curves at least 100 ft. (30 in.) long.
(d) Make minimum curve radii at least 460 ft. (140 in.).
(e) Provide at least 100 ft. (30 in.) of tangent between reversing horizontal curves.
1
(f) Use No. 8 or flatter turnouts.
(5) Use CWR (115# or heavier) in paved areas to eliminate pavement heaving at rail joints.
(6) Use concrete modules in grade crossings to be used by heavy mobile equipment. 3
(7) Locomotive holding tracks:
(a) Make environmentally safe
(b) Provide facilities for fueling, servicing and light repairs

4
(8) At waste facilities using TOFC and/or COFC:
(a) Road-haul locomotives usually spot MSW unit trains directly on (un) loading tracks.
(b) Trailers and/or containers are lifted on and off of flat cars using straddle and gantry cranes, front end lifters,
etc.
(c) Intermodal flat cars are usually left in place on (un) loading tracks.
(d) Light repairs to intermodal cars (including changing wheel sets) are often done in place on (un) loading
tracks.
(e) A spur track may be provided for heavy car repairs if there is room at site.
(f) Prior to arrival of road-haul locomotives, unit or cuts of cars ready for departure should have their air brakes
charged using a portable or stationary air compressor, or a switch engine.

Yards and Terminals
e. Buildings
(1) Station for transfer of wastes between modes:
(a) Largest building in facility
(b) Larger at origin if public allowed to dump, and/or there is sorting or salvaging
(c) Keeps wastes out of sunlight and weather
(d) Captures odors, dust and noise
(e) Controls vermin
(f) Shields operations from public view
(g) Any tracks through building need proper clearances (see Chapter 28 Clearances)
(2) Other buildings
(a) Office building
(b) Truck scale house (may be in office)
(c) Locker and washroom facilities
(d) Repair garage for trucks, trailers, grading and other equipment
(e) Building to hold supplies and materials for railroad locomotive, car and track maintenance and repairs
(f) Trailer tipper building at landfill
(g) Gate houses for monitoring and security
f. Security
(1) To inhibit unauthorized entry into sites by trespasser to prevent:
(a) Unauthorized dumping and/or salvaging
(b) Accidents and injuries
(2) Methods:
(a) Have passes and waybills for authorized entrants
(b) Construct fences (or sound wall) around entire facility, with slats where in public view.
(c) Have adequate level of lighting at night.
(d) Install closed circuit TV and gate alarms where few guards are used.
(3) Provide adequate signing:

(a) To inhibit trespassing
(b) To promote orderly flow of authorized traffic
g. Vector Control
(1) Vermin and other animals are attracted by animal and vegetable matter in wastes.
(2) Best method of control is to move waste quickly from origin to disposal at landfill or power generating plant.
(3) Keep wastes covered and away from sunlight and heat to minimize odors caused by putrefaction.
(4) Do essential good housekeeping wherever wastes are handled, sorted or stored.
(5) Do thorough cleaning of waste handling areas and equipment using high pressure water and air.
SECTION 4.8 TRANSLOADING FACILITIES (OTHER THAN BULK)
4.8.1 GENERAL (2003)
Transloading facilities are designed for the transfer of various carload or multiple carload commodities from railcar to truck, 1
truck to railcar or from railcar to short term or long term ground or protected storage. They differ in configuration and purpose
from Bulk Terminals in that the commodity handled is generally not fluid or granular in nature. Handling and movement of the
commodity is generally more time and labor intensive than that required of Bulk Terminals, therefore design of Transloading
facilities poses a different set of requirements from that encountered in Bulk Terminals.
The simplest type of Transloading facility may be nothing more than a level compacted surface adjacent to a rail siding
permitting the manual transfer of lading between a truck and railcar. Facilities of this nature, referred to as “Team Tracks”, 3
were typically located adjacent to small railway freight or passenger stations. The consignee would, upon notification of
arrival of shipment, transfer cargo to truck.
More complex facilities may include dedicated areas, environmental controls and material handling equipment, such as rail or
rubber tire straddle cranes or heavy duty forklifts, specifically suited to a particular commodity.
The site location should provide access to a primary highway network, as well as convenient railway connections. Impacts of 4
increased vehicular traffic attributable to the operation of the facility should be evaluated during the site selection process.
Particular attention should be given to traffic patterns that may develop subsequent to the commencement of operations. These
include impacts resulting from increased highway traffic, as well as increased railroad movements.
Noise generated by transload operations must be considered. Material handling equipment, highway trucks and the general
handling of cargo may generate significant amounts of low frequency noise. Local noise ordinances may preclude 24 hour
operations and should be considered during the site selection process.
The owning Railroad, a contract operator, a lessee, or a consignee may own and/or operate the facility.
4.8.2 CONFIGURATION (2003)
a. The configuration of the facility may entail one or more single or double ended rail sidings. Vehicular access to the
siding(s) should be provided on each side of each track to accommodate various types of railcar configurations or the
specific unloading requirements of the lading. Sufficient distance from track centerline to obstructions such as fence

Yards and Terminals
lines, building faces or adjacent parallel tracks must be provided in order for material handling equipment to be able to
maneuver. The capacity and geometry of the rail sidings will be determined by several factors such as the type of rail
equipment employed, frequency of railroad switching service, volume of rail traffic, nature of commodity mix, and the
capacity of and dwell time in, material storage areas or warehousing. Depending on the volumes expected to be
handled, designated areas and traffic patterns for transfer operations to “over the road” trucks may be provided.
b. Unloading operations may take place from railhead level or require fixed or portable loading docks depending on
railcar type. The costs of providing fixed unloading facilities such as docks or ramps will be governed by the expected
commodity volumes and the storage requirements of each commodity. Generally, commodities shipped in covered
railcars, such as box cars, requiring loading docks are stored under cover. Therefore the loading dock may be an
integral part of on-site storage warehousing. Care must be taken to accommodate railcars carrying lading which, due to
shipping constraints may only be unloaded from one side of the railcar. Portable ramps can be employed as a flexible
alternative to fixed masonry, timber and earth docks.
c. In the absence of any specific zoning requirements, the site should be located a sufficient distance from residential
areas to avoid conflicts resulting from the generation of noise or dust from normal operations. In addition, the impacts
of spillover from the site security lighting, where provided, should be considered.
d. Available real estate will ultimately dictate facility design constraints. In order to minimize construction costs, rail
sidings should be located as close to the serving rail spur as possible, with consideration given to operating and site
development requirements.
4.8.3.1 SITE SURFACE
The vehicular operating area of the transloading site may consist of densely compacted gravel or dense graded aggregate sub
base material for low to medium volume facilities. The impact of the generation of dust from vehicular operations inherent
with this type of paving surface should be evaluated with respect to the nature of the commodities stored on site, as well as any
environmental regulations or local building or health code requirements. Consideration should be given to expected wheel
loading exerted by materials handling equipment when designing any pavement sections. See Article 4.2.3.3 regarding
pavement types.
4.8.3.2 ANCILIARY FACILITIES
A truck scale may be required for weighing commodities prior to departure from the terminal in order to prevent overload
situations or to satisfy the requirements of a particular customer. The location of the scale should be carefully planned to
permit easy access without adversely affecting the other operations of the terminal.
A terminal office, located adjacent to the entrance/exit gate may contain welfare facilities for terminal employees such as
showers, a lunchroom and lockers, as well as administrative offices for the terminal operator.
Material handling equipment maintenance facilities may be included at larger terminals where the level of service, nature of
equipment or location of the terminal precludes off site repairs. Generally, the equipment maintenance facilities will consist of:
• Portland Cement Concrete pad to facilitate jacking of heavy equipment
• Storage buildings or trailers for parts and tools
• A small shop.
Other site-specific items to be considered are:
• Lighting

• A compressed air system
• Water for fire protection and maintenance purposes
• Equipment fueling apparatus
• Weather protection such as a canopy or enclosed garage
Storm water runoff from the maintenance facility should be routed through an oil water separator in order to collect lubricating
and fuel oil spills and leaks resulting from maintenance operations.
4.8.3.3 SECURITY
Minimum site security measures should include perimeter fencing and a lockable entrance/exit gate. While some commodities
by their nature pose little potential for pilferage, others such as dimensional lumber represent an attractive target for thieves. In
any case, perimeter fencing will serve as a deterrent to trespassers. As an added enhancement to perimeter fencing, highway
type steel guide rail on H posts concrete “jersey barriers” or other types of obstructions may be installed inside the limits of the
perimeter fencing.
A perimeter alarm, security cameras or security guards may be considered where potential for theft is high due to the site
location or nature of commodity handled.
Site lighting in the form of pole mounted floodlights or high mast area lighting should be considered as an added security
measure where operations may occur during hours of darkness.
1
4.8.3.4 STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
Means may be provided to attenuate or prevent discharge of storm water originating within the transload facility in order to
satisfy the requirements of state or local regulatory agencies. In addition, measures may be necessary to contain spilled lading
to prevent entry into the local watershed or local storm water or sanitary sewer systems. These storm water management
measures may include detention or retention basins, settlement ponds, storage tanks, oil-water separators or complex treatment 3
facilities by virtue of the nature of certain commodities handled by the particular facility.
4.8.4 FACILITY TYPES (2003)
Some examples of facility types are as follows.
4.8.4.1 LUMBER TRANSFER FACILITIES 4

a. Lumber handling and transfer facilities are designed for the transfer from railcar to truck, or from railcar to short term
ground or protected storage, of dimensional lumber and other building products such as roofing shingles, brick,
building block, plywood sheet or other manufactured building materials.
b. Lumber transfer facilities may include open sided sheds or fully enclosed storage warehousing to provide protection
from the elements, as well as open areas for simple ground storage.
c. The site location should be level and well drained to facilitate movement of material handling equipment, as well as
prevent damage to stored materials from standing water.
d. Sufficient water for fire protection purposes should be available.

Yards and Terminals
4.8.4.2 STEEL TRANSFER FACILITIES
a. Steel handling facilities are designed for the transfer of semi finished or finished steel products from railcar to truck or
from railcar to short term ground or protected storage. Products may include structural shapes, slabs, billets, bar,
tubular and pipe stock, as well as coiled sheet steel.
b. Steel transfer facilities may include open storage areas suitable for slabs, billets or structural shapes which are not
affected by the elements or may be equipped with fully enclosed climate controlled warehousing for non coated coiled
sheet steel.
c. Vehicular travel areas should be paved with a suitable pavement material and section to support the heavy axle loading
exerted by both material handling equipment and over the road truck operations.

14
Part 5
Locomotive Facilities1
— 2007 —
FOREWORD
In the establishment or modification of any large railway terminal it is necessary to determine whether separate locomotive
facilities should be provided for freight and passenger equipment, or whether both types should be handled in a single facility.
Convenience, expedition, low unit operating costs and carrying charges involved in these alternatives must be given proper
consideration. Usually a single facility is more efficient and produces lower unit operating costs.
1
The locomotive facilities must be correlated to all other facilities for efficient handling of each locomotive. Servicing facilities
required for the various types of locomotives should be arranged in an efficient sequence.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-2

5.1.1 Requirements (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-2
5.1.2 Site Selection (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-3
5.1.3 Track Layout (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-3
5.1.4 Buildings (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-3
5.1.5 Miscellaneous Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-4
5.1.6 Design Considerations (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-4
5.2 Servicing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-5

5.2.1 Fueling Stations (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-5
5.2.2 Sanding (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-6
5.3 Inspection Pits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7

5.3.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7
5.4 Diesel, Diesel-Electric and Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7

5.4.1 Shop Building and Appurtenances (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-7
5.5 Main Line Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-8
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 83, 1982, p. 363; Vol. 94, p. 123. Revised 1993.

Yards and Terminals
5.5.1 General Considerations (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-8

5.5.2 Types of Fueling Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-9
5.5.3 Common Design Considerations (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-9
LIST OF FIGURES
14-5-1 Section Through Fueling Pad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-12

14-5-2 Schematic Layout Large Fixed Fueling Facility Rail Car Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-13
14-5-3 Schematic Layout Small Fixed Fueling Facility Truck Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-14
14-5-4 Schematic Layout Bi-Directional Single Track Mainline Fueling with Bypass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5-15
SECTION 5.1 GENERAL
5.1.1 REQUIREMENTS (2007)
The following items should be considered in the design of locomotive facilities:
a. Some locomotive facilities may serve both freight and passenger locomotives, and in some cases used by more than
one railroad or entity. In deciding whether to enlarge an existing facility or to build a new one, proximity to the
terminals where locomotives are to be released from trains should be an important deciding factor.
b. In the case of joint freight facilities it may be advisable, as in joint passenger terminals, to substitute new joint freight
locomotive facilities for several layouts and space/function planning unless existing separate facilities can be merely
coordinated and delegated to joint management in such a manner that they will function adequately.
c. New locomotive facilities should be located to minimize:
• usage of tracks on which there are other movements,
• reverse or conflicting movements, and
• light engine mileage in the movement of locomotives to and from their trains.
In designing a locomotive terminal layout a thorough study of the traffic and operating requirements of the terminal
should be made jointly by the engineering, transportation and mechanical departments. This study should include
consideration of the following data, keeping future expansion in mind:
• Type(s) and size(s) of locomotives to be handled.
• The level of service to be performed.
• Number of locomotives handled in each direction daily.

Locomotive Facilities
• Schedule of arrival and departure of locomotives.
• Number of locomotives arriving during peak period.
• Time within which locomotives arriving must be hostled.
• Maximum number of locomotives in terminal concurrently.
• Number of locomotives repaired daily, by classes of work.
• Number of locomotives under repair concurrently, by classes of work.
• Amount of fuel issued, water consumed, lubricant consumed and sand consumed, and any other consumables, daily.
• Number of staff required to operate the terminal.
• Turning locomotive consists.
The selection of a proper site requires a study of all factors affecting costs of construction and operation, including cost of
preparing site; local permitting and zoning requirements, soil and foundation conditions, drainage; sewage disposal, utilities
(fire protection and domestic water, gas, electricity, storm sewer, industrial waste); relation to existing or proposed yards and
to passenger and freight stations; labor supply, including housing facilities and transportation; tax rates; and availability of 1
public fire fighting apparatus and stations.
5.1.3 TRACK LAYOUT (2007)
a. At most locations it is preferable to have locomotives enter a locomotive facility at one end and leave from the other to
provide a flow through the servicing facility.
3
b. Entrance tracks should be so located and of such capacity as to permit the prompt receipt of locomotives immediately
on arrival, with adequate space between those which may have to wait their turn for servicing. Sufficient tracks should
be provided near the exit for holding locomotives already prepared for service.
c. The layout should provide at least one runaround track for flexibility of locomotive movement.
d. At the ends of locomotive runs where the operation requires quick turnaround service, facilities should be provided for
4
standing locomotives, sanding, fueling and watering with or without inspection pits.
e. Escape tracks should be provided where possible.
f. A wye, turntable or loop track should be considered for turning locomotive consists.
5.1.4 BUILDINGS (2007)
5.1.4.1 Office
Adequate office facilities should be provided for the officer in charge of the terminal and his staff.
5.1.4.2 Amenity and Service
One or more structures of fire-retardant construction should be provided at a convenient location to house the following:

Yards and Terminals
a. Welfare facilities for employees.
b. Storage for equipment, material and other consumables.
5.1.4.3 Reference
Complete information on the design of shop buildings and other buildings required in an engine terminal, together with pits
and other appurtenances, will be found in Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities.
5.1.5 MISCELLANEOUS FACILITIES (2007)
Items to be considered in the design of locomotive facilities:
5.1.5.1 Communications
a. Computer Network
b. Telephone, including portable or cellular.
c. Radio.
d. Paging – Talk-back speakers.
e. Pneumatic tube (if necessary).
5.1.5.2 Lighting
The entire locomotive terminal area should be provided with adequate lighting.
Items to be considered in the design of locomotive facilities:
a. Fire control system:
(1) Water storage tank.
(2) Various types of fire fighting equipment, extinguishers, hydrants, monitor nozzles, etc.
(3) Special fire lanes.
(4) Emergency shut-off valves.
(5) Special storage areas for solvents, paints, etc.
(6) Spill containment around fuel tanks and other bulk flammable storage.
(7) Special fire protection systems and fire alarm systems.
b. Pollution:
(1) Water pollution by oils, radiator treatment and other chemicals.

(2) Methods of solid waste disposal.
(3) Noise pollution and applicable regulations.
(4) Emissions into air from exhaust(s), etc.
(5) Possible prevention strategies and solutions.
(6) Stray light issues.
(7) Spill containment.
c. Locomotive Servicing:
(1) Load testing facilities for diesel locomotives.
(2) Cab signal test facilities.
(3) Retention type toilet servicing.
(4) Solid waste disposal facilities, compactors, etc.
(5) Restocking of consumables.

1
SECTION 5.2 SERVICING FACILITIES
5.2.1 FUELING STATIONS (2007)

3
5.2.1.1 General
a. At locations where locomotives are to be fueled, facilities must be provided for receiving, storing and dispensing the
fuel, unless fueling is to be direct from tank truck to locomotive.
b. In the design and construction of fueling stations provisions should be included to prevent the pollution and
contamination of public waters from spilled fuels through surface and subsurface waters, sewers and other conduits. 4
c. Diesel fuel may be delivered to a fueling station by rail tank car, truck, pipeline or boat.
d. Fueling may be performed at stationary facilities to which locomotives are moved, or by mobile servicing units which
go to the locomotives.
5.2.1.2 Location
a. Stationary fueling facilities should be located at locomotive terminals concurrent with other servicing facilities, where
provided.
b. If run-through trains are to be fueled, consideration should be given to locating fueling facility on main line or
thoroughfare track at crew change point.

Yards and Terminals
5.2.1.3 Tracks
a. Track(s) provided for fueling should have capacity equal to the largest diesel consist which is to be serviced at the
facility.
b. Where diesel fuel is to be received by rail tank car a separate unloading track should be provided with sufficient
capacity for the largest fuel shipment to be handled.
c. A thoroughfare track should be provided to transfer locomotives to and from the fueling station.
d. Tracks on which fuel is to be unloaded or dispensed should have gradients as flat as possible, preferably but not
exceeding 0.1%. Portions of tracks where cars are to be spotted for unloading and where locomotives will be fueled
should have tangent alignment. Curvature should not exceed 12° on any fueling station tracks.
e. Tracks used for loading and unloading of fuels must be isolated from static electricity by insulated joints and be
grounded along with the apparatus being used.
f. A blue flag system should be provided on loading and servicing tracks.
5.2.2 SANDING (2007)
a. Sanding facilities should be provided to serve all locomotives entering and leaving the terminal.
b. Sanding may be performed at stationary facilities to which locomotives are moved or by mobile facilities which go to
the locomotives. For design considerations for fixed facilities to unload, store and load sand into locomotives refer to
Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities, Part 6, Locomotive Sanding Facilities.
5.2.2.1 Location
Sanding facilities are usually situated adjacent to, and concurrent with, fuel and water facilities so that locomotives can be
completely serviced at one location. If sanding facilities are co-located with the fuel and water facilities, the drainage system
should include facilities to capture and remove sand from the waste stream.
5.2.2.2 Tracks
a. A sanding track should be provided with capacity not less than the largest locomotive consist normally operating in, or
through, the terminal.
b. If locomotive sand is to be received in covered hoppers or other rail cars, a separate unloading track should be provided
with sufficient capacity to hold the largest shipment.
c. The portions of track on which sand is to be loaded into locomotives or on which sand is unloaded into storage should
have the flattest gradient possible, preferably not exceeding 0.1%. Alignment of track through loading and unloading
stations should be tangent. Curvature on other portions of the track should not exceed 12°.
d. If locomotive sand is to be received by truck, consideration should be given to receiving stations and roadways for
truck movements.
e. Blue flag protection should be provided at loading and unloading stations.

SECTION 5.3 INSPECTION PITS
5.3.1 GENERAL (2007)
Inspection pits are usually located on the inbound track near the entrance to the terminal, except such a pit as described in
Article 5.4.1f. These pits should have:
a. Suitable depth for inspection of the locomotives.
b. Length not less than the longest locomotive to be inspected, plus the length needed for access stairs.
c. Adequate drainage.
d. Stairway(s) for convenient access and/or tunnel direct to the inspectors’ office, and for emergency exit. For long term
inspection pits serving multiple locomotive consists, intermediate emergency egress points should be provided.
e. Fixtures for lighting and service outlets.
f. Drop tables may be needed in some locomotive inspection pits to change out traction motors and axle assemblies.
Design considerations may include additional width, lifting capabilities for the assemblies and other provisions.
g. Repair and maintenance services such as compressed air, journal oil, etc.
SECTION 5.4 DIESEL, DIESEL-ELECTRIC AND ELECTRIC
5.4.1 SHOP BUILDING AND APPURTENANCES (2007)

3
a. The size of the building is determined by the length of locomotives and the number to be housed simultaneously. When
locomotives are pooled, the back shop work will be done at one or more system shops, and the building for such work
will generally be much larger and have more facilities than the building for running repairs at terminals located
between such system shops. The structure, however, should be so designed as to provide facilities for either running
repairs or heavy repairs as outlined above.
b. The number and length of tracks should be sufficient to accommodate all of the locomotives to be housed at any one 4
time. Stub-end heavy repair tracks may have certain economic advantages, and if such a layout is used there should be
at least one through running repair track along side of the heavy repair tracks. The desirable distance between track
centers should not be less than 23 ft, which allows for a 12 ft wide working platform. However, wider track centers are
preferred.
c. See Article 5.3.1.b for pit length.
d. Wheel storage facilities adjacent to repair shops should be provided to assure a convenient supply of wheels, including
wheels with their traction motors attached.
e. The lubricating oil facilities may be handled in the repair shop proper or in a separate structure. Meters should be
provided to measure accurately the lubricating oil delivered to the units. Storage for new lubricating oil should be of
sufficient size to support the facility. Facilities may be provided for reclaiming worn and dirty lubricating oil and
should include tanks to collect the reclaimed oil.

Yards and Terminals
f. A track with an inspection pit adjacent to the shop building could be provided. Such a pit should be long enough to
accommodate several sets of locomotive units and should be near enough to the shop building for the shop supervisor
to direct the activities of the employees on this pit. Fueling and sanding facilities could be located along this track.
SECTION 5.5 MAIN LINE FUELING
Main line fueling facilities are installations for adding fuel to locomotives while they are still on their trains. Other servicing
functions may be performed concurrently as capacity and convenience dictates. Main line fueling may be considered when
schedule is important, or when there is no reason to take power off of the train to refuel, or to yard the train and refuel.
5.5.1.1 Operational Considerations
The number of locations and delivery time for fueling locomotives must be consistent with the schedules and characteristics of
the railroad operations through the location.
a. Each fueling track must be of sufficient length clear of all other tracks and any public road crossings to permit the
trains to be fueled without interfering with other concurrent activities, both of the railroad and of the public.
b. The configuration should provide flexibility to perform other desired operations to a train as may be required. (e.g.,
access to inspect, add or remove cars or locomotives, etc. immediately prior to or following the actual fueling.)
c. Consideration must be given to changing operations. Where practicable, room should be provided to allow for
expansion. It is best to design the facility so that portions of it may be conveniently removed or restored to service
depending on operational requirements.
d. Wherever blue flag protection is dictated, provisions need to be made to place and remove these flags as efficiently and
safely as possible.
5.5.1.2 Fueling Considerations
A significant consideration when evaluating site alternatives is the delivered cost of fuel itself.
a. Fuel cost may be quite volatile, but the elements of the fuel price generally follow a percentage of the basic price of the
fuel.
b. Proximity to pipelines and storage farms. Some railroads may own their own storage facilities fed by pipeline at
existing locations.
c. Transportation from storage to delivery. Private roadways or branch pipelines to bring the fuel to the fueling pad may
be justified.
d. Taxes.
e. An additional consideration is source reliability. Consider the reliability of the fuel source if the source is not a
pipeline.

5.5.1.3 Other Fuels
It may be necessary at some locations to provide fuels other than diesel fuel, such as alcohol or natural gas. Such fuels require
dedicated delivery systems and specialized fittings. In planning for a new fueling site, provision could be made for multiple
fuels and delivery systems as required now or in the foreseeable future.
5.5.2 TYPES OF FUELING FACILITIES (2007)
There are two basic types of fueling facilities, fixed facilities and direct truck loading facilities.
5.5.2.1 Fixed Fueling Facilities
A fixed facility will generally be operated by the railroad company, and incorporate several common elements, including but
not limited to fuel pumping platforms with high-speed pumps, fuel storage tanks, and unloading, pumping and distribution
facilities for the incoming fuel. At a fixed fueling facility, a train comes to the loading platform, and the locomotives are
spotted for fueling.
As a train arrives at the fueling platform the locomotive consist is positioned such that the fueling booms and hoses can reach
all (or the greatest number of) locomotive fuel tanks to perform the operation.
A fixed fueling facility may incorporate other mechanical functions, such as 1,000 or 1,500 mile inspections and provisions for
adding lube oil and water. Facilities for adding locomotive sand might be considered if operational constraints permit. Crew
supplies such as water may also be added.
1
Depending on the individual railroad’s operations, it may be convenient to re-crew trains at the platform.
5.5.2.2 Direct Truck Loading
At a direct truck loading (DTL) facility the fuel comes to the locomotive. That is, a fuel truck pulls up next to the locomotive
consist, and the fuel is transferred directly to the locomotive fuel tanks, without the need for any additional pumping, storage,
or spill containment facilities. DTL can be significantly more flexible than the fixed facilities, but does not have the delivery 3
speed or capacity of the fixed facilities. Large access roads are required to accommodate fuel trucks. If the DTL facility
utilizes trucks that do not need to leave railroad property and traverse public roadways, substantially larger volumes of fuel
may be handled in each truck.
5.5.2.3 Comparison
a. Fixed facilities can offer significantly higher loading speed and capacity. 4
b. DTL can offer much greater flexibility.
c. A hybrid of the two may offer the advantages of each, but would likely increase total cost above that of either alone. A
hybrid may also be necessary to handle the fueling of remote or Distributed Power Units (DPU).
d. Roadways to and from all DTL locations must be constructed to higher standards of curvature, strength and capacity
than would roadways used solely for mechanized train inspection. High capacity, off-highway fuel trucks would
require the most substantial roadways.
5.5.3 COMMON DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2007)
A number of factors must be considered when designing a fueling facility, regardless of type. Several of the significant factors
are discussed below:

Yards and Terminals
5.5.3.1 Access to Fuel Tracks
5.5.3.1.1 Locomotives
Fueling tracks may be located on main tracks or on adjacent tracks. If fueling tracks are on or adjacent to main tracks,
consideration must be given to the operational speed of the fueling tracks. The track geometry must allow trains to enter and
leave at speeds that minimize the time in which the main track is fouled. The tracks must be long enough to clear the main
track and brake safely at the facility.
5.5.3.1.2 Vehicles
Vehicular access is vital to the fueling tracks. Roadways must be designed to accommodate the vehicles that will be delivering
the fuel, both geometrically (turning radii and ground clearance for semi-tractor trailer trucks) and structurally (pavement type
and thickness). For DTL, vehicular access must allow for the efficient movement of fueling vehicles and others requiring
access during fueling operations. If two or more fuel trucks might be operated on the same roadway to access one or two
trains, width is needed for them to pass each other. Also, the trucks may back-in between tracks a short distance, say from the
front of the head end locomotive to a unit in that consist, but not a substantial distance down the train. To reach units within
the train a flow-through truck traffic pattern is necessary. This will not work if a fixed platform is located at one end of the
space between the two tracks. The DTL would need to operate on roadways between the alternate track pairs from those
accessing a fixed platform.
5.5.3.2 Fueling Track Length
The fueling tracks should be long enough to accommodate the longest train that is to be fueled without fouling other tracks or
blocking other operations.
5.5.3.3 Locomotive Consist Length
The length of the fueling area must consider the normal and maximum locomotive consist that is to be fueled.
5.5.3.4 Fueling of Distributed Power
If distributed power is to be fueled, the designer must determine how it will be fueled. At a fixed facility it would be necessary
to have a platform at each location where distributed power may be located throughout the train, or to move the train forward
one or more times to spot distributed power at a single platform. In most operations, it is extremely difficult to predict the
distance between the front of the train and any given distributed power locomotive unit. Thus, it would be necessary to
provide long platforms to serve units located within the train, and significantly increase cost. If trains are to be re-spotted,
sufficient fueling track length must extend beyond the platform to allow for the length of the longest train to pull forward to
fuel the last locomotive units in that train. It may be preferable to use DTL to fuel one end of each distributed power train.
Grade crossings should be avoided through the fueling tracks.
5.5.3.6 Track Gradient
The track gradient for fuel unloading tracks should be level, or as close to level as possible.
5.5.3.7 Signal Considerations
a. Signal placement must be carefully considered with respect to fueling facilities.
b. A blue flag system should be provided on fueling tracks.

c. All fueling tracks should be bonded and grounded.
5.5.3.8 Power Supply
The fueling facility should be sited such that commercial power is readily available. Generators should only be provided as
back-up power.
5.5.3.9 Facility Lighting
Lighting design should consider the need to provide a safe working area. Fixture design and placement should avoid
“blinding” of the crews of other passing trains. Lighting design should also consider the impacts on adjacent properties.
5.5.3.10 Fire Protection
See AREMA Manual Chapter 14, Sections 1.5 and 1.6.
5.5.3.11 Environmental Considerations
When located in an existing yard, the regulatory process may be less burdensome and key support functions may already be in
place (Fuel, sewer, water, etc.).
5.5.3.11.1 Emissions
See AREMA Manual Chapter 6, Article 4.9.2.

1
5.5.3.11.2 Noise Pollution
See AREMA Manual Chapter 6, Article 4.9.1.
5.5.3.11.3 Spill Containment

3
Spill containment must be included at al designed fueling locations for both fixed facility and DTL facilities.
5.5.3.11.4 Track Structure
Track Structure must be designed to accommodate full tonnage at track operating speed. There are several different
approaches to the track structure and containment:
4
• Direct Fixation
• Cross Ties w/Track Pans
• Other Methods
5.5.3.12 Clearances
Clearances for the facility must be in conformance with requirements of the carrier railroad and state regulations. See
AREMA Manual Chapter 28.

Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-5-1. Section Through Fueling Pad
Figure 14-5-2. Schematic Layout Large Fixed Fueling Facility Rail Car Unloading
Yards and Terminals
Figure 14-5-3. Schematic Layout Small Fixed Fueling Facility Truck Unloading
Figure 14-5-4. Schematic Layout Bi-Directional Single Track Mainline Fueling with Bypass
Yards and Terminals

14
Part 6
Passenger Facilities1
– 2004 —
FOREWORD
The designation “passenger facilities” as herein employed includes the platforms, platform canopies, tracks, passenger thin
yards and other accessory features necessary to conduct mass transit, suburban and intercity rail transportation. AREA
Committees 6 and 14 collaborated to develop manual recommendations. For design criteria on railway passenger stations and
other buildings, refer to Chapter 6, Buildings and Support Facilities.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 Terminal Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2 3

6.1.1 General (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2
6.2 Station Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2

6.2.1 General (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-2
6.2.2 Site (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-4
6.2.3 Activities (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-6
6.3 Passenger Train Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-8

6.3.1 General (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-8
6.3.2 Site (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-8
6.3.3 Activities (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-11
6.4 Utilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-12

6.4.1 Mechanical Systems (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-12
6.4.2 Electrical Systems (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6-12
1
References, Vol. 77, 1976, p. 87; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 76. Rewritten 1985.

Yards and Terminals
SECTION 6.1 TERMINAL PLANNING
6.1.1 GENERAL (1985)
a. Studies for passenger facilities should be made by a committee consisting of representatives from Engineering,
Mechanical, Transportation, Passenger Service, Real Estate, Police, and other departments as required. Preferably the
officer to be placed in charge of the new facility should also be a member.
b. Information should be gathered as to the intended use of the facility including projections for future years. Field
investigations of terminal activities at similar sites to the planned one should be carried out to verify assumptions made
on previous design projects. Current literature should be reviewed to assure that the latest methods are utilized in
design and construction. Committee members should meet with representatives of other railroads having engaged in
similar projects to exchange planning techniques and to look for ways of avoiding problems encountered.
c. Numerical criteria should be formulated for each activity. Examples include frequency of train movements, number of
passengers arriving per hour (peak), average baggage count, gross ticket sales, and retail revenue per square foot of
space. Regional Planning Agencies are good source of data on population densities, travel patterns, etc.
d. Operation of passenger service in North America has in all but a few situations been assumed by government agencies,
public supported corporations, or special departments within private carriers in order to isolate the attendant costs of
providing such service. As a result, new passenger station facilities are publicly funded as distinct from facilities
required for freight operations. Committee members should be aware of the restrictions on such funding and allow
adequate time for the various approvals involved.
e. A passenger terminal should be so located and designed as to coordinate as far as reasonably practicable with other
civic activities. Frequently it is found desirable to make general civic improvements at the same time the terminal is
being constructed. Modification of street approaches is almost always involved. The costs should be assumed by the
parties benefited. Close cooperation between the terminal committee, the planning board and executive officers of the
municipality, and perhaps other civic groups, is necessary in order that any new legislation as may be necessary shall
be fair and equitable to all.
SECTION 6.2 STATION ENVIRONMENT
6.2.1 GENERAL (1985)
a. The station environment includes all facilities required for the complete accommodation of passengers and their
belongings between public entrances and the trains. Comprising this is the main building, connecting concourses,
platform access, platforms, parking and station approaches.
b. The location of the station should be determined by the economic balance among the following factors:
(1) Accessibility to business and civic activities and other modes of transportation.
(2) Land values and land use.
(3) Cost of construction.
(4) Size and shape of real estate.

Passenger Facilities
(5) Ease of approach from all associated rail lines, without excessive curvature or gradient, and preferably without
grade crossings.
(6) Possible need for future expansion.
c. Factors to consider when designing a station that will be used by connecting intercity passengers include:
(1) Transfer passengers occupy a station for a longer length of time and require more extensive facilities per passenger
than commuter or through passengers.
(2) Reducing the time interval between incoming and outgoing trains decreases requirements per passenger for
waiting room space and for certain other facilities.
(3) The number of passengers handled during the rush hour does not alone determine the size or number of facilities
required. Local conditions must be studied, as they affect requirements for any particular situation.
(4) The size or number of facilities must be modified to make allowance for the time of arriving and departing trains
and the span in minutes between them; the ratio between passengers commencing or terminating their journey and
transfer passengers; number of hold over passengers arriving or departing outside of the rush hour but occupying
space and requiring service during a portion of the rush hour; and the departure from a reasonably uniform spread
of passengers entering and departing within the rush hour.
d. Factors to consider when designing a station that will be used by suburban commuters:
(1) Suburban passengers occupy a station for a minimum length of time and move faster than the through passenger
1
and therefore requirements in the way of station facilities per passenger are substantially less.
(2) When suburban business is heavy, it is desirable to separate the through and suburban service, as their
requirements are not similar. This may be done by handling the two classes of service at different levels different
sides or ends of the station; or different stations, one beyond the other.
3
(3) Indicator boards are the only directional information required, as a rule, by commuters. They should show track
number, scheduled leaving time, and essential identification of the trains.
e. Factors to consider when rehabilitating or moving existing stations:
(1) Railroad stations have previously been an important element of communities serviced by railroads. Often, the
railroad station was the focal point of the community. 4
(2) In order for the railroads to effectively and actively compete in the transportation marketplace, they must have
efficient comfortable stations and station environments.
(3) Station environments should be created to cause the using passenger to enjoy and be comfortable in the facility.
(4) Station environments must be designed with enough flexibility to meet changing travel patterns. They must be
easily expandable when ridership levels show marked increases.
f. When designing any passenger facility the designer must realize that it is subject to vicissitudes of weather, delays and
derailments to trains, late connections, power failures, surges in traffic, bad order equipment, special trains or cars
requiring special handling, excursion travel, conventions, and special functions at irregular periods.

Yards and Terminals
6.2.2 SITE (1985)
6.2.2.1 Track
a. The track layout at any station should be designed to accommodate the planned schedule of trains stopping at that
station, trains passing through it, sections combining or splitting, special cars on or off, locomotive changes, delayed
trains, special movements, and future increases in traffic. The track layout should not be solely designed around a
specific timetable, since train schedules can be altered very quickly.
b. Sufficient throat tracks should be provided to permit at least two simultaneous parallel movements. The track layout
should be sufficiently flexible to provide for complete interchange of routes. A ratio of three station tracks to one throat
track should be adequate if the throat is properly designed.
c. The track layout should be designed with the length between turnouts as required for the proper signal indications and
necessary clearances for operation of track circuits so that a system of fixed signals or interlocking may be installed
whenever desired without restricting the use of any of the routes or the necessity of additional track changes.
d. The number of station tracks should be determined by the schedule of trains and switching desired; allowances for
delayed or special trains, schedules changes, and future expansion; layover time and the proximity of the passenger
yard; track lengths available; and the type of operation used. Servicing may be performed in the station when a
maintenance facility is not available.
e. The track length is determined by the size of the consists operated, the maximum platform length available, and
allowances for flexibility in the assignment of tracks for the longest trains.
f. Through track stations are preferred to stub stations from an operational standpoint. Loop tracks are preferable to wyes
and generally expedite service at terminal points when nonreversible equipment is used.
g. Freight or industry connections on the station approach tracks or on lines within or adjacent to the terminal zones
should be so arranged as to avoid or minimize interference with passenger train traffic.
h. It is generally acceptable at stations where dwell time is less than 10 minutes to provide platforms adjacent to the main
line trackage. Where other activities such as section splits occur, a separate station track is usually necessary.
6.2.2.2 Platforms
a. In planning a passenger station it is important to devise a coordinated arrangement between the track layout and the
station proper which will, at reasonable cost, provide maximum convenience, expedition, and economy in rendering all
the platform services. Particularly at high traffic stations, it is extremely desirable that baggage, mail and express
trucks shall not ordinarily have to traverse or occupy platform space being used for the accommodation of passengers.
Determination of the type of platform (i.e. combined or separate trucking and passenger) best suited to a particular
situation is dependent upon the character and volume of the various kinds of traffic handled, the type of station (i.e.
stub, through or loop), the location and type of approaches to the platforms for the various kinds of traffic, the relation
of the various approaches to each other, the relative lengths of platforms and trains, space available for station track
and platform development, and the method of operation. Because there are so many variables involved, final
conclusion as to the best arrangement can only be reached with a thorough study.
b. For a high traffic intercity through station, with track level below or above the station floor level, combined platforms
could be installed sufficient in length to permit berthing the passenger carrying cars in the center zone leaving the end
zones clear for trucking. Passengers would reach or leave the platforms via ramps, stairways or escalators at the middle
third of the platforms; and trucks would reach or leave the platforms by elevators or ramps, at or near the ends
connected with subway runways and assembly areas. If platforms cannot be built to such length or if two trains are
regularly berthed on the same track simultaneously, interference between passengers and trucking will result and the
installation of separate platforms may be justified.

c. For a high traffic intercity stub station, with tracks at the same level as the station floor, combined platforms could also
be installed. Provision should be made for all trucks to reach or leave the station platforms near the outer ends, via
elevators or ramps connecting with subway facilities. In the event that baggage, mail or express cars would normally
be placed against the station side of the stub then consideration should be given to provide separate unloading areas to
minimize passenger interference and improve aesthetics.
d. In either case, if platform elevators are used, an alternate access should be designed for use in the event of elevator
failure.
e. Suburban service stations generally do not handle freight so are normally designed with platforms between pairs of
tracks with elevator service then limited to elderly or handicapped patrons.
f. For light traffic stations where both passenger and truck movements will be relatively light and train arrivals and
departures will occur mostly at separate intervals, a careful predetermination of the balance between investment and
advantage may be required to decide whether or not grade separation is justified, either for passengers or for trucks,
and which method of rendering the platform services is to be selected.
g. Combined passenger and trucking platforms should be at least 20 feet in width, assuming a row of canopy columns
located in the center of the platform. Passenger platforms shall vary in width at stations with relatively light traffic or
where train arrivals and departures occur at separate intervals. This width varies between 10 to 15 feet.
h. Exclusive passenger platforms should have a minimum width of 17 feet, which is sufficient to accommodate the
passengers from one arriving train, one line of travel for passengers to a departing train, and a row of columns in the
center of the platform. This width will normally meet all requirements for through passenger train operation, as it is
seldom necessary to berth two arriving trains simultaneously at the same platform.
1
i. Exclusive trucking platforms without columns should have a minimum width of 11 feet to permit two trucks to pass.
Where the volume of trucking is sufficient to justify three lanes, a minimum of 16 feet should be provided to avoid
blocking the platform when two trucks are serving cars on opposite sides. If columns are necessary, platform widths
should be increased accordingly and columns located so as not to interfere with trucking lanes.
3
j. In combined passenger and trucking platforms in through stations, it is desirable to have a clear width of approximately
6 feet on one side of the stairs to permit trucking operations past the stairs.
k. Generally the platform is placed 8 inches above the adjacent top of rail. In stations where a large number of passengers
must be handled quickly, the relation of platform to floor height should be considered to expedite the handling of
passengers. However, high platforms interfere to some extent with switching and inspection of equipment.
4
l. In a through station, the placement on the platform of the approach to the concourse has a bearing on the required
capacity of the approach. If it is located at the end of the platform, the concentration will be but one-half as intense as if
it is located at the middle of the platform, although the duration of the maximum intensity of congestion will be much
less in the latter case. If a double approach is located at the center, the intensity of the concentration will be the same as
in the first case, and the duration of the maximum intensity of congestion will be the same as in the second case.
m. Canopies should be considered for any exposed platforms. If funds do not allow full coverage, then canopies should be
used where most of the waiting is expected to occur. Canopies should be architecturally integrated into the station
building design through the use of common fascia materials and color schemes.
n. Platform graphics should divide the platform into boarding sectors of two to three cars each. Sectors should be
identified with alphabetical characters to avoid confusion with track numbers.

Yards and Terminals
6.2.2.3 Access
a. When passenger platforms are placed above or below station floor elevations, access to the platforms should be by
steps, ramps, elevators, or escalators. The placement of these should be carefully planned to be convenient for the
passenger and baggage handling.
b. Escalators have a maximum carrying capacity of approximately 5000 passengers per hour for 32 inches width and
8000 passengers per hour for 48 inches. They are being used in both suburban and intercity passenger service.
c. Stairways should be a minimum of 48 inches wide using a maximum tread riser of 7 inches.
d. Ramps provide ideal means for movement of passengers to and from station platforms if they can be so installed as not
to increase materially the distance traveled by passengers, nor materially decrease the space on the station platform
available for the accommodation of trains. Good results can be accomplished in many cases by the use of both
stairways and ramps.
e. Under normal conditions, passenger elevators are not recommended as approaches to individual passenger platforms.
They are required as a supplement to stairways for the use by handicapped and elderly patrons.
f. In large passenger stations where trains operate in both directions through the station, baggage elevators are desirable
at both ends of combined passenger and trucking platforms to reduce the interference between trucking operations and
passengers.
g. Ramps are a very desirable means of providing vertical transportation for trucking operations, if the design of the
station is such as to permit their installation without a material sacrifice in space. Ramp gradients in excess of 8% are
not recommended. The ramp surface should be finished with an abrasive or nonskid material. The minimum clear
width which should be considered for trucking ramps designed to accommodate one line of traffic is 6 feet, and for two
lines of traffic is 11 feet.
h. Grade crossings may be used in light traffic stations for platform access. They should be located for the convenience of
the passengers, baggage handling and commissary services. For best results, the crossing should be located adjacent to
the entrance/exit locations of the station building. Platform extremities are best crossing locations for baggage handling
and commissary services. If the platform is raised then allowances must be made to reduce the platform height near the
crossing location. Care should be used in selecting crossing material for passenger use to avoid tripping hazards and
problems with luggage carts.
i. Use of automatic fare collection or any type of barrier control system requires advance planning of locations to ensure
that the designed capacity of the platform access is not reduced materially. Throughput values of gates can be obtained
from the proposed manufacturer.
j. Street approaches should receive particular attention in station planning to provide convenient access and sufficient
capacity but bypassing areas of traffic congestion. Separate routes should be provided so that pedestrian traffic and
vehicular traffic can be safely and expeditiously handled. Ample accommodation for vehicles handling mail, baggage,
and express should be provided in a manner that will not impede the free movement of busses, automobiles and
pedestrian traffic on the public approach to the station.
6.2.3 ACTIVITIES (1985)
a. Primary requirements for a passenger station include a waiting room, ticket office, telephones, and restrooms. These
areas should be connected by ramps (preferably) or other means to the train platforms. A separate concourse allowing
direct exit to the street from the platforms is an advantage in suburban service stations or high volume intercity
stations.

b. Secondary requirements include information booths, baggage handling facilities, parcel rooms, check lockers, train
announcing systems, retail food service or vending, newsstands, and passenger service offices.
c. Company requirements may include space for train crew check-in, commissary operations, on-board service,
administration, mechanical department, operations, station service, safety, and other administrative offices.
d. Office or hotel space may be constructed as part of an integrated design with the station. Care should be taken to avoid
requiring tenants to pass through the station when not necessary but encouraging the shared use of facilities where
beneficial.
e. Circulation requirements include concourses sufficient to gather a full trainload at the gate without a blockade, but
should be so arranged that it will not be a convenient thoroughfare for nonpassengers. A clear width of 20 feet is
usually adequate for non-trucking situations.
f. Trucking requirements should be considered when designing concourse widths and expected environment.
g. Waiting room seating should be arranged so that traffic is not impeded. Ticket lines should be considered in such
planning. Baggage arrangements can include checking at the ticket counter, single baggage counter for inbound and
outbound service, separate service counters, or carousels.
h. Concessions
(1) Concessions of proper character have proved profitable in most stations and are desirable, not only from a
revenue-producing standpoint, but as a facility which adds to the comfort or convenience of the passenger.
1
(2) The number and character of these concessions can be greatly expanded in terminals located in cities of large size,
with benefit to all concerned.
(3) To be successful, concessions should be conspicuous, accessible, neat, attractive, and well lighted.
Concessionaires should be experienced, responsible and progressive.
3
(4) Booths opening directly on to the corridor, where service is rapid, appeal more to the commuter, while stores
appeal to the intercity traveler and particularly to the transfer passenger who has time to spare.
i. Adequate areas to handle refuse should be provided. Consideration should be given to using compactors to reduce
volume.
j. A good security plan using digital and video monitors, master keying, fencing and coded padlocks can prevent many 4
problems.
k. Consideration must be given in some areas to snow removal operations, salt storage, and snow dumping area.
l. Adequate fire protection devices should be incorporated including hydrants, stand pipes, sprinklers, smoke detectors,
centralized alarms, and extinguishers.
m. The presence of 3rd rail and/or overhead catenary power systems require special consideration and planning.

Yards and Terminals
SECTION 6.3 PASSENGER TRAIN YARDS
6.3.1 GENERAL (1985)
a. It is desirable that a single coach yard and its associated facilities for car inspecting, repairing, cleaning, watering and
stocking be an integral feature of every large passenger terminal, whether or not more than one railway is
accommodated. It is definitely preferable to have all coach switching performed by and under full control of the
terminal management either as a joint operation or as a separate company. Separate facilities may be provided for
particular trains or types of equipment, although the servicing of all passenger train equipment in a single yard is
preferable.
b. The location of a coach yard should be determined by the economic balance among the following factors:
(1) Available sites.
(2) Land values.
(3) Cost of construction.
(4) Convenience to the station and other facilities.
(5) Nearby utilities.
(6) Cost of moving equipment between station, coach yard and engine house.
(7) Possible need for future expansion.
c. The capacity required in a coach yard depends upon:
(1) Number of cars and trains to be handled.
(2) Type of equipment.
(3) Level of maintenance.
(4) Schedule of equipment layover.
(5) Frequency of cleaning.
d. The ability to secure the proposed yard against trespassers to reduce theft and vandalism should be considered.
6.3.2 SITE (1985)
6.3.2.1 Tracks
a. There are two general types of coach yard layouts: Stub track and through track. There is also an intermediate type
made up of through tracks, but operated generally as two systems of stub tracks. Operation is most efficient in a system
of through tracks.
b. Tracks of equal length and equal to the length of the longest trains give greatest operating efficiency.
c. An alternating spacing of 28 feet/20 feet between track centers is desirable for tracks on which servicing work is done.
This allows service vehicles to pass each other on the wide platform and utilities to be centralized on the narrow

platform. Where platforms between tracks are obstructed by supports to overhead service lines, brake shoe racks or
above-platform service outlets, such obstructions should be located off center of platforms to provide a wider
passageway on one side. Obstructions may require increasing the track centers to allow service vehicles to clear.
Obstructions must be located so that they do not foul minimum State clearance requirements. Utility equipment should
be placed on the narrow platform at convenient locations.
d. Tracks used for storage of extra cars do not require particularly wide spacing or any special car servicing features other
than utilities necessary to support the car’s equipment while idle.
e. Tracks with wide centers are usually arranged in groups at the leads to facilitate switching. Auxiliary leads and tail
tracks of ample length should be provided.
f. Curvature of tracks should not be less than 450 feet radius through turnouts or otherwise. Make-up tracks should be as
straight as practicable to afford long sight lines for operating crews.
g. Tracks should be placed on as nearly a level gradient as possible.
h. A wye or loop track should be provided for turning equipment. Movements on a loop track are more expeditious.
i. Special tracks for making up or breaking up trains are sometimes required.
j. Only light or running repairs are normally made in a service yard. Cars needing additional work are usually switched to
a Car Shop.
k. Yards must be well drained.

1
l. In the interests of cleanliness, sanitation, and possible reduced maintenance expense; consideration should be given to
track construction calling for rails supported by longitudinal concrete slabs with paving between slabs to present a
completely paved area which can be washed. Such construction is especially desirable for tracks at commissary
platforms or on which diners are restocked.
3
m. Yard trackage is the most inflexible item in a yard. Due to severe curve and grade restrictions, all buildings and utilities
should be located after the necessary track and leads are designed.
n. Where tracks will be surrounded by platforms, consideration should be given to the use of concrete ties as any future
tie removal will be very complicated.
6.3.2.2 Platforms 4
a. Platforms should be placed between all tracks on which cars are to be serviced.
b. Platform construction preferably should be of concrete, crowned not less than 3/16 inch to the foot. The width will
vary with the track centers but should be at least 10 feet for utility platforms and 18 feet for service vehicle platforms.
The edge of a platform adjacent to a track constructed with ties and ballast usually is placed level with top of rail and
approximately 5 feet from the center of the track. If any service lines are to be carried below the surface, the platform
should provide for adequate manholes or other entry.
c. Roadways should connect all areas of the yard to the platforms and outside entry. Multiple access paths may be
provided to avoid equipment blocking crossings. Roadways designated as fire lanes should be designed so that the
turning radius restrictions of local fire department trucks are considered.
d. Crossings should be located where equipment will not likely be parked and preferably outside blue flag/derail
protection areas. Public crossings should be adequately marked. Care should be used to avoid placing crossings
adjacent to structures that will limit sight lines causing “blind” crossings. If at all possible, crossings should not be

Yards and Terminals
placed through switch points. In heavy snow areas, markers may be placed alongside crossings to identify the limits of
the crossing material. Plastic, asphalt, wooden, and rubber crossings are suitable except in locomotive areas where
special consideration must be made due to the oil drippings.
6.3.2.3 Repair Pits
a. Where underneath inspection of standing cars is desired, one or more pits equal in length to the longest train may be
justified. These may be combination inspection and repair pits depending on their location in the yard. If underneath
inspection of cars in motion is desired, a short pit located on the yard lead or the mechanical washer track may be used.
Where rails are elevated above adjacent paved areas, inspection and repair work will be facilitated to some extent,
especially under conditions of heavy snow, but such elevation will make ramps in platform paving necessary at fire and
service roadways which cross the yard.
b. Pit construction preferably should be of concrete. The rails can rest directly on the concrete walls without plates and
cushions, and be anchored in place by bolted down rail clips; however, better results will generally be experienced with
rails installed on bearing plates and cushions. The pit should be well drained and equipped with recessed flood lights
for general lighting and receptacles for service lights and small tools.
c. Where all inbound trains pass over a single pit for inspection, other tracks should be provided for servicing and repair
work. Work performed at such a single pit should be confined to inspection only.
d. Where servicing and light repair work is done on an inspection pit, several tracks, each with a full length pit may be
required, the number depending on the number and schedule of the trains to be serviced and the length of time required
to service each train. A multiple track pit arrangement should provide for several wheel drop pits with jacking pads so
spaced that several wheels can be dropped simultaneously on any given track with a minimum of car spotting. Each
track should also be provided with the other facilities for the complete servicing of cars, such as paved platforms,
service outlets for water, air, steam and electricity, and an adequate drainage system.
e. An average depth of pits for car inspection and light repairs of about 2′-9″ below the top of running rails will provide
good working space below cars, although depths ranging from 2 feet to 4′-6″ are in use.
f. Concrete jacking pads should be provided along car repair track pits. The pads should be built integrally with the track
pit walls and extend laterally each side a minimum of 6 feet, from the center of the track, and for a sufficient distance
along the track each way from the drop pits to provide proper jacking space. On track pits assigned to repair work only,
continuous jacking pads extending the full length of the pit are desirable.
g. An inside width of 3 feet for repair pits will provide a ledge for jacking or blocking on the inner side of rails.
h. A jacking pad, at least one car in length and continuous between rails for center jacking, is sometimes provided beyond
the repair pit on one or more repair tracks.
i. Consideration should be given to covering at least a portion of the area devoted to car servicing and repair work. The
protection afforded by a building with at least semi-covered sides, preferably of fire resistant construction, will reduce
the expense of conditioning trains and expedite repair work under unfavorable weather conditions. Complete housing
of pits on tracks assigned to repair work is desirable, but at repair pits where wheels are changed or truck work is
performed the housing should be at least sufficient to cover a car spotted either way over the wheel drop pits and
provide a passageway at end of car. The extent to the enclosure and heating should depend on the severity of the
climate. Snow melting devices should be considered if the pit is located outdoors or in an area that might be receiving
equipment with impacted snow.
j. Side entrances to pits should be provided at sufficient intervals to allow quick evacuation if necessary.

6.3.3 ACTIVITIES (1985)
a. Train servicing requirements include car washing, cleaning, light repairs, and stocking. If a mechanical washer is
employed, it should be located on a lead after a wye or loop track, but before the servicing yard, with access to all
servicing tracks. Care must be taken in selection of a car washer site as the slow moving trains will block crossings and
switches for long periods of time. Adequate drip space should be provided following the washer. The platform and
utilities sections further describe requirements for cleaning, light repairs and stocking.
b. Car repair facilities’ requirements include drop tables, wheel storage, jacks, and craft shops. Ideally the car repair shop
should be located so that individual cars can be easily removed from trains, repaired and returned to consists with a
minimum of switching.
c. Locomotive service facilities may also be provided. Passenger locomotives require much the same facilities as freight
locomotives. The engine house is best located on the end of the yard that corresponds with the end of the trains that are
most likely to receive locomotives.
d. Locomotive repair facilities may also be provided. Passenger locomotives may have steam generators or head-end
power units that must also be maintained. An in-truck wheel truing facility is great advantage over individual sets
being replaced by drop tables.
e. Commissary facilities will depend on the type of food service but, if provided, should be located away from the main
yard due to the high volume of outside truck traffic.
f. A parts-supply warehouse and purchasing office on site will speed repairs and allow for bulk purchases of materials.
1
g. Administrative offices including Mechanical, Engineering, Transportation, Security, Personnel, Training, Safety and a
Dispensary should also be located convenient to work locations.
h. Employee amenities such as locker rooms, showers, restrooms, and lunch rooms should be located convenient to work
locations.
i. A tower with a good view of the facility is an advantage to operations. 3

j. Buildings to house track, facility, and vehicle maintenance are sometimes provided to reduce the cost of contract
services.
k. Adequate areas to handle refuse should be provided Consideration should be given to using compactors to reduce
volume and eliminate wind-borne debris.
4
l. A good security plan including digital and video monitors, master keying, fencing, and coded padlocks can prevent
many problems.
m. Consideration must be given in some areas to snow removal operations, salt storage, and snow dumping areas.
n. Adequate fire protection devices should be incorporated including hydrants, stand pipes, sprinklers, smoke detectors,
centralized alarms, and extinguishers.
o. The presence of 3rd rail and/or overhead catenary power systems require special consideration and planning.

Yards and Terminals
SECTION 6.4 UTILITIES
6.4.1 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS (1985)

a. Steam standby connections, if needed, should be provided at all tracks on which cars will stand without a locomotive
attached. For stub tracks, steam connections should be located at the ends, one connection for each track. For through
tracks they should be placed to serve each track at the point or points where the rear of a train would normally be
placed and an inside derail protection when in yards. Pressure of 125 lb delivered through a 2-1/2 inch connection is
standard. Appropriate control and bleed valves should be provided. Locomotive boiler water facilities may also be
needed if steam generators are utilized. Steam may also be used for thawing, cleaning, and heating. Due to rapid pipe
deterioration, steam lines should normally be built above ground or in accessible underground tunnels. Steam pipes
must be anchored and thermal expansion controlled through the use of expansion joints or loops.
b. Compressed air connections should be provided at all tracks where the method of operation or servicing requires that
an air brake test be made while the train is standing without locomotive attached. Air pressure should be between 120
and 140 lb and be delivered through 1-1/2 connection with appropriate control and bleed valves. Compressed air may
also be used for cleaning and portable tools. If used in this manner, connections of 3/4 inch size should be distributed
as needed so that no more than 100 feet of hose is normally necessary. Tool outlets should be provided with a regulator
to reduce pressure to match tool working pressures.
c. Natural gas may be used for building heating. Pipe routing should be shown on site plans and the pipe identified at
convenient intervals. Appropriate measures should be taken to ensure that if a pipe is ruptured the utility involved can
be notified as soon as possible. These measures would include ready availability of pipe plans, utility phone contacts,
and easy accessibility to shut off valves.
d. At yards or stations where train equipment may be watered, hydrants spaced two car lengths apart, preferably serving
two tracks, should be provided. Where station dwell time is short, hydrants may be spaced for every car. Water service
should be distributed so that no more than 100 feet of hose is necessary to reach a car. Water hydrants in yards are
usually placed on alternating platforms allowing service vehicles an unobstructed path on non-utility platforms. Freeze
protection should be applied where necessary. If backflow preventers are required, a heated cabinet is preferable. A
potable connection of 1 inch size should be provided for car watering and a minimum 3/4 inch non-potable connection
may be used for washing purposes. By looping and interconnecting water pipes, a better flow pattern can be a
achieved. Adequate control valves should be installed to allow sections to be taken out of service without affecting all
operations.
e. Adequate drainage should be provided to drain track structures, catch paved area runoff, and collect roof drainage.
Where necessary, piping should be separated to allow for treatment of polluted wastes. Sanitary drainage should be
kept separate until delivered to city facilities, if available.
f. Pipe lines may be installed for fuel oil, lube oil, sand, cleaners, foam, and other specialized products. These and all
other pipe lines should be identified at adequate intervals. A spill prevention plan is usually necessary for such
installation.
6.4.2 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS (2004)

a. Adequate power supply should be designed to handle current needs with at least 50% available for expansion, if
anticipated. Building supply of 480V/277V is common along with 208V/120V systems. Where required, head end
train standby should be provided at the end of the platform corresponding to the end of the train not subject to
switching. Modern North American systems provide 480V 3φ standby for train power. Amperes of 400, 800, and 1600
are standard. Recording ammeters are useful in determining consist power requirements. Equipment and climate
variations preclude the use of universal sizing by train length. See Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization for more
information. Older 240V 3φ 100 amp standby may also be provided for steam heated equipment with outlets provided
so that no more than 100 feet of cable is necessary to reach each car. Convenience outlets of 120V may be provided

where necessary such that cord lengths do not exceed 200 feet. Electric vehicle charging stands should be located so as
not to disrupt operations while vehicle is being charged. Emergency platform standby power systems should be
considered. Block heater outlets are necessary in parking lots in certain areas of extreme cold. Electrical power may
also be required to support the needs of trains equipped with Head End Power (HEP).
b. Platform lighting should be provided at a minimum 20 foot candle level. Parking lot illumination should be a minimum
of 5 foot candles. Walkways, entrances and signage should be lit at an appropriate level taking into consideration
adjacent lighting and security requirements.
c. Telephone service should be provided as needed. A trunking capability of at least three times current use should be
requested to ensure easy future expansion, if anticipated. Consideration should be given to interconnecting telephone
and other company communication systems to allow for faster information flow. Platform jacks may be provided to
permit the connection of train telephone systems.
d. Yard lighting should be provided where work at night is common or security is desired. A 5 foot candle minimum will
generally provide acceptable night lighting. Lights should be mounted as high as possible to reduce shadowing
between cars. High pressure sodium lighting is currently the most energy efficient source although it does alter color
perception. Mercury vapor or metal halide lighting should be used if color perception is important.
e. Train status reporting systems covering waiting rooms, gates, and platforms should be provided as required. Equipment
ranges from simple moveable sign boards to elaborate video and flip-sign systems where the entire system is interfaced
with the train operations.
f. Public address, intercom, talk-back, and message tube systems may be included in yards. They speed problem
resolution and increase security. Public address systems should be provided to reach all station areas including the 1
platforms. Microphones or telephone deluxe paging may be used to initiate announcements. By designing such
facilities in advance, wires can be installed underground avoiding weather and vehicle contact. Particular care should
be used when determining control and terminal locations to avoid conflicts between operating hours of those locations
and other users. Spare ducts should be provided in all duct banks, where possible, for future expansion.
g. Adequate conduit should be provided in buildings to carry radio antenna wires to the roof. As the FCC limits the
number of broadcast stations in a close area, consideration should be given to remote base stations when needed. Radio 3
antennas should be located so as not to detract from the facility but allow clear coverage to the entire site. See Chapter
6, Buildings and Support Facilities for roof penetration information.
h. Signal, fare control, computer, fire, security, and alarm systems should be designed carefully in advance of
construction on a master plan to avoid overhead wires and afterthought appearances. Video cameras can be used for
security, car observation, drawbridge control, and to improve existing sight lines. Since they require power, an
adequate source must be identified before locations are committed. Signal systems, when present, should be interfaced 4
with yard operations to avoid excessive radio or intercom use.

Yards and Terminals

14
References
The following list of references used in Chapter 14, Yards and Terminals is placed here in alphabetical order for your
convenience.
1. Assessment of Classification Yard Speed Control Systems, SRI.
2. Innovation in Classification Yard Technology, TRB record 927, 1983.
3. Proceedings of the Second Workshop for Classification Yard Technology, May 1981, report FRA/ORD-81/41.
4. Proceedings of the Workshop for Classification Yard Technology, May 1980, report FRA/ORD-80/17.
5. Railroad Classification Yard Technology Manual, FRA/ORD-81/20 I, II and III.


0
CHAPTER 17
HIGH SPEED RAIL SYSTEMS1
FOREWORD
This Chapter contains AREMA recommended practice with respect to the planning, engineering, construction and
maintenance of commuter, passenger and high-speed rail systems. It also includes recommendations relative to an incremental
approach such as the upgrading of existing facilities for increased speeds, recognizing the possible joint use by freight and
passenger services. These joint usage issues should be addressed at the preliminary planning stage. The manual, as it is now
structured, is not stratified by speed ranges, but rather by the function of the facility or component. Where speeds are a factor
of the element upper limits are not stressed. The purpose of this chapter is to identify the applicable speeds for the elements in
the manual common to this chapter and use them as a base for developing high-speed criteria. The speed range stratification
starts with that practical, given the limitations of existing facilities, to the super speeds of new facilities. 1
Chapter 17 considers present foreign high-speed rail technical capabilities and operating characteristics and extrapolates them
to North American passenger and freight railroad experience to develop recommended practice for high-speed rail systems.
Previous experience with imported technologies and practices has shown that modifications are often needed to successfully
adapt them to the climatic, maintenance, operating, and regulatory environments found in North America.
System safety parameters, economics, and design philosophies must also be evaluated in the North American context. 3
The traditional manual material, for the most part, contains “stand-alone” recommended practices for the fixed plant of
railways. This Chapter encompasses high-speed rail as a system; i.e., combining the planning, design, and construction of the
facility with the specification and operating characteristics of the vehicle, including propulsion and control system
considerations.
There are subparts of the Chapter that are the same as existing recommendations in the manual and where this occurs a
reference is made to the existing Chapter and paragraph number. New and existing material that requires technical
enhancement is presented based on existing high-speed rail systems and the expertise of committee members.
1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1-1
1.2 Safety/Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1-1
2 Corridor Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-1

2.2 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.7 Multi-modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.8 Corridor Implementation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16

3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4 Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.5 Track and Roadway Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9

4.3 Multi-modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.7 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4

5.2 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-2
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-3
5.4 Rolling Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-8

6.2 Operations Centers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-2
6.3 Signals Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-2
6.4 Communications Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-14
6.5 Propulsion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-14

7.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.4 Right of Way Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.5 Track Maintenance Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3

7.6 Track Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.7 Structures Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.9 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5
7.10 Facility Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-R-1
INTRODUCTION
1
Revision Marks – All current year revisions (changes and additions) which have been incorporated into the document are 3
4


17
Part 1
Introduction1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.2 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1-1

3
1

High Speed Rail Systems

17
Part 2
Corridor Planning Considerations1
— 2011 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.2 Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3

2.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2.2 User Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3 1
2.2.3 Ecomonic Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2.4 Environmental Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2.5 Social Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2.6 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.2.7 Institutional Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
3
2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-3
2.3.3 Attitude Surveys (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.3.4 Zoning Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.3.5 Environmental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.3.6 Geographic and Physical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.3.7 Population and Economic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.3.8 Transportation Demand Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4

2.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.4.2 Rail Corridor Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.4.3 Operations Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-4
2.4.4 Traffic Sources and Destinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.4.5 Route Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.4.6 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.4.7 Land Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.4.8 Neighborhood Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.4.9 Regulatory Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
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2.5 Corridor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5

2.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.5.2 Selection of Route within Corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.5.3 Passenger Convenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.5.4 Land Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.5.5 Multi-modal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-5
2.5.6 Central Business District Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.5.7 Community Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.5.8 Joint Facility Development Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.5.9 Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.5.10 Property Value Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.5.11 Rolling Stock Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.5.12 Shared Right of Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.5.13 Shared Trackage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.5.14 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6

2.6.1 General (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-6
2.6.2 Vehicle Technology (Rolling Stock) (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-8
2.6.3 Track Technology (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-12
2.6.4 Propulsion Technology (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-12
2.6.5 Signal Technology (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-12
2.6.6 Communications Technology (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-13
2.6.7 Safety and Security Technology (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-13
2.6.8 Stations and Facilties (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-14
2.6.9 Route Technical Constraints (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-15
2.7 Multi-modal Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16

2.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.7.2 Types of Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.7.3 Urban Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.7.4 Suburban Stations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.7.5 Rural Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.7.6 Special Use Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.8 Corridor Implementation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16

2.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.8.2 Operations Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.8.3 Implementation Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.8.4 Capital Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16
2.8.5 Operations and Costs Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2-16

2.2.1 GENERAL
2.2.2 USER NEEDS
2.2.3 ECOMONIC ACCEPTANCE
2.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTANCE
2.2.5 SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE
2.2.6 SAFETY/SECURITY
2.2.7 INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES

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2.3.1 GENERAL (2010)

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Transportation planning and data collection is performed at many levels of government and by many agencies, including
States, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPO’s), Regional Planning Organizations, Transportation Agencies or
Authorities, Municipalities, Passenger, and Freight Railroads.
A complete set of data, especially quantitative data and information, is needed early in the rail corridor planning process. This
data ranges from the demography of the human populations to be served to the physical characteristics that will govern
engineering and design of the system. 4
instances; the rail corridor may be connecting people to their workplaces. Vital statistics of the population are also important.
The working population will have a different demand than the leisure population. Age distribution will affect demand and
particularly future demand. Economic Distribution will also affect demand. Population growth, location, and average income
trends are also important for forecasting future ridership.
Sources of demographic data for the rail planner and engineer include the following:
a. Census Transportation Planning Products (CTTP).
b. Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) and Public Use Microdata Area (PUMA).

c. American Community Survey (ACS).
d. Census 2000 Supplemental Survey (C2SS).
The primary purpose of attitude surveys is to provide input to determine patronage on a rail corridor. Some of the data taken
from attitude surveys include determining attributes that the public considers important in satisfying what it perceives as
acceptable transportation service; minimum levels of service necessary to generate significant patronage; and factors that may
influence riders to use rail service in lieu of their automobiles; trip purposes for which the rail corridor would be used.
2.3.4 ZONING DATA
2.3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
2.3.6 GEOGRAPHIC AND PHYSICAL DATA
2.3.7 POPULATION AND ECONOMIC DATA
2.3.8 TRANSPORTATION DEMAND DATA
2.4.1 GENERAL
2.4.2 RAIL CORRIDOR CRITERIA
2.4.3 OPERATIONS CRITERIA

2.4.4 TRAFFIC SOURCES AND DESTINATIONS
2.4.5 ROUTE IDENTIFICATION
2.4.6 CONSTRAINTS
2.4.7 LAND AVAILABILITY
2.4.8 NEIGHBORHOOD INTERFACE
2.4.9 REGULATORY INTERFACE
See Volume 3 Commuter, Transit and High Speed Rail Section. 1

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2.5.1 GENERAL
2.5.2 SELECTION OF ROUTE WITHIN CORRIDOR

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2.5.3 PASSENGER CONVENIENCE
2.5.4 LAND AVAILABILITY
2.5.5 MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES

2.5.6 CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT INTERFACES
2.5.7 COMMUNITY RELATIONS
2.5.8 JOINT FACILITY DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES
2.5.9 SUITABLE SUPPORT AND MAINTENANCE AREAS
2.5.10 PROPERTY VALUE IMPACTS
2.5.11 ROLLING STOCK REQUIREMENTS
2.5.12 SHARED RIGHT OF WAY
2.5.13 SHARED TRACKAGE
SECTION 2.6 IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY
2.6.1 GENERAL (2011)
The goal of equipment selection is to match the technology to the physical characteristics, market demands and service
planning requirements of the corridor. Planning should use a sufficient horizon of 20 years or more to accommodate future
population growth, local/regional development, interfaces with other transportation modes that may develop or expand in
response to the new high speed rail system and changes in market conditions when evaluating the technology/equipment.
Flexibility must be designed into any rail system so that the system can react to unforeseen conditions, including technological
advances, changed future regulatory requirements and market conditions.

Technology, per se, should not be a primary objective. The primary considerations for equipping any project must be:
• Safety and performance objectives and reliability
• Compatibility with any existing equipment or infrastructure with which it must work
• The amount of schedule or performance risk which can be accepted
• The availability of two or more competitive, proven sources which can fulfill these needs while avoiding sole-
sourcing situations
• Maintenance requirements and expected life cycle costs
• Competitive with other available options, both in cost and meeting travel requirements of the end user.
Secondary considerations, which also may be evaluated or analyzed, are:
• Long term maintenance or operations contract possibilities
• Efficiency and design life
• Guarantees, reliability of sub-prime parts sources
• Technology transfer benefits

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• Financing offers
• National content
The compatibility and scheduling considerations for procuring complex equipment involving interfaces with several sub-
systems often leads to combining several sub-systems into one procurement package. This approach transfers much but not all 3
of the interfacing and management responsibilities to a supplier who can best manage the associated risk. A combination of
signaling, communications, and traction power is often referred to as a Core System, which may also be combined with a
rolling stock package. In fact, it is often the rolling stock suppliers that promote this approach. In transit and some rail systems
the traction power is often, but not always, combined with trackwork.
The complex technical aspects of technology and equipment selection involve many variables of actual performance
characteristics, price/payment schedules, life cycle costs, etc. This complexity requires that offers of equipment be evaluated 4
by a comprehensive discounted cash flow (present value) calculation. This process leaves little leeway for subjective
judgments or technology preferences, especially when the purchaser is a public agency or is using public funds. Therefore,
equipment systems engineers and their contracting specialist associates must prepare the procurement documents with great
care beforehand and then adapt them during negotiations with the apparent best overall bidder, often-times the lowest cost
bidder, as usually done on public funded projects.
Clearly, there will be some “technology selection” opportunities during performance specifications development. As
acceptable designs are considered, efforts should be made to avoid a loss of competition. It is usually necessary to include
some design specific requirements in the final contracts, since some characteristics cannot be described in purely functional or
objective terms. The development of performance specifications is a multi-disciplinary effort and every technical discipline
must be involved in the evaluation process, especially the systems engineers, maintenance personnel, infrastructure engineers,
operations specialists, and construction planners.
In addition, rolling stock and passenger facilities design criteria must involve representatives of the various project
stakeholders and public at the appropriate level of public engagement i.e. inform, listen and learn, consult, or collaborate. This
involvement can be accomplished through architectural groups, public meetings, political bodies, community action

committees, etc. Stakeholder buy-in from the various technical, contractual, political, and community members on the criteria
is critical before final adjustments are made prior to a contract signature.
2.6.2 VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY (ROLLING STOCK) (2011)
2.6.2.1 General
Types of high-speed rail rolling stock differ significantly in detail; however, most of the design factors to be considered are
common to all of them. They all are forms of “mass transport” and must offer sufficient capacity, reliability, and safety. They
shall be designed in such a way as to guarantee safe, uninterrupted travel at higher speeds and have full compatibility with the
infrastructure and system characteristics.
Equipment considerations should be based on the physical corridor characteristics and market requirements. These
characteristics and requirements include: top speed, acceleration, braking capability, ride quality requirements, vertical and
horizontal curves, super-elevation unbalance requirements, maximum gradients, turnout and crossover geometry, etc.
Equipment considerations include: seat and train capacity, train consist, single level or bi-level cars, high or low platform
access, multiple units of individually powered cars or couplets, traditional power car with individual coaches, trainsets of
power cars with coaches coupled permanently, electric versus non-electric power, tilt versus non-tilt technology, passenger
amenities such as dining, snack, baggage handling, first class versus coach seating, etc.
Incremental High Speed Rail (IHSR) is characterized by a gradual introduction of higher speed operations on existing lines
with other conventional intercity passenger, commuter, and/or freight traffic. Some at grade highway crossings may be
tolerated, but it will be necessary to incorporate more intensive warning and protection devices to accommodate the higher
speed operations.
Intercity or traditional long distance service involves extensive passenger amenities with no standee assumptions. Speeds can
be as high as 110 miles per hour, but seldom exceeding 80 miles per hour. Station dwells may be several minutes to
accommodate a very diverse passenger population, most carrying luggage.
High-Speed Rail (HSR) involves many of the characteristics of traditional Intercity service but at higher speeds. The US
defines:
• Emerging HSR as developing corridors of 100 to 500 miles, with strong potential for future HSR Regional and /or
Express service. Top speeds of up to 80 to 110 mph on primarily shared track using Positive Train Control (PTC)
technology, with advances grade crossing protection or separation.
• Regional HSR as relatively frequent service between mega and moderate population centers 100-150 miles apart,
with some intermediate stops. Top speeds of 110 to 150 mph, grade separated, with some dedicated and shared track
using PTC technology.
• HSR – Express as frequent service between major population centers 200 to 600 miles apart, with few intermediate
stops. Top speeds of at least 150 mph on completely grade-separated, dedicated rights-of-way (with the possible
exception of some shared track at terminals).
HSR station stops and dwells are as much as 40 miles between stations on average and a one to three minute dwell time
respectively. HSR service may include some non-stop express service between major origin destination pairs as well as skip
stop service depending on market conditions. HSR services should be designed to be competitive in a given market sector.
All new HSR service should have a dedicated right of way (a “Sealed Corridor”) without any at-grade crossings and with
extensive tangent sections enabling higher average speeds and sections with curvature below the largest value that allows
travel at the new design speed. Station stops should be defined by demand in business and population centers.

These two HSR versions (Incremental and all new) may be combined, employing the incremental approach in urban, highly
developed areas near cities and all new HSR in the less developed, less urban areas where right of way is less expensive and
more readily available. The rolling stock would of necessity conform to the HSR requirements but in itself may require
compromise with clearance gage conditions in the upgraded infrastructure portion.
a. The general type of equipment to be used must be determined before route evaluation is completed. In order to
successfully achieve the mission of attracting passengers from automobiles or airplanes to the rail system, the rail
equipment chosen must be fast, safe, and include a comfortable passenger environment.
b. The quantity of equipment required on a system will depend not only on the length and desired service frequency of a
line but also on the actual operating speed, acceleration and deceleration, station dwell times, peak ridership, and other
factors such as location and configuration of turn-back facilities.
c. In the case of electrified lines, factors specific to this form of propulsion must be considered, such as the availability
and reliability (number of providers and grid redundancy) of electric power in the area. Depending on the type of
electrification chosen, appropriate measures should be included to provide a safeguard against unauthorized access into
the right-of-way and power distribution facilities.
d. The equipment decisions, the civil engineering standards for the route, and the service level to be achieved are all
closely related.
e. Joint operations with freight carriers will require careful consideration of clearance issues, curvature and
superelevation, crash avoidance and protection and access for freight only customers. Equipment should be flexible to
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the needs of the multi use or corridor owners’ requirements.
f. Multiple passenger services and equipment type s usage on the same route may produce new challenges for passenger
access and station design. The needs of commuter and intercity passenger rail customers vary from those of daily
commuters. Passenger mix must carefully consider both equipment selection and station design. Key issues will
include parking, baggage handling, handicap access, security, and platform amenities to ensure ease of use. Other 3
amenities that need consideration include wi-fi, café cars, and adjustable/controllable seats.
g. Service frequency/demand or service reliability/availability are a critical determinant of equipment quantities required.
Sufficient spare fleet capacity should be provided to meet acceptable service reliability, or risk use migration to other
modes.
h. When a new HSR system is proposed independent of the existing systems, new standards can be developed and 4
implemented to optimize the operation. If new high-speed rolling stock is introduced where high-speed will share
trackage within an existing system, then the rolling stock must be compatible with the existing system. Compatibility
includes: track and loading gauge, length of trains, rail/wheel interaction and contact, electric current collection and
pantograph/catenary contact, platform height, rolling stock power and braking systems, signal and communication
systems and train control, and aerodynamic effects.
i. Articulated trains offer some advantages over non-articulated trains such as overall lighter train sets, lower truck
maintenance and improved ride comfort. The advantages of non-articulated trains include lighter axle loads, easier
separation of cars for maintenance and train makeup and higher capacity for given train lengths due to fewer partitions.
j. Double deck trains can increase capacity depending on the structure of the train set. Factors to be considered include
the floor height at the door, articulated or non-articulated, and the need for baggage storage in overhead or end
compartments. Double deck trains tend to increase the axle load and increase vulnerability to cross wind loads because
of increased vehicle height.

k. The issue of distributed power or locomotive power should be considered as the selection has significant implications
on maintenance requirements and operability with respect to profile grades.
l. Reducing the loading gauge should be considered to help reduce aerodynamic drag however it reduces passenger space
and comfort and capacity. Wider loading gauges increased aerodynamic drag because of a larger train cross-section
perimeter. Other factors include body shape and power car noses. A comparison of all these factors needs to be
considered by calculation when evaluating aerodynamic drag.
m. Vehicle aerodynamic design measures need to be considered. Where high-speed trains run through tunnels, micro-
pressure waves could become an issue. Lengthening and optimizing the power car nose and shape along with smaller
loading gauges, tapering ends of tunnels and increasing tunnel clearance, can mitigate micro-pressure waves. High-
speed operations can also cause ballast to become projectiles by a vortex created by the train. This can create safety
concerns and risk damage to equipment. At higher speeds this may be a significant factor regarding the use of direct
fixation track.
n. The choice of equipment should consider number of years of operation and level of reliability under service.
o. Operations and Maintenance costs should be a major factor in the selection of equipment and are directly tied to life
cycle costs and sustainability of on-going operations. The goal should be to achieve 100% or greater fare box recovery
on public funded projects, where feasible, and greater when there are public-private partnerships (PPP’s).
2.6.2.3 Conventional and High-Speed Intercity
a. Conventional and High-Speed Intercity rail services are similar to Commuter Rail except for the number of station
stops, distance between stations, average speed and passenger amenities. Intercity services operate over trackage that is
part of the general railroad system of transportation. As such, the rolling stock, signal equipment, and operating
practices must be in accordance with all applicable government (e.g., state regulations, Federal Railroad
Administration and Association of American Railroad) standards. Intercity railroad operations, including associated
terminals and shop facilities, will therefore require railroad-type rolling stock, large curve radii, low grades, and
signaling systems compatible with main line railroad practice.
b. Passenger cars may utilize the single-level, bi-level or gallery (bi-level with an open-space between the two sides of the
upper deck) configurations. Passenger amenities and services may be offered depending on passenger expectations and
practical requirements. Baggage handling and transportation must be considered consistent with the market served.
c. Consideration should be given toward using high seating capacity cars if possible, consistent with physical clearances,
and community preferences. Use of larger cars will keep the fleet size down and reduce many factors, such as:
d. Coordination of maintenance of way facilities and services with a service corridor owner must be considered within the
development of incremental service as well as any joint urban access segments of new systems.
Maintenance and Operational Considerations
Maintenance and Operational requirements must be evaluated. These requirements include: inspection and maintenance
facility requirements, storage and yard requirements, turnaround servicing needs, and cleaning.
The evaluation must include overall equipment and operating policies that may involve individual equipment or trainset
approaches. Equipment may be operated in a predetermined consist of power cars and passenger cars that stay together as a

trainset and are not separated for maintenance or seating capacity changes. Alternatively, the traditional approach of varying
train consists by adding or eliminating power cars and passenger cars based by individual train requirements may be
implemented.
Both systems have advantages depending on the requirements of train operations, but require very different maintenance
practices, maintenance facilities and operational considerations. In addition to the trainset approach, other equipment system
issues, that must be evaluated include: type of trucks, articulated versus non-articulated trainsets, electric versus non-electric
propulsion, tilt versus non-tilt systems. Power considerations must include acceleration capacity, single versus double heading
of trains, cab car configurations, and multiple unit train systems.
2.6.2.4 Types of Power Sources
There are typically two types of trains in terms of power distribution: distributed and concentrated. A comparison appears in
the table below:
Distributed Concentrated Concentrated Locomotive

Power Power Power Hauled
(One Locomotive
with Fixed train
Set
Propulsion System Lower Power Higher Power Higher Power Higher Power
Traction Performance Higher Lower Lower Lower 1
Related to the # of Acceleration Acceleration Acceleration Acceleration
Powered Wheels
Maximum Axle Load Lighter Heavier Heavier Heavier
Passenger Capacity Full 2 Cars < 1 Car < Distributed 1 Car <
Distributed Distributed
Noise in Passenger Larger Smaller Smaller Smaller 3
Area
Maintenance Costs Larger Smaller Smaller Smaller
Related to the # of
Traction Motors
Flexibility of Train Set Higher Lower Lower Higher
Redundancy of the Higher Lower Lowest Lowest 4
Main Component
Failure
Change Over Between More Difficult More Difficult Medium Easier
Systems
Maximum Speed No No Possibly Yes In Possibly Yes In
Restriction For Push Mode Push Mode
Running Direction
(Source – UIC Report “Necessities for Future High Speed Rolling Stock”, January 2010)
Recent trends in European high-speed rolling stock have been towards distributed power because of traction performance. In
Japan high-speed rolling stock has always been distributed power.

2.6.3 TRACK TECHNOLOGY (2011)
A wide range of service-proven track technologies is available for use in high-speed applications. The selection of track
technology is driven by a variety of factors, chief among them location, service life, initial capital cost and on-going
maintenance frequency and cost.
Conventional tie and ballast construction remains the most widely-used track type and is best suited for at-grade construction
but can also be viable for aerial applications. In current practice, rail will be continuously welded, on concrete ties with elastic
fasteners. Track slabs utilizing direct fixation of rails may also be the economical choice for use in aerial and tunnel
construction, where the reduced weight and lower vertical profile associated with this type of construction can be of benefit.
Change in track modulus between track on structure and track on grade must be considered. Special low-noise and low-
vibration track forms are available for use along sensitive areas of the alignment such as near to hospitals, laboratories, and
concert halls to mitigate the effects of transit operations. These track types make extensive use of elastomeric elements to
isolate the track structure from the surrounding environment. Their use is restricted to areas of high sensitivity where the
additional expense can be justified.
High-speed operations raise significant concerns with respect to the development of special trackwork. Special trackwork can
generally be found in the same variety of options as the basic track construction. Generally, the type of construction employed
in the special trackwork should match the construction of the surrounding track form. Refer to AREMA Chapter 17,
Article 3.5.11.
2.6.4 PROPULSION TECHNOLOGY (2011)
2.6.4.1 Electric Propulsion
Vehicle propulsion is generally accomplished through the application of electric traction motors to drive axle-mounted gear
units.
Current and anticipated trends in vehicle propulsion technology involve use of alternating current (ac) propulsion systems
employing high-performance power electronics to transform energy drawn from a wayside traction power system into a form
suitable for use by ac traction motors but the fundamental advantages of ac propulsion in the rail transit environment are well
established. These advantages include higher reliability, reduced maintenance requirements, and reduced susceptibility to
moisture-related motor damage as compared to conventional direct current (dc) traction. System arrangements and details vary
between manufacturers and continually evolve, and on established rail systems may need to consider the presence of pre-
existing electrification systems.
Propulsion manufacturers can provide ac propulsion systems suitable for any type of rail vehicle across a wide range of
performance capabilities. Vehicles may have some or all axles powered depending upon the performance levels desired and
specific design constraints (such as weight).
NOTE: Refer to AREMA Chapter 33, Part 12 for more information.
2.6.5 SIGNAL TECHNOLOGY (2011)
a. Signaling should not be viewed as a governing factor in the corridor selection process, but should become an
outgrowth of the technology chosen, and must be appropriate for the speeds required and traffic density anticipated.
The Rail Safety Improvement Act of 2008 (RSIA) requires implementation of Positive Train Control (PTC) systems on
every main line in the United States which intercity, passenger or commuter rail service is regularly provided. The FRA
has proposed tiered requirements for PTC systems.
b. At operating speeds greater than 90 mph, the PTC system must be fail-safe and perimeter protection must be
established to prevent unauthorized movements.

c. At operating speeds greater than 125 mph, an additional level of safety analysis is needed to assess PTC technology
addressing incursion into the right-of-way through prevention and/or detection and warning.
d. At speeds greater than 150 mph, PTC functionalities would be described within an overall integrated system safety
plan subject to FRA approval.
e. The majority of high-speed train systems in Europe follow the European Rail Transportation Management System
(ERTMS) using on-board signaling compatible with all the lines the trains operate on. The European Commission
supports the development of operational and technical interoperability with unified signaling equipment in order to
open railway markets to numerous operators. ERTMS uses less equipment along the lines which reduces fault
probability and improves system reliability.
2.6.6 COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY (2011)
Communications technologies are rapidly evolving across a multitude of applications, with increasing levels of capability and
decreasing levels of cost. Some of these technologies are (or will be) useful in the context of a HSR system. The planner
should be aware of the communications capabilities available during the planning for each project and apply those that fit with
project goals, requirements and budgets.
Basic items that should be incorporated in communications systems planning include two-way radios, public address systems,
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)-compliant passenger information systems, and passenger (emergency) intercoms.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems should be employed to support operation of wayside
installations such as traction power substations and fare collection systems.
1
Enhanced communications options that might be considered include GPS vehicle location systems, automated vehicle health
monitoring automated transmission of vehicle fault reports, and closed circuit television (CCTV) coverage of vehicles,
stations, parking lots and secure areas.
2.6.7 SAFETY AND SECURITY TECHNOLOGY (2011)
Safety considerations must be given high priority in the planning process for corridor selection. Factors that govern safety are: 3
• The level of signalization chosen.
• Whether grade crossings are to be considered.
• Whether the system operates on exclusive or shared right-of-way.

4
• Type of power source and distribution.
• Level of right-of-way security. Full intrusion protection.
• Station areas and baggage screening
• Platforms and public areas
• Tunnels
• Security architecture and equipment i.e. CCTV, Intrusion-detection, Access-control
• Technical installations for power, signaling and communications

2.6.8 STATIONS AND FACILTIES (2011)
2.6.8.1 Passenger Stations
Passenger stations should be functional, attractive, economical and compatible with their surrounding communities. Stations
should offer a high level of passenger amenities consistent with airport terminals to attract existing air travel to the HSR
system. Design criteria and the desired level of station ambiance should be determined early in the planning process and
further refined as the project proceeds. Key design factors must include the safety and security of passengers, employees and
the general public. Design concepts should recognize local concerns and be developed with community input.
The planning of high-speed passenger station locations will be a key outcome of the planning process. Station location
decisions must strike the right balance among a number of competing factors. Station spacing should be sufficiently close to
capture the available ridership without imposing large travel time penalties associated with an excessive number of station
stops. Stations should have sufficient space for parking and mode transfer facilities yet recognize community sensitivities that
may object to a station that is “too large”. For locations with little or no transit infrastructure, greater emphasis should be given
to parking facilities, with access to major roadway arteries, not impacting or taxing local traffic.
Once potential station locations have been identified, baseline designs should be developed for each type of station required
(e.g., surface – side platforms; surface – center platform; aerial, etc.). All elements necessary for station function should be
included (e.g., interconnection with other transportation modes, passenger flow, shelters, fare machines, cleaning and
maintenance, passenger information systems, parking, bus bays, security features, retail, advertising, real estate, other
customer services, etc.).
2.6.8.2 Traction Power Substations
Traction power substations will typically be required at regular intervals along an electrified HSR transit line. Typically
redundancy is built into the electrification system in the event a substation plant or component is out of service. Substations
must be located in proximity to the track and overhead line and suitably protected by enclosures and fencing.
Substation locations should be identified as part of the alignment review process. Sites may be difficult to find in downtown
and residential areas where land is scarce and the appearance of an electrical installation may be considered objectionable. In
these cases, the planner may consult with the traction power designers to determine where some flexibility in location may be
possible. For instance, the use of larger capacity, more widely-spaced substations supported by additional feeders may be
feasible. Alternatively, the use of decorative facades and landscaping may be considered to allow the substation to
inconspicuously blend with its surroundings.
2.6.8.3 Signal Infrastructure
Signal infrastructure will be needed at defined locations on the right-of-way as determined by operating requirements and
signal design principles. Typically on European high-speed systems, Trackside Control Centers (TCC’s) are located at regular
intervals with some systems operating with trackside signals and continuous track-to-train transmission carried through track
circuits. Other auxiliary transmission and line equipment need to determined and designed to manage the track conditions.
2.6.8.4 Maintenance Facilities
Maintenance facilities can present a particular challenge in site selection. These facilities typically require a substantial
“footprint” of contiguous parcels to accommodate the necessary maintenance and storage functions, plus the space demanded
by material storage and employee parking requirements. The facilities must be located close to the rail line and in an area
compatible with the nature of their use. Identification and preservation of possible maintenance and shop sites is critical to
project development and should be addressed in the earliest phases of planning. All possible options should be considered and
creative use or reuse of existing sites should be considered. Alignment options must consider their connectivity with feasible
maintenance sites, and lack of a suitable site may constitute a “fatal flaw” for a given alignment.

2.6.9 ROUTE TECHNICAL CONSTRAINTS (2011)
The following route characteristics form possible constraints that can influence the selection of the transit technology.
2.6.9.1 Right-of-Way
Express high-speed rail (speeds greater than 150 mph and in compliance with FRA Tier IV and V) utilizes electrified train sets
within dedicated rights-of-way requiring segregation and sealed corridors with no intermingling of freight or conventional
intercity passenger trains. The alignment must be fully grade-separated with fairly restrictive horizontal and vertical curvature.
Regional high-speed rail (110 to 150 mph, FRA Tiers IC, II and III) may utilize either electrified or non-electrified train sets
and are typically segregated from freight and conventional intercity passenger rail and grade-separated. Higher speeds may be
achieved using tilt-train technology on right-of-way with sharper curves.
Emerging high-speed rail (80 to 110 mph, FRA Tier IB) may utilize shared track with freight within a shared corridor with
advanced grade crossing protection or separation.
2.6.9.2 Curvature
Design of curvature will be in accordance with AREMA Chapter 17, Article 3.5.7.2.
2.6.9.3 Grade
The desirable maximum grade for high-speed depends on the geographic and operational conditions and characteristics. New 1
construction should reference existing operating properties to establish desirable grades. Design of gradients shall be in
accordance with AREMA Chapter 17, Article 3.5.8.
2.6.9.4 Speed
Design speeds should be based upon Train Performance Runs (TPR’s) that simulate actual performance with respect to the
rolling stock equipment acceleration and deceleration, gradients, civil speeds in curves, braking, signal aspects and other 3
considerations that affect speed. Refer to AREMA Chapter 17, Article 3.5.7.1.
For use on emerging HSR, and speeds not exceeding 110 mph, grade crossings shall be designed with the latest and most
reliable advanced warning devices and incorporating “full closure” design principles. For corridors with speeds exceeding 110
mph, the track shall be grade separated with no at-grade crossings. 4

SECTION 2.7 MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES
2.7.1 GENERAL
2.7.2 TYPES OF INTERFACES
2.7.3 URBAN STATIONS
2.7.4 SUBURBAN STATIONS
2.7.5 RURAL STATIONS
2.7.6 SPECIAL USE STATIONS
SECTION 2.8 CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS
2.8.1 GENERAL
2.8.2 OPERATIONS SIMULATIONS
2.8.3 IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULES
2.8.4 CAPITAL COST ESTIMATES
2.8.5 OPERATIONS AND COSTS ESTIMATES

17
Part 3
Track and Roadway Considerations1
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-3
3.2.2 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-3 1
3.2.3 Mixed Passenger and Freight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-3
3.2.4 Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-3
3.2.5 Cant Deficiency (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-3
3.2.8 Propulsion System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5 3
3.2.9 Signal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.2.10 Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.2.11 Reliability Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.2.12 Regulatory Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.3 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5

3.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.3.3 Passenger Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.3.4 Freight Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.3.5 Fixed Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.3.6 Movable Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4 Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5

3.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4.2 Grade Crossings (USA) (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-5
3.4.3 Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9
3.4.4 Vegetation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9
3.4.5 Environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9
3.4.6 Third Party Occupancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9
1

3.5 Track and Roadway Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9

3.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9
3.5.2 Regulatory Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9
3.5.3 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9
3.5.4 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9
3.5.5 Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9
3.5.6 Track Structure (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-9
3.5.7 Alignment, Horizontal (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-11
3.5.9 Signal Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-27
3.5.10 Grounding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-27
LIST OF FIGURES
17-3-1 Common Spiral Transition Curve Geometries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-16
LIST OF TABLES
17-3-1 Comparison of Cosine, Parabolic and Sine Spiral to Clothoid Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-17
17-3-2 Recommended Minimum Value for Vertical Curve Radius at 200 km/h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-24
17-3-3 Traffic Categories, Limiting Values of Vertical Acceleration, av . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-26
17-3-4 Traffic Categories, Limiting Values of Vertical Curve Radius, Rv. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-26
17-3-5 Example - Limiting Values on Vertical Curve Radius (sample at 200 km/h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-26
17-3-6 Tangential Turnouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3-34

3.2.1 GENERAL
3.2.3 MIXED PASSENGER AND FREIGHT
3.2.4 SPEEDS
3.2.5 CANT DEFICIENCY (2011)
Equilibrium cant (super-elevation) applies to just one speed and therefore in principle can only be applied on railways with
uniform traffic such as a dedicated high-speed passenger line. Generally speaking for mixed passenger and freight traffic
running on the same track at different speeds, equilibrium cant for the passenger speed would result in considerable excess
cant for slow-running freight traffic, thereby producing excess wear on the low rail. An accepted practice is to incorporate
cant deficiency (underbalanced super-elevation) whereby passenger trains travel at higher speeds with actual super-elevation
on curves being less than equilibrium elevation. This compromise condition strikes a balance by ensuring passenger comfort 1
while only moderately increasing rolling stock and track loading. Cant deficiency treatment for freight and mixed freight-
commuter traffic is addressed in the Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 5 Track and Chapter 11 Commuter and
Intercity Rail Systems respectively.
For high-speed rail systems, the compromise condition noted above can be applied however some high-speed rail systems
have procured certain types of rolling stock that automatically tilt relative to the wheel base when running on curves. In the
application of the tilting rolling stock, the cant at the passenger level is applied very close to the theoretically required cant 3
while exceeding the actual cant for the track layout. The use of tilting rolling stock reduces and in some applications
eliminates the need for cant deficiency. Tilting rolling stock reduces the cant deficiency-induced lateral acceleration upon the
passenger. These trains further address passenger comfort by varying the applied cant deficiency as the train traverses through
the varying super-elevation through the spirals and full body of the curve.
It should be noted that special consideration must be given to the dynamic envelope along the corridor in which the tilt trains
are run to ensure that the vehicle in the tilt position will clear adjacent infrastructure. 4
There are two approaches to tilt train technology that have been developed;
Passive Tilt Technology
For the passive tilt technology, in curves the rolling stock suspension arrangement provides a car body center of roll rotation
that is above the cars’ centre of gravity. The system is “passive” in the sense that car body tilting reacts to the amount of cant
deficiency the vehicle encounters at that moment in the curve and does not start tilting before the curve as the “active” system
does. The Spanish Talgo train is an example of passive tilt technology.
Active Tilt Technology
For the active tilt technology, the tilt angle between car body and axle is varied relative to the unbalanced centrifugal
acceleration. In the case of Amtrak’s Acela, lateral accelerations of the lead Power Car truck frame are monitored using
accelerometers, and signals are sent to the trailing coaches to begin rotation of each coach car body around its axis before the

coach is in the curve. In addition to the Acela, other examples using this technology are the Italian Pendolino and the Swedish
X2000 trainsets.
A detailed treatment for the application of cant deficiency is provided later in this chapter.
Passenger comfort is associated with car body translational acceleration in the vertical, lateral and longitudinal directions and
rotational acceleration about these axes. These accelerations can be either a single event such as a sudden acceleration due to
an isolated track geometry irregularity, or a series of accelerations over time due to continuous track irregularities. The
waveform of single event accelerations must not exceed peak-to-peak safety limits established by FRA. The series of varying
accelerations over time is a performance-based measurement represented by a root-mean square (rms) ride quality acceleration
value. The ISO 2631 standard provides ride quality rms-type acceleration limits that are often used to judge the severity of the
car body vibration over time.
The physiological response of the human body to vibration of various frequencies has been studied and found to be more
sensitive to certain frequencies than others. For example, a well-known response is “sea-sickness” which results from cyclic
motion at low frequencies typical of naval vessels and not commonly observed on a rail car. However, for the range of
acceleration frequencies common to rail vehicles it is noted that some produce more physiological distress than others.
Therefore the ISO standard recommends the use of certain filters to be used on the measured acceleration data which give
larger weighting to some frequencies for which the human body is more sensitive, and less weighting for others.
Because the ride quality measurement averages car body acceleration over time, the contribution of a small number of sudden
jolts from isolated track geometry irregularities is usually not a significant contributor to the ride quality value. The rms
acceleration ride quality data is typically taken as a measure of car body response to track geometry over long distances.
The interaction between track and passenger rail vehicles is both a safety and a performance issue. Wheel-rail force safety
limits are defined by FRA with criteria that relate to single wheel flange climb derailment, rail overturning, lateral track panel
shift and vertical wheel lift off from the rail. Wheel-rail contact characteristics such as wheel flange angle and wheel-rail
friction coefficient are critical to safety as they affect these force limits. Wheel-rail effective conicity is also safety critical
because the speed at which truck hunting occurs is largely dependent upon it. Vehicle performance is mainly measured by ride
quality which is also highly dependent upon vehicle-track interaction as described in the section above. In general, vehicle-
track interaction is dependent upon the track geometry, wheel-rail characteristics, and the speed, mass, and suspension
parameters of the vehicle.
In rail vehicle design there is a tradeoff between truck resistance to hunting in tangent track and truck curving ability.
Although a truck with a relatively soft primary suspension may have good curving performance with low wheel-rail forces and
wear, it also may be less resistant to truck hunting in tangent track. Similarly a truck with a stiff suspension is better at
resisting hunting but may curve poorly and provide large lateral wheel-rail forces and wear. Depending on the suspension
parameters and other vehicle design factors chosen, a rail car may be designed to obtain a reasonable compromise between
these two conditions.
To provide proper vehicle-track interaction, in addition to the track geometry being compliant with the FRA track class, a high
speed track should also have rail that is free from corrugation and have rail profiles with at most only minor wear on the crown
and rail gage face. Also, innovative track design methods such as improved spiral geometry have been shown to reduce the
lateral wheel-rail forces and car body motions of high speed trains in curves compared to conventional spiral design.

3.2.8 PROPULSION SYSTEM
3.2.9 SIGNAL SYSTEMS
3.2.10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.2.11 RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS
3.2.12 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
3.3.1 GENERAL
3.3.3 PASSENGER OPERATIONS
3.3.4 FREIGHT OPERATIONS 1
3.3.5 FIXED OBJECTS
3.3.6 MOVABLE OBJECTS

3
SECTION 3.4 RIGHT OF WAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONSIDERATIONS
3.4.1 GENERAL
4
3.4.2 GRADE CROSSINGS (USA) (2012)
3.4.2.1 General
a. Grade crossings on major railway lines vary from private property access to major public streets and highways. The
possibility of a collision at a grade crossing between high speed trains and highway vehicles, pedestrians or other trains
requires that efforts be made to eliminate such crossings as much as possible. At the speeds intended for high speed
trains, stopping distance may exceed the distance at which an obstruction at a grade crossing becomes visible to the
train operator. It is also possible for the locomotive horn to be inaudible at the outer limits of the train’s stopping
distance. Likewise, it may be very difficult for a highway vehicle operator or pedestrian to judge the speed at which a
train is approaching. Highway vehicle drivers also have a low tolerance for the time needed to wait for a train to pass
after the gates at a crossing are lowered. Therefore the existence of a grade crossing on a high speed railway line is very
undesirable and should be avoided if possible.

b. Passenger train operations at speeds greater than 90 mph are regulated by the Federal Railroad Administration under
Subpart G of 49 CFR 213, Track Safety Standards. These regulations define maximum train speeds based on
alignment, track condition and other factors for the various classes of track. As stipulated in Subpart G the maximum
allowable operating speeds for trains are as follows:
Class 6 track 110 mph
(1) For Class 6 track there are no special formal requirements except to meet general FRA regulations and those of the
relevant state authority. However, given the growing use of track speeds up to 110 mph, i.e. Class 6, it is
increasingly likely that requirements for Class 6 track may include:
(a) In-cab signals;
(b) Positive train control;
(c) Sealed corridor treatment such as four-quadrant gates and/or long median curbs; and
(d) Presence detection.
In addition to the FRA requirements, grade crossings in Class 6 territory on the property of or adjacent to a freight
operation may require special consideration by or for that owner or operator.
Pedestrians should be excluded from the right of way for high-speed train operations as much as practicable by
fencing and intrusion alarm systems.
(2) For Class 7 track the track owner is required by 49 CFR 213.347 “. . . to submit for FRA’s approval a complete
description of the proposed warning/barrier system to address the protection of highway traffic and high-speed
trains. Trains shall not operate at Class 7 speeds over any track segment having highway-rail grade crossings
unless:
(a) An FRA-approved warning/barrier system exists on that track segment; and
(b) All elements of that warning/barrier system are functioning.
(3) For Class 9 and Class 8 track highway-rail and rail-rail grade crossings are prohibited.
c. Consideration of the requirements for the construction, operations and maintenance of grade crossings must all be
included early in the planning and design processes. As a benchmark, criteria for train speeds less than 110 mph are
provided for in the AREMA Manual Chapter 5 - Track, Part 8, Highway/Railway Grade Crossings. Another useful
reference is the Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Handbook published by the Federal Highway Administration and
available on the internet at www.fra.dot.gov/US/content/1752. The Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices
(MUTCD), Chapter 8 and the FRA High Speed Passenger Rail Safety Strategy (Nov 2009) are also useful references.
3.4.2.2 Planning
a. Planning for grade crossings for high-speed rail must eliminate grade crossings for track segments where Class 8 or
Class 9 track is proposed, i.e. for train speeds greater than 125 mph. Although grade crossings for Class 6 and Class 7
track may be permitted, it is recommended that existing grade crossings on line segments which will be upgraded to

these speeds be eliminated wherever possible, and that the introduction of new grade crossings be avoided. Note:
segments of track in a high-speed rail system may operate at significantly lower speeds and that grade crossings can be
tolerated in these track segments.
b. In most states railroad-highway grade crossings are regulated by a state agency. These agencies should be contacted
early in the planning stage of the railway to ascertain if grade crossings will be allowed and the current regulations for
them.
c. In all cases a complete hazard analysis of a proposed grade crossing or grade crossing elimination must be prepared
with involvement by all stakeholders. The analysis should be done to FHWA standards and be a complete analysis of
the crossing, the approaches, the environment and the overall hazards of the crossing.
d. Planning a grade crossing or grade crossing elimination can be expected to require significant time and resources to
reach agreement among a crossing’s owners and users for provision of alternative access and cost sharing. The
requirements for elimination of each crossing must be evaluated on their own merits including the costs associated
with and resulting from a collision. In most cases the proposal to close a grade crossing will also require evaluation of
the environmental impacts of the proposal.
3.4.2.3 Design
a. The design requirements for many of the railway and highway elements of grade crossings are set out in the references
cited in Article 3.4.2.1.c above. Special consideration for grade crossings for high-speed rail must be given to longer
sight distances, vertical clearances for overhead electrification wires where electric traction power is used, vehicle
presence detectors to sense occupation of the crossing, and verification of the performance of the sensors and traffic
control devices.
1
b. The highway profile at a grade crossing is of particular concern. It should be designed to ensure passage of trucks with
low ground clearances so they do not become stranded because clearance of these incidents is especially slow and
difficult.
c. Design for control of pedestrians at grade crossings must provide for adequate warnings and safety refuges as well as 3
for barriers to unauthorized entry onto the right of way.
d. The height of overhead contact wires for high-speed rail will be determined by the height of the trains and the
configuration of the pantographs for high speed operation, but consideration must also be given to vertical clearances
for freight trains if they are to use the same tracks which may be the case for tracks of Class 6 or below. At all grade
crossings allowance must also be made for high and/or heavy loads on highway vehicles. Warning signs to display
prominently the vertical clearance should be provided and, if necessary, structural protection for the overhead wires. 4
e. Gates for all four quadrants of a grade crossing and center medians with barrier curbs are also likely to be required for
grade crossings of Class 6 and Class 7 tracks.
f. Devices to detect and report to the dispatcher, traffic controller, and the train operator the presence of a highway
vehicle or pedestrian on a grade crossing during the approach of a train will be essential for high speed train operation
on Class 6 or Class 7 tracks. The detection system may include closed circuit television coverage to allow assessment
of a hazardous situation and/or the presence of highway vehicles which violate barrier gates or other restrictions at a
crossing. Loop detector circuits buried in the crossing pavement may also be used to identify the presence of highway
vehicles. Devices for train protection should provide constant warning detection at any grade crossing that includes
trains moving at different speeds. Redundancy and performance verification should be included in the design of these
devices to ensure reliability. These may include remote and automatic switching of alternative power supplies, testing
of lights and bells, etc.
g. The track stiffness transition that typically exists at a grade crossing should be addressed during design. This may be
accomplished through use of varying tie spacing within the approach, use of ties with increasing length, track

underlayments below the crossing surface or other methods approved by the railroad. The length of the transition
should be determined by the maximum authorized speed for that track segment.
h. All grade crossings should provide adequate longitudinal and cross-drainage throughout the length of the crossing.
i. Pedestrian grade crossings should be avoided.
a. Construction of grade crossings for high-speed rail is generally similar to that for grade crossings for lower speed
trains. Special attention for Class 6 track may include the overhead wires if electric traction power is used, but not for
diesel powered trains. Special considerations for Class 7 track include the overhead wires, and for both track classes
surface materials and inspection, verification and testing of all components during construction.
b. The overhead wires for electrified high speed trains are particularly vulnerable to the heights of freight trains operating
on high speed rail tracks and to the height of highway vehicles crossing the railway. It is essential that both the
horizontal and vertical clearances to the overhead wires and their support structures established by the design be
provided during construction.
c. The sensitivity of grade crossing performance to track settlement requires construction of a dense sub-grade and good
drainage. Consideration should be given to use of concrete slab track to minimize maintenance.
d. Surfacing materials for grade crossings should be specified which cannot be lifted or displaced by the wind created by
high speed trains. Ballast is of particular concern and should be capped or eliminated for distances from the grade
crossing which preclude damage from stones lifted by trains. Where ballast is used it should be properly regulated for
at least 200 feet from either end of the crossing. Cast-in-place or precast concrete slabs, rubber or metal surfacing may
be used where appropriate.
e. Although inspection, verification and testing are key activities for any construction, the potential for serious
consequences if a grade crossing is not constructed correctly warrant particular attention to these tasks. They must be
carried out by suitably trained, qualified and experienced people, and documented and certified by the responsible
officers of the railway owner and of the owner of the road or highway crossing the railway.
3.4.2.5 Operations
a. FRA Track Safety Standards 49 CFR 213.365, 367 and 369 specify the minimum nature and frequency of visual
inspections, special inspections and inspection records legally required for high speed rail track. In view of the
significant risks at grade crossings, these inspections and records should include grade crossings and all the devices at
or related to them.
b. FRA Track Safety Standards 49 CFR 234 specifies the minimum reporting, maintenance, inspection and testing legally
required for all grade crossing signal systems. Consideration should be given by the railroad owner/maintainer to the
provision of more frequent inspection and testing cycles to provide an additional level of safety beyond the legal
minimum.
c. FRA Track Safety Standards 49 CFR 234 and 236 specify the signal safety standards regarding cab signalling and
Positive Train Control (PTC).
d. In addition to the mandated inspection cycles, where reasonably possible the grade crossing protection and warning
devices should include automatic diagnostic tests and reporting to the railroad operations control center and to trains
approaching the crossing. The results of all tests should be recorded. When any malfunction is detected the appropriate
maintenance team should be notified immediately.

3.4.2.6 Maintenance
a. A proactive maintenance cycle for all grade crossings and the associated safety devices should be planned and
documented as part of the planning, design and construction process. Proactive maintenance activities should include
surfacing and regulating of the track on either side of the grade crossing, as well as maintenance of the roadway surface
and all the traffic control devices and pavement markings. Proactive maintenance should also include actions necessary
to ensure proper drainage.
b. Proactive maintenance for grade crossings should include records of the date, time, location and nature of all
inspection and maintenance activities. The records should identify the need for procurement of additional spare parts
and materials and where they should be stored. Changes which may be required in staffing and/or training and
qualifications should be noted. Planning for future maintenance activities must be documented and brought to the
attention of management for budgeting.
c. The maintenance plan should include provision for third party independent verification of maintenance activities for
grade crossings.
3.4.3 DRAINAGE
3.4.4 VEGETATION CONTROL 1
3.4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL
3.4.6 THIRD PARTY OCCUPANCY

3
SECTION 3.5 TRACK AND ROADWAY CONSIDERATIONS
3.5.1 GENERAL
4
3.5.5 GAGE
3.5.6 TRACK STRUCTURE1 (2004)
High-speed traffic places different and possibly more severe demands on the track structure than slower, heavier freight traffic.
Although dynamic loading considerations under freight traffic are important, they can become a predominant issue for high-
speed passenger traffic, requiring the track engineer to consider dynamic properties of material, the effects of vibration, and
the behavior and failure modes of track components associated with high frequency loads. Additionally, the more restrictive

tolerances for track geometry associated with higher speeds places a greater value on the engineers’ ability to design the track
structure to withstand these forces. The challenge becomes even greater if the track has both freight and high-speed traffic.
Track structure of conventional construction can be divided into superstructure (rails, ties and fastenings) and substructure
(ballast, sub ballast and sub grade). Superstructure components are usually more safety-critical and their performance more
dependant upon their dynamic properties. The substructure primarily affects the longer-term track geometry performance
because most of the permanent deformation under repetitive loading will occur in these layers. By using adequate design
methods and maintenance procedures, substructure settlement can be kept tolerably small.
3.5.6.1 Structural Design Considerations
3.5.6.1.1 Superstructure
Chapters 5 and 30 in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering consider many aspects of track components from a static
strength perspective. However, the higher frequency loads of high-speed traffic make it necessary to consider the effects of
dynamic loads generated in the track structure by the vehicles. Due to the superstructure components’ accessibility and their
large effect on dynamic track performance, they are often designed to provide the desired dynamic response. The damping
characteristics of tie pads and other resilient materials in the superstructure can be selected to minimize the forces and
vibrations transmitted by high-speed vehicles.
3.5.6.1.2 Substructure
Chapter 1 of the Manual for Railway Engineering should be referenced for construction practices of new track, and for a wide
variety of general maintenance practices on existing track related to the substructure. But whether the engineer is concerned
with an existing track or new construction, a design-oriented approach is needed to address or prevent substructure instability.
In recent decades track geotechnology research has provided new insight into substructure behavior allowing development of
investigation tools and improved design methods. Additionally, the importance of dynamic properties of the substructure,
particularly the subgrade, is becoming more apparent as vehicle speed is increased.
3.5.6.1.2.1 Ballast/Sub ballast Layer Thickness Design and Sub grade Strength Considerations
Because of the greater challenges posed by smaller geometry error tolerances for track with high-speed traffic, and the
possible combination of freight with high-speed passenger traffic on the same track, an improved approach to substructure
design is needed. The practice recommended in Chapter 16, Article 10.3.2.1 of using 25 psi as the assumed sub grade strength
in the calculation for the required ballast depth under tie, should only be used with caution for track with high-speed traffic
because a lesser sub grade strength is quite common.
The methodology described in Ref [1] is recommended to design the granular layer (ballast and sub ballast) thickness over sub
grade because it allows consideration of the distribution of load magnitudes and number of load repetitions for the actual
traffic, the tonnage by MGT, the moduli of granular materials and sub grade soil, and soil type and soil compressive strength.
The two most common types of sub grade failure are addressed; progressive shear, and excessive plastic settlement (ballast
pockets). The method lends itself well to individual locations with sub grade instability where soil type and strength can be
somewhat site-specific, but can apply equally well to granular layer thickness design over many miles. Also, the relative
contribution of sub grade deformation due to heavy freight loading and lighter passenger loads can be assessed.
The amount of sub grade permanent deformation that contributes to track settlement decreases with depth into the soil, and this
depth of influence varies with sub grade stiffness. For soils that are uniformly strong with depth this zone of influence may be
1
References
[1]Li, D., and Selig, E. T., “Method for Railroad Track Foundation Design,” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, April
1998, Vol. 124, No. 4.
[2]Selig, E. T., and Waters, J. M., Track Geotechnology and Substructure Management, Thomas Telford, Ltd., London 1994.
[3]Chrismer, S. M., and LoPresti, J., “Track Substructure Assessment with the Cone Penetrometer,” Association of American Railroads Research and Test
Department, February 1996, TD-96-002.

only a few feet, or it may extend to 20 or 25 feet for softer soils [1]. For weaker soils it is important to characterize soil
strength over the depth of influence to use a design approach to limit cumulative sub grade settlement. Much of this sub grade
settlement will be differentially distributed along the track, and hence, will increase track geometry roughness.
There are a number of methods available to characterize sub grade over the depth of influence, as discussed in Ref [2]. In
particular, the cone penetrometer has been shown [3] to be well suited to rapidly assess soil strength and type with depth, and
the granular layer thickness. Such information is needed for a design approach to determining the existing strength of track
substructure and alternatives to improve it.
3.5.6.1.2.2 Alternative Means to Improve the Substructure
As an alternative to using a thicker granular layer, a relatively stiff layer of hot-mix asphalt, concrete, geosynthetic-granular
composite or other material placed over a soft sub grade can reduce loading stresses transmitted to the soil and reduce sub
grade settlement. While asphalt and concrete are inherently stiff materials, the geosynthetic-granular composite attains
stiffness due to lateral confinement of the granular material in the open cores of the geosynthetic. A given layer thickness of
stiffer substructure material is better able to withstand imposed stresses without settlement and to reduce the stress passed
along to the sub grade, compared to a granular layer of the same thickness. Also, concrete slab track can provide a stiffer track
structure and reduce stresses on the underlying substructure layers compared to conventional tie-ballast track construction.
The decision between using an increased granular layer thickness or a stiffer material, or between using a conventional tie-
ballast track or slab track construction, to provide these benefits can be determined based on a cost analysis.
3.5.7 ALIGNMENT, HORIZONTAL (2005)
High-speed railway track alignment should provide for safe and comfortable operation. It should be designed to permit 1
continuous operation at high speeds. Constant acceleration and deceleration of trains along an alignment is undesirable and
therefore, track alignment design should endeavor to enable consistent train speeds along a high-speed rail route.
In order to achieve continuous operation at constant speeds greater than 90 miles per hour, curves with civil speeds less than
the minimum desirable speed should be avoided wherever possible. For routes that have geographical constraints requiring
curvature that will not allow conventional high-speed trains to travel at minimum desirable speeds, consideration of trains with
tilting systems to counteract centrifugal forces in curves should be considered. 3
3.5.7.1 Design Speeds
Design speeds shall be based on Train Performance Runs (TPRs) that simulate actual train performance with respect to
equipment acceleration and deceleration, grade, civil speed at curves, braking rates and other conditions that can affect train
speed.
4
Consideration shall be given to providing an alignment that allows high-speed trains to run at consistent speeds over the
alignment. Similarly, high-speed alignment design shall take into account areas where slower modes of railroad operation such
as regional inter-city, commuter and freight trains may share tracks. Territories where high-speed trains will operate in
congested or urban areas may not be desirable or practical for high-speed operation.
The desirable speeds for high-speed operation will vary with each system. Speeds will vary with respect to the type of high-
speed equipment, the average distance between stations and the overall length of the high-speed route.
Desirable speeds for high-speed rail operations may also vary with respect to the type of system originally constructed. High-
speed rail systems that are constructed through the incremental approach (that is the upgrade of an existing conventional
railroad into a high-speed rail system) will likely have a lower desirable speed than new high-speed rail alignment.
The desirable design speeds for high-speed rail systems should be greater than 110 mph. In most cases, it will be desirable to
achieve speeds 150 mph or greater. The Federal Railroad Administration has recognized that high-speed rail operation may
achieve speeds up to 200 miles per hour by issuing Track Safety Standards for Track Classes of Six and higher.

3.5.7.2 Curvature
Degree of curvature shall be limited to provide civil speeds that are consistent with continuous high-speed operation. For
conventional high-speed rail trains, curves of one degree or less are desirable. Desirable curvature for high-speed rail systems
that use equipment with tilt systems will have higher maximum desirable curvature based on the criteria for lateral
acceleration, the amount of effective tilt, and the train's suspension characteristics. Generally, desirable curves for high-speed
tilt trains will be 1 degree-30' or less.
3.5.7.3 Elevation
For high-speed rail systems with standard gauge, equilibrium elevation shall be defined by EQ 14 in Chapter 5, Part 3,
Article 3.3.1, such that,
E = 0.0007V2D
where E is equilibrium elevation in inches, V is speed in miles per hour and D is degree of curvature. The vehicle is said to be
at balance speed if the track has a superelevation equal to the equilibrium elevation, E for the corresponding D and V values,
meaning that the vehicle does not lean out or into the curve and the vertical wheel forces on both rails are equal. Equilibrium
elevation is limited by the allowable amount of superelevation.
3.5.7.4 Actual Superelevation
The maximum achievable actual super-elevation on high-speed track is considered six inches. Where ballastless track
construction is used, higher levels of actual super-elevation may be achievable.
Passengers, vehicles and track easily tolerate some unbalance when curves are traversed. Therefore, even if a curve can be
raised to balancing elevation it is normally desirable to elevate it somewhat less so that passenger discomfort and vehicle-track
forces will be reduced when trains stop on the curve or traverse it at lower speeds due to traffic or other causes. It is common
practice to limit actual super-elevation of a curve to 75% of the equilibrium elevation.
In sections of track where trains are expected to operate at various speeds, actual super-elevation shall be designed to prevent
lower speed trains from experiencing overbalanced elevation. However, for high-speed rail systems with a small amount of
freight railroad traffic, curves may be super-elevated so that the actual amount of super-elevation is approximately equal to the
equilibrium elevation for a speed that is 10 mph below the maximum authorized speed for freight traffic.
3.5.7.5 Lateral Acceleration (Quasi-Static)
Acceptable values of steady state lateral acceleration parallel to the floor of the car-body range from 0.04 to 0.1 g in North
America. It should be noted that vehicle characteristics and track geometry affect this quasi-static lateral acceleration. The trip
length should also be considered when deciding upon the maximum acceptable value of this lateral acceleration.
Current North American practice for HSR service is to limit lateral acceleration to 0.1 g. This is used for conventional trains
operating at five inches of unbalance on the Northeast corridor, as well as both HSR train types that utilize tilt technology. In
Europe, however, it is common practice to limit lateral acceleration to values as low as 0.05g. For HSR corridors where
average trip lengths will be greater than 500 miles, it is desirable to limit lateral acceleration to a 0.05g.
3.5.7.6 Unbalanced Elevation
Unbalanced elevation is the difference between equilibrium and actual super-elevation. Mathematically, this is defined as,
Eu = E Ea
where Eu is unbalanced elevation and Ea is actual super-elevation. When Eu is a positive value, it is considered underbalanced
elevation providing a cant deficiency; when Eu is negative, it is considered overbalanced elevation providing a cant excess.

Underbalanced elevation is the amount that actual super-elevation is less than equilibrium elevation for any combination of
speed and curvature. Overbalanced elevation is the amount that actual super-elevation is more than equilibrium elevation.
Without consideration of tilt, when a train traveling around a curve experiences underbalanced elevation, the lateral
acceleration is in the direction towards the outside of the curve; when the train experiences overbalanced elevation, the lateral
acceleration will be towards the inside of the curve.
Underbalanced elevation is generally limited by the FRA Track Safety Standards to three inches. However, current Track
Safety Standards allow unbalance up to four inches provided equipment meets certain FRA requirements. The FRA may also
grant underbalanced elevation waivers for high-speed rail equipment. Waivers for up to five inches of underbalanced elevation
have been granted for conventional passenger trains and passive high-speed tilt trains. Active tilt trains may be allowed to run
at speeds with up to nine inches of underbalanced elevation.
The following process is required to obtain a waiver or variance from the established FRA Track Safety Standards.
• Petition for a waiver to conduct testing.
• Provide test conditions.
• Provide a test plan for approval.
• Report on the test results.
• Petition for a waiver to operate at high cant deficiency based on test results.
• Obtain a waiver with specific conditions from the FRA. 1

3.5.7.7 Clothoid Transition Spiral Lengths
The minimum length of clothoid spiral transition curves shall be determined based on runoff and jerk rate. For high-speed
track alignments that will be used by high-speed trains with tilt active tilt mechanisms, minimum spiral length shall be
sufficient for the trains tilt rate.
3
3.5.7.8 Runoff
A minimum rate of super-elevation should be provided uniformly throughout the length of a spiral to prevent racking and
diagonal warp of the equipment. At least 1/2-inch runoff in 31 feet shall be provided such that,
L s ≥ 62E a
4
where LS is the length of clothoid transition spiral in feet and Ea is the actual super-elevation in inches.
The rate that actual super-elevation run-off occurs between tangent track and the beginning of the circular curve assists
passenger comfort and the smoothness of the spiral operation. For speeds greater than 60 and less than or equal to 125 mph, at
most a 3/8-inch runoff in 31 feet should be provided. For speeds greater than 125 mph, at most a 1/4-inch runoff in 31 feet
should be provided. These runoff rates with respect to minimum spiral length may be defined mathematically as follows:
60 < V ≤ 125mph ⇒ L s ≥ 82.7E a
V > 125mph ⇒ L s ≥ 124E a
where V is speed.
For dedicated high speed systems the maximum allowable value of track twist can be determined by considering wheel
unloading due to twist (including dynamic unloading as modeled by simulation), vehicle torsional stress due to twist, vehicle

roll mismatch at vehicle to vehicle passageways, effect of vehicle roll velocity at design speed on passenger comfort, and
excitation of roll oscillation (and effect of such oscillation on passenger comfort) due to vehicle roll acceleration. Attention
should also be paid to track twist limits of similar systems with successful operating history.
3.5.7.9 Jerk Rate
The change in lateral acceleration with respect to time is the jerk rate.
Clothoid transition spirals shall be long enough to ensure that a proper build up or runoff of lateral acceleration with respect to
time is provided. This is to ensure that passengers do not experience uncomfortable levels of jerk rate or jolts.
In general, conventional North American railroad practice is to limit jerk rate to 0.03 g per second where existing conditions
permit. Where necessary, jerk rates of 0.04 g per second are allowable conventional practice where existing conditions
warrant.
However, in high-speed operations, jerk rates may be increased when the change in lateral acceleration is low. In some
instances, the change in lateral acceleration may be small enough where no transition is required-this is defined as jolt.
When the change in lateral acceleration is small enough, typically 0.01g or less, it is acceptable practice not to require
transition spirals. In general, this will occur when the change in unbalance is 1/2-inch or less. Some high-speed train
suspension systems may allow jolts at unbalanced elevation of up to one inch. Where the change in lateral acceleration is
0.025g, jerk rates of 0.1g per second may be acceptable. It is recommended, however, the jerk rate not exceed 0.03g per second
where the change in lateral acceleration is 0.05g or greater.
When the acceptable level of jerk rate is known, the minimum spiral length can be calculated such that,
L s ≥ vt = 1.46Vt
where Ls is the minimum clothoid transition spiral length in feet, v is speed in feet per second, V is speed in miles per hour
and,
LateralAcceleration aL
t = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = --------------------------------------------------------
MaximimumAllowableJerkRate [ ( ΔA L ) ⁄ ( Δt ) ] allowable
The above equation for jerk rate provides the length of spiral for any value of lateral acceleration. Where the change in
unbalanced elevation is directly proportional to the change in lateral acceleration, the equation can be redefined recognizing
that when,
ΔE u aL
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- = ------
-
E u atMaximumLateralAcceleration AL
as,
⎛ AL ⎞ ⎛ Eu ⎞
L s ≥ 1.46V ⎜ --------------------------------------------------------⎟ -------------------
⎝ ( ( ΔA L ) ⁄ ( Δt ) ) allowable⎠ ⎝ E u atA L⎠
where LS is the length of clothoid transition spiral in feet, V is speed in miles per hour, AL is the maximum allowable lateral
acceleration, (<AL/<t) is the maximum allowable jerk rate, Eu is the change in unbalance and (Eu at AL) allowable is the
unbalance at the maximum allowable lateral acceleration.

3.5.7.10 Tilt Rate
For alignments that will support the operations of high-speed trains with tilt mechanisms, clothoid transition spiral lengths
shall be long enough to allow the train to fully tilt to the required amount for the curve within the spiral. There are two
conditions that should be satisfied:
(1) Tilt rate of the car-body with respect to the truck, and
(2) Tilt rate of the car-body with respect to the horizon.
The maximum tilt rate with respect to the truck or track level should be available from the manufacture of the equipment. As
an example, a measured tilt rate for an active tilt system is 3.5× per second.
The time it takes to tilt is equal to:

t= max tilt angle
max tilt rate
The clothoid transition spiral must be long enough to allow the car-body to fully tilt to the degree required for the amount of
lateral acceleration at the truck. The length of spiral can be defined with respect to speed and time such that,
L s ≥ vt = 1.46Vt
where LS is the length of clothoid transition spiral in feet, v is the speed in feet per second, V is the speed in miles per hour and 1
t is time required to tilt in seconds.
The above equation is only valid when car-bodies tilt throughout the entire curve. When the car-body partially tilts within the
spiral (that is its tilts in one section of the spiral and does not tilt in another section), the spiral shall be long enough to ensure
that the maximum allowable jerk rate is not exceeded in the section of the spiral where the car-body does not tilt.
It is also desirable to limit the amount the train tilts with respect to the horizon. This ensures sufficient passenger comfort when 3
the train is subject to the rotation caused by super-elevation runoff and tilting.
3.5.7.11 Higher Order Spirals
3.5.7.11.1 Common Geometry
Higher order (S-shaped) transition spirals provide correct geometry that may be necessitated by high speeds and heavy axle
4
loads, which will be prevalent in North American high-speed operations. Higher order spiral transition curves have been used
throughout the world, but are currently not common practice for North American railroads, which have traditionally used the
clothoid spiral in railroad construction.
Clothoid spirals are considered third order curves while circular curves are second order curves. Although acceptable at lower
speeds associated with lower speeds, at higher speeds abrupt changes in jerk may be considered to cause a reduction in the
smooth operation of high-speed trains and passenger comfort.
Clothoid spirals provide a straight ramp with respect to change degree of curvature, unbalanced elevation (and lateral
acceleration), and actual super-elevation runoff.
Higher order transition curves provide correct geometry for both horizontal and vertical transitions to ensure comfortable
operation of high-speed trains and decreases in track maintenance costs. The higher order curves provide a transition of the
abrupt break caused at the beginning and end of the clothoid spiral ramp. This provides a smoother ride both horizontally and
vertically as trains transition between tangent track and circular curve.

There are at least three higher order spiral transition curve geometries that are considered to be standard in railway alignment
design practice. These curves are parabolic, sine and cosine, and are considered fourth and fifth order curves.
Figure 17-3-1 illustrates four common spiral transition curve geometries including the clothoid. Table 17-3-1 shows all the
main features of the four different transition curves geometries. Two of the most important features are shift (f) and the
increase in length, compared to the clothoid geometry with identical shifts.
Figure 17-3-1. Common Spiral Transition Curve Geometries
The cosine based transition spiral also known as the Bloss spiral provides the most favorable condition. Although it offers the
least improvement in shift and in increase in length, it still provides excellent conditions to speed increases with minimum
lateral movement of the existing clothoid transitions that means minimum overall track shifts.

Table 17-3-1. Comparison of Cosine, Parabolic and Sine Spiral to Clothoid Geometry
Geometric Features Cosine Parobolic Sine Clothoid

Transition Geometry
(dg/dt)max(m2) π 2/(RL) 2/(RL) Broken function
--- RL
2 (1/RL)
(d2G/dl2)max(m3) 4.93/(RL) 8/(RL2) 6.28/(RL2) Theoretically

Indefinite
The approximate value of shift L2/(42.23R) L2/(48R) L2/(61.21R) L2/(24R)
(f)
The approximate value of “y” 0.149 (L2/R) 0.146 (L2/R) 0.141 (L2/R) 0.16 (L2/R)
end coordinate (m)
The angle of the end tangent (J) L/(2R) L/(2R) L/(2R) L/(2R)
Increase of length compared to 33 41 60 -
the clothoid geometry with
identical shift (%)
Maximum lateral displacement 0.017f 0.025f 0.024f - 1
compared to the clothoid, with
identical shift
3.5.7.11.2 Minimum Spiral Lengths
For spirals of higher order than clothoids, minimum spiral lengths may be calculated for clothoid transition spirals in
accordance with Aeticle 3.5.7.8 and increased accordingly. This increase in spiral to allow for the additional length needed to 3
transition the clothoid geometry break at the ends. The increase is provided assuming that maximum allowable jerk rate limits
and actual super-elevation runoff gradients are the same as for clothoid transition spirals.
The minimum length of a cosine, parabolic and cosine transition curve may be defined as
L r ≥ 1.33L s for sine spiral

4
L r ≥ 1.40L s for parabolic spiral
L r ≥ 1.60L s for cosine spiral
where Lr is the length of the higher order spiral and Ls is the calculated minimum length of the clothoid spiral in feet.
Consideration can be given to reducing the lengths of the higher order spirals recognizing the S-shape spirals provide a more
smooth ride through the transition curve, thus slightly higher jerk rates and superelevation runoff rates will be more tolerable
in terms of comfort.

3.5.7.12 Effects of Tilt Trains
In order to maximize high-speed rail service, high-speed passenger trains can have a tilting system in order to compensate for
centrifugal forces on curves. This will allow high-speed passenger trains to travel around existing curves at higher speeds than
would be allowed for conventional (non-tilting) high-speed passenger equipment.
A passive tilt system is designed where the car body produces a positive tilt in response to centrifugal force acting on the car-
bodies center of gravity. It suspends the car-body from the top of swinging bolsters above the wheels, and when the high-speed
train rounds a curve at a higher than equilibrium speed, centrifugal force swings the bottom of the car-body outward like a
pendulum. Talgo tilt trains utilized by Amtrak on the Pacific Northwest Corridor use a passive tilt system.
A tilt system that is actively controlled uses a design where the car-body tilt is actuated in response to controller transmitted
commands. In this design, measurements are made of various system conditions such as the lateral acceleration, from which
information is then processed by the Controller to activate the appropriate car-body tilt. A computerized hydraulic tilting
system causes the trains to tilt. Sensors in the lead trucks are used to measure the amount of centrifugal forces in curves, and
the computerized controller system tilts the car-bodies appropriately.
3.5.7.13 TOLERANCES
Track alignment tolerances are extremely important to the successful operation of high-speed service. Tolerances have
implications to safety, system reliability, passenger comfort and maintenance economics.
Three types of tolerances should be considered for high-speed track alignment. These are:
(1) Safety Standards: The absolute minimum tolerances where the train can operate safely. Safety standards may not
be exceeded without a reduction of the speed limit (slow order) or suspension of service.
(2) Maintenance Tolerances provide a measure of the track alignment such that maintenance activity can be scheduled
and executed to ensure that the track never degrades to Safety Standard limits, passenger comfort is maximized,
wear and tear on equipment is minimized, the track maintains its reliability and track maintenance remains
economical.
(3) Construction Tolerances are the acceptable range of deviation from the theoretical (design) alignment that will
allow maintenance standards to economically be achieved once the track is entered into service.
Tolerances for horizontal alignment should be based on allowable deviation from uniformity, where uniformity at any point
along the track alignment is established by averaging the measured mid-chord offset values for nine consecutive points
centered around that point and spaced according to the following:
Chord Length Spacing

31’ 7’-9”
62’ 15’-6”
124’ 31’-0
In high-speed rail both single and multiple deviations should be considered.

For high-speed rail service, classes of track are designated based on the maximum permissible speed for each class. Maximum
allowable speeds for high-speed passenger trains for each class of track are as follows:
Maximum Allowable
Class of Track Passenger Train Speed
Class 6 110
Class 7 125
Class 8 160
Class 9 200
For speeds greater than 200 mph, track alignment tolerances should be established based on current practices for establishing
track safety, maintenance and construction tolerances including testing and economic analyses.
Construction tolerances are measured from the theoretical alignment and should be verified by deviations from uniformity. In
other words, construction tolerances should meet two standards for ensuring that the track alignment as constructed conforms
to the design.
3.5.7.14 Safety Standards
In the United States of America, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) has established Track Safety Standards for
Classes of Track 6 through 9. These U.S. mandatory standards in the area issued as Subpart G of Part 213 of Code of Federal
Regulations 49.
1
Subpart G applies to all track supporting passenger train speeds of 90 mph and greater and freight train speeds of 80 mph or
greater. Freight trains or mixed use (passenger and freight) may operate at passenger speeds when they meet specific
conditions of the FRA.
Maximum allowable deviations from uniformity of the mid-chord offset for 31, 62 and 124-foot chords for single and multiple
deviations may be found in FRA Track Safety Standards ß 213.327.
3
3.5.7.15 Maintenance Tolerances
Maintenance shall be performed when alignment values meet the following limits which were derived by using a slightly
lesser allowable value than the safety FRA limits:
For Track Classes 6 through 9, alignment should not deviate for a single deviation from uniformity more than the amount
prescribed in the following table: 4
Alignment Maintenance Limits-Single Deviatioin

Class of Track The Deviation from The Deviation from The Deviation from
Uniformity of the Mid- Uniformity of the Mid- Uniformity of the Mid-
Chord Offset for a 31’ Chord Offset for a 62’ Chord Offset for a 124”
Chord should not be Chord should not be Chord should not be
more than (inches): more than (inches): more than (inches):
6 3/8 1/2 1
7 3/8 3/8 7/8
8 3/8 3/8 1/2
9 3/8 3/8 1/2

For Track Classes 6 through 9, alignment should not deviate for multiple deviations from uniformity more than the amount
prescribed in the following table for three or more non-overlapping deviations occurring within a distance equal to five times
the specified chord length:
Alignment Maintenance Limits-Single Deviatioin

Class of Track The Deviation from The Deviation from The Deviation from
Uniformity of the Mid- Uniformity of the Mid- Uniformity of the Mid-
Chord Offset for a 31’ Chord Offset for a 62’ Chord Offset for a 124”
Chord should not be Chord should not be Chord should not be
more than (inches): more than (inches): more than (inches):
6 1/4 3/8 3/4
7 1/4 1/4 3/8
8 1/4 1/4 3/8
9 1/4 1/4 3/8
When the general alignment is to be corrected, such as the removal of long swings on tangents and the restoration of curves to
circular curvature, laying out of spirals, etc., the throws or lining should be to present monuments. Surveying equipment, rail-
mounted telescope or a long base automatic reference system should be used to determine the corrections required on tangents.
The string line method should be used to determine the alignment of curves to and to calculate the required corrections or
throws. For detailed corrections of an irregular line, the required throws may be determined by using surveying equipment, a
line wire and indicator device or plotting a graph on curves with automatic lining equipment.
3.5.7.16 Construction Tolerances
The deviation of the designated mid-ordinate from a 62-foot chord should not be more that 1/8 inch for high-speed track up to
200 mph. For high-speed tracks where speeds will be greater than 200 mph, analysis of acceptable tolerances for construction
should be performed.
Various track conditions influence the gradients used in the design of vertical curves on high-speed rail (HSR) sSystems.
These conditions include:
Track Usage
a. Track used by all types of trains including heavy freight trains
b. Track used by high-speed trains and light freight trains
c. Track used by high-speed passenger trains
3.5.8.1 Design Considerations of Vertical Geometry
The design of vertical geometry of track for HSR systems is not similar to that of commuter, intercity and freight rail systems.
The vertical alignment is subject to the constraints of the existing natural terrain and man-made infrastructure. This section
describes various aspects of vertical geometry for HSR highlighting the differences between European systems designed and
in use as compared to vertical geometry for commuter and intercity rail in the United States.

3.5.8.2 Vertical Curves – North American Passenger and Mixed (Freight and Passenger) Operations
(AREMA)
Topographical conditions usually require vertical-longitudinal gradients. The preferred track profile would be as level as
possible with minimum changes in gradient. However changes in gradients of vertical tangents are accomplished by using
vertical curves (Vc) of correct length, rather than by “grade breaks” or “angle points” providing a smooth transition
(connection) between successive vertical tangent gradients. Vertical curves should be designed as long as physically and
economically possible. Properly designed vertical curves minimize adverse effects on coupler angles, vertical acceleration,
rolling stock suspension, ride quality, and train dynamics. If the vertical acceleration on a crest is too great, wheels can unload
causing the wheels to climb the rail causing a derailment.
Chapter 5, Section 3.6 of the AREMA Manual addresses the design of vertical curves taking into account vertical acceleration
and passenger comfort as follows:
2
D × V × K-
L = ---------------------------
A
Where:
A = vertical acceleration in feet/sec/sec (ft/Sec2); A = 0.10 for freight operations; 0.60 for passenger and transit
operations)
D = Absolute value of the difference in rates of grades expressed as a decimal 1
K = 2.15 conversion factor to give L in feet
L = Length of vertical curve in feet
V = Speed of the train in miles per hour

3
The recommended minimum length of the vertical curve = 100 feet. The minimum distance between vertical curves shall not
be less than 100 feet. When making curve length computations, vertical curve lengths are typically rounded up to the next 50
or 100 feet.
The above criteria, represents a relatively recent revision to traditional, more conservative vertical curve criteria in North
America. It is important to note that North American vertical curves are parabolic while European curves are designed as a 4
function of the radius. Many passenger and freight railroads still maintain the traditional criteria and require its use wherever
practical resulting in potentially even longer vertical curve lengths.
The differences in vertical curve criteria will have minor effects on most track designs where the changes in grade are small.
However, in projects such as flyovers and grade separations where a substantial change in track elevation must be designed in
limited areas the differences can become dramatic.
3.5.8.3 Gradients
Gradients for shared passenger corridors may be restricted by consideration of freight operations. In general, the ruling grade
of a system should not be exceeded by the grade of a new passenger facility. The grade design of exclusive passenger corridors
or those with only slow speed or short distance freight service benefit from the shorter vertical curves permitted by AREMA
Chapter 5, Section 3.6 (referenced above).
The grade or gradient of the profile is expressed as the percent of rise over run. That is, a 1% grade represents a rise of 1 foot
vertically for every 100 feet traversed horizontally.

The grade of the track may have a profound effect on train operations; typically more so than in highway design. There are
numerous considerations and restrictions that determine the allowable gradients to be used in design. Factors include:
• Power supply and energy consumption which increase with large gradients
• Some freight trains with friction-based traction locomotive power may have problems ascending and/or descending
the gradients
• Braking distances increase in descending gradients
• Maximum speed achieved and or permitted
• Train handling issues
• Ride quality
• Climate effects which reduce adhesion
For North American freight operations, a 1% maximum gradient is typically preferred. However grades of 2% and slightly
more are fairly common on many existing lines. For freight service, it is important to consider the overall territory and not to
add a steep grade so as to change the operational characteristics of the line.
For North American commuter or passenger service where trains are typically operated at greater horsepower per ton ratios
than freight trains, the impacts of gradients are considerably less. However, on lines that support the operation of mixed traffic
(passenger and freight), gradients and curves must be selected that support the desired operation of all vehicle and train types.
The following is a general guideline for gradients:
• 0% to 1.0% - generally considered acceptable for freight, and passenger service
• 1.1% to 2.0% - acceptable for combined passenger and freight service if they are in compliance with maximum
grades elsewhere on the line
• 2.1% to 3.0% - may be acceptable in passenger service and short ancillary freight service
• 3.1% to 4.0% - may be acceptable in passenger service, preferably only for short distances such as flyovers
• Grades above 4% are not recommended
• 0% to 0.2% - preferred for maintenance and layover facilities
In general, in designing high speed vertical curves, one should analyze the vertical curve length required using the formula per
AREMA Chapter 5, Section 3.6. It is recommended that the designer compare the calculated vertical curve against criteria
developed and used in other international high speed systems, some of which have been presented below for reference.
3.5.8.4 Reference – General European Design of Vertical Curves1
Vertical curves are to be provided when the change in two gradients is > 2 ‰ (promils). A promil is equal to a rise of 1 m
vertically for every 1000 m traversed horizontally. Therefore a 10 ‰ gradient is equivalent to 10/1000 = .01 or 1%.
R equivalent vertical radius = ρequiv = V2 / 2
1
See Reference 1

R extreme radius = ρext = V2 / 4
R minimum acceptance in Europe = ρmin = 2000 m (6,567 ft.)
Where;V is in (km/h)2
R is in meters (m)
Tangent distance for Vertical Curves = T = ρ/2 * (i1 + i2) / 1000 where i1 and i2 are gradients measured in promils.
3.5.8.5 International Design Standards and Experience
Sweden1
1
See Reference 2

The Swedish National Rail Administration (Banverket) describes the largest permissible gradient of 10 ‰ (1%) on track with
heavy freight trains. A 12.5 ‰ (1.25%) gradient is permissible if the mean value does not exceed 10 ‰ over each kilometer.
On tracks with passenger and light freight trains a higher gradient may per permissible.
Banverket states that the vertical curve radius shall be in accordance to permissible speed as follows:
Rv min > 0.16 * V2
V = permissible speed in km/h
Rv = Vertical curve radius in m (multiply by 3.28083 to convert to feet)
The recommended vertical curve radius is derived as follows:
Rv rec min > 0.25 * (1.3 * V2)
Where 1.3 is a speed factor applied with respect to ride comfort and future increased speed.
For tilt equipment, the minimum vertical curve radius is calculated using an overspeed of 25%
Rv min tilt > 0.25 * V2
Germany1
The Deutsche Bahn (DB) has prescribed a 12.5 ‰ (1.25%) as the largest permissible gradient for mixed traffic main lines. On
commuter, secondary, and newly constructed high-speed lines, the maximum gradient is 40 ‰ (4%).
DB Vertical Curve Radii:
Rv rec min > 0.40 * V2 (Recommended minimum value)
Rv limit > 0.25 * V2 (Limit value)
Rv crest > 0.16 * V2 (Vertical curve radius on a crest permission required)
Rv sag > 0.13 * V2 (Vertical curve radius in a hallow or sag permission required)
Rv abs min > 2,000 m (Absolute minimum vertical curve radius permission required)
Table 17-3-2. Recommended Minimum Value for Vertical Curve Radius at 200 km/h
Vertical Curve Radius 200 km/h (approx. 125 mph)

Recommended minimum 16,000 m (52,493 feet)
Limit 10,000 m (32,808 feet)
Permission value on a crest 6,400 m (20,997 feet)
Permission value in a hallow or sag 5,200 m (17,060 feet)
1
See Reference 2

Taiwan
The Taiwan High Speed Rail Project specifies a desirable maximum grade of 2.5% with a maximum grade of 3.5%.
Based upon a limiting value of .20 m/s of vertical acceleration (av) taking into consideration ride comfort where there is a
possibility of a non-optimal track the effective vertical radius is as follows:
Vertical Curve Radius

Recommended minimum 19,000 m (62,336) at 200 km/h (approx. 125 mph)
Limit 25,000 m (82,020) at 350 km/h (approx. 217 mph)
Japan1
Data for the Central Japan Railway lists the maximum gradient and vertical curve radius as follows:
Tokaido Shinkansen Sango Shinkansen Tohoku-Joetsu

Shinkansen
Maximum gradient, ‰ 20 ‰ (2%) 15 ‰ (1.5%) 15 ‰ (1.5%)
Minimum Vertical Curve 10,000 m (32,808 feet) 15,000 m (49,212 feet) 15,000 m (49,212 feet)
Radius, m
1
3.5.8.6 Technical Specifications of Interoperability (TSI)2
According to the draft specifications of the TSI and the Committee for European Standardization (CEN) provisional standards,
gradients as steep as 35 ‰ (3.5 %) shall be allowed for main tracks during the design phase. This value applies to high-speed
lines dedicated to passenger traffic only; however exceptions have been made for France and Germany which have lines in 3
service using 40 ‰ (4 %) gradients. Other restrictions are applied for freight trains.
The vertical curve radius is designed using the following formula:
Rv = V2max / 12.96 * av > Rv, limit value

4
av = vertical acceleration taking into consideration ride comfort where there is a possibility of a non-optimal track bed in
(m/s2).
1
See Reference 2
2
See Reference 2

3.5.8.7 Limiting Values
3.5.8.7.1 Limiting Values of Vertical Acceleration, av
Table 17-3-3. Traffic Categories, Limiting Values of Vertical Acceleration, av
Vertical Mixed traffic lines Mixed traffic lines High-speed lines with
Acceleration designed for passenger with passenger trains dedicated passenger
trains V < 230 (km/h) traffic 200 < V < 300
200 < V < 300 (km/h) (km/h)
Recommended
limiting values (m/s2) 0.22 0.22 0.22
Maximum limiting 0.44 0.31 0.44
values (m/s2)
3.5.8.7.2 Limiting Values of Vertical Curve Radius, Rv
Table 17-3-4. Traffic Categories, Limiting Values of Vertical Curve Radius, Rv
Vertical Curve Mixed traffic lines Mixed traffic lines High-speed lines with
Radius designed for passenger with passenger trains dedicated passenger
trains V < 230 (km/h) traffic 200 < V < 300
200 < V < 300 (km/h) (km/h)
Recommended 0.35 V2 max 0.35 V2 max 0.35 V2 max
limiting values (m)
Maximum limiting 0.175 V2 max 0.25 V2 max 0.175 V2 max
values (m)
Possible vertical curve radii with limiting values according to the CEN provisional standards as presented below:
3.5.8.7.3 Example - Limiting Values on Vertical Curve Radius (sample at 200 km/h)
Table 17-3-5. Example - Limiting Values on Vertical Curve Radius (sample at 200 km/h)
Speed (km/h) 200 km/h (125 mph)

Vertical Curve Radius (m)
Recommended Value 14,100 m (46,260 feet)
Minimum value without tolerance 7,100 m (23,294 feet)
Minimum value on a crest 6,400 m (20,998 feet)
Minimum value in a hallow or sag 5,400 m (17,717 feet)
3.5.8.8 Practical Design of Profiles
The above elements of vertical curves and gradients are used in the design of an acceptable profile. For the design of main
lines it is typical to use the flattest (lowest gradient) profile that the topography and other physical and operational constraints
will permit, regardless of the intended operating speed. The maximum speeds desired will dictate the minimum lengths of
vertical curves and conversely, if the desired profile cannot be used, the lengths of vertical curves will limit maximum speeds.

Once the gradients and operating speeds are known, the minimum length of vertical curve can be calculated. Recognizing the
need for increased corridor speeds in the future, the ultimate length of vertical curve for the design maximum speed should be
analyzed. Wherever, possible, the longest vertical curve should be used. Main line vertical curve geometry should be reviewed
taking into account planned corridor operations. Care should be taken to avoid building future speed constraints by designing
vertical curves that are too short. Conversely, unnecessary expenditure to construct vertical curve that is longer than future
operations will require should also be avoided. In areas where there is a shared corridor (high speed rail and freight), the reader
should refer to AREMA Chapter 11, Section 3.5, Track and Roadway Considerations.
3.5.8.9 Vertical Geometry: Other Considerations
When reviewing and designing the vertical geometry, some additional factors should be considered:
• Turnouts, station platforms, bridges, and at-grade road crossings should not be placed in vertical curves.
• It is desirable to avoid placing vertical curves within the limits of horizontal curves.
• Undulating profiles consisting of many short vertical curves and tangents should be avoided. Frequently, such
profiles can be “improved” by using longer vertical curves to “smooth out” the profile.
• It is generally considered poor practice to design an erratic profile for the purposes of balancing earthwork or to “hit”
a series of existing elevations along the track.
• Vertical clearance to overpasses and other overhead structures must be considered. Future electrification may have to
be considered. It is recommended to allow 0.5 to 1.0 foot additional clearance to account for future track
maintenance.
1
3.5.8.10 Compensated Gradients
Train resistance increases on a curve, therefore a train on a grade that is on a horizontal tangent will encounter even greater
resistance when moving into a horizontal curve. In order to keep train resistance more uniform, the gradient can be slightly
reduced in the horizontal curve to account for increased resistance of the horizontal curve. This is known as “compensated 3
gradient”. As with other profile considerations, grade compensation may be critical and should be considered in areas of
mixed traffic (passenger and some freight operations). The reader should refer to AREMA Chapter 5, Section 3.7, for a
discussion of “Compensated Gradients”.
3.5.9 SIGNAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.5.10 GROUNDING
4
3.5.11.1 High-Speed Turnouts
3.5.11.1.1 General
3.5.11.1.1.1 Foreword
This recommended practice is based on the practices of North American railroads and may be used as a guideline for
the development of high-speed turnout specifications. Included are design options that will enable the purchaser to
develop specifications to meet its particular operations and conditions.
Two categories of turnouts may be installed in high-speed tracks;

(a) Turnouts in high-speed track where a high-speed diverging move is not a consideration. In this category,
AREMA designs or approved equivalent designs providing improved ride quality are accepted practices.
When impact forces acting on switches for industrial sidings or passing tracks are reduced, ride quality
improves and the need for maintenance is reduced. Alignment and ride quality can be improved through the
use of longer guard rails or improved guard rail design. The continuous wheel tread contact resulting from the
use of a movable point or spring frog provides added ride quality.
(b) The second category includes turnouts in high-speed track where diverging speeds exceed 60 mph. In this
case, increased diverging speed and improved ride quality are attainable through the use of tangential
geometry or other alternative geometries and movable point frog designs. The following recommended
practice addresses this higher diverging speed scenario.
Safety, ride quality, reduced maintenance, and longer life cycles are major factors that should be considered when
selecting a turnout design. Improved line capacity and train operations are potential benefits that also may result from
passenger trip time reductions.
The investment required for the procurement and installation of high-speed turnouts is substantial. The cost of
premium components such as the movable point frog increases the total cost of high-speed turnouts. When upgrading
existing lines, the total length of high-speed turnouts may increase the limits of interlockings, so the costs for
modifying existing signal and electric traction components must be considered. Longer switch rails and movable point
frogs require additional switch machines, electric detection, and signals circuitry. Concrete ties or premium wood ties
should be used for high-speed turnouts to ensure continuity of rail support.
High traffic density rail lines may require that turnouts be installed during off peak periods or weekends. Installation
time frames are of longer duration because of the greater amount of trackwork associated with the longer turnouts.
Track centers, availability of adjacent property for construction, and location of construction will affect the length of
time required for installation. Special material handling equipment has been utilized to remove existing and install the
new, longer high-speed turnouts. Panel systems delivered on special turnout carrying, flat cars enable off-site, partial
assembly thereby reducing track outage for the installation.
3.5.11.1.1.2 Design Criteria
a. General
High-speed turnout components and geometry are designed to provide for increased diverging passenger train speeds
and specified passenger comfort criteria. Turnout component design must be adequate to sustain the axle loads and
annual gross tonnage anticipated over the line, the forces imposed by high design speeds and should be durable enough
to minimize maintenance at a reasonable initial cost.
b. Design Speed
Generally, high-speed turnouts in these recommendations accommodate diverging speeds exceeding 60 miles per hour.
c. Passenger Comfort
(1) Lateral Acceleration:
Passenger comfort relates to vertical and horizontal car body accelerations adjusted according to human
perception values as specified in ISO 2631, Mechanical Vibration and Shock -Evaluation of Human Exposure to
Whole-body Vibration. Generally, lateral accelerations should fall within the range of 0.04g to 0.08g
corresponding to unbalanced superelevation of 2.5 to 4.75 inches respectively (where g is the acceleration due to
gravity). It should be noted that FRA approval is required for the use of underbalance greater than 4 inches.
(2) Wheel Impact:

High-speed turnout geometry aims at reductions in wheel impact especially at the point of switch. Tangential
geometry where the track center-line of the turnout is tangent to the center-line of the normal track, effectively
limits wheel impact forces. The closure curve should be designed in conjunction with an appropriate theoretical
turnout lead, such that the lateral acceleration remains within acceptable passenger comfort limits in the course of
normal wear/repair cycles.
With higher diverging speeds, the turnout radius must be increased to satisfy passenger comfort criteria and the
frog angle becomes smaller. This necessarily translates into long flange way gaps on the rail surface of the inner
running rail for rigid frog designs. For high-speed turnouts, movable point frogs provide continuity of the rail's
running surface to support the wheel tread. The movable frog point and wing rail interface should be designed
such that the lateral acceleration of a vehicle body is within acceptable passenger comfort limits.
3.5.11.1.2 Products
3.5.11.1.2.1 Rail
a. Stock rails, closure rails, and other turnout rails for high-speed turnouts should be new, fully heat treated or head
hardened rail. Rail sections recommended in the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering should be specified. Rails
should be produced in conformance with the latest issue of the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering,
Specifications for Steel Rails. Mill certification showing compliance with the specifications should be furnished at the
time of inspection. It should be the responsibility of the turnout supplier to verify rail hardness prior to commencing
machining.
b. Rails should be produced with a minimum Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) of 350 and a maximum as recommended
in the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 4 for premium rail.
1
c. Stock rails should be fabricated in conformance with the AREMA, Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, Plan No. 221, Detail
5100 point design. Where stock rails do not require bending, they should be interchangeable between right and left
hand turnouts.
d. Rail lengths on high-speed turnouts should be designed so that neither a joint nor a weld lies on a tie nor within 3 3
inches of the face of any tie.
e. Raised brands should be ground flush at joint bar locations.
f. Thermal restraint inserts should not be used in the base of rail.
3.5.11.1.2.2 Switch Rail 4

a. Switch rails may be fabricated from AREMA recommended rail sections or asymmetrical rail sections such as the UIC
60 derived Zu 1-60 or Zu 1-65A rail sections. Alternatively, the European 60D40 canted rail section may be
considered. The asymmetrical rail section enables the incorporation of resilient fasteners on the gauge side of the stock
rail. Switch rails should be produced in conformance with the latest issue of the AREMA, Manual for Railway
Engineering, Specifications for Steel Rails. The asymmetric switch rail should have a section compatible with that of
the section of the adjoining rail to which it will be welded.
b. Switch rails should be produced with a minimum Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) of 350 and a maximum as
recommended in the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 4 for premium rail.
c. The overall length of the switch rail must be as specified by the Engineer.
d. The switch rail should be machined in conformance with AREMA, Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, Plan No. 221, Detail
5100 point design with 1/4" riser, to suit undercut stock rail design. The top of the switch rail should be contoured to

the turnout rail section and cant specified by the Engineer. Wherever possible, switch rails should incorporate a radius
of approximately 5/8 inch throughout the machined gauge face.
e. In the switch area of the turnout switch machine connection and snow melter requirements must be accommodated.
f. The profile of the top of the switch point should be such that the point and the stock rail are of equal height where the
switch point thickness is one-half that of the stock rail head.
g. The heel of the switch rail must be forged to the rail section specified by the Engineer and welded to the adjoining rail.
After welding the switch rail, the forging, the weld and adjoining rail section efforts should be made to reharden the rail
as close as possible to its pre-weld hardness. Welds must be tested in accordance with the AREMA, Manual for
Railway Engineering.
h. Welds are not permitted in the flexible portion of the switch rail.
3.5.11.1.2.3 Frog
a. General
(1) Frogs used in high-speed diverging moves, should be of a movable point design.
(2) The movable point frog must be designed to carry the specified loads and permit frog point movements. Toe and
heel joint locations should be positioned midway between the center lines of adjacent ties.
(3) The body of the frog should be either cast manganese or fabricated from hardened rail steel. All running surfaces
of movable point frogs should be fabricated either of fully heat treated rail or of manganese steel sections.
(4) Movable point frog rail sections may be joined to adjoining rail with welds or mechanical joints. Welds must be
tested in accordance with the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
(5) In the movable point frog switch machine connection and snow melter requirements must be accommodated.
(6) Movable point frogs must have a minimum point throw distance designed for the applicable switch machine.
(7) Thermal restraint inserts must not be used in the base of rail.
b. Frog Body
(1) Cast Manganese
(a) Casting may be explosive depth hardened at the running wheel contact and impact surfaces. Hardness should
be a minimum 352 BHN conforming to the AREMA, Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, Specification for Special
Trackwork, with the exception that paragraph M2.7.5 should be modified as follows:
“casting failing to meet hardness requirements is not acceptable.”
(b) Should a hardness measurement fail to meet the specified requirements, two additional measurements must be
made, one on either side of the original impression about 1-inch distance and parallel with the gauge line. If
both follow-up measurements meet the requirement the original reading can be discarded and those two
readings recorded in its place.
(c) Cast frog bodies should be fully machined on the base side so that the running surface and the base are
parallel to within plus or minus 0.020 inches. Welding is not permitted on the running surface of a manganese
casting from gauge line to 3 inches from gauge line. Bolt holes for joining the casting to the running rails,

should be machined to standard AREMA tolerances for drilling. The fishing surface of the casting should be
fully machined to ensure satisfactory fit of the bonded joints with the adjacent running rails. The running
surface of the casting should be no higher than 0.010 inches above the adjacent running rail, as measured with
an 18-inch straight edge and feeler gauge.
(2) Fabricated Steel
(a) The base of a fabricated steel frog body should be such that the gap between the edge of the body of the frog
and the plate on which it sits, does not exceed 0.030 inches. If during fabrication heat treatment is removed
from the running surface of the body, heat treatment of this area must be repeated. Welds should not be
permitted on the fabricated body except where required to connect to adjacent running rails.
(b) The heel of the wing rail must be designed to deflect dragging equipment.
(c) The wing rails must be designed to allow for worn wheel treads.
c. Frog Point
(1) The frog point “V” should be manufactured from fully heat treated steel rail, cast manganese steel or forged steel.
(2) The two sections of the “V” may be joined by electro-slag welds or mechanical connections. Steel rail should
conform to the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering, Specifications for Steel Rails. Manganese steel
castings shall conform to the AREMA, Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, Specifications for Special Trackwork.
Brinell Hardness of the weld and heat-affected zone must be as close as possible to the pre-weld rail hardness.
1
(3) The frog point “V” should be welded to the adjoining rail and the weld must be fully ground. Welds must be tested
in accordance with the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering. Where required by design, low-impact
mechanical slip joints may be incorporated on the diverging side of the turnout.
(4) The point of the “V” must be suitably situated in the frog body to prevent wheel flanges from striking any part of
the frog point. A method must be incorporated into the frog point design to prevent the frog point from lifting 3
under load.
(5) Wherever possible, the point should incorporate a radius of approximately 5/8 inch throughout the machined
gauge face.
(6) Length variations due to the frog movements must be accommodated in the heel of the frog point “V” either
through flexing the steel or incorporation of a slip joint. No portion of the base of the frog point “V” should be cut 4
to lower the stiffness in the vertical axis. Variations in vertical section modulus may disturb smooth wheel running
or introduce stress risers.
(7) The front switch connection lug should be located to allow proper switch operation and obstruction test
compliance.
3.5.11.1.2.4 Guard Rail
a. High-speed turnouts with movable point frogs should be designed to operate without guard rails.
3.5.11.1.2.5 Rail Joints & Joint Bars
a. All joints should be field welded with the exception of bonded insulated joints. All field welds and bonded insulated
joints should be suspended.
b. All field welds must conform to the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering.

c. All bonded insulated joints must conform to the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering, Specifications for Bonded
Insulated Rail Joints.
d. The location of insulated rail joints are dictated by signal requirements and the train control system. Insulated rail joints
should not be located within the range of the movable switch rail.
3.5.11.1.2.6 Switch & Frog Plates & Fasteners
a. General
(1) All plates should be designed and fabricated or cast to suit the switch and frog components, the switch ties and the
rail base for the appropriate rail section. An elastic rail fastening system should be used on all turnout ties. Toe
load for elastic fasteners must be sufficient to provide longitudinal restraint and prevent rail roll-over.
(2) All plates should conform to the AREMA, Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, Specifications for Special Trackwork.
(3) Frog base plates and pads should be provided where required to protect the ties and for the integrity of the frog
assembly.
(4) In the design of turnout plates, efforts should be made to minimize the number of different plates used for each
turnout and also between different sized turnouts.
b. Switch Plates & Fasteners
(1) When asymmetrical switch rail sections are specified in the design, switch plates should be fabricated with a raised
chair design capable of incorporating a high capacity, elastic rail fastening system. Resistance to lateral forces and
overturning of the stock rail should be incorporated into the design of the switch plates. Stock rail clips should
have a toe load sufficient to provide longitudinal restraint and prevent rail roll-over. It should be possible for the
stock rail to be removed by rolling it out of the chair plates rather than sliding it out longitudinally.
(2) Switch plates throughout the switch rail area must be designed with the stock rail mounted at the design rail cant.
(3) Transition switch plates should be used to lower the 1/4 inch raised switch point rail with vertical transition
increments of 1/32 inch per plate in an area clear of rail joints.
(4) At the heel end of the switch rails the rails should rotate from vertical to the specified cant through the use of
transition plates. Heel plates should be manufactured in such a way that the same plate may be used on either right
or left hand turnouts.
c. Frog Plates & Fasteners
(1) When non-handed movable point frogs are specified in the design, frog plates should be oriented perpendicular to
the bisector of the frog and should allow the frog to be fully interchangeable between right and left hand turnouts.
Tie plates should not be used under the running rail adjacent to the frog.
(2) At the toe and heel of the frog provision should be made to transition the rails from vertical to the cant specified by
the Engineer.
(3) In the frog area where plates may not be required, rail shoulders should be incorporated into the tie.
d. Pads Under Turnout Plates:

(1) Elastomer pads should be used under turnout plates on concrete ties. The pad dimensions, hole diameters and
locations should be equal to the plates they are under. The pads must be permanently marked to identify
manufacturer, year manufactured, pad identification number and installation orientation if required by design.
(2) The secant static as well as the dynamic spring rates for pads under frog and switch plates should be specified to
provide a uniform track modulus in line with that of pads on adjoining ties. The spring rate for pads should be
determined by testing at least two samples in accordance with the AREMA, Manual for Railway Engineering
Chapter 30, Part 4.
(3) Pads should be produced in conformance with the AREMA M,anual for Railway Engineering Chapter 30, Article
4.2.5 Tie Pads (2003).
3.5.11.1.2.7 Switch & Frog Connections
a. Switch Connections
(1) The switch must be operated by a sufficient number of switch machines to throw the switch. Helper rods may be
used to supplement the throw requirements of the switch machines.
(2) A sufficient number of switch rods must be provided to ensure proper movement of the switch rails when the
switch is thrown.
(3) Switch rails must move satisfactorily with the specified number of machines and should be designed to comply
with 49CFR, Part 236, Rules, Standards, and Instructions Governing the Installation, Inspection, Maintenance, and
Repair of Signal and Train Control Systems, Devices, and Appliances.
1
(4) The switch rail should be web drilled for the application of a front-mounted detector and lock rod mounting
brackets.
(5) Switch rods should be designed for nominal throws specified by the Engineer and required for the switch machine
configuration. 3
b. Frog Connections
(1) General
(a) The switch must be operated by a sufficient number of switch machines to throw the frog point “V” and to
comply with 49CFR, Part 236, Rules, Standards, and Instructions Governing the Installation, Inspection, 4
Maintenance, and Repair of Signal and Train Control Systems, Devices, and Appliances.
(2) Operating Rods
(a) Operating rod connections should be designed to be as close as practical to the point detector, having taken
into account the required tie spacing to remain compatible with the switch machines.
(b) Movable point frogs should be designed to accommodate the installation of switch rods and insulated detector
rods in accordance with purchaser’s specifications. The frog point locking should be in the switch machine.
Frog point clamp locks are not acceptable.
3.5.11.1.2.8 Switch Ties
a. High-speed turnout ties should be prestressed concrete monoblock design with reinforcing strands to be located by
design. Alternatively, wood ties may be used if fabricated from a high-integrity species such as Azobe wood.

b. Concrete ties should conform to the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering Chapter 30, Part 4 Concrete Ties.
c. Wood switch ties should be designed to accommodate elastic rail fasteners, plates and plate fixation devices. Toe loads
on fasteners should be as recommended for concrete switch ties.
3.5.11.2 Turnouts for High Speed and Commuter Systems
Table 17-3-6 lists the Tangential Turnouts that are currently in use in High Speed and Commuter Rail Systems in the United
States. The design of these turnouts offers the advantage of increased operating speeds through the diverging routes and
improved ride quality. The highest diverging speed that is operated in the US is 80 MPH. The intial capital cost of these
installations is high compared to the cost of the standard AREMA Number 20 turnout, which is the most common higher speed
turnout in most commuter and passenger service.
Tangential turnouts are fabricated with asymmetrical switch rails sections, which enables the incorporation of resilient
fasteners on the gage side of the stock rails. Rigid frogs are used in Number 15 and 20 Tangential turnouts. Movable point
frogs can be used in all tangential turnouts and are required in turnouts above Number 20. Tangential designs have been used
in turnouts smaller than Number 15 in commuter terminals and on some transit systems. Speed is not a factor in these
installations.
Table 17-3-6. Tangential Turnouts
TURNOUT FROG LEAD PS/PITO FROG TPF/HEEL C.L. DIVERSION RAIL

NUMBER ANGLE LENGTH RADIUS SPEEDS MPH ROAD
15 3°49'06'’ 122.52’ 51.40’ 36.00’ 24.29’ 1622.17’ 30 AMTRAK
20 2°51’51” 170.30’ 76.14’ 44.17’ 29.75’ 3212.01’ 45 AMTRAK
20 2°51’51” 192.11’ 93.40’ 42.23’ 27.81’ 3937.26’ 60 MNRR
20 2°51’51” 171.97’ 76.96’ 34.17’ 21.05’ 3217.01’ 45 NJT
20 2°51’44.6” 187.26’ 95.72’ 60.47’ 27.81’ 3937.29’ 60 MNRR
25.47 2°14’54.5” 277.78’ 128.04’ 51.93’ 30.47’ 5577.43’ 65 MNRR
26.5 2°09’39.9” 276.36’ 153.90’ 76.00’ 55.08’ 8556.76’ 60/80 AMTRAK/NJT
26.5 2°09’40” 211’ 125’ 40.65’ 24.66’ 5347.00’ 60 LIRR
32.75 1°44’52.4” 299.73’ 145.42’ 72.00’ 47.65’ 10116.26’ 80 AMTRAK

LIRR/MNRR
20 2°51’51” 167.33’ 72.33’ 47.66’ 25.46’ 2250.00’ 50 CALTRAIN**
Note: ** CALTRAIN Turnout is not a Tangential design and has a standard switch point and a spring frog.
Design Criteria and more information on Tangential Turnouts is found in Chapter 17, Article 3.5.11.1.2.

17
Part 4
Facilities and Structural Considerations1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.2 Passenger Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3

4.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.2 Regulatory Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3 1
4.2.4 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.5 Site Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.6 Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.7 Mechanical Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.8 Finish Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3 3
4.2.9 Landscaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.2.10 Amenities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3 Multi-modal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3

4.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3.3 Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3.4 Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3.5 Baggage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.3.6 Amenities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-3
4.4 Yards and Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4

4.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.5 Environmental Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.6 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.7 Engine Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
1

4.4.8 Car Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4

4.4.9 Maintenance of Way Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.10 Layover Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.11 Material Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.12 Site Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.4.13 Utility Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.5 Bridges and Drainage Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.6 Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4
4.7 Tunnels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4-4

4.2.1 GENERAL
4.2.6 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
4.2.7 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
4.2.8 FINISH MATERIALS 1

4.2.9 LANDSCAPING
4.2.10 AMENITIES
4.2.11 PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE 3

4
4.3.1 GENERAL
4.3.3 CIRCULATION
4.3.4 PARKING
4.3.5 BAGGAGE
4.3.6 AMENITIES
4.3.7 PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE

4.4.1 GENERAL
4.4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
4.4.7 ENGINE SHOPS
4.4.8 CAR SHOPS
4.4.9 MAINTENANCE OF WAY SHOPS
4.4.10 LAYOVER YARDS
4.4.11 MATERIAL YARDS
4.4.13 UTILITY CONSIDERATIONS
SECTION 4.7 TUNNELS

17
Part 5
Vehicle Considerations1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.2.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-2
5.2.2 Interface Requirements (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-2 1
5.2.3 Modification to Service – Proven Technology (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-2
5.3 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-3

5.3.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-3
5.3.2 Design Criteria (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-3
5.3.3 General Description (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-3 3
5.3.4 Performance (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-4
5.3.5 Safety and System Assurance (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-6
5.4 Rolling Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-8

5.4.1 General Description (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-9
5.4.2 Trucks and Suspension (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-9
5.4.3 Current Collection and Primary Power System (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-9
5.4.4 Brakes (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-10
5.4.5 Train Control and Communication Systems (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-10
5.4.6 Car Body Exterior (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-10
5.4.7 Crashworthiness (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-10
5.4.8 Car Body Interior and Environment (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5-10
1

Parts 5 and 6 describe vehicle, control and propulsion system considerations that apply to high-speed rail operation in the
North American environment. While the success and commercial maturity of existing European and Japanese high-speed rail
technologies is recognized, certain modifications will be necessary to address North American operational practices and safety
requirements. This Section discusses the necessary modifications and features, together with references to other sections of
AREMA “Manual for Railway Engineering” where appropriate.
High-speed rail rolling stock and control systems must be compatible with their high-speed infrastructure. Rolling stock must
also be suitable for operation over existing rail lines at conventional speeds. Vehicle control and propulsion systems must be
compatible with the installed signal and communications systems on a route-specific basis.
5.2.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. While regulatory requirements for high-speed rail operations in North America continue to evolve, it is expected that
many of the current requirements regarding vehicle and control system designs will remain applicable. Areas that have
required modification or regulatory waiver for high-speed demonstration service in the U.S. have included car body
structural strength and crashworthiness, safety appliances, and hand brakes (or parking brake arrangements).
b. High-speed rail systems must be designed and implemented in accordance with federal and local regulatory and safety
requirements applicable to the project. The designs and systems may incorporate an incremental approach with
accommodation for intermediate speed ranges up to 125 mph (201 kph), use of non-electric/fossil fuel propulsion
systems, and inclusion of tilt-suspension systems.
5.2.2 INTERFACE REQUIREMENTS (1996)
a. High-speed rail operations involve a number of physical, operational, functional and electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) interfaces. Some are critical to system safety and all contribute to reliable system operation. Formal
identification and control of these interfaces is mandatory and should be addressed in the form of a dedicated system
integration effort.
b. For newly-built or otherwise dedicated high-speed trackage, control of vehicle-infrastructure interface requirements
can be based upon the technical specifications of the applicable proprietary technology. For existing trackage shared
with other “conventional” rail operations, additional care must be taken to ensure full compatibility of the high-speed
vehicles and operating systems with current or evolving track and control installations in a manner acceptable to all
user agencies.
5.2.3 MODIFICATION TO SERVICE – PROVEN TECHNOLOGY (1996)
a. Current European and Japanese high-speed systems have generated good records of performance and have been proven
in service. The application and proprietary details of these technologies vary in accordance with the railroad operating
practices and the physical and economic constraints of the home country.
b. Past history in the application of offshore rail technologies to the North American environment has indicated the need
to review and alter even service-proven designs in light of North American service requirements. Changes have been
made as necessary to accommodate the climatic, operating and maintenance environment and include car structural
strength, brake system capacity, and other safety and safety-assurance functions. It is likely that other existing high-
speed rail technologies would require similar modifications.

5.3.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. The purpose of this section is identification of issues and interfaces that should be addressed in development and
design of high-speed and very high-speed rail systems. The following comments apply to these systems defined as
specified in Article 6.3.1.2 by using the generic term “high-speed”. The articles will also cite other portions of this
Manual as well as additional standards issued by relevant authorities. While very high-speed rail operations are mature
technologies in other countries, they are relatively new in North America, particularly in the very high-speed range.
There is only one U.S. high-speed rail operation, along Amtrak’s Northeast Corridor, that is confined to an improved,
existing right-of-way and that uses the available infrastructure and systems. Consequently, a comprehensive body of
suitable North American technical standards does not exist. Some current requirements may be incompatible with
aspects of technologies under consideration, and the development of suitable standards is a desirable objective. The
foreign technologies have been developed, built and operated as systems encompassing all aspects of route geometry,
right-of-way, traction power, signal and communications, vehicles, shops, terminals, maintenance practices,
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), and operations.
b. Application of more advanced foreign systems standards to development of new services may involve adaptation for
North American operation. It may be preferable to modify or adopt such standards for new projects to ensure that
system integrity is maintained, since they are already compatible being directly evolved from relevant technology.
When high-speed systems are evaluated for application in North America, the underlying standards, operating
environment, and design criteria must also be considered as part of the technology transfer process.
5.3.2 DESIGN CRITERIA (1996) 1

a. Current AAR, AREMA and FRA standards and regulations should be investigated to identify applicable requirements.
The standard practices and safety codes established by engineering and technical governing bodies (e.g. ASME, IEEE,
NESC, etc.) are typically incorporated by reference rather than by quoting specific provisions. Applicable sections
should be identified and dated and divergences should be explicitly stated. These codes and recommended practices
normally comprise a portion of design requirements. Local, state or regional codes and requirements should also be
reviewed for relevant items appropriate to the system. These may address localized effects of the system, such as noise,
3
speed, safety, aesthetics, vibration, land use, accessibility and service. The California General Public Utilities Code
(GPUC) is typical of this type of code and establishes requirements for electric traction railroads and signaling
systems. Governing jurisdictions may also identify unique requirements for high-speed rail systems such as earthquake
or wind/weather provisions.
b. If foreign technologies are selected, then the associated design criteria should be reviewed, adapted for the planned 4
application and incorporated in the procurement documents. Other design criteria will describe system parameters,
equipment, and component characteristics that define the technical features and resulting performance. It is beyond the
scope of this Manual to specify the extent and detail of these requirements.
5.3.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION (1996)
a. The system technology, route location and service characteristics should be evaluated to determine the applicability of
Federal regulations. These will have significant impacts on the design standards and safety features that have to be
incorporated. Examples are buff strength requirements, track standards and signaling standards, which are applicable
to all US railroads that serve interchange traffic. An exclusive right-of-way dedicated to high-speed passenger traffic to
be operated within a single state or province, or by a specially constituted authority, may permit more latitude for
selection of suitable design requirements. This evaluation will have significant implications for cost, safety and
liability considerations borne by the operator, especially for train movements beyond exclusive right-of-way.
b. The sections below discuss aspects of high-speed rail systems and vehicles and are not intended to be a design
specification. They focus on high-speed and very high-speed rail as defined in Article 6.3.1.2.

5.3.4 PERFORMANCE (1996)
Performance is assumed to fall into a range of 110 mph (177 kph) or higher, within the specified speed ranges, and also
includes acceleration, braking, and curving response. Active or passive suspension or tilt systems may be used but may not be
essential to achieving or maintaining this level of performance.
5.3.4.1 Characteristics
Vehicle consists may be comprised of locomotive hauled individual cars, unit trainsets, or multiple unit configurations.
Standard coupling or articulated trucks can be used, and axles/wheelsets are likely to have steerable or radial capabilities,
provided via linkages or suspension components. Axle loads should not exceed acceptable high-speed rail industry limits in
current use. Disc brakes appear to be the most suitable for friction braking, however, dynamic braking should be a primary
system with blending capabilities. The unsprung weight of the vehicle should be minimized. Propulsion systems can be
electric traction power supplied by a catenary system or with interim on-board generation by gas turbine, diesel or other fossil
fuel. However, a catenary based system is the most practical approach for the foreseeable future since the state-of-the art offers
many performance, operational and economic advantages for future upgrading above 125 mph (201 kph).
5.3.4.2 Performance Requirements
Acceleration rates and brake rates should achieve the maximum levels permitted by passenger comfort and safety. Jerk
limiting systems controlling external acceleration effects and wheel slip/slide control should be provided. Top speed is 110
mph (177 kph) or higher, with sufficient power for acceleration up to the top speed.
5.3.4.3 Operations and Controls
Load shedding control should be provided to limit current draw and maintain traction system voltage stability. Electro-
pneumatic braking controls will maintain an even brake rate on all cars. The control console, ergonomic factors and cab layout
will be established by the vehicle manufacturer in accordance with Federal regulations and should incorporate comment by
vehicle operators. Operation at higher speeds has a significant effect on stopping distances, sight distances, power
requirements, and control system response times. Operator and vehicle control topics are discussed in Section 6.3, Signals
Systems.
5.3.4.4 Compatibility
a. The traction power, signal and communications system, infrastructure, vehicles, terminals, facilities and operating
practices should be internally compatible and be designed as parts of a system to ensure coordination of all elements
and components, and the nature of the operation dictates compatibility issues. While it is preferable to provide high-
speed service on a dedicated right-of-way with specifically designed systems, other combinations of equipment and
service are possible. However, the broader the range of service, equipment and travel speeds, the more complex the
issue of compatibility becomes. Safety for passengers, employees, equipment and operations becomes an increasingly
complex consideration as speeds and service mixtures are varied.
b. The design should also be responsive to owner/operator service and economic objectives. This could include number
of tracks, station locations, track configuration, speeds, frequency of service, parking, stopping patterns, interlockings,
etc. Intermodal or other connecting transfer facilities must be suitable for each type of vehicle or system and adequate
for the anticipated passenger volume and peaking characteristics.
5.3.4.5 Passenger Environment
a. The passenger environment is also addressed in sections relating to rail vehicles and passenger facilities. Passenger
comfort, safety, amenities, and accessibility topics are detailed under specific requirements and headings. The primary
consideration is provision of systems, vehicles and infrastructure to support and facilitate compliance with these
requirements while enhancing the passenger environment. Passenger environment should be viewed from an all-
inclusive perspective (portal-to-portal), from entrance to a system facility, whether by car, on public transportation or

on foot, to departure from the system. The station and passenger facilities and services should equal or exceed airline
standards of service and be commensurate with the service quality and cost. The passenger environment should remain
relatively consistent with respect to temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure whether in a station, tunnel or on
a moving or stopped vehicle.
b. Vehicle crashworthiness should be considered for both passengers and employees. This characteristic will influence the
vehicle structural design, interior layout and choice of materials. Passenger cars should be joined with a fully enclosed
weatherproof passageway between cars and all vehicles should be equipped with anti-climbers, collision posts, and
appropriate draft gear. It may be useful to consider the presence of hazards to rolling stock along the right-of-way in the
event of a derailment or train separation. Access for emergency vehicles onto and along the right-of-way should be
incorporated in the right-of-way design. Route alignment and geometry will have a significant impact on passenger
comfort because of its effect on speed and forces which the passenger experiences. Therefore coordination is essential
between the civil aspects of the route and equipment behavior and tolerance for changes in route alignment, grade or
curvature. Track maintenance standards should also be considered by designers since deviations from system designs
will have a significant impact on passenger comfort, noise and ride quality, and wear and tear of the vehicle suspension
and unsprung components. Designers of vehicles and right-of-way must consider the trip time and the duration of
exposure to noise levels, centrifugal forces, vertical and lateral acceleration and jerk rates, and vibrations in relation to
passenger comfort. The use of spiral transitions, superelevation and other features should contribute to maintaining
passenger comfort levels. Additionally, the tolerance limits for right-of-way parameters should be easily maintained
using standard maintenance equipment.
5.3.4.6 Environmental Impact
a. The operation of the vehicle, its systems, and facilities should be designed to prevent damage to the environment and
protect against potential hazards. Such features could include containment or countermeasures for accidental release of
1
undesirable fluids or substances, and strategically placed materials and equipment for response to emergencies. Any
new project will be the subject of an environmental impact assessment. This assessment should include the offsetting
benefits of the system if, for example, automobile and airline trips are reduced. Furthermore, the no-build impact on
the environment needs to be analyzed, since it might result in increased auto travel, different commercial growth, or
new airport construction. Construction of the system will normally be covered by applicable requirements to protect or
restore adjacent disturbed sites, habitats and bodies of water, etc. 3
b. No substances or effects that are significantly harmful to human, animal or plant life should be produced or expelled.
The potential effects of natural disasters such as earthquakes or extreme weather in causing secondary damage should
not be overlooked. This should apply both within the confines of the vehicle and in its operating right-of-way and
facilities and to employees, passengers and the general public.
c. Environmental considerations should include impacts on the air, water, and soil. Effects can be the result of normal 4
operation or be caused by abnormal incidents and can include combustion, spillage, chemical reaction, heat, cold,
wind, electrical conductivity or magnetic energy. Other less significant effects such as interference with radio,
television (cable or airwave), telephone (hardwire or cellular) and utility services should be considered. The tendency
for utility pipes, casing, and conductors which cross or run parallel to the route to conduct or attract electrical energy or
provide a path for spilled fluids should not be overlooked.
d. If the trains are electrically powered via utility lines, substations and a traction power distribution system (e.g.
catenary), all effluents and pollutants can be controlled at the point of power generation by the generating authority.
This may be preferable and more effective than multiple local or individual controls. However, the transportation
system owner should endeavor to incorporate regenerative braking technology to minimize the demand for energy.
Operational practices or technologies to smooth out demand peaks should be encouraged. Renewable energy sources
should be considered for power supply to remote field facilities or to supply battery chargers where feasible.

5.3.5 SAFETY AND SYSTEM ASSURANCE (1996)
The primary objectives of safety and system assurance are to provide a high degree of protection and reliability and minimize
downtime during maintenance and malfunctions. Quantitative goals/requirements should be specified for system elements
where applicable. In addition to the quantitative goals to be met, requirements may be defined for a reliability program plan,
specific analyses, prediction, and reliability demonstrations, depending on available field experience data for system elements
from railroad industry sources.
5.3.5.1 Reliability Program and Submittals
a. Manufacturers of system equipment should establish, submit for approval, and maintain a Reliability Program and
Plan, including:
• A detailed listing and description of each task.
• The timing of each task and related milestones.
• The organizational element responsible for each task.
• Identification of reliability problems requiring resolution.
• Procedures for recording reliability problem resolution.
b. Contractors for the Rail Vehicle, Train Control, Signaling, Traction Power and Communications Systems should be
required to prepare Reliability Analyses and submit them for system coordination and approval.
5.3.5.2 Reliability Requirements
Contract documents should require the achievement and demonstration of reliability both by analysis and demonstration
testing. Systems contractors should be required to develop and obtain approval of Reliability Demonstration Test Plans. New
vehicle types should be subjected to a planned qualification test program at the Transportation Technology Center, Pueblo,
Colorado or at an equivalent facility. Warranty provisions can be included in all civil and system contracts, to assure that costs
of replacing and repairing defective materials and components are clearly the responsibility of the contractor. In addition to
general warranties, which cover a time period from start up of operations, acceptance or delivery of a facility or piece of
equipment, additional time warranties can be included in the vehicle contract. In addition to warranties included for specified
time periods, additional warranty requirements relating to the maximum failure rates on particular components can be
imposed.
5.3.5.3 System Maintainability
Each system element and its constituent equipment should be designed to permit ready access for maintenance. Maintenance
personnel should have access for performance of maintenance functions, including failure location and isolation, disassembly
and reassembly, repair/replacement as well as routine inspection/testing. Quantitative and qualitative maintainability goals
should be specified for system elements where applicable.
5.3.5.3.1 Maintainability Program
a. Manufacturers of the system equipment should be required to establish, submit for approval, and maintain a
Maintainability Program and Plan, which should include:
• A detailed listing and description of each task.
• The timing of each task and related milestones.

• The organizational element responsible for each task.
• Identification of maintainability problems requiring resolution.
• Procedures for recording maintainability problem resolution.
b. Quantitative and qualitative maintainability requirements should be established, as appropriate, and should be
incorporated into the appropriate contract documents. Maintainability should be analyzed during design, production,
and testing of the equipment to evaluate the degree of achievement of maintainability design requirements.
5.3.5.3.2 Maintenance Concepts
A detailed Maintenance Concept should be developed and submitted by each system equipment contractor for approval. The
maintenance concept should include a description of how the contractor intends to achieve maintenance requirements
identified in contract documents.
5.3.5.3.3 Maintenance Analysis
A Maintenance Analysis should be developed and submitted by each system equipment contractor for approval. The analysis
should describe all the maintenance tasks that operating authority personnel may be required to perform on the equipment.
5.3.5.3.4 Maintenance Manuals
Maintenance department employees should be provided with detailed instructions that cover the servicing and repair of all
system components. All suppliers and contractors should be required to submit maintenance manuals for approval that contain
1
all the information needed to service, maintain, repair, inspect, adjust, troubleshoot, replace, and overhaul each component or
subsystem.
5.3.5.3.5 Training
Maintenance personnel should undergo a comprehensive training program for maintaining all system elements. The training 3
should be sufficient for, and compatible with, system start up requirements, and should provide a level of education and ability
to ensure the competent maintenance of the high-speed rail system and associated equipment.
5.3.5.4 System Safety
There should be a management policy that safety be the primary consideration throughout the evolution of a system, from
preliminary engineering through revenue operations. To fulfill the obligation of this policy, all applicable codes and 4
regulations, technology and industry standards, should be used to ensure that each system achieves a level of safety that equals
or exceeds that of the passenger railroad industry. Safety can be achieved during the preliminary engineering and final design
phases by eliminating, minimizing, or controlling hazards through analysis, review and design selection. This includes
provisions for emergencies such as an emergency communications network, on-site emergency equipment, access by
emergency forces, and emergency preparedness planning in general.
5.3.5.4.1 Safety Program
The objectives of the safety program should be overall elimination or control of hazards and assurance that no single point
failure or undetected latent failure in combination with any additional failure would result in a hazard. A resulting acceptable
level of risk and full compliance with FRA safety regulations should be achieved. The system should include health and safety
provisions for maintenance and operational personnel that are equal to or exceed the requirements of state, province or
regional Occupational Safety and Health regulations, and any Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), U.S.
Department of Labor, and Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements.

5.3.5.4.2 System Safety – Basis of Design Approach

Prior to preparation of specifications and design development, a Failure Modes Effects Analysis or Functional Hazard
Analysis should be prepared to analyze the loss or malfunction of each system function and categorize its affect on the system,
personnel, passengers and general public.
5.3.5.5 Human Factors
a. The objective of a human-factors program is to ensure compatibility between the physical and functional system design
features and the human element during operation, maintenance and support of the system. This objective should be
accomplished by applying human-engineering criteria to the design of the equipment. This effort is supported by
design studies, operator-task analyses, maintenance-task analyses, and test programs to assess the inherent human-
factors characteristics of the system. The primary measurement of human factors is expressed in terms of safety and
cost (staffing) and system effectiveness (the influence on system availability, dependability, and capability).
b. The human-engineering characteristics of a system directly influence the mean time between maintenance (MTBM)
and mean down time (MDT) quantitative factors of maintainability. As an example, if human error in operation of the
system induces a failure, MTBM will be affected. Or, if maintenance tasks are difficult for the technician to perform,
then MDT will be affected. In this regard, human-engineering and maintainability-design features combine to aid in
establishing the operational-availability characteristics of the system. The two disciplines are also related in a number
of other respects, as follows:
• Maintainability and maintenance-analysis reports form the baseline for generation of maintenance-task analyses.
• Manpower-requirement reports are considered in making maintenance policy decisions.
• Defined skill-level needs aid in establishing training requirements.
• Environmental needs are considered in facilities planning (lighting, heating, etc.).
• The content of maintenance instructions is made consistent with the abilities and needs of the system personnel.
• Maintainability and human-engineering design features reflect on one another.
c. Human-factors program requirements often result in generation of a system analysis, operator and maintenance-task
analyses, personnel-requirements data, and training/instructional aids planning information. Certain aspects of such
data analysis should parallel the maintenance analysis, specifically from the standpoint of facilities, maintenance tasks,
personnel assignment and skill levels, and training requirements. In some instances, depending on organizational
interests and available manpower, it may be feasible to cover these areas on a joint basis. In any event, the
maintainability engineer should maintain full cognizance of available human-factors data when completing the
maintenance analysis.
SECTION 5.4 ROLLING STOCK
a. High-speed rail systems have been under development in various parts of the world since the 1960’s. These systems
have evolved over the years to the greatest maturity in France, Germany and Japan, with more recent development in
Sweden, Italy and Spain. The rolling stock for these systems have varying characteristics which are specific for
operation in their respective countries. Each system has been designed to meet specific requirements including unique
infrastructure and subsystem characteristics to which the rolling stock must conform. In addition, each rolling stock
supplier has developed its own proprietary technology to satisfy those requirements.

b. North American conditions will present an additional set of design requirements as compared with the European and
Japanese experience. Climatic conditions may be more severe, maintenance regimens may be less intensive, and
regulatory requirements are likely to be more stringent. Lessons learned in the successful design of conventional North
American rolling stock should be carefully applied in modifying existing proprietary designs for North American
service.
c. This Section is concerned only with a brief review of the parameters required for a systems approach to high-speed
rolling stock design. Because its design must be undertaken as one part of a high-speed rail system, it is most important
to identify the specific interfaces of the rolling stock to other parts of the system.
a. The design of any high-speed rail service must be undertaken from a systems standpoint, where the rolling stock is
merely one of a number of major components of the total system. To this point, rolling stock, track, catenary, traction
power supply, and signal and train control systems must be designed to function together to ensure successful
operation.
b. Because of the proprietary nature of the various successful foreign high-speed trains, this Section of the Manual will
not attempt to address all of the various features of train design that must be accommodated, but rather will merely cite
the necessary interfaces between the rolling stock and its operating environment. The manner in which each of these
interfaces is addressed is worthy of detailed consideration in subsequent development of the entire system design;
however, only a brief description of each interface is given in these guidelines.
1
5.4.2 TRUCKS AND SUSPENSION (1996)
a. High quality track, with very tight maintenance tolerances, has been developed for all of the successful high-speed rail
systems constructed to date. Equally important is the interface between the rolling stock and the track. Trucks, wheels,
and suspension parameters should be addressed in a manner that allows them to function at their optimum as required 3
by the track interface. A thorough investigation of track/train dynamics should be undertaken to assure that ride quality
and safety of the vehicles are maintained. In particular, appropriate design tradeoffs are necessary in balancing high-
speed stability requirements with truck curving and wheel load equalization requirements, and with operation on lower
class tracks in terminal and yard areas.
b. Further in this regard, if high-speed service utilizing existing rights-of-way is undertaken on an incremental basis, the
use of tilt-body equipment may be desirable. Tilt-body vehicles must be carefully designed to be fail-safe and to move 4
the car bodies to offset the effects of high cant deficiencies in a smooth, safe and predictable manner while maintaining
passenger comfort levels.
5.4.3 CURRENT COLLECTION AND PRIMARY POWER SYSTEM (1996)
a. High-speed current collection by means of pantographs presents a serious design issue. Catenary/pantograph dynamic
conditions must be carefully addressed to ensure the minimum interruption in contact continuity as well as to avoid
undue stress and dynamic input to the flexible catenary system. Aerodynamics and power collection capability are
extremely important aspects of pantograph design. Operation of a train with more than one pantograph raised at the
same time has been found to excite the catenary excessively, thereby causing excessive loss of contact, especially if the
pantographs are not at opposite ends of the train.
b. The development of the traction power supply must account for the power requirements of a number of trains operating
on the same circuit at the same time. Regenerative braking can be used to augment the power supply system but care
must be exercised to optimize line receptivity when incorporating this function.

5.4.4 BRAKES (1996)
The ultimate safety of any high-speed rail system will be dependent on the effectiveness and reliability of the vehicle braking
system. Braking must match the characteristics of the right-of-way and the signal and control system, as well as provide
comfortable deceleration. In most cases, this will require a primary dynamic brake, either regenerative or rheostatic,
supplemented by friction braking with discs. Wheel tread friction braking, if used, should be minimized to preserve the
integrity of the wheels and avoid overheating. Under some circumstances, foreign high-speed rail networks have allowed the
use of magnetic track brakes; this is an interface with the track system that should be carefully designed and considered before
its implementation. Eddy current electric braking is also a possibility that is becoming more feasible with advances in the
technology.
5.4.5 TRAIN CONTROL AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS (1996)
The train interface with the signal system is clearly of critical importance to operating safety, In this regard, stopping distances
must be ensured for the worst-case braking conditions. In addition, the security and integrity of the signal system must be
protected from the influence of electromagnetic interference and transients arising from the vehicles’ propulsion systems.
Many new signal systems utilize solid state devices that require special attention to preclude difficulties of this type,
particularly with modern traction systems utilizing inverter drive propulsion.
5.4.6 CAR BODY EXTERIOR (1996)
Other significant issues that must be addressed in the design of the rolling stock include environmental concerns such as noise
and sound levels, both to the interior of the equipment as well as external wayside noise, which could disturb the public.
Aerodynamic noise from car bodies and pantographs, as well as wheel/rail noise, may require special abatement procedures
for very high-speed operation.
5.4.7 CRASHWORTHINESS (1996)
In contrast to conventional North American rolling stock design, where car body buff strength has been a predominant
concern, high-speed rolling stock design focuses on maximizing the crashworthiness of vehicle car bodies through use of
energy absorption techniques. Designs for crash energy management providing vehicle crush zones or zones of increasing
strength have been applied. In addition, the interior of vehicles requires special treatment to preclude injuries from secondary
collisions of passengers with other interior objects in the event of a serious accident. Other wayside interfaces dealing with
safety are addressed in Section 6.3, Signals Systems.
5.4.8 CAR BODY INTERIOR AND ENVIRONMENT (1996)
a. A very important interface of the vehicles is with the passengers themselves. To this end, the design of the vehicles
must provide for a good ride in a comfortable environment. Simple as this concept seems, there may be considerable
difficulty in optimizing these two major features. Good ride quality is primarily dependent on the proper design of the
suspension and car body tilting system (if used) and their interface to the track. But, in addition, the passenger seating
must be properly addressed to optimize the interface with the passengers.
b. The HVAC system is another important passenger interface. Temperature and humidity control must be carefully
addressed to ensure a comfortable environment for the specific climate conditions encountered by the service. The car
body ventilation and fresh air provisions may require special attention. Depending on speed and certain wayside
characteristics, special consideration may be necessary in the vehicle HVAC system design to accommodate the
pressure changes of fast moving vehicles as they enter and leave tunnels or pass other trains or structures. Some foreign
high-speed vehicles have addressed this concern by sealing the train to preclude the development of rapid pressure
changes inside the train. However if this is done, it should be addressed in the early stages of the vehicle design. In
some cases, the design of the tunnel can be such as to avoid the development of pressures in excess of those acceptable
to passengers and crew.

c. Finally, with respect to car body interior features, the Americans with Disability Act of 1990 (ADA) has imposed
specific requirements on all rail equipment built for use in the United States. In this regard, there may be design
features of foreign high-speed trains that will not be acceptable in this country. Some of the more significant features to
be addressed in the design of the car body include the placement of hand rails and provision of turning areas and
clearances for wheelchairs and other mobility devices, particularly in doorways and aisles. The provision of wheelchair
parking spaces and special facilities for their access to the cars, as well as to other features within the train such as good
layout of service areas and toilets, is required.


17
Part 6
Considerations1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.3 Signals Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-2

6.3.1 General Definitions and Objective (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-2
6.3.2 Automatic Train Control (ATC) System (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-4
6.3.3 Control System – Propulsion System Electromagnetic Compatibility (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-6 3
6.3.4 Interlocking System (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-6
6.3.5 Communications (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-7
6.3.6 Hazard Detection and Surveillance (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-9

6.5.1 Electric Traction Power (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6-14
1

SECTION 6.3 SIGNALS SYSTEMS
For a set of applicable terminology and associated definitions refer to:
• AREMA Communications and Signals Manual Section 1.
• Appendix A – Glossary, Safety of HSGT Systems, State-of-the-Art and Assessment of Safety Verification and
Validation Methodologies. Report # DOT-VNTSC-FRA-95-8.I.
6.3.1 GENERAL DEFINITIONS AND OBJECTIVE (1996)
a. The objective of this Section is to provide a general overview of signal control systems and to highlight the signal
control system requirements for high and very high-speed train operation. The regulations and recommendations for
train control provided in 49 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 236, the AREMA Communications and Signals Manual,
or in expected future regulations provide a basis for all signal control systems.
b. The objective of a train control system is to control the movement of trains from point of origin to final destination in a
safe and efficient manner. The operation of trains at very high-speeds requires a control system that, at the minimum,
continuously informs the operator of the allowable safe speed and that applies the train’s brakes if the operator fails to
comply.
6.3.1.1 Available Technology
The train control system can vary from a simple installation where information is made available to train operators via wayside
signals (to assist them in the decision making process in the control of the movement of their trains) to a completely automated
system in which manual involvement in the normal movement of the trains is unnecessary. The level of safety and efficiency
achieved will depend on, among other things, personnel selection and training, human/equipment interface design, operational
and emergency response procedures, and traffic density, in concert with the level of automation implemented.
6.3.1.2 Current/Proposed Requirements
a. The signal and control requirements are established based on the operating environment and speed range of the trains.
Different signal and/or control systems can be used for different sections of the rail transportation network, as long as
the maximum train speed in a section of the network is limited to be consistent with the signal and control system in
effect and with the specific train’s onboard control system. Refer to FRA Regulation 49 CFR Part 236, and to Safety of
High Speed Guided Ground Transportation Systems – Collision Avoidance and Accident Survivability – Volume 4:
Proposed Specifications – Part 3.6.2 – Signal and Train Control, Report # DOT-VNTSC-FRA-93.2.IV, for additional
information.
b. Wayside equipment capable of supporting moderate, high and very high-speed operational ranges can be used to allow
the control of trains in these three speed ranges as a function of the train’s onboard control system. Thus, trains
equipped to operate at moderate, high or very high-speeds can be operated over the same territory depending on a
complete risk analysis of the specific mix of freight, passenger and/or speed parameters. Obviously very high-speed

trains following closely behind moderate speed trains will not be able to take advantage of their total capabilities. In
such an operation the maximum authorized speed limit will be restricted to the moderate speed range speed limit,
unless the train control system positively determines that it is safe to permit correctly equipped and properly
functioning high and very high-speed trains to operate at higher speeds.
c. In general:
(1) Low speed range (0–59 mph [0–95 kph]) train movements are permitted under manual control with verbal
instructions or train orders from an operations control center or dispatcher. All trains operating in territory that has
no signaling system are restricted to this speed range regardless of their onboard train control capabilities.
(2) Moderate speed range (60–79 mph [97–127 kph]) train movements are permitted under manual control, using line
side signals. Automatic means of detecting the position of the train on the track structure are used to activate
restrictive line side signals for other trains. At junctions, interlocking systems prevent setting or changing switches
or signals to a position that would permit conflicting train movements.
(3) High-speed range (80–125 mph [129–201 kph]) train movements are permitted under the requirements stated for
the moderate speed range except that a cab signal system is required but lineside signals are not required
(operation from 80 to 110 mph [129–177 kph] is allowed with automatic cab signal, automatic train stop or
automatic train control). This added system must provide cab signals, provide an audible warning whenever the
cab signal indication changes to a more restrictive condition, remove propulsion and apply the brakes if the
operator does not acknowledge the more restrictive cab signal indication within a preset time. An automatic train
protection system as described for the very high-speed range below is highly recommended for trains operating in
the high-speed range.
1
(4) Very high-speed range (above 125 mph [201 kph]) train movements require an automatic train protection (ATP)
system. The ATP system continuously compares the actual train speed to the maximum permitted speed, taking
into account speed limits for the individual train, temporary or permanent speed limits imposed because of track
structure conditions, train control instructions and train braking capability. The ATP system must provide positive
enforcement of all civil and operational speed limits. If the actual speed exceeds the permitted speed by more than
9 mph (15 kph), automatic propulsion removal and brake application must be initiated to reduce speed to a level at 3
or below the permitted speed before manual operation can be resumed. The train operator must not be able to
override the automatic removal of propulsion and brake application in any way that would allow the train to
operate at a speed exceeding the maximum permitted safe speed by more than 9 mph (15 kph).
NOTE: These definitions do not supersede any established speed definitions existing in applicable operating or
maintenance rule books, Federal or State regulations, guidelines or recommended practices. Thus for
high-speed and very high-speed rail operations all trains must, as a minimum, be protected by a fail-safe 4
control system, i.e. component or subsystem failures always result in the system reverting to a known
safe state. The minimum system shall include fail-safe route control and locking, in-cab display of
current maximum safe operating speed, current actual speed and overspeed warning, and overspeed
protection. If potentially unsafe situations, such as train overspeed, should develop and the operator does
not take proper action, the system must automatically enforce safe operation.
6.3.1.3 Vital Subsystems
A minimum system requires vital subsystems incorporating system components that are highly reliable, have a minimum
number of known failure modes, and have been designed as a system to ensure safe train movement. Vital subsystems are
functionally responsible for train detection, speed limit determination, route interlocking, and overspeed protection (including
actual speed measurement, overspeed determination, and train brake control). These subsystems must be highly reliable, fault
tolerant (exhibit low down time) and ultimately be fail-safe.

6.3.1.4 Nonvital Subsystems
There are a number of nonvital subsystems available for train control, which are not necessary for safe train control but are
useful in improving the efficiency of the system’s operation. They may include diagnostic functions, route control (automatic
or remote), train speed regulation, automatic station stopping, scheduling, dispatching, management information (e.g. on time
performance, operating statistics, etc.), communications systems, system status display (central control), etc. These
subsystems are included to improve the train control system and to provide information to a central control operator for use in
determining the best way to provide required services to the passengers. These systems do not need to be fail-safe. They must
be implemented in such a way that their functions (or lack of functioning) do not interfere with those of the vital subsystems.
6.3.2 AUTOMATIC TRAIN CONTROL (ATC) SYSTEM (1996)
An ATC system may be comprised of Automatic Train Protection (ATP), Automatic Train Operation (ATO), and Automatic
Train Supervision (ATS) functions. ATP provides protection for passengers, personnel and equipment from accidents due to
unsafe train operations. ATO controls basic operations that would otherwise be performed by an operator and does so within
the safe operating limits imposed by the ATP. ATS is the link between the central control operator and the system. It provides
system status and provides means for the central control operator to monitor and initiate control requests for specific
operations such as route alignment and schedule changes.
6.3.2.1 Automatic Train Protection (ATP)
a. The ATP function provides for safe operation. Safety shall be maintained under all circumstances, including any
combinations of wayside power on or off, train power on or off, and all possible conditions of automatic operation.
Under any of the above conditions or combinations of conditions where the ATP is inoperable or overridden,
emergency and procedural means shall be invoked by operating personnel to assure safety of continuing operation.
b. The ATP system must provide protection to prevent personal injuries to passengers and personnel, and prevent physical
damage to equipment or the appurtenant facilities within its area of control. Safety is of paramount importance. The
system must be safe not only when all elements are operating normally as intended, but also when malfunctions occur.
In order to maintain safe conditions when malfunctions occur, the system must be designed to be fail-safe. Acceptable
means of verification and validation of software, firmware and hardware must be employed for all vital systems and
subsystems to assure their fail-safe capabilities.
c. The ATP system includes as a minimum the vital subsystems listed in Article 6.3.1.3. For high-speed and very high-
speed passenger movements, the following provides a general description of their vital subsystem requirements.
6.3.2.1.1 Train Detection
a. A train detection subsystem that determines the physical location of all trains is required. Any error between the actual
train location and the detection subsystem’s determination of its location, under normal operating characteristics or due
to failure conditions, must result in safe train operation. This subsystem will interface with the subsystems used to
determine safe maximum speed limits and safe route control.
b. The train detection subsystem should provide broken rail detection as an integral part of its operation or a separate
subsystem/detection methodology should be used to ensure that broken rails are identified and train protection against
this hazard is achieved.
6.3.2.1.2 Route Interlocking
The route interlocking system will interface with the train location and speed limit determination subsystems. It will ensure
that train movements will be permitted only when they do not conflict with other train movements and are in accordance with
the switch settings. This system will also ensure that switch settings and routes cannot be altered unless it is safe to do so by

properly implementing the concepts of approach/time locking, route locking, and detector locking as needed. For further
definition of these concepts refer to Article 6.3.4.
6.3.2.1.3 Speed Limit Determination
The determination of the maximum safe speed for a train at any point within the system is a function of the location and route
of trains in its path, the status of switches in its path, the civil speed limits in its path (curves, stations, switches, etc.), the
horizontal/vertical inclination of the tracks (grade affects the braking performance of the train), and the train’s braking
characteristics (including reaction times, worst case failure modes and safety factors). Therefore, this subsystem requires
wayside (infrastructure) information, train location information and train characteristic information. In all cases (normal
operation and for all failure modes) this subsystem must determine the actual maximum safe speed limit or a speed limit that is
lower. This system must also have the ability to enforce temporary restricted maximum speed limits for track sections. These
restrictions may be necessary due to track work or temporary conditions that make the normal maximum speed unacceptable.
6.3.2.1.4 Overspeed Protection
a. The overspeed protection function should provide absolute speed enforcement, ensuring that speed of the train never
exceeds the safe speed limit. The overspeed protection subsystem includes speed measuring devices that furnish
signals that are a measure of the train’s actual speed. If actual speed is below the maximum safe speed limit for the
current section of track, then braking is not initiated by the subsystem.
b. In a high-speed system, if the actual speed exceeds the safe speed limit, the operator should be given an audible
warning. If the operator fails to acknowledge within a preestablished time limit (1 to 3 seconds), the overspeed
protection system should remove the signal that allows propulsion to be applied and holds the brakes off, causing
propulsion to be removed and brakes to be applied. It should be possible either to reapply the brake hold off signal and
1
allow the operator to resume control once the actual speed is below the maximum safe speed, or the system can be
configured such that the train will be brought to a complete stop by the overspeed protection equipment and only then
will it allow the operator to reset the system and resume control.
c. In a very high-speed system, if actual speed exceeds the current safe speed limit, the ATP system should automatically
remove the brake hold off signal which removes propulsion and applies the brakes. The vehicle operator cannot 3
override the automatic brake application under any circumstances if the actual speed is greater than the speed limit.
6.3.2.2 Automatic Train Operation (ATO)
ATO functions may be included as options in the train control system to improve system efficiencies. These functions
automatically perform operations normally completed by the operator in accordance with prescribed operating criteria but
within the safety limits imposed by the ATP subsystem. 4
6.3.2.2.1 Motion Control
The motion control portion of the ATO subsystem is responsible for starting, stopping and controlling the train’s operating
speed such that acceleration, deceleration and jerk are within acceptable passenger comfort levels and the maximum speed is
below the safe speed limit established by the ATP subsystem.
6.3.2.2.2 Station Stop
The station stop portion of the ATO subsystem is responsible for bringing a train to a controlled stop at the correct location
within the station platform limits.
6.3.2.2.3 Passenger Information Control
The passenger information control portion is capable of interfacing with equipment to provide audio and visual information to
passengers. This information may be onboard the train and/or in station areas. The information to be displayed may include

train route or destination, next station, arrival time, station being entered, train departing, train departure time, transfer
information, special messages, etc. The exact messages to be displayed and the method of displaying these messages will be
established by specific system application and the current applicable regulations (e.g. ADA). Audio messages may be in the
form of prerecorded or preprogrammed messages triggered by the control system at the correct time.
6.3.2.3 Automatic Train Supervision (ATS)
a. The ATS subsystem monitors and assists in the management of the overall operation of the system. The ATS is not
essential to continuing automatic system operations by ATO and ATP once they are initiated. ATS provides the link
between the central control operator and the high-speed rail system. The ATS system provides information to the
operator describing the status of the tracks and trains on a real time basis. This information allows the operator to
assess conditions throughout the system and to take appropriate actions. The operator may issue commands to initiate
and terminate system operations, override selected automatic commands and perform other system management
functions subject to the constraints imposed by the ATP system. No action or lack of action by the central control
operator nor any malfunction of the ATS system may cause an unsafe condition or otherwise subvert or compromise
the functions of the ATP system.
b. The system requirements during emergency situations should be considered in planning, design and implementation of
the central control/ATS system. Depending on the role that the ATS system performs in the total system’s operation,
contingency plans, backup operating procedures and/or backup systems should be included.
c. Descriptions of all the possible ATS functions is beyond the scope of this section, but ATS may include functions such
as: status and performance monitoring, performance control (reduce system operating speeds and acceleration rates to
conserve power/fuel), train tracking, data logging, headway and schedule management, train routing, train dispatching,
passenger information control, fire and security alarm monitoring, malfunction reporting, etc.
6.3.3 CONTROL SYSTEM – PROPULSION SYSTEM ELECTROMAGNETIC

COMPATIBILITY (1996)
Modern electric propulsion, electric generation and inverter equipment, especially that which employs solid state power
switching devices, has been shown to generate energy in the frequency ranges used by signaling systems. Although the energy
levels of these potentially interfering signals are a small percentage of the power handling capabilities of the generation
equipment, they are significant when referenced to signaling equipment sensitivity levels. In the worst case, such
electromagnetic interference may compromise the safety of signaling systems. Proper systems engineering practice, including
frequency allocation and immunity filtering, should be applied to ensure system safety and compatibility.
6.3.4 INTERLOCKING SYSTEM (1996)
a. An interlocking system is employed to facilitate and safeguard the movement of trains at terminals and junction points.
It is defined as: “An arrangement of signals and signal appliances so interconnected that their movements must succeed
each other in proper sequence and for which interlocking rules are in effect. It may be operated manually or
automatically.” See the AREMA Communications and Signals Manual, Part 1.1.1, 1991, Page 29. The interlocking
system must protect against the track switch machine from unlocking and/or moving the track switch:
• When permission is being displayed (via cab signal or wayside signal) to allow a train to proceed over the switch.
• For a predetermined time after permission to proceed has been removed and a stop has been displayed with a train
occupying the track section in approach of the switch.
• When a train is passing over the switch.
b. Route locking or signal indication locking is the part of the locking that prevents the changing of the switch position
once permission to proceed has been displayed. Approach locking or time locking is the part of the locking that

prevents the switch from being moved for a predetermined time after the permission to proceed has been replaced by a
stop signal. The predetermined time is established to be long enough to ensure that any approaching train will have
come to a complete stop (and not be within the interlocking) before the locking is released. Detector locking is the part
of the locking that prevents the switch from being moved when a train is passing over the switch. The rules and
recommendations for the application of interlockings is included in FRA regulations 49 CFR Part 236 Subpart C and in
AREMA Communications and Signals Manual, Parts 2.2.10 and 2.2.12.
Several types of communication systems should be considered when installing or implementing a high-speed rail system.
Some are essential for operations and control, others can be added later to enhance passenger services or upgrade from a basic
control system. If there is any thought given to enhanced passenger services, such as direct broadcast of radio or television
programs to trains, then the communications infrastructure initially installed should have the basics for such additional
communications implanted so that upgrading is easily done by adding terminals or modules without the need for a separate
communications link.
6.3.5.1 Essential Communications
a. Digital and voice radio can connect the wayside stations to moving trains. For dispatcher to train crew
communications, this can be a voice link or a digital voice system. A digital data link is needed for transmitting data
between control centers and the train. The link from the moving train to the wayside is via radio, but the link from the
control center to the nearest wayside radio station can be via fiber optic cable, microwave or even UHF or VHF base
radio station segments. The fiber optic cable provides a good solution for high capacity including allowance for future
expansion, and has immunity to electromagnetic fields created by electrified lines. 1
b. Inductive communications technology is often used to transmit data from track to train via beacons, “wiggly wires,”
inductors or transponders. Even coded track circuits in the rails can transmit signaling data, speed commands, etc., to
the train cab. Other systems that do not use coded track circuits can use digital radio links from the wayside to a train
equipped with an onboard computer to handle the control function.
6.3.5.2 Onboard Communications 3

a. Onboard the train, voice radio may be advisable with portable handsets for crew member communications. Some
suitable location on the train, such as a dining car or other mid-train position, should be equipped with a conductor’s
station including a 30 to 50 watt output radio to facilitate contact with the control center or local dispatcher. The
conductor’s station radio transceiver would be powerful enough to reach a wayside radio base station, which a handset
normally could not reach because of its limited power (often less than 1 watt).
4
b. Additionally, a public address system incorporating a backup power supply is essential on the train to keep passengers
informed of the train’s progress and to provide service and station announcements. This PA system often has a built-in
intercom so that train crew members and service personnel can communicate with each other. Visual station
announcement signs and other visual signs are required by new federal regulations for aiding disabled passengers.
6.3.5.3 Emergency Communications
a. During an emergency when the train is not operating under normal conditions, communications is of extreme necessity.
Certainly, battery-powered handheld radio sets or intercom systems will be most useful, but standby power sources or
batteries should be provided for the 30 to 50 watt radio to enable train crew members to contact a control center and
local emergency services. There should be good, clear, prearranged interference-free, reliable communications to local
fire and police departments along the high-speed train route to ensure quick response to emergency situations by means
of predetermined access points along the right-of-way. The radio communications load should be considered when
sizing battery power for cars and locomotives.

b. From a communications standpoint, high-speed rail will require a “smart” communications infrastructure to handle all
the communications needs. Computers may play a key role in the communications facilities and can be provided to
handle numerous functions.
6.3.5.4 Wayside and Onboard Defect Detection
a. Present communications links between trains and wayside detectors, such as hotbox, hot wheel, cracked or broken
wheel and dragging equipment detectors should be used on high-speed rail lines. Detector actuation by trains could
provide voice/data transmission of detection results to engine and train crews. “No defect found” should also be
transmitted so crews know it is safe to continue the journey. This information is usually also sent to a control center
when a defect is found. Additionally, some railroads find it helpful for maintenance purposes for all hotbox detector
readings to be sent to central control, especially when defects are alarmed.
b. Locomotive system status monitoring is an important feature of high-speed motive power. Thus, data collected during
operations could be downloaded via a radio link or via a hardwire connection after arrival at terminals. If problems
develop enroute, alarms could be transmitted to a control center and to the locomotive engineer. Here again, a digital
data link should have sufficient capacity to transmit data to and from trains.
6.3.5.5 Enhanced Passenger Communications
a. In addition to the communications systems previously discussed, enhanced passenger services may require additional
facilities. A few are listed below:
• Public telephone service with phone booths at convenient locations or phone sets at each seat, which may need a
separate train-to-wayside communications link.
• Radio or television reception would require a train-to-wayside interface; TV screens could be placed in seat backs
for convenient viewing and radio earphone connections could be provided at each seat.
• Provision of a communications interface could permit the computer user to reach out to the “outside world” from the
train. Also, electrical outlets could be provided at selected seats to conserve lap top computer battery power.
• Facsimile transmission to/from the high-speed train could be considered, requiring a communications link and a
facsimile machine.
b. As technologies in personal computing and telecommunications fields are subject to constant change and rapid
evolution, it is important that vehicles and stations be designed to readily accommodate improved computer and
communications systems. The basic railroad system designs should provide sufficient capacity (in terms of space,
electrical power, conduit runs, etc.) to support technology retrofits that will naturally occur over their service lives.
6.3.5.6 Connecting with External Services
An important aspect of communications for high-speed rail is interface with public services, including facilities such as
medical and police departments. Also important is communications capability for ticket orders and reservations, etc., including
hotel and motels reservations and car rentals. High-speed rail passengers could be provided with reservation facilities for a
complete trip.
6.3.5.7 Communications: A Phased-In Process
The communications infrastructure need not be installed initially to get a high-speed rail system up and running. It can be
phased in, often on a modular basis, but one should consider what a complete system providing all the passenger
enhancements might do to help market the service to the public. With this expanded system in mind, a basic system can be
installed with enough capacity to handle added communications requirements without replacing the installed system. One
should note that where high-speed rail can be applied to an existing railroad, the basic system of communications for train

operations might be in place, but it may not be cost-effective to retain such a system unless capacity enhancement is already
provided.
6.3.6 HAZARD DETECTION AND SURVEILLANCE (1996)
This discussion outlines the various means of hazard detection and surveillance that have been employed on conventional rail
systems as well as on existing high-speed systems. The potential need for new or more elaborate devices to protect against
hazards not previously addressed on existing systems is also noted. Specifically not included in this discussion are the signal
and train control systems that provide the first line of safety for any rail system. It is assumed, however, that specialized
detection and surveillance devices will utilize signal and control systems to annunciate hazards or to activate the preventive
measures necessary to preclude accidents. In addition, no attempt is made to discuss highway grade crossing warning systems,
and it is generally agreed that the presence of highway grade crossings is incompatible with high-speed rail operations at
speeds over 110 mph (177 kph).
a. Hazards that may develop into potentially unsafe conditions are separated into two categories, based on their location:
1) onboard and 2) wayside. Onboard hazards have been, until recently, most often detected by wayside sensors that
“watch” the train as it passes certain locations. Recent developments with automatic sensors and microprocessor
control systems permit the condition or health of vehicles to be monitored onboard the train and thus provide real-time
continuous observation and timely detection of potentially hazardous conditions. Wayside hazards, however, are most
practically detected by sensors at the most likely locations of the potential hazard. Hazard detection and surveillance
systems may also be characterized by their placement in onboard or wayside locations. Onboard detection systems are
intended to detect hazardous conditions developing on the train, while various specialized wayside devices have been 1
developed to detect both onboard (e.g. hotbox, dragging equipment) and wayside (e.g. floods, slides) faults or
hazardous conditions. Note that train control systems typically provide broken rail detection through use of track
circuits.
b. It is anticipated that developing North American high-speed rail systems will operate at conventional speeds on certain
segments of existing freight and passenger trackage to gain access to urban areas. At other times, the high-speed trains
may operate at higher speeds on routes shared with commuter, conventional passenger and freight trains. In either case, 3
it is expected that a basic level of protection would be provided by conventional wayside detection devices and
vehicle-borne detectors. High-speed rail technology has proven to rank extremely high in terms of operational safety,
and the risk of accident on routes devoted exclusively to high-speed rail systems (operating on dedicated rights-of-
way) may actually be lower than for other types of rail passenger service. But the risk of accident is dependent on
traffic density among other things, and high-speed rail equipment operating on the same track or shared rights-of-way
with other types of traffic could experience an increase in that risk. In addition, the consequences or severity of
accidents will clearly increase with speed. 4
c. The purpose of the wayside and vehicle-borne detectors on high-speed rail systems is to further reduce the risk of
accidents in recognition of the potential for an increase in their severity. Therefore, existing systems should be
supplemented as necessary by additional devices designed to detect specific types of high-speed vehicle failures. In
addition, because of the potential for more serious accidents at high-speed, the threshold for the application of
detection systems may have to be lowered in certain cases. The details and operational functions of the various systems
are not discussed herein, but rather a general description of the hazards and some of the usual and/or most likely means
of detection is offered.
6.3.6.2 Onboard Detection and Surveillance Systems
At conventional speeds, the detection of some on-vehicle conditions can be accomplished by wayside detection, but as the
speed of operation increases there is a need for more frequent monitoring, and continuous onboard detection may be necessary
to protect against vehicle malfunctions and minimize human error.

6.3.6.2.1 Operator Alertness
The most basic operator alertness (“dead-man”) device applies the brakes if a spring-loaded pedal or handle is released. It can
be easily defeated by the operator. More recent use of movement or function detecting devices are less problematic, but still
can be defeated so that they fail to detect abnormal operation or unsafe conditions. Improvement of the reliability and certainty
of function of these devices is necessary to ensure they are impossible to defeat. In most cases, complete speed supervision is
warranted including control of both traffic responsive (signal) and civil speed restrictions.
6.3.6.2.2 Hot Journal
Although some high-speed systems have found wayside detection adequate for their level of journal inspection and
maintenance, wayside detection may be less suitable for high-speed operation because it is intermittent. Continuous onboard
detection of each journal bearing with temperature sensors, with wayside detection systems as a support system may be more
desirable. The onboard system may have one or two trip levels – “warning” and “danger” – with the indication transmitted to
the train’s operating compartment where the operator can take the action prescribed by rules. It may also be appropriate to
monitor the rate of change of bearing temperature. Local car odor or visual indicators will not be suitable.
6.3.6.2.3 Hot Wheel
No existing onboard system has been used for this hazard, which would most commonly be associated with tread brakes.
Some extension of the hot journal detection system or application of a second similar system would appear possible. Another
possibility is the development of a stuck brake detector for both disc and tread friction brake systems.
6.3.6.2.4 Derailment Detection
Development of systems that sense the degradation of ride quality or truck performance has been suggested as an index to
incipient derailment. Ride quality detectors that monitor vertical and lateral acceleration are sometimes used to establish
maintenance cycles for trucks and wheels and to ensure that truck hunting is detected quickly. Other possible parameters for
detection include broken or deflated springs, and differences in wheel speed. Such devices have been subject of experiments
but some have not yet been fully or reliably developed for derailment detection applications.
6.3.6.2.5 Pantograph Condition
Although not yet in use or deemed necessary in North America, some means of sensing the potential failure of a high-speed
train’s pantographs may become necessary to avoid a total failure. The pantograph/catenary interface is very delicate and
failures are usually catastrophic to the overhead catenary system and can also cause significant damage to vehicles.
6.3.6.2.6 Doors
a. Passenger carrying vehicles must have a door control system that prevents train movement if doors are open while the
train is stopped and that stops train movement if doors become unlocked or open while it is moving slowly. Such
protection is usually provided by “zero-speed” detection and “propulsion-inhibit” circuitry along with sensors to detect
the position and lock condition of each individual door. Door control circuits and mechanisms must make door opening
impossible above “zero” (+ some tolerance) speed.
b. Door control systems should be equipped with obstruction detection and automatic reopening features to protect
passengers against entrapment if any doors are prevented from fully closing. Systems should also be equipped with
bypass functions to permit train movement under prescribed rules in the event of a sensor failure or other fault in the
door safety circuitry.
c. Emergency door operation must be possible without operating power so that entry/egress can be made in emergency
situations. Apparatus for emergency manual door operation should be clearly marked and provided on both the interior
and exterior of vehicles, together with instructions as to how and when emergency door opening is to be initiated. The
entire door system should be subject to a detailed safety analysis.

6.3.6.2.7 Pressure Sealing
There is a possible need for on-vehicle detectors to sense the degradation of internal vehicle pressure if the trains are sealed or
carry positive pressure in a manner similar to aircraft cabins. This is a matter of both safety and comfort for passengers and
crew with regard to the effects of pressure waves generated by passing trains and operation through tunnels.
6.3.6.2.8 Fire
a. Protection against fire is a key element of system safety, and fire in a moving train is a major hazard to passengers,
made worse by high-speed. Vehicle-borne fire and smoke detectors should be provided to provide prompt annunciation
of unsafe conditions to passengers and personnel, since safety is of prime importance. In addition, dedicated fire
suppression systems with automatic initiation should be considered in areas where high temperatures or high voltages
are normally present in locomotives, without requirement for any crew involvement.
b. Fire detectors and suppression devices should also be provided in other appropriate areas and controlled as determined
by a comprehensive system safety analysis. In particular, careful consideration should be given to how and where
conditions are annunciated to operating personnel, to the protocols for activation of fire suppression systems, and to
procedures for passenger evacuation including avoidance of train-stops at locations where evacuation may not be
feasible. The HVAC systems in affected and adjoining vehicles should be immediately shut down to prevent mixing of
smoke and fumes with fresh air.
c. All vehicles should be built utilizing fire-resistant materials, which will not produce toxic fumes or smoke, and should
have readily accessible fire extinguishers.
6.3.6.3 Wayside Detection and Surveillance Devices

1
A number of wayside hazard detection devices have been developed in various parts of the world for both high-speed and
conventional passenger, and freight routes. These devices are not used universally but have been developed for and applied to
detect specific types of hazards.
6.3.6.3.1 Broken Rail or Guideway Integrity 3

Both conventional and audio-frequency railway track circuits provide detection of broken rail conditions through the signal
system. The track circuit is interrupted when the circuit is opened by a break in a rail. Both types of track circuits have
limitations in their ability to detect broken rail conditions due to current leakage through ballast, joint bars, tie plates,
incomplete breaks and similar circumstances.
6.3.6.3.2 Hot Journal 4

a. For conventional North American railroad practice, protection against hot journals and the hazards of derailment due to
journal failure is provided by wayside “hotbox” detectors. Detector spacing is determined by individual railroad policy
and the speed of operation. Spacing is typically on the order of 15 to 20 miles (24 to 32 km). Detector placement is
intended to protect interlockings, bridges, and other high-value facilities.
b. The use of wayside “hotbox” detectors on high-speed rail routes can be considered to supplement the protection
provided by onboard hot journal systems, particularly near stations, interlockings, and in other limited speed territory.
It is expected that complete reliance on wayside “hotbox” systems for high-speed routes will not be economically or
technically feasible, due to the high density of installations required to provide a suitable level of protection as well as
potential difficulty with the speed of detection.
6.3.6.3.3 Wheel Impact Load Detector

Eccentric wheels or flat spots can cause impact loads that threaten the integrity of concrete ties and other track material in
addition to accelerating the fatigue of bearings, axles and other truck components. Ride quality and wayside and interior noise

levels are also adversely affected. Wheel Impact Load Detectors (“WILD”) utilize wayside sensor installations to detect
impacts (above a predetermined threshold) to the track for defects such as out-of-round wheels. This type of detector has been
installed by railroads using concrete ties or slab track construction at locations such as tunnels or bridges. Such devices would
be useful for screening rolling stock prior to its entry into high-speed territory.
6.3.6.3.4 Dragging Equipment
Dragging equipment detectors have heretofore been placed at wayside locations to detect vehicle-borne apparatus or parts that
have become disengaged and hang below the level of the top of rail. These devices are placed on the track in advance of
interlockings or switches where equipment dragging from the train could pose the threat of derailment. These devices should
continue in use on high-speed systems but should be more closely spaced to provide more frequent sampling.
6.3.6.3.5 Over Dimension (High-and-Wide)
Many railroads have developed reliable and generally simple photoelectric cell-activated high-and-wide detectors for freight
routes to detect lading or car equipment that has shifted out of the clearance envelope. While such devices would not be
generally necessary for high-speed rail services on routes where the train makeups are of known and consistent size and cross
section, it is possible that devices of this type could be used at junction points to protect high-speed routes from over-
dimension cars and lading which might at times use them as detours from the normal freight routing, and at other selected
locations where the high-speed right-of-way is shared with freight trains. The clearances of the high-speed route might be
more prohibitive in these cases than on the normal dedicated route or shared rights-of-way.
6.3.6.3.6 Earthslide
Slide detection fences have been used historically to protect the right-of-way in areas where avalanche, rock fall or other loose
earth hazards could encroach on the right-of-way. Such fences are usually connected into the signal system in a manner that
will drop all approaching signals to “stop” on either side of the condition when debris falls against the fence and causes the
activation of electrical contacts.
6.3.6.3.7 Washouts
Areas subjected to frequent or historic conditions of high or rapidly moving water, such as flash floods, may be provided with
detection devices to sense the rise or velocity of water in or near culverts which may be inadequate to carry the total storm
runoff. The right-of-way may be washed away or flooded in such cases and significant damage could occur. When such
conditions are imminent, wash out protection devices would provide sufficient warning to stop all nearby trains.
6.3.6.3.8 High Water
Similar in nature to washout protection is the high water detection device, which detects the rate-of-rise and absolute level of
water around particularly vulnerable locations such as bridge piers, embankments, levees and culverts, which could face
inundation by rapid storm runoff conditions. Conventional rain gages could also be utilized to provide early warning of
impending high water conditions. Some railroad operators routinely utilize private weather forecasting services to provide
real-time notification of localized but severe weather conditions which might affect operations.
6.3.6.3.9 Earthquake
Seismometers have been used in Japan to detect earth movement and shocks near the Shinkansen lines. These are site-specific
applications of special seismometers, which are connected into the signal system and the central traffic control office to
provide early detection of earth movement and shock in order to stop trains as soon as such problems are noted. Freight
railroads in the western U.S. also monitor earthquake-sensitive locations, although not so directly, by utilizing the services of
professional seismology laboratories to keep them advised of earthquake related conditions.

6.3.6.3.10 Wind
Anemometers to measure wind velocity and direction could be set to trigger when conditions reach predetermined levels
considered hazardous to the movement of trains or to the catenary. Conditions or areas where local vegetation or debris
accumulations could be blown into the right-of-way should also be considered for such devices.
6.3.6.3.11 Snow
In the northern sections of the Japanese Shinkansen lines, snow detectors have been installed to annunciate the onset of snow
fall and to measure its rate of fall which, along with prevailing and forecast temperature and wind conditions, can be used to
predict the accumulation. In such cases, the operation of automatic or remotely controlled snow removal apparatus (i.e. water
sprays and heaters for melting snow) can be initiated at all track switches and other appropriate locations.
6.3.6.3.12 Bridge and Guideway Alignment
Protection of bridges and guideway is most important, particularly where high water or earth movement is possible, or where
structures are vulnerable to collision from highway vehicles or marine shipping. The development of optical devices to verify
proper alignment of selected critical guideway members could be useful in providing for early detection of misalignment.
6.3.6.3.13 Catenary Tension and Position
The application of a catenary tension detection system is suggested to alert a control center or to provide a local indication of a
degradation of catenary tension. A system to detect or sense physical displacement beyond allowable limits would seem to be
technically feasible with doppler or optical techniques. Such conditions may occur through either structural failure or by the
catenary’s failure to properly adjust to temperature changes. Catenary tension and position, together with pantograph
1
performance, is one of the most delicate of the vehicle-to-wayside interfaces.
6.3.6.3.14 Fire
Smoke or fire detectors are most frequently used in congested areas or on wooden trestles, snow sheds, bridges or near other
track-side structures where train movement would likely be endangered by fire. These detectors take the form of smoke, heat, 3
and/or toxic fume sensors which may be used to alert authorities or control signals, fans, or sprinkler systems, etc. The need
for use of fire detection devices is site specific. Logical candidates for high-speed rail applications include station areas,
electrical equipment rooms, control facilities and other areas where passengers, personnel or high value equipment are present.
6.3.6.3.15 Train Presence or Movement Detection
The use of presence detectors is usually associated with track circuits and the signal system to detect the occupation of tracks 4
in specific areas. Movement detectors may also be used to show motion and direction of movement.
6.3.6.3.16 Tunnel Protection
Particular attention should be given to tunnels, where the hazards of derailment or accident are amplified by the confined
quarters and the impeded access for evacuation. Response to concerns of this type requires well lighted walkways and the
proper ventilation of the tunnel throughout its length, the detection of abnormal pressure conditions and particular attention to
the potential for abnormal temperature, smoke, fire and fumes. In addition, of course, there is a need to detect tunnel lining
material which may loosen and fall to the track from the sidewalls or ceiling. Further, dependent on climatic conditions, it may
be necessary to monitor moisture and temperature conditions to predict the formation of stalactites, stalagmites and other ice
formations. Attention to some of these hazards in tunnel design can minimize their risk. Various types of detection devices
would be needed to provide these types of protection, however, all are within the realm of existing technology.

6.3.6.3.17 Intrusion Detection
a. In addition to the normal hazards expected through the operation of trains and the general degradation and wear and
tear of the right-of-way, a high-speed rail system is also more vulnerable to intrusion into its right-of-way by vehicles,
other foreign objects, and persons, and must be more carefully protected. Particular consideration should be given to
fencing - especially in densely populated areas and perhaps for the entire length of the right-of-way. Guideway fencing
will also protect against wildlife, trespassers, and vandalism. Many existing high-speed rights-of-way are walled or
fenced for their entire length to prohibit intrusion of this type. In addition such fencing will at least deter the migration
– either deliberate or accidental – of other foreign material such as rock fragments and discarded residential or
industrial items onto the right-of-way. Such fencing might also be equipped with a means to detect tampering or
climbing, which should be connected to the central control office that would be responsible for initiating appropriate
action.
b. Areas of particular concern for intrusion to the high-speed rail right-of-way are locations where the high-speed rail line
passes under a highway or other type of structure. For the French TGV system in such areas, it has become necessary
to provide special vertical fencing or barriers (depending on the level of risk) to prevent automobiles and debris from
dropping or being thrown by vandals to the track from the bridges. At some locations, horizontal fencing is installed
over the catenary and track and interlocked with the train control system to detect intrusion. Special intrusion attention
of this type could be confined to specific vulnerable areas of the high-speed rail route (cuts and tunnels etc.). The
adjacent tracks of other carriers should also be considered for high-speed systems utilizing common rights-of-way with
other networks. However, it is difficult to predict where hazards of this type might take place and, recognizing the
likely consequences of such intrusion, it may be prudent to fence or otherwise protect the entire right-of-way.
c. Occasionally it may be necessary to provide crosswalks across the high-speed right-of-way for maintenance workers
and other staff. In such cases there will be a need for some sort of signal system for pedestrians to permit safe
crossings. The TGV line has such a system which annunciates the approach of trains with a red crossing signal light
when there is less than 30 seconds of time to negotiate the crossing.
6.3.6.3.18 Grade Crossings
For the purposes of this Section, it is recommended that highway grade crossings in high-speed territory be completely
eliminated. However, where highway grade crossings cannot be eliminated and in densely populated areas where the high-
speed trains may be traveling at more conventional speeds, special attention will be necessary. Discussion of grade crossing
safety issues is beyond the scope of this Section.
6.5.1 ELECTRIC TRACTION POWER (2004)
The information and guidance provided with respect to Electric Traction Power aspects of High-Speed Rail Systems is
supplementary to information given in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization. A section cross reference is given in each
instance where the existing guidelines are relevant also to high-speed rail applications.

6.5.1.1 General
When high-speed rail service is electrified, electric traction power is comprised of power supply from utility companies to
substations with power distribution by means of an overhead catenary system. High-speed rail systems may be dedicated to
high-speed train services, which then requires that the system design of electric traction power be totally specific to those
services.
6.5.1.2 Traction Power System (1996)
The general outline of the power supply system is similar to that of other electrified railroads, with transmission lines feeding
into dedicated substations, usually railroad-owned, as discussed in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization.
6.5.1.2.1 Lines to be Wired
All tracks of electrified high-speed routes should be electrified for train operation purposes. Where high-speed trains run on
other routes for access to passenger terminals, to maintenance facilities or for through running purposes, only assigned tracks
and alternates need be considered for electrification. Route/track diagrams can be used to verify the choice of operating
scenarios with all affected departmental personnel of the railroads involved.
6.5.1.2.2 Performance to be Achieved
The electric traction power demand for high-speed trains is considerably higher than that for other types of passenger trains,
due to the higher speed and to the longer sustained acceleration required. It is recommended that all or most substations have
two transformers, providing sufficient capacity in reserve to enable all conceivable power demands to be met with only one
transformer in service. The use of dual transformers, dual power supply sources and dual busbars provides a high level of
1
redundancy and ensures that the probability of total loss of supply is extremely small.
6.5.1.2.3 Traction Power Systems
a. In addition to reliable operation and performance of substation equipment discussed above, it is important that the
utility company power supply maintain a very high level of reliability. There should be two separate sources of 3
incoming power supply, preferably direct from major high voltage supply grid circuits with proven high availability
ratings.
b. The safe electrical operation of the traction power system requires safety standards for insulator creepage paths, air
clearances and electrical switching arrangements. The switching and feeding subassemblies should provide for fault
detection and protection relay operation, including zone relays, that can distinguish between heavy load currents and
fault currents, and can attain virtually instantaneous disconnection of electrical supply when a fault condition occurs. 4
Full information and details are provided in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization.
6.5.1.2.4 Sectioning Diagram
a. The full extent of the catenary system and associated substation, switching station and paralleling station locations
should be shown on an electrical sectioning diagram. The catenary system should include sufficient sectioning to
facilitate isolation of electrical faults to individually controlled sections of the operational track system. Starting with
the normal feeding configuration, a number of disconnect switches are used to energize all catenary sections with all
normal and alternate feeding scenarios.
b. Some disconnect switches may need to be included for abnormal situations such as the temporary loss of power supply
from a substation or main feeding point, or the inadvertent stranding of a train at a phase break. Disconnect switches
for these situations are normally open and would only be closed when the abnormal situation occurs, after appropriate
adjustment from the normal arrangements. Additional information concerning the principles and normal sectionalizing
practices recommended for use are provided in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization.

6.5.1.2.5 Substation Feeding and Supply Locations
The selection of substation locations is an iterative process involving a number of factors which sometimes conflict with each
other. The nature of the high-speed rail route or network and the situation of routine high power demand zones creates natural
locations for preferred siting of substations. The high reliability requirements for utility power supply sources will usually
restrict the number of alternative locations to a few choices. The availability of environmentally acceptable substation sites
may further limit those choices, especially in urban or scenic areas. A provisional scheme for substation siting should be
developed and verification procedures should be applied by implementing a series of computer studies. More than one scheme
may need to be studied in difficult situations, involving the alternative types of feeding systems available for use, and
providing alternative solutions for management review. Further information and details of recommended procedures are
provided in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization.
6.5.1.3 Catenary System – General Description
A catenary system provides the means of distribution of electrical power to moving railroad trains, specifically in this instance
to high-speed passenger trains. All new catenary systems consist of a constant tensioned contact wire supported by one or
more messenger wires which are in turn supported by brackets or cross span assemblies on adjacent poles. Some older
catenary systems have variable tensions with fixed wire deadends. Detailed descriptions, definitions, standards and concepts
relating to catenary systems are provided in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Section 4.1, Catenary Definitions,
Standards and Concepts.
6.5.1.3.1 Car Clearance Gage
See Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Part 2, Clearances for information and guidelines on locomotive and car
clearance gages, subject to potential superelevation, sway, tilt and bounce allowances relevant to high-speed rail operations.
6.5.1.3.2 Electrical and Mechanical Clearances
See Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Part 2, Clearances and Part 4, Railroad Electrification Systems, Section 4.2,
Catenary System Design Criteria for information and guidelines on electrical and mechanical clearances. There are no
significant additional clearance requirements for high-speed rail operations, but a greater amount of pantograph uplift at
supports may require provision of increased allowances for pantograph passing clearance past support hardware assemblies.
6.5.1.3.3 Contact Wire Height
a. The range of contact wire height is normally controlled by the minimum height of overhead bridges and structures,
together with the maximum height of contact wire necessary to comply with high wire clearance requirements at
highway grade crossings or other facilities. The pantograph performance requirements for high-speed rail include a
design preference for small, low-mass pantographs and a catenary design need for a small vertical range of contact
wire height.
b. High-speed train operations over 110 mph (177 kph) should preclude the retention of highway grade crossings, which
virtually eliminates the need for contact wire heights greater than a nominal normal height. This normal height is
determined by the addition of wire sag allowances and tolerances to minimum wire heights, plus allowances for long
term track ballast rise and maintenance tolerances. The normal wire heights may need to be increased where right-of-
way is shared with freight service for local access or through operation.
6.5.1.3.4 Dynamic Interaction and Compliance
a. The dynamic interaction that occurs between a catenary system and train pantographs traveling along the catenary is a
complex relationship. The operating requirement is that the pantograph provide a continuous flow of electrical current
to the locomotive for traction and auxiliary purposes, at all speeds and under the most adverse vehicle and track
tolerances. This is best accomplished without significant arcing or loss of contact, which in turn is achieved by

maintaining a reasonably uniform contact pressure between the pantograph and the contact wire. Minimum contact
pressure for acceptable performance would typically be in the range of 8 to 12 pounds (36 to 53 Newtons).
b. A proven dynamic simulation should be developed to confirm the compatibility of the selected pantograph and
catenary system scenario before undertaking any final design activities. The simulation should verify that upward
pressure applied by the pantograph on the contact wire, including dynamic increases due to high-speed, will remain
within an acceptable range for current collection purposes.
c. High contact pressures cause progressively greater contact wire uplift as a pantograph passes a given point. This can
cause excessive mechanical wear of pantograph carbon wear strips and the contact wire, especially near catenary
supports. The static pantograph contact pressure used in North America has traditionally been in the range of 22 to 28
pounds (98 to 125 Newtons), especially where high electrical current levels are involved. The increasing U.S.
application of European and Japanese practice and introduction of modern low mass pantographs has included use of
lower static pressures in the range of 16 to 18 pounds (71 to 80 Newtons).
d. The contact wire rise and fall also manifests itself as a traveling wave, which moves forward at a speed dependent upon
the wire’s natural frequency, which in turn is a function of the wire weight and the tension applied. A basic principle of
catenary design is that this wave speed should always be greater than any potential train speed, to avoid any prospect of
a pantograph “traveling along” with its own standing wave. This situation becomes more complex with multiple
pantographs on a train, especially if they are relatively close together, due to the interactions involved, especially at
speeds over 150 mph (241 kph).
e. For high-speed rail applications, the inertial effects of pantograph reactions to catenary features, contact wire gradients,
and track irregularities become so significant that the following guidelines are applied to catenary design procedures.
1
(1) Contact Wire Tension. Should be kept as high as possible, using present day contact wire materials, pole spacing,
blow off considerations and strength of support hardware, involving preferred use of constant tension systems.
(2) Contact Wire Gradients. Should be at least 5 times train speed in miles per hour, doubled at transition spans; for
example, 1 in 750 gradients are used for 150 mph (241 kph) operation.
3
(3) Catenary System. Should have maximum feasible uniformity of compliance (vertical stiffness) in order to
minimize the fluctuation of dynamic pantograph response.
(4) Catenary configuration should be designed to accommodate the maximum pantograph pressure developed at the
highest speed, including aerodynamic uplift.
f. The following guidelines should be considered during selection or design of pantographs. 4

(1) Pantograph Location. Only one per train if at all feasible; otherwise two are used, placed at opposite ends of the
train preferably at least 1,000 feet (305 m) apart. If more than two are necessary, then mini pantographs should be
used with much smaller variation in contact wire height, since multiple pantographs operating together suffer
mutual degradation of their current collection performance, especially at higher speeds.
(2) Pantograph Head. Should have a minimum feasible dynamic mass consistent with mechanical strength and
frangible design requirements.
(3) Pantograph Pressure. Tends to increase in proportion to the square of the speed. It should be kept as constant as
possible at all speeds, in both directions; often assisted by use of aerofoils.
(4) Malfunction and Damage Prevention. The potential damage that can be caused to a catenary system by a
malfunctioning pantograph before the high-speed train can be stopped is so great that the pantograph head should
incorporate an automatic dropping device and the frame should include a weak-point break-away feature.

6.5.1.3.5 Safety Considerations
a. The principal information regarding the safety of Electric Traction Power for High-Speed Rail is given in Chapter 33,
Electrical Energy Utilization. The use of high level platforms may generate additional electrical clearance safety
considerations and compliance with the National Electrical Safety Code or equivalent National Code is required.
b. All overpasses and other overhead structures on electrified high-speed rail routes will require the use of safety barriers
in all areas of feasible pedestrian access. Barriers should be at least 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m) high, should extend at least
10 feet (3.05 m) longitudinally from the nearest catenary, and should include features preventing any side access
around the end of a barrier. The material usually selected is rigid aluminum sheeting, which should not include any
protrusions providing feasible footholds for climbing access.
c. Grounded safety screens, barriers and anticlimbing guards should be included in the design of signals and other railway
facilities and features within 10 feet of a catenary system, and the use of fencing or safety cages should be considered
to prevent vandalism or unauthorized access when required by specific circumstances.
6.5.1.3.6 Electrical Characteristics
The electrical characteristics for High-Speed Rail typically include sufficient power supply system capacity for sustained
acceleration from station stops or from in-route delays up to the high operating speeds required. The electrical current demand
for each train is substantially higher than for other types of passenger trains, due to the high drag coefficient at high-speed and
the current drawn by onboard facilities. The use of motive power utilizing regenerative power capability may also be
considered, subject to load limitation, traffic levels and potential for future growth, over-voltage prevention and harmonic
content limitations.
6.5.1.3.7 Grounding and Bonding
The requirements for grounding and bonding are generally in accordance with information given in Chapter 33, Electrical
Energy Utilization. The grounding system must prevent any risk of an unsafe condition occurring either within the electric
traction system, at stations, or in the immediate surroundings along the right of way. The electric traction and signaling
systems both require the use of appropriate bonding connections, circuits or other devices at project-specific spacings to
ensure the fail-safe operations of trains and supporting infrastructure. Compliance with step-and-touch protection standards
should be given high priority in all areas accessible to passengers and other non-railroad personnel.
6.5.1.4 Catenary Safety Design
There are few standards, codes or specifications that directly refer to catenary systems for North American applications other
than the guidelines provided in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization. The catenary industry applies local engineering and
construction procedures to their relevant extent, together with appropriate input from overseas railroads. This composite
design basis should be monitored to verify that all technical, operational and environmental safety requirements are adequately
provided for, to the satisfaction of the appropriate regulatory organization. The following are some of the key requirements to
be considered when an overhead electric catenary system is required for a high-speed rail project.
6.5.1.4.1 Conductor Parameters
The conductors for an overhead catenary system consist normally of a contact wire supported by hangers from one or more
messenger wires. The conductor tensions at each operating and non-operating limiting condition have to be reviewed to verify
that adequate safety factors are provided. The recommended minimum safety factors for high-speed rail projects are 2.5 on
messenger wire tensions and 2.0 on contact wire tensions, relative to ultimate conductor breaking loads throughout the
lifespan of the wire. Supplementary factors to be considered are the wear allowance for the contact wire, typically 25% or less
for high-speed rail projects, and an annealing allowance in respect of gradual reduction of ultimate conductor breaking loads.

6.5.1.4.2 Technical Design Data
The safety requirements applicable to the various types of support systems, poles, foundations, portal structures, cantilevers
and related items such as contact wire wear are detailed in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Part 4, Railroad
Electrification Systems, and the only additional need arising for high-speed rail projects concerns the use of larger catenary
pole offset discussed in Article 6.5.1.4.5.
6.5.1.4.3 System Features and Arrangements
a. The operational performance requirements for high-speed rail projects make it essential to incorporate some form of
automatic tensioning into the catenary system. This feature compensates for temperature changes and maintains a
constant high mechanical tension in the catenary conductors to facilitate optimum current collection performance. The
need for automatic tensioning creates a number of special system features and arrangements. These include catenary
overlaps between individual tension lengths of catenary, typically spaced as needed at up to a maximum of about one
mile (1.6 km), dependent upon the system design selected.
b. The system design has to provide for safe pantograph passage at high-speeds through such system features, including
those at high-speed crossovers, while also providing for dynamic uplift and lateral sway of the pantograph and the
train. The pantograph horns provide an additional safety feature for pantograph passage through catenary system
features and arrangements, especially in view of the significantly greater pantograph uplift experienced at very high
speeds.
Some form of overrun protection should be provided wherever passenger trains are routed past facing connections with
diverging non-electrified track. This will prevent safety and operational problems in the event of a raised pantograph being
inadvertently routed onto the diverging track, with resultant potential teardown of overcrossing feeder, static, communications 1
or signaling cables and wires. Overrun protection can be provided by adding short sections of catenary to guide diverging
pantographs beyond overcrossing obstructions, or by raising or rerouting such obstructions beyond the maximum pantograph
reach and sway.
6.5.1.4.4 System Sub-Assemblies
The automatic tensioning system has to cater for temperatures ranging from minimum ambient to maximum operating
3
temperature, which includes provision for solar heating and peak levels of electrical load heating. The pulley/balance weight
tensioning assemblies (or spring tensioners used where space is very restricted) can be fitted with inertial stops to hold the
tensioning assemblies if sudden breakage of conductor occurs. Temperature stops can be provided to operate below a defined
wire temperature, typically 20 degrees F. (–7 degrees C.) to restrict the amount of catenary system sag that would otherwise
occur when heavy icing conditions are encountered, and to reduce the need for severe speed restrictions at such times.
4
6.5.1.4.5 Poles and Foundations
The safety requirements for high-speed rail projects include those which apply to other types of railway electrification activity,
as discussed in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Part 4, Railroad Electrification Systems. An additional consideration
concerns the minimum and normal pole clearances from adjacent tracks. Where feasible, especially when applied to new
construction, the normal clearance should be at least 14 feet (4.27 m) to provide for passage of a high-speed train with one or
more derailed vehicles which is in the process of making an emergency stop, or experiencing a progressive derailment.
Trackside features including catenary poles and foundations can be set back sufficiently to permit such passage without
sideswipe contact and increased risk of injury to passengers and crew. The choice of pole design can include consideration of
likely impact scenarios involving high-speed trains to minimize the danger to passengers and crew. Features to be evaluated
should include the style, ductility and break-away elements of poles considered for use.
6.5.1.5 Catenary System Installation Design
The catenary system selection and design process should consider how installation of the selected system can be undertaken in
accordance with safe working practices and in compliance with OSHA and local regulatory requirements.

6.5.1.5.1 Installation Procedures
The design process should take full advantage of feedback from prior construction experience, and should avoid construction
staging configurations that involve partly constructed system supports, conductors or other features which are structurally
weak or incapable of withstanding severe weather conditions. If construction work has to be undertaken on an existing
operating railroad, the catenary installation plan should be conceptually developed as a number of individual work stages,
most requiring relatively brief on-track time and incorporating a maximum amount of advance subassembly work under more
controllable conditions at a construction depot.
6.5.1.5.2 Shop Drawings
Wherever detailed design of material is part of a procurement contract scope of work, or where proprietary materials are being
supplied, the contractor should be required to submit detailed shop drawings. These should illustrate the design, function,
means of manufacture and specification appropriate to the specific item, and should give reference to the originating
conceptual design or assembly drawing.
6.5.1.6 Catenary Installation Procedures
a. Installation of high-speed rail catenary systems follows the normal practices of the catenary industry, as discussed in
Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization. However, many catenary design features are much more restrictive when
designed for high-speed rail projects and most installation tolerances are considerably less than customary for other
types of electrified railroad construction.
b. Specific installation procedures should be developed during the detail design process for each construction phase, with
the ultimate objective of providing a high performance level of traction current collection by high-speed trains.
6.5.1.6.1 Foundations
The interfaces between ground conditions and catenary pole foundations or footings are less crucial than most other interfaces
since the catenary support assemblies mounted upon the poles generally include adjustability in all dimensions. Most
foundations rely on side bearing loading capacity and the installation procedures should ensure that excavation is
accomplished without significant disturbance of the hole sides, roadbed or ballast compaction. If precast foundations are used,
the tamping material used to set the foundations in excavated holes should be capable of filling all spaces and voids to avoid
foundation movement or rotation when catenary system loads are applied. Further information on foundations is given in
Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Article 4.2.8.
6.5.1.6.2 Poles
There are two mounting styles used for catenary poles, being either a plain section pole directly implanted into a cored
foundation, or a bolted base pole mounted directly on top of a foundation or footing. Poles should be properly aligned in
conformance with primary catenary system loadings. The pole setting process should incorporate backward unloaded rake of
catenary poles when necessary to compensate for maximum loaded pole deflection under normal environmental conditions.
The cross bridge of portal structures should have an upward camber while unloaded before erection to compensate for vertical
weight and catenary system-induced loading deflection to prevent the cross bridge sagging below a horizontal configuration.
Further information on catenary poles is given in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Article 4.2.7.
6.5.1.6.3 On-Site Measurements and Site Fabrication
a. The key interface between installed catenary poles and adjacent tracks is established when pole installation is
completed. The as-built pole settings from centerline of track should be measured, and information on proposed track
realignment and final superelevation should be verified. Where critical, the vertical dimensions between high rail level,
top of pole, and any fixed connection points should also be measured. These measurements should be dated and
recorded as the data base for all subsequent stages of the catenary system installation.

b. Some on-site fabrication of catenary supports can be undertaken, especially to accommodate last minute changes
during the catenary installation process, but the overriding priority should be to fabricate assemblies or subassemblies
at off-site locations with better equipped and environmentally controlled facilities. When some on-site fabrication
becomes necessary, any cutting of support tubes, conductor strands, or other materials should be carried out in
accordance with approved supplier instructions, including application of paint or other protective treatments to all raw
surfaces or cut ends of ferrous items.
c. Splicing of conductor strands or other materials should only be undertaken with prior knowledge and approval of the
system operator, and should be in accordance with pre-approved supplier splicing procedures.
6.5.1.6.4 Brackets, Support Assemblies and Dead-ends
a. The as-built pole settings discussed in Article 6.5.1.6.3 should be used to verify fabrication sizes of fixed cantilever
brackets prior to installation on site. This check should be carried out prior to fabrication where dimensions and space
requirements are particularly critical.
b. The single track hinged cantilever and deadend brackets to be mounted on support poles alongside or between tracks
should be pre-assembled using standard structural sections and hardware on a purpose made jig at the construction
base, using the as-built pole settings and superelevation data. They would then be transported to site and erected by use
of a highway boom truck or similar rail mounted vehicle. Further information is provided in Chapter 33, Electrical
Energy Utilization, Article 4.1.4.
6.5.1.6.5 Catenary System Conductors
a. All support brackets and dead-end arrangements have to be completed and in place before the installation of catenary
1
system conductors can be started. The process should begin with temporary attachment of running out pulleys for the
messenger wire, and continue by anchoring the messenger wire at a dead-end and running out the wire at a sufficient
steady tension to keep it raised clear of all obstructions, trains and other on-track and trackside equipment. Care should
be taken, particularly on curves, to keep the wire close to its final height and lateral position. The wire is temporarily
over-tensioned, typically overnight or longer and by at least 5%, to take up most of its early life cycle creep before
setting it at a nominal unloaded tension. 3
b. Preassembled hangers are then mounted on the messenger wire at predetermined positions, including a temporary wire
clip which can be used for instant contact wire attachment. A similar running out technique is used for the contact wire,
taking care to avoid creating any indentations, vertical kinks or rotational twists during the running out process.
Supplier or site splicing of catenary conductors is normally not accepted and damaged wire-runs should be replaced in
their entirety on a new installation project.
4
c. The completed conductor system should be set to its final tensions and all hangers and support clamps should be set as
required in their proper vertical and lateral positions.
6.5.1.6.6 Section Insulators and In-Span Materials
The catenary system is divided into electrical sections by insertion of section insulators and phase breaks at predetermined
locations, as discussed in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, Article 4.1.5. Depending upon the design selected, it will
normally be necessary to install these items where the catenary is close to or coincident and parallel with the pantograph
centerline at the elevated contact wire level. Other special purpose in-span items should be installed at this time, including all
continuity jumper and feeding connections, and great care should be taken to optimize the contact wire alignment and profile.
6.5.1.7 Catenary Testing
a. The testing of a catenary system installation for a high-speed rail system has to consider the higher degree of accuracy,
compliance with tighter installation tolerances and the electrical current collection performance standards that have to

be achieved. The testing procedures should be developed as a series of cumulative steps which together should result in
a fully adjusted catenary system ready for high-speed service.
b. It should be understood that satisfactory high-speed current collection performance is also dependent upon well aligned
and surfaced tracks, fully operative vehicle suspensions, and properly functioning vehicle pantograph assemblies.
6.5.1.7.1 Pantograph Inspection
As installation and adjustment of the catenary system is completed for each tension length and feeding section, a dummy
pantograph mounted upon a trolley or on a mobile framework should be used to check contact wire and messenger wire
positions at support and midspan locations. The transition zones at overlaps and interlockings should be checked to verify that
vehicle pantographs achieve a smooth transfer between parallel or overcrossing contact wires, making due allowance for
pantograph uplift and sway expected at the specific location.
6.5.1.7.2 Height and Stagger Inspection
All contact wire heights and staggers (offsets) at supports, together with wire heights and offsets at midspan between supports,
should be measured and recorded. The data would be initially used as a cross reference with the design to check for anomalies;
subsequently, the data would become a permanent as-built record for use by maintenance forces or during upgrade or
modification of the installed system.
6.5.1.7.3 Electrical Testing
a. The installed catenary system should be visually checked to verify that all insulators are in place and are unbroken and
that all feeding and continuity jumper connections are complete and do not bridge electrical sectionalizing
arrangements. The placement of bonding and grounding connections should be verified and all temporary grounding
protection connections applied during installation are removed.
b. The electric utility supply to electrification substations should then be energized and a program of electrical testing
initiated to verify function and operation of all electrical equipment items, including step-down transformers, circuit
breakers and disconnects, relays and metering devices, supervisory control and related circuits, and various types of
backup systems including standby batteries and alarm circuits. Particular attention should be paid to timely equipment
operation for clearance of simulated faults at various locations.
c. The catenary system should be energized, section by section, and correct function of lineside equipment including
disconnects, auxiliary power step-down transformers and phase break transponder units is verified. The no-load
voltage levels at substations and at extremities of long feeding sections should be recorded, and clearance of simulated
catenary faults verified. The presence and magnitude of stray currents in wayside signal and communication circuits is
verified for compliance with applicable standards; further testing should occur in collaboration with slow speed and
high-speed train operational testing.
6.5.1.7.4 Slow Speed Testing
a. A program of slow speed pantograph testing should be initiated as electrical testing is completed for each area of the
catenary system, typically for 20 to 30 track miles (32 to 48 track kilometers) of a project. This slow speed testing can
be undertaken either with a self-propelled, purpose-built test train equipped with a live or grounded pantograph, or a
standard locomotive or trainset suitable for slow speed running. If feasible, the head of the pantograph should be
calibrated with a scale so that the amount of any excess movement of the contact wire towards or onto the angled horns
can be noted.
b. The effectiveness of this slow speed testing will be further improved if the test train operates along every feasible route
through an electrified area, including emergency moves which may not ordinarily be permitted by the signal and train
control system. When possible, a video monitor and recorder should be used to record inspection findings, including
some means of correlation between catenary location, track mileage and overhead obstructions.

c. Particular attention should be directed to electrical and mechanical clearances at supports, and to alignment and level
of incoming contact wires as they come into the operational riding area on top of the pantograph head.
6.5.1.7.5 High-Speed Testing
A series of high-speed train test runs should be undertaken when construction of sufficient areas of catenary system has
successfully complied with electrical and slow speed testing procedures and requirements, and all necessary adjustments have
been made. A large amount of data may be recorded during high-speed test runs, particularly with regard to train equipment
function and operation. It should be verified that passage of the pantograph along the contact wire complies with pantograph
performance requirements under all operating conditions. The pantograph mechanical performance should be monitored,
particularly with regard to fluctuation of pantograph contact pressure and general avoidance of any loss of contact during
normal operation. Pantograph operation should be monitored through areas with strong, prevailing side winds and across
special purpose catenary assemblies such as section insulators, phase breaks, moveable bridges, minimum clearance overhead
bridges and through overlaps.
6.5.1.8 Catenary Maintenance Manuals and Procedures
Overhead catenary systems are typically designed to have a service life of at least 30 years, ranging up to 50 years in many
instances. Systems are intended to be maintenance free, but the typical harsh railroad environment requires that effective
preventive maintenance procedures be adopted. The use of specialized custom-built hardware also requires provision of
supplier maintenance manuals, specifying necessary routine inspection activities.
6.5.1.8.1 System Maintenance
a. An overhead catenary system and its component items should be subjected to a number of prescribed periodic
1
inspections to verify system functions and to check for component wear, misadjustments or faults.
b. Correct functioning of automatic constant tensioning systems is of particular importance, and routine checks of
termination assemblies should be carried out at regular intervals.
c. A dedicated maintenance team should be established at a strategic location, equipped with purpose-built hi-rail and 3
wire train vehicles sufficient to carry out both routine maintenance and emergency repair tasks.
6.5.1.8.2 Maintenance Standards
a. Maintenance standards for electric traction systems should either be established as part of the design and installation
basis, or be included in supplier documentation packages approved during procurement of equipment, hardware
assemblies or components. Many maintenance standards will be identical or similar to construction acceptance 4
standards and tolerances; a few may include additional tolerance or performance nonconformance provisions not
available to the original supplier or installation contractor.
b. The maintenance standards for catenary systems on high-speed train routes require close conformance with contact
wire heights and gradients to avoid high vertical acceleration of pantograph head assemblies, high contact forces or
momentary loss of electrical supply to the locomotive. Some maintenance standards involve two or more levels of
tolerance or other conformance parameters, which facilitate continuing operation on a degraded basis, that could
include lower acceleration rates or lower maximum speeds, similar to track classification standards.
6.5.1.8.3 Periodic Tests
a. Part of the preventive maintenance program recommended for high-speed rail routes should be a series of performance
tests applied both to the power supply equipment and to the overhead catenary power distribution system. Power
supply equipment testing can routinely include one or more operations of circuit breakers and disconnects which have
no recorded operations within a defined period, typically one year.

b. Catenary system performance testing can routinely include one or more pantograph operation video recording along
each main track of the high-speed route. One video should be taken at or close to the maximum operating speeds along
the entire route. If any degradation of pantograph performance is identified, a second video should be taken through
route sections of interest or concern, with train speeds controlled to match the design balancing speeds through each
curve. Direct comparison and joint evaluation of the two videos should help to establish the cause of any performance
degradation, which typically could be related to track misadjustment, vehicle suspension misadjustment, pantograph
frame joint deficiencies, catenary system misadjustment or any combination of deficiencies.
c. A permanent maintenance history log should be maintained for each power supply facility and for each electrical
catenary section. This log could highlight any long term recurrence of deficient conditions, and help to develop
corrective actions for implementation prior to system or equipment failure occurrences.
6.5.1.8.4 Safety During Electrical Fault
a. Electrical faults are caused by one or more factors, including inadvertent faults caused by wild animals and birds,
insulation failures in power supply and catenary systems, or equipment failures on board locomotives or other motive
power vehicles. All interconnected, energized equipment and systems have to be fully bonded throughout to prevent
any possibility of floating electrical potential remaining in conductors, wires or equipment components when the
traction power system is deenergized.
b. All non-energized metallic and other electrical conductive items including support poles and frames, lineside fencing,
station metalwork and all other such items within the traction power system electrical zone of influence should be
effectively grounded. Metal components should be bonded together and all assemblies and isolated items should be
connected to a ground wire system, a ground grid or to grounding rods, in accordance with NESC requirements and
electrification industry practice.
c. Circuit breaker and relay systems installed at power supply substations and switching stations provide protection
against electrical faults. Each circuit breaker provides connection of electrical power from an energized busbar to an
individual region or track-specific section of the catenary system. The occurrence of an electrical fault would be
detected by relays which cause the circuit breaker to open within a few milliseconds. Since many faults are transient in
nature, most circuit breakers should be set to reclose automatically within a few seconds to restore power to the
section. If the fault persists, the circuit breaker will lock open until the fault is investigated and repaired. Special
distance zone type relays should be used to differentiate between high traction power loads and actual faults.
d. The circuit breakers for catenary sections at yards, station platforms and other areas where passengers or railroad
personnel are routinely present should not reclose onto a fault, but instead should lock out immediately for on-site
investigation of the fault cause and affects.
6.5.1.8.5 Safety During Switching Operations
a. The switching of electrical power is carried out in accordance with prescribed procedures by authorized personnel at an
electrification system control center that would usually control an entire route or region. The procedures used should
include some form of interlock or logic data-based system to prevent simultaneous supply of power to a section from
more than one source, phase or substation, particularly when alternate feed arrangements have to be implemented
while a fault is being investigated and rectified.
b. Safety measures adopted include siting of all switching equipment in high security situations, compounds or buildings,
with intrusion detection systems connected to the control center for all facilities which are normally unattended.
6.5.1.8.6 Safety During Maintenance Operations
a. Maintenance of traction power supply and catenary system facilities should be preplanned for implementation during
light traffic periods or during short overnight system shutdowns. All access and work activities should be in
accordance with prescribed procedures that prevent any approach within specified limitations until all power has been

disconnected and permanent or temporary grounds have been installed at either or both sides of the access area. Any
circuit breakers or disconnects that could be inadvertently closed and reenergize the area of access should be locked
open and tagged by the person responsible. The tags should not be removed until all personnel have been accounted for
as being outside the specified access limitations and maintenance grounds have been removed or disconnected, and the
tags should only be removed by the person who initially placed them. The remote operation of circuit breakers and
disconnects may require supplementary safety procedures to achieve safety of personnel and equipment.
b. Safety during specific maintenance activity requires that all personnel should clearly understand and acknowledge the
limits of temporary access, and should be fully trained, regularly certified and checked in respect of their knowledge
and familiarity with maintenance procedures and activities being undertaken.
6.5.1.8.7 Safety During Abnormal Environmental Conditions
a. Some high-speed rail routes may run through regions subject to occasional abnormal environmental conditions,
requiring special parameters in the system design basis or special operating procedures. The overhead catenary system
design basis may need to include provision for abnormal conditions including heavy ice on catenary wires and
occurrence of very high wind conditions. To ensure the safety of passengers and equipment, train speeds should be
limited when wind speeds exceed some specified amount, typically above 55 to 60 mph (89 to 97 kph). Furthermore,
train operation should be suspended if wind speeds reach hurricane levels of 75 mph (121 kph).
b. Other abnormal environmental conditions can affect the integrity of traction power systems, and these were discussed
in Article 6.3.6.3.
6.5.1.8.8 Security of Isolator Switches

1
The overhead catenary power distribution system incorporates numerous disconnect isolator switches, usually mounted on
trackside catenary poles or structures. Most disconnects should be motorized to facilitate operation by remote control, but all
disconnect isolator switches should incorporate some form of manual control for local or emergency operation. The security of
these disconnects is maintained by use of removable handles and special locks to prevent unauthorized disconnect switch
operation. Furthermore, other security measures should be included in the prescribed procedures which control the operation
of all control equipment items including isolator switches. 3
6.5.1.9 Catenary System Tools and Equipment
a. A number of catenary system components and assemblies make use of nonstandard fixing and assembly techniques
requiring the use of special purpose tools, jigs and equipment. These are usually provided by the relevant hardware
suppliers as part of procurement packages, and are retained with maintenance departmental tools and equipment
stocks. 4
b. Specialized equipment as used by the installation contractor provides effective access to the catenary system location
above tracks, including hi-rail equipped bucket trucks and platform trucks. Extensive high-speed rail systems benefit
from provision of rail vehicles for catenary wiring and inspection, equipped with flat roof working platforms and
dummy working pantographs. These give an effective means of undertaking routine inspection and rectification work,
and facilitate rapid replacement of worn or damaged contact wire.
6.5.1.10 Environment
High-speed rail operations have to interact with a number of environmental requirements and conditions. These include
conditions that occur naturally, restrictions related to safety and operability, and man-made alterations to the natural
environment.

6.5.1.10.1 Physical Environment
The physical environment that a high-speed train travels through is partly dependent on the region traversed between the route
end points, which in turn is influenced by local decisions concerning routing choices. High-speed trains usually have widely
spaced intermediate stops, which provides flexibility for evaluation of alternative routes when avoidance of undesirable
physical environmental conditions is a major factor. Typical undesirable conditions related to traction power and catenary
system installations can include unstable land strata, recurrent heavy snow and icing conditions, and high levels of isoceraunic
activity (lightning frequency and intensity).
6.5.1.10.2 Meteorological Basis
The seasonal and recurrent weather conditions along a high-speed rail route have to be established for use as the basis of
design. Some parameters are provided in NESC and other codes and guidelines; icing levels are stipulated to be heavy (0.5
inch/13 mm radial ice), light (0.25 inch/6mm radial ice) or not applicable, according to the region or locality involved. More
information is provided in Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization.
6.5.1.10.3 Electrical Interference
a. Individual elements of traction power and catenary system installations have to coexist with the electrical interference
environment that is present. To a large extent, this environment is self-generated by current flow and voltage present in
major system elements including catenary system wires and feeders. Other electrical interference may also be present,
usually from parallel high voltage electrical transmission lines.
b. Other systems in the vicinity of high-speed rail routes also have to coexist with electrical interference caused by the
presence and operation of the railroad traction power facilities. Systems affected can include low voltage power
circuits and various kinds of communications, signalling and train control circuits, particularly when they run parallel
to the route for significant distances. A number of interference mitigation measures and procedures are available for
use when interference levels become excessive or create safety concerns. Typical circuits that may be affected include
local telephone and video cable circuits installed along parallel residential streets.
c. Electrical interference does not affect fiber optic cable systems since no electrical conductor is present in the
longitudinal cable system.
6.5.1.10.4 Pollution/Contamination
Past experience on railroad electrification projects included the need for mitigation of industrial air pollution and
contamination. Most harmful forms of air pollution have now been eliminated, but some benign contamination still exists in
unique local circumstances. Such contamination may occur naturally and its presence should be recognized by incorporation
of appropriate design features, treatments or materials. One typical example is the presence of high salt concentrations in moist
onshore winds at route sections along stretches of sea or ocean coastline.

17
Part 7
Maintenance of Way Considerations1
— 2004 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

7.1.1 Safety/Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.2 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3

7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3 1
7.2.2 Reliability Under Adverse Weather Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.2.3 Program Maintenance and Spot Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.2.4 Effects on Revenue Operations and Customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.2.5 Effects on Adjacent Land Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3 3

7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3.2 Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3.3 Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3.4 Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.3.5 Traction Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3

7.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.4.2 Maintenance of Way Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3

7.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-3
7.5.3 Ride Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.5.4 Gage Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.5.5 Vertical Deviations and Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.5.6 Horizontal Deviation and Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.5.7 Component Wear Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.6 Track Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
1

7.6.2 Severe Weather Inspection Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.6.3 Normal Inspection Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.7 Structures Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4

7.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-4
7.9 Propulsion System Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5

7.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5
7.10 Facility Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5

7.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5
7.10.2 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5
7.10.3 Snow and Ice Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-7-5

7.2.1 GENERAL
7.2.2 RELIABILITY UNDER ADVERSE WEATHER CONDITIONS
7.2.3 PROGRAM MAINTENANCE AND SPOT REPAIRS
7.2.4 EFFECTS ON REVENUE OPERATIONS AND CUSTOMERS
7.2.5 EFFECTS ON ADJACENT LAND USES
1
SECTION 7.3 INSPECTION, EVALUATION, AND PLANNING
7.3.1 GENERAL
7.3.2 SIGNALS
3
7.3.3 TRACK
7.3.4 STRUCTURES
7.3.5 TRACTION POWER

4
7.4.1 GENERAL
7.4.2 MAINTENANCE OF WAY EQUIPMENT
7.5.1 GENERAL

7.5.3 RIDE QUALITY
7.5.4 GAGE LIMITS
7.5.5 VERTICAL DEVIATIONS AND VARIATIONS
7.5.6 HORIZONTAL DEVIATION AND VARIATIONS
7.5.7 COMPONENT WEAR LIMITS
7.6.1 GENERAL
7.6.2 SEVERE WEATHER INSPECTION PROTOCOL
7.6.3 NORMAL INSPECTION PROTOCOL
7.7.1 GENERAL
7.8.1 GENERAL

7.9.1 GENERAL
7.10.1 GENERAL
7.10.2 CLEANING
7.10.3 SNOW AND ICE REMOVAL


27
References
The following list of references used in Chapter 17, High Speed Rail Systems is placed here in alphabetical order for your
convenience.
1. American Railway Engineering & Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA): Practical Guide to Railway Engineering,
Second Edition 2003.
2. Martin Lindahl: Track geometry for high-speed railways (a literature survey and simulationn of dynamic vehicle
response), Railway Technology, Department of Vehicle Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 2001.


CHAPTER 18
LIGHT DENSITY AND
SHORT LINE RAILWAYS1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 General Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-1

1.1 Engineering Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-2 1
1.2 Budgeting (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-7
1.3 Contracting and Contract Management (To Be Developed). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-7
2 Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-1
2.1 Track Components and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-2
2.2 Track Inspection and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.3 Track and Roadway Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-10 3
3 Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-1
3.1 Bridge Management Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-2
3.2 Construction Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-5
3.3 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-9
3.4 Bridge Inspection Checklist (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-14
4 Communication and Signals (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-4-1
5 Rehabilitation/Upgrade of Track and Structures for Handling 286,000-lb Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-1

5.1 Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-1
5.2 Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-4
1

SCOPE
The material in this chapter is supplementary guidance for railroad lines categorized as light density or short lines. While these
categories have no exact limits, for engineering purposes they are generally defined as follows:
LIGHT DENSITY
A railroad line carrying less than 5 million gross tons of traffic per year. (Note: 1 million gross tons approximately equals the
passage of 7,600 loaded 100-ton cars, or an average of 21 of these cars each day of the year.)
SHORT LINE
A railroad not large enough to economically justify the use of large scale production maintenance techniques or to have fully
staffed engineering and maintenance-of-way departments. Maintenance-of-way staff is sized for routine maintenance activities
and may not perform this work full time. Engineering and design work, and perhaps much of the track and structure
maintenance, are typically done by contract.
INTRODUCTION

18
Part 1
General Engineering
— 2000 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Engineering Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-2

1.1.1 Introduction (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-2
1.1.2 Valuation Maps (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-2
1.1.3 Contracts, Easements, and Agreements (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-2
1.1.4 Original Right-of-Way Grant Instruments (Deeds, etc.) (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-3 1
1.1.5 Operation and Maintenance Records (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-3
1.1.6 Bridge , Culvert, and Tunnel Records (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-5
1.1.7 Signals and Communications Plans and Records (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-5
1.1.8 Building and Utility Plans and Records (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-6
1.1.9 Environmental Information and Records (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-6
1.1.10 Material Inventory Records (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-6 3
1.2 Budgeting (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-7
1.3 Contracting and Contract Management (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1-7

Light Density and Short Line Railways
SECTION 1.1 ENGINEERING RECORDS
a. The following sections describe engineering records which are considered essential for the proper management of a
short line or light density railroad property. These records are valuable for legal as well as engineering purposes. They
also greatly aid maintenance planning and budgeting and decisions for future construction and roadway improvements.
b. Whenever a railroad line is purchased or sold, these records should be included with the property transfer, and
purchasers should ensure that these documents are obtained, checked, and updated as needed. If the acquisition is a
lease, rather than a purchase, then good reproducible copies should be obtained as well as several sets of reproductions.
When available, computerized versions should also be acquired.
c. As many of these documents define legal obligations and restrictions, they should be reviewed before planning or
conducting construction, excavation, or drainage work. A thorough review and understanding will also minimize
misunderstandings with other parties. Compliance with various agreements may also affect annual maintenance plans
and budgets.
1.1.2 VALUATION MAPS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) Right-of-Way maps with index maps and sheets.
(2) Station maps with index maps and sheets.
(3) Track and structure maps with index maps and sheets.
b. Valuation mapping includes the predominate 1" = 400' right-of-way maps, special maps at 1" = 100' or 200' for
stations, index maps and sheets showing only schedules of property, etc.
c. Track maps should show the length and degree of curves.
1.1.3 CONTRACTS, EASEMENTS, AND AGREEMENTS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) Contracts for industry tracks railroad land.
(2) Easements for construction and maintenance of public highway crossings.
(3) Easements for construction and maintenance of private road crossings.
(4) Agreements for utilities to cross over or under the railroad, or run parallel to it on the right-of-way (above or
below ground level).

General Engineering
(5) Agreements for joint facilities operation and maintenance.
(6) Side track agreements.
(7) Track leases.
(8) Agreements for moveable bridges over navigable waterways and for wharves and docks.
(9) Permits issued by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers.
b. Industry track contracts and land usage contracts (easements) specify the responsibilities of both parties regarding
maintenance, cost sharing, and property restoration when the contract ends or if it is terminated.
c. Agreements for the road crossings, both public and private, will assist the new owner on liability questions,
maintenance responsibility and access rights.
d. Agreements for utilities include power lines, telephone lines, sanitary and storm sewers, irrigation canals, pipelines and
cable (fiber optic, telephone and television). These agreements will be needed to avoid disruptions or liabilities
through unaware excavations, for collection of periodic rents, and for other maintenance purposes.
e. Joint facility agreements will assist in defining the responsibilities for the operation and maintenance of the facility,
such as interlocking, crossing diamonds, interchange tracks, trackage rights, towers, joint stations, etc.
f. Documents relating to navigable waterways concern drawbridges and permits for docks and wharves involving the
Coast Guard, the Army Corps of Engineers, or similar agencies (including state or municipal agencies).
1
1.1.4 ORIGINAL RIGHT-OF-WAY GRANT INSTRUMENTS (DEEDS, ETC.) (2000)
a. These are mainly right-of-way deeds. 3

b. Although legal challenges to the continuity of an operating railroad's right-of-way are rare, possession of a complete
set of original right-of-way deeds (or good copies from the county recorders) is essential. In addition to defining
ownership, these documents may also establish restrictions such as a duty to construct and maintain right-of-way
fences, or reversion clauses which affect the longer-term value of the right-of-way land. Occasionally a lender may
require title insurance regarding a borrowing short line's properties, and the need for good information on the origin
and quality of the railroad's right, title and interest in its land is important.
4
1.1.5 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE RECORDS (2000)
a. These records will assist in planning future maintenance activities. They include:
(1) Track charts.
(2) Track and turnout inspection records.
(3) Maintenance standards and special instructions.
(4) Operating rules, timetables, and special instructions.

(5) Clearance records.
(6) Rail replacement records.
(7) Tie replacement records.
(8) Ballast and surfacing records.
(9) Curve records.
(10) Grade crossings records.
b. Track charts are indispensible for maintenance planning, conducting track inspections, and most activities and
communications regarding track maintenance. A good track chart includes: track profile (with gradients marked);
curve location and degree; milepost locations and track stationing (surveyor’s stationing); locations of bridges,
structures, utility crossings, culverts, overhead bridges, and any structure or feature which may restrict clearances;
length of sidings; and for yards, track layout and numbering (or names).
c. Track and turnout inspection records are essential for knowing the conditions on the railroad and are a basis for
determining annual maintenance and rehabilitation needs. In addition to regular visual inspections, they should also
include records of inspections for internal rail defects (ultrasonic inspections). Thorough track, turnout, and internal
rail inspection records are also required by the Federal Railroad Administration.
d. Maintenance standards and instructions define the level to which each section of track is to be maintained. These
documents are further covered in Part 2 below. (It is important to note that Federal Railroad Administration track
standards are not, and should not be used as, maintenance standards. They are intended to be only minimum safety
standards for operating purposes).
e. In addition to train operations, operating rules, timetables, and special instructions govern the operation of maintenance
machines on the track, and knowledge of their contents is important for the safety of track maintenance personnel
while on or near the track. They also indicate areas with slow orders and other operating restrictions including load and
clearance limits.
f. Clearance records should show all locations where horizontal or vertical clearances are in any way restricted, the
structure or feature which limits the clearance, and the what the limiting measurement is. (All states specify minimum
required clearances through or past various structures. See Chapter 28 for more information on clearances).
g. Rail replacement records should show where and when rail was replaced due to in-service failures (i. e. rails broken in-
service), or internal defects, or from general wear. They should also show where rail has been transposed in curves.
Rail grinding records should show when and where grinding was done and indicate the grinding pattern and grinding
depth. The accumulated tonnage which has passed over the rail should also be indicated.
h. Tie replacement records should show the number of ties replaced in each section or mile of track during tie
replacement programs.
i. Ballast and surfacing records should indicate where and when surfacing has been done; the amount the track was
raised; and the type, amount, and source of ballast used.
j. Curve records should detail the engineering information on each curve such as degree, length, amount of
superelevation, and length of spiral at each end.
k. Grade crossings records should show for each crossing the AAR/DOT (Association of American Railroads /
Department of Transportation) inventory number, the name of the road crossing the track, and the type of crossing
protection there (signs, lights, gates, etc.). (See Article 1.1.7 regarding crossing warning devices).

General Engineering
1.1.6 BRIDGE , CULVERT, AND TUNNEL RECORDS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) General and detailed drawings for each structure.
(2) Inspection reports.
(3) Repair records.
(4) Ratings and load limits.
(5) Bridge standard plans.
(6) Pile-driving records.
(7) Drainage studies and surveys.
(8) Tunnel plans.
(9) Clearance diagrams and records.
b. Bridge inspection records are critical for ensuring operating safety and for planning and prioritizing maintenance and
repairs; they may also indicate the needed to revise allowable loads permitted on the structures. Records of past repairs 1
may be included with inspection reports and may indicate the need to update bridge drawings. Plans for the steel
structures are especially needed for repair and rating purposes. Pile driving records show the depth to which the piles
were driven, etc.
c. Drainage studies and surveys indicate nearby water flow characteristics and capacities under bridges and through
culverts.
3
d. Tunnel plans are used for any maintenance repairs and clearance work which may be necessary at a future date.
e. Clearance diagrams and records for bridges and tunnels are needed for routing any high or wide loads (as well as heavy
loads) over the railroad.
1.1.7 SIGNALS AND COMMUNICATIONS PLANS AND RECORDS (2000)

4
a. These include:
(1) Signal standard plans.
(2) Individual signal plans.
(3) Signal inspection records.
(4) Interlocking plans records.
(5) Road crossing warning device plans and inspection records.
(6) Communications system plans.

b. Signal, communication system, and interlocking plans show construction and wiring of signals and signal systems,
including manufacturers models and other information needed when ordering replacement parts. The plans also
indicate how the signals are intended to function, thus aiding in diagnosing problems and making repairs. These plans
will also help in determining the most cost effective methods to use when upgrades or modifications are needed.
Working on a system without these plans could adversely impact train operations or create safety hazards.
c. Signal inspections and records, including those for active warning devices (flashing lights, gates) at road crossings, are
required by the Federal Railroad Administration. These must show the dates the devices were checked for proper
operation and what tests were performed.
1.1.8 BUILDING AND UTILITY PLANS AND RECORDS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) Building plans and construction and repair records.
(2) Utility plans and construction and repair records.
b. The original architectural plans for significant buildings will be used for repair and improvement work. Utility plans
(water and gas lines, sanitary and storm drains, communication and electrical conduits, etc.) will be necessary for
locating the lines in case of emergency repair work or normal maintenance.
1.1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION AND RECORDS (2000)
a. These include:
(1) Phase 1 reports.
(2) Existing environmental situations
(3) Regulatory (State, Federal EPA) permits.
b. The current environmental conditions should be documented; this is often done through a “Phase 1" environmental
survey of the property prepared by a qualified contractor. Any reports detailing known environmental situations on
the property should be documented if the property is to be sold or leased; the buyer or lessee should seek competent
technical legal advice and obtain whatever records are suggested by the experts. All regulatory permits need to be kept
where conveniently accessible, as they need to be produced when required for various construction or rehabilitation
activities, and even to verify permission for certain routine operations.
1.1.10 MATERIAL INVENTORY RECORDS (2000)
a. Material inventory records should show the track, bridge, signal, and building materials on hand to accomplish needed
maintenance and repairs, including material type, size, and location. Material on hand is part of the engineering assets
of the railroad and may represent significant dollar value. Inventory records will assist in maintenance and
rehabilitation budgeting and planning by indicating what does or does not need to be purchased. Certain projects may
be prioritized by the amount of material already on hand to accomplish the work.

General Engineering
SECTION 1.2 BUDGETING (TO BE DEVELOPED)
SECTION 1.3 CONTRACTING AND CONTRACT MANAGEMENT (TO BE DEVELOPED)


18
Part 2
Track
— 2005 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Track Components and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-2

2.1.1 Subgrade (To Be Developed). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-2
2.1.2 Drainage (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-2
2.1.3 Ballast and Sub-ballast (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-2
2.1.4 Crossties and Switch Ties (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4 1
2.1.5 Rail (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.1.6 Fastenings and OTM (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.1.7 Turnouts and Rail Crossings (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.1.8 Highway Grade Crossings (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.2 Track Inspection and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4 3

2.2.1 Inspection Overview (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.2.2 Preparation for an Inspection (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-4
2.2.3 Inspection Procedures (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-6
2.2.4 Inspection Check List (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-6
2.3 Track and Roadway Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-10

2.3.1 Definition (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-10
2.3.2 Determining Rehabilitation Needs (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-10
2.3.3 The Rehabilitation Plan (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-12
2.3.4 Guidance On Rehabilitation of Track and Roadway Components (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-13
2.3.5 Final Plans and Work Preparation (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-22
2.3.6 Construction and On-site Inspection (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-22
LIST OF TABLES
18-1-1 Ballast/Sub-Ballast Gradation Chart for Coarse Aggregate Suppliers in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2-3
See Plan 1001 in AREMA’s Portfolio of Trackwork Plans “Rail Sections -- In Use Since About 1980.”

SECTION 2.1 TRACK COMPONENTS AND DESIGN
2.1.1 SUBGRADE (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.2 DRAINAGE (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.3 BALLAST AND SUB-BALLAST (2003)
The following table should be used as a guide when AREMA ballast gradations are not available. For quality
recommendations of ballast refer to Chapter 1, Section 2.4.

Table 18-1-1. Ballast/Sub-Ballast Gradation Chart for Coarse Aggregate Suppliers in the United States
Sieve Size
Size of Opening Number of Openings/
sq. in.
3” 2 1/2” 2” 1 1/2” 1” 3/4” 1/2” 3/8” #4 #8 #30 #200
Use Standard Gradation # Nominal Size Percent Passing Through Sieve Size (min.-max.)
Square
Openings
Mainline AREMA 24 2 1/2” to 3/4” 100 90-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Mainline AASHTO 24 2 1/2” to 3/4” 100 90-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Mainline AREMA 25 2 1/2” to 3/8” 100 80-100 60-85 50-70 25-50 5-20 0-10 0-3
Mainline AREMA 3 2” to 1” 100 95-100 35-70 0-15 0-5
Mainline AASHTO 3 2” to 1” 100 90-100 35-70 0-15 0-5
and ASTM
Mainline AREMA 4A 2” to 3/4” 100 90-100 60-90 10-35 0-10 0-3
Mainline AREMA 4 1 1/2” to 3/4” 100 90-100 20-55 0-15 0-5
Mainline AASHTO 4 1 1/2” to 3/4” 100 90-100 20-55 0-15 0-5
and ASTM
Yard/Side AASHTO 5 1” to 1/2” 100 90-100 20-55 0-10 0-5
Track and ASTM
Yard/Side AREMA 5 1” to 3/8” 100 90-100 40-75 15-35 0-15 0-5
Track
Yard/Side AASHTO 56 1” to 3/8” 100 90-100 40-75 15-35 0-15 0-5
Track and ASTM
Yard/Side AREMA 57 1” to #4 100 95-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Track
Yard/Side AASHTO 57 1” to #4 100 95-100 25-60 0-10 0-5
Track and ASTM
Sub-Ballast Generic DGA/ABC 1” to #200 100 90-100 60-90 30-60 10-40 4-13
AREMA - American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association

AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
DGA - Dense Graded Aggregate
18-2-3
Track
ABC - Aggregate Base Course
2.1.4 CROSSTIES AND SWITCH TIES (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.5 RAIL (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.6 FASTENINGS AND OTM (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.7 TURNOUTS AND RAIL CROSSINGS (TO BE DEVELOPED)
2.1.8 HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSINGS (TO BE DEVELOPED)
SECTION 2.2 TRACK INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
2.2.1 INSPECTION OVERVIEW (2000)
a. The main purpose of a track inspection is to ensure that the track is safe for the passage of trains. Next in importance is
to determine any aspects of the track and roadway which do not meet the designated maintenance standard for that line.
b. The check list below is intended to provide a guide and refresher to the track inspector on defects to look for,
observations which may indicate a potential or actual problem, and important measurements to check. Specific limits
for the measurements have mostly been omitted as these usually depend on the maintenance standards for each line.
c. To aid in obtaining a thorough and accurate inspection record, it is recommended that the inspector stop at each
significant point, such as a milepost or switch, and review the check list along with notes and items observed since the
previous stopping point. Any items omitted from the inspection report or detailed notes should be added at this time,
before inspecting the next segment.
d. Once the inspection is complete, the inspector should review all notes and group any deficiencies found into the
following three categories:
(1) Defects needing immediate action to ensure safe train operation.
(2) Deficiencies or defects which should be corrected soon to bring the track back into compliance with the
designated maintenance standard.
(3) Items or areas which should be closely or more frequently watched to ensure that unacceptable conditions do not
occur.
2.2.2 PREPARATION FOR AN INSPECTION (2000)
a. Before conducting an inspection the following documents and information should be obtained, reviewed, and kept
accessible while out on the track:
(1) Operating rules.
(2) Current timetable.
(3) General instructions.

Track
(4) Track car rules.
(5) First aid rules.
(6) Maintenance of way rules.
(7) Safety rules.
(8) Motor vehicle rules.
(9) Standard practice circulars.
(10) Railroad company maintenance standards.
(11) FRA (Federal Railroad Administration) track safety standards.
(12) Copy of the previous track inspection report.
(13) Blank inspection forms.
b. If using a vehicle when conducting an inspection the following tools and materials should be on hand:
(1) 25-foot or 50-foot measuring tape.
(2) 18-inch straightedge.

1
(3) 62-foot string.
(4) 6-foot folding rule.
(5) A box of (yellow) lumber crayons. 3

(6) Trouble light.
(7) Red flag.
(8) Goggles and hard hat.

4
(9) Track gage and level.
(10) Spike maul and track wrench.
(11) Shovel, ballast fork, and pick.
(12) Claw bar, jack bar (lining bar), and a small track jack.
(13) Drift pins.
(14) Several spikes, bolts, joint bars, anchors.
(15) Bundle of tie plugs.
(16) Switch broom.

2.2.3 INSPECTION PROCEDURES (2000)
a. Inspections should be done by walking the track or traveling in a vehicle on the track at a speed which is slow enough
to visually detect defects.
b. Over the year, it is best to alternate the direction in which a track section is inspected and to inspect it at different times
in the day. Varying the direction and time will often help an inspector pick up defects which were not as obvious
during the last inspection.
c. When track is normally inspected from a vehicle, the inspector should make it a point to walk at least some portions of
the track on a rotating basis, so that over a year's time, every piece of track will have been walked a few times. Also, if
practical, the inspector should ride in an engine over the track during each season so that the track can be checked
under a full load. At known or suspected trouble spots, the track should be observed from the ground while the engine
(and train) passes.
d. When time permits, the inspector should perform minor repairs that can be safely and easily done during the inspection
trip.
2.2.4 INSPECTION CHECK LIST (2000)
a. Rail Defects:
(1) Abnormal appearance or unusual marks.
(2) Rust streaks or discolorations.
(3) Deep chips or gouges.
(4) Excessive surface corrugations.
(5) Excessive vertical or horizontal head wear, especially in curves.
(6) Ordinary breaks.
(7) Breakouts in joint area.
(8) Vertical or horizontal split head.
(9) Vertical/horizontal mismatched ends.
(10) Damaged rails.
b. Rail Fastening Defects:
(1) Cracked, broken, or loose joint bars.
(2) Loose or missing bolts.
(3) Broken or missing lock washers.
(4) High, missing, or loose spikes.
(5) Condition of insulated joints.

Track
(6) Missing or broken tie plates.
(7) Improperly positioned tie plates, particularly at joints.
(8) Defective, missing, or improperly applied rail anchors.
c. Turnout and Crossing Defects:
(1) Unlocked or improperly aligned switches.
(2) Insecure switch stand and worn latches.
(3) Switch rods worn or out of adjustment.
(4) Stockrails improperly seated/worn braces.
(5) Switch/slide plates not clean and lubricated.
(6) Gapping, worn/chipped, poorly fitting switch points.
(7) Missing bolts and cotter pins.
(8) Loose joints in heel and frog area.
(9) Worn or chipped frog point and surface.

1
(10) Outer edge of wheel contacting gauge side of spring frog wing rail.
(11) Spring frog horn clearance less than 1/4 inch.
(12) Proper gage in turnout - particularly in curved closure rails. 3

(13) Proper guard check gage and guard face gage in frog.
d. Roadway and General Surface Defects:
(1) Pumping, loose, or hanging joints.

4
(2) Frost heaves.
(3) Sink holes.
(4) Washouts.
(5) Frozen or tight joints.
(6) Tight or creeping rail.
(7) Ice or sand build-up between tie plate and rail base.
(8) Curve and spiral alignment, elevation, and run-off beyond allowable tolerances.
(9) Track geometry measurements beyond allowable tolerances (gage, surface, cross level, alignment, warp or twist).

e. Rail Lubricator Defects:
(1) Lubricator not properly adjusted or not operating.
(2) Reservoir not filled and puddled.
(3) Hoses not in good condition.
(4) Track area contaminated (too much being pumped out).
f. Tie Defects:
(1) Broken.
(2) Damaged.
(3) Split through.
(4) Rotted or deteriorated.
(5) Plate cut more than 2 inches.
(6) Spike killed.
(7) Skewed.
(8) Not properly supporting joints.
(9) Insufficient non-defective ties to support rail.
g. Ballast Defects:
(1) Not clean and free draining (fouled).
(2) Not properly supporting the track.
(3) Not restraining track laterally (shoulders not full).
(4) Not restraining track longitudinally (cribs not full).
h. Culvert Defects:
(1) Not structurally sound (loss of ballast over culvert).
(2) Not free of debris, drift, and silt.
(3) Not fully open for passage of water (ends not clean).
i. Ditch and Drainage Channel Defects:
(1) Not free draining.
(2) Not free of debris, drift, and silt.

Track
(3) Washed out areas or scour present.
(4) Allows ponding of water which could saturate subgrade or fill (embankment).
(5) Not deep enough (3 to 4 feet from top of rail down to invert).
(6) Not removing water quickly from: switches and frogs, rail crossings, bridge approaches, highway grade
crossings, tunnel portals, and areas with close clearances.
j. Vegetation Defects:
(1) Obstructing signs and signals.
(2) Restricting normal trackside duties.
(3) Interfering with signal and communication wires.
(4) Obstructing highway grade crossing sight distance.
k. Snow and Ice Defects:
(1) Blocking drainage ditch or culvert.
(2) Blocking visibility.

1
(3) Creating unsafe walking conditions.
(4) Restricting the movement of trains.
(5) Restricting clearances in tunnels and at bridges.

3
l. Highway (Road) Grade Crossing Defects:
(1) Flangeways filled with ice, snow, gravel, or dirt.
(2) Road surface and approach pavement in poor condition.
(3) High, loose, broken, missing, or deteriorated planks or panels. 4

(4) High, loose, broken, bent, or missing fasteners.
(5) Advance warning signs not in place, damaged, or not readable.
(6) Crossbucks or signs not in place, damaged, or not readable.
(7) Flashers or gates not functioning properly.
(8) Insufficient sight distance due to obstructions (weeds, brush, and trees).
m. Track Signal Defects:
(1) Not operational or not displaying proper aspect.
(2) Yard limit signs missing or damaged.

(3) Switch and derail targets not in place or damaged.
(4) Interlocking or block signals not functioning properly.
(5) Insufficient visibility of signs or signals.
n. Clearance Defects:
(1) Buildings and structures too close to track.
(2) Construction and/or excavation obstructing safe train passage.
(3) Overhead wiring too low (Do not use steel tape to measure).
o. Miscellaneous Defects:
(1) Stock fences or gates in poor condition.
(2) Stock on right of way.
(3) Right of way fires, if actively burning - call for help and/or extinguish. If there are signs of recent fire -
investigate with local fire fighters.
(4) Derails not locked in proper position (usually in derailing mode).
(5) Bridge and trestle approaches too low or have improper surface, alignment,crosslevel, or excessive warp (twist).
SECTION 2.3 TRACK AND ROADWAY REHABILITATION
Rehabilitation is work which falls between routine maintenance and new construction. Rehabilitation involves restoring track
to a "like new" condition and/or upgrading it to meet current or anticipated traffic and load-carrying requirements. A
rehabilitation project may involve some new construction, such as lengthening, realigning, or adding a passing siding or yard
tracks.
2.3.2 DETERMINING REHABILITATION NEEDS (2000)
a. The need for rehabilitation may be indicated when:
(1) Track deterioration has progressed to the point where excessive maintenance is required or beyond the point
where routine maintenance can effectively correct defects.
(2) Slow orders become excessive in number or in the length of track covered by them.
(3) Derailments occur, either repeatedly in the same location or in an increasing number of locations.
(4) Additional traffic is expected or heavier cars are to be handled.

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b. If there are indications suggesting a need for rehabilitation work, the next step is to perform the three types of
evaluations described in the following articles. The purpose of evaluations is to determine whether the track and
roadway meet the requirements, and if not, in what respect they are deficient.
2.3.2.2 Operational Evaluation
a. The purpose of this evaluation is to clearly define operating, traffic, and load-carrying requirements. A complete
evaluation should incorporate a check of track and bridge capabilities as well as basic geometric requirements.
Information needs will vary, depending on location and extent of rehabilitation. An operational evaluation may include
any or all of the following:
(1) Current and projected annual traffic (carloads) for the route.
(2) Types, lengths, and axle loadings of heaviest cars, with current and projected percentage of traffic they represent.
(3) Desired operating speed.
(4) Current and projected length of trains.
(5) Current bridge load ratings.
(6) Number of siding and yard tracks, along with usable car capacity of each.
(7) Side and Overhead Clearances.

1
(8) Track geometry.
(9) Track profile and maximum (or ruling) grade.
(10) Track curvature: degree and length of curves.

3
(11) Turnouts: quantity and size.
(12) Warning signs or devices and visibility at road crossings.
(13) Status of signal and communications systems.
b. For terminals, the adequacy of lighting, service roads, and security features should be evaluated. 4
c. Previous derailment sites and chronic problem areas should be included in the evaluation.
2.3.2.3 Condition Evaluation
a. Condition evaluations may occur in three stages or levels, depending on the size and scope of the project:
(1) At the first stage, a quick condition assessment may be appropriate. This assessment is based on recent
inspection reports, track and facility inventory information, and a brief field survey. This assessment will help
establish a general need for rehabilitation.
(2) The second stage may be an evaluation for developing a rehabilitation plan. This information should be
sufficiently detailed to determine generally what work needs to be done at which locations, and to develop
preliminary cost estimates for planning and budgeting purposes.

(3) At the third stage, condition is examined in sufficient detail so that exact work requirements, quantities, and
locations can be determined for detailed cost estimates and final contract plans and specifications.
b. Track condition evaluation should be based on the railroad’s maintenance standards as well as other major
rehabilitation requirements. The evaluation should also show major deficiencies which are likely to occur within the
next three to five years if rehabilitation is not performed.
c. Bridge condition evaluation may be based on the last completed inspection if that inspection is less than 1 year old.
Otherwise, it is recommended that a new condition assessment be performed.
d. If internal rail inspection records are available, these should be examined to help determine rail replacement needs.
e. For all track, terminals, and facilities, adequacy of drainage should be investigated.
2.3.2.4 Structural Evaluation
a. A structural evaluation should be performed to determine the current load carrying capacity for all track and bridges.
Track structural evaluation may be done using the method given in Chapter 16 or by other methods designed for this
purpose.
b. The load-carrying capability of a railroad line is often determined by the design capacity and present condition of the
bridges along the route, thus an accurate structural evaluation of bridges is critical. If the last inspection indicated any
significant change in condition of a main bridge member since the previous load rating was done, at least the included
span (or spans) of the bridge should be thoroughly inspected and load rated. In addition, all bridges which have not
been thoroughly inspected and load rated within the previous three years should be examined and if condition
indicates, be rated by an experienced railroad bridge engineer, in accordance with the criteria in Chapter 7,
Section 2.10 for timber bridges; Chapter 8, Part 19 for concrete bridges; and Chapter 15, Part 7 for steel bridges.
2.3.3 THE REHABILITATION PLAN (2000)
2.3.3.1 Purpose
a. The main purpose of the rehabilitation plan is to describe the work to be performed and to provide an estimate of how
much the work is expected to cost. It should be clear from the plan that the selected work will restore the track and
bridges to meet the railroad’s objectives in a cost-effective manner.
b. The plan may serve as a written guide to direct company forces in accomplishing the work, or it may be used as a basis
for producing plans and specifications for the work to be performed by contract. It is also helpful for future reference
to document in the plan why certain decisions were made or alternatives chosen.
2.3.3.2 Content
a. The plan should include the following:
(1) Statement of deficiencies, based on operational, condition, and structural evaluations.
(2) Statement of objectives to be met by the rehabilitation work.
(3) A work plan of remedial actions to correct deficiencies, along with a list of the intended locations for each type of
work to be done. It may also include an explanation of why the proposed actions were chosen over other
alternatives.
(4) Cost estimates for each item in the work plan.

Track
b. If not previously done, each track, bridge, and turnout should be assigned a unique number (or other designation).
Each track should be marked, in the field and on the plan, with standard surveyor's stationing or other system to help
determine work and material quantities (from track lengths) and work locations.
c. If the rehabilitation plan will also serve for final plans and contract specifications, then the work plan must include all
details of work to be done, including the type and grade of materials to be used.
d. Where appropriate, plans should also allow for the elimination of unneeded track, with the possibility of re-using track
materials elsewhere on the railroad (where traffic and structural requirements are lower), and for the sale or disposal of
scrap and salvageable materials.
e. When an initial plan is being made for budgeting purposes, preliminary cost estimates are usually based on costing the
major work items, with extra allowances for minor work at other locations and additional minor work within the major
work locations or work categories. When the rehabilitation plan is completed in one stage, the cost estimates and
listings should include all levels and types of work in sufficient detail.
2.3.4 GUIDANCE ON REHABILITATION OF TRACK AND ROADWAY COMPONENTS

(2005)
a. Among its various functions, the track system serves to distribute the large, concentrated wheel loads longitudinally,
laterally, and vertically away from the wheel contact area on the rail surface. A well constructed and maintained track
will distribute the loads in a relatively uniform fashion, with each component supporting its share of the load. Thus, 1
one objective of track rehabilitation is to restore the track structure so that the wheel loads will be properly supported,
without overstressing any of the four main track system components: rail, ties, ballast, and subgrade.
b. Appreciation of the integrated nature of railway track components is key to effective rehabilitation. To withstand
loading without an excessive rate of deterioration, the various track components must interact properly. An effective
rehabilitation project will address each component and the interaction among them over time, with emphasis on
obtaining the best and most uniform track condition within the available budget. 3
2.3.4.2 Roadway, Subgrade, and Vegetation
a. Roadway. The roadway includes all railroad structures and property within the boundaries of the right-of-way,
including the earth subgrade on which the track is built, drainage ditches and structures, and the vegetation growing on
the property. Rehabilitation planning should include an examination of the entire roadway width to determine if there
are any conditions present which adversely affect current or future operations. Cut or embankment side slope defects 4
may not be obvious unless a close examination is made.
b. Subgrade.
(1) Subgrade defects are most often the result of poor surface drainage or water trapped within the subgrade.
Subgrade defects may cause loss of track support gradually over time or lead to a sudden support failure. Unless
there is damage (a washout) from a heavy storm or a side slope failure has occurred, subgrade defects are usually
difficult to see, especially in their early stages. Suspect signs include locations where track does not hold surface,
where ties are covered with mud, and where trees or poles on cut or embankment side slopes lean more than usual.
(2) Diagnosing subgrade problems and prescribing effective remedial work can be difficult unless done by a person
with good knowledge and experience with this subject. Without good diagnosis, remedial work can sometimes
make the problem worse. In addition, correcting subgrade defects is often expensive. Thus, this is one aspect of
rehabilitation where obtaining professional help is advisable.

c. Vegetation.
(1) An important aspect of restoring and maintaining good track and roadway condition is managing vegetation:
preventing it from growing in the roadbed, keeping it cut to the proper levels adjacent to the track, and promoting
its growth where required to control erosion.
(2) The control of vegetation has more than just esthetic consideration along the roadway. Vegetation which chokes
ballast, ditches, and other facilities soon creates drainage and track maintenance problems. Uncontrolled
vegetation can also result in safety hazards for personnel in executing their duties. Objects covered by weeds
cannot be seen and become a tripping hazard. Brush-covered signs and derails cannot be observed. Inspections
cannot be performed adequately when excessive vegetation is present. In addition, excess vegetation next to
timber bridges can be a fire hazard and should be removed or trimmed back.
(3) If vegetation has been allowed to grow within the ballast section, later removal or spraying will not undo all the
harm done to the ballast, as extensive root structures, plant matter, and trapped dirt will have partly or completely
fouled the ballast (filled the voids between ballast pieces), preventing good drainage from the ballast section.
(4) Vegetation must also be controlled at grade crossings. Most states have rules for the dimensions of the areas
adjacent to crossings which must be cleared of vegetation or other obstructions to view.
2.3.4.3 Drainage and Drainage Structures
a. Drainage is perhaps the most ignored element in track rehabilitation plans, yet poor drainage is responsible for most
subgrade problems and promotes track deterioration.
b. Good drainage must begin with a well-draining ballast section and extend to side ditches and other drainage structures,
which should be kept clear of debris and silt, and properly sized to efficiently carry away storm water flow. The
objective is to remove rainfall and runoff water away from the track and roadway as quickly as practical, ensuring that
water drained from one location does not cause a problem at another.
c. Water trapped in the ballast section leads to rapid loss of track surface and excessive tie deterioration.
d. Where bridges span waterways, good drainage includes clearing debris and drift from bridge piers and piles to avoid
excessive forces from stream flow which can destabilize bridge support or move a bridge out of proper alignment.
2.3.4.4 Ballast and Sub-ballast
a. Ballast and Sub-ballast Functions. Ballast and sub-ballast (if present) anchor the track in its proper alignment, support
the track to maintain proper surface, drain water away from the track structure, and distribute the loads from the rail
and ties to the subgrade at greatly reduced pressure (to prevent overstressing the subgrade). During rehabilitation
planning, a check should be made to determine whether the ballast is accomplishing these functions.
b. Raising Track When Ballast is Fouled.
(1) A common remedial action when ballast is fouled is to unload clean ballast on top (often 3 to 6 inches) and
resurface and raise the track with a tamping machine. This type of remedial action may actually increase the
amount of water held in the fouled ballast, aggravating the drainage problem. As the track is raised through the
new ballast, pockets formed by the ties are left in the old fouled ballast. These pockets can allow the ballast to trap
more water.
(2) When a decision is made to raise track above old fouled ballast, the ballast shoulders along the sides of the ties
should first be plowed away, with this material spread out on the right-of-way or removed from the site so that it
does not adversely affect local drainage. Plowing the old fouled ballast away from the tie ends opens the old

Track
ballast pockets formed by the ties. If clean ballast is then added, and the track raised, water will be able to drain
through the ballast shoulders.
c. Fouled Ballast and Track Surface. As a general rule, track surface will deteriorate about twice as fast in fouled ballast
as it will in clean ballast.
2.3.4.5 Ties
a. Types. Wood is the most common material used for ties in North America. Concrete, steel, and other types may be
viable alternatives, but their cost and suitability need to be investigated for each situation.
b. Wood Ties. Wood crossties are classified as either hardwood or softwood. Hardwoods resist mechanical damage more
readily and are often placed in areas where the crosstie will likely wear out before it decays excessively. Softwood
crossties, on the other hand, will absorb preservatives more deeply and therefore better resist decay. Anti-splitting
devices (end plates) are recommended for hardwoods and other wood species which have a tendency to split at the
ends. Softwood ties are often acceptable for light density/slow speed lines, and are available at lesser cost. One
disadvantage is that spike-holding ability of softwood ties is about 1/3 to ½ that for hardwoods. This may be an
important factor, especially on curves of medium or sharper degree.
c. Wood Tie Size and Quality. For short line applications, a 6”x8”x8’6” cross tie is often adequate. Where heavier
tonnage is expected, a 7"x 9" (mainline) crosstie may be more appropriate. Other options, especially for tracks which
experience only occasional use or are mainly used for temporary storage of empty cars, are “mainline reject” ties or
industrial quality ties. Mainline reject ties are usually ones that have been manufactured for a particular Class I
railroad’s order, but rejected by its inspectors, often due to minor defects or slight dimensional shortage. For lighter
tonnage, typical of a short line railroad, these defects may be irrelevant, leading to an better overall tie being available
1
at lower cost. Industrial quality ties are usually lowest in quality due to material and/or treatment. In any case, the
railroad should have the ties thoroughly inspected, before purchase, by a qualified person knowledgeable of the
railroad’s requirements to ensure the ties are suitable.
d. Switch and Bridge Ties. Due to their critical nature, switch and bridge ties should not vary from the standard “Grade”
quality used by Class I railroads. 3
e. Spiking Pattern.
(1) Each rail on every tie should have a tie plate. A minimum of two spikes per plate should be required (one on the
gage side and one diagonally across from it on the field side).
(2) Additional spikes are recommended in curves of 3 degrees or greater, or in softwood ties. 4
(3) Avoid allowing the head of a spike to be in a position where it can exert pressure against the end of a joint bar to
reduce the likelihood of rail kinking and/or tie skewing.
f. Tie Plugs. If spikes are pulled (to allow rail replacement, for example), tie plugs should be used to fill spike holes
before the ties are respiked.
g. Determining Replacement Needs.
(1) When the rehabilitation plan is being prepared, three separate tie-count categories should be recorded: defective
ties, non-defective (good) ties, and marginal ties (those which seem functional now, but which may become
defective within five years), all on a per-track panel basis for the sample section. For the initial estimate,
percentages can then be applied to the sampling frame to roughly estimate total costs. Differing levels of
rehabilitation can then be explored, first with elimination of all defective ties, then with replacement of various
proportions of the marginal ties depending upon the availability of funding. Once the affordable level of
rehabilitation is established, each tie to be replaced should be marked.

(2) Crosstie defects are defined in federal regulations. It is important to note in light-density applications that spike-
holding capability and the support of rail joints are the key factors in determining whether the ties are performing
their useful function. This helps in determining which ties are defective, and which, despite some deterioration,
are still marginally effective. Joint ties should be judged more strictly.
(3) It is in the area of crossties, more than any other, where “partial rehabilitation” can still pay off when budgets are
tight. Each joint unsupported by a tie represents a potential derailment site. Nests of four and five defective ties
will rapidly accelerate the deterioration of adjacent ties. Breaking that nest by inserting even one tie in the middle
will prevent much of this collateral damage, avoiding a bad situation turning worse.
(4) As in other respects, the inter-relationships among the project elements must be considered. If significant rail
replacement is to be accomplished in the project, or if the track is to raised or heavily surfaced, much greater
numbers of “marginal” ties will become “defective” ties. Although a marginal tie may be supporting the rail and
holding its spikes in its undisturbed state, disturbing it by pulling the spikes or by heavy tamping may well destroy
its functionality. Where such activities are planned, a contingency account should be established for additional tie
replacement (or a heavier replacement percentage used in determining the final quantities).
2.3.4.6 Rail and Fastenings (Including Jointed and CW Rail)
a. Size. While larger rail sizes (115-lb and greater) are usually more desirable, rail always depends on its support from
below - through the ties, ballast and subgrade. Heavier rail is no cure for handling heavier loads when supporting
conditions are insufficient.
b. Rail Assessment. Existing rail may be acceptable if:
(1) The head does not have excessive top or side wear. Top and side wear limits will depend on rail weight and
original size of the rail head, as well as factors such as: location of the rail (tangent, curve, turnout, main track,
yard track), traffic level, and operating speed. Marks on joint bars indicating contact from wheel flanges may be
an indication of worn rail.
(2) If worn only on one side, and head height is still sufficient. In this case, the rail can often be turned and the new
gage corner re-ground to a properly rounded contour. This option may not be practical, for example, for rail from
a sharp curve which has a pronounced bend to it.
(3) The web and base do not have deep pitting and significant material loss from corrosion.
(4) The rail ends (if jointed rail) are not severely battered (although it may sometimes be economical to have battered
ends cropped off and rail redrilled and reused).
(5) The rail does not have an excessive number of external defects (such as engine burns) or internal defects.
(6) The rail is not excessively surface bent (bent vertically from lack of support).
(7) A structural evaluation of the rehabilitated track shows the rail and rail joints will be sufficient to withstand the
loading.
c. Joints. Where rail is jointed, rehabilitation should include re-tightening all joints, if not done within the last year. If
rail is replaced, the initial joint tightening may last only a few months, as joint bars settle into place. In this case, a
second tightening should be planned about 3 months after installation. (To determine the need, a sampling of bolts may
be checked with a track wrench to determine if bolt tension is still adequate. If a person can put a quarter turn or so on
the nut without great effort, the bolts need re-tightening). As a general rule, where joints are very loose, the wheel
loads on joint ties will be about 50% higher than when the joints are tight.

Track
d. Anchors. Sufficient anchoring is important, especially where rail is continuously welded. During rehabilitation
planning, the rail should be observed to determine if it is creeping in one direction or another and if ties are skewing.
Rail on steep grades and at the bottom of grades is especially prone to movement if enough anchors are not present.
These areas may need to have all existing anchors removed, the rail re-stressed (thermally or length adjusted), and then
be re-anchored with a sufficient number of good quality anchors set firmly against the ties.
2.3.4.7 Track Surface and Alignment
If sections of track have poor surface and alignment, the probable cause should be investigated, as other work may be
necessary before resurfacing and relining is done:
a. Is the rate of surface and alignment deterioration about normal - due to traffic over time without any remedial work
done during the period?
b. Is poor surface mainly near joints, suggesting bolts need to be retightened (and perhaps joint ties replaced)?
c. Is poor drainage, poor tie condition, fouled ballast, or possible subgrade defect contributing to the problem? If so these
must be corrected before resurfacing or relining.
2.3.4.8 Turnouts
a. The condition of turnouts located within the area to be rehabilitated should be evaluated. Turnouts are high
maintenance expense items due to the large forces to which they are subjected. Turnouts are also an area of high
derailment potential when not properly maintained. Specific federal regulations govern various minimum aspects of
turnout inspection and maintenance.
1
b. Turnouts not in use or not likely to be used should be removed from track. This will save valuable railroad resources
and reduce the potential for derailment. If the turnouts cannot be removed entirely, they should at least have their
switch points, frogs, heel blocks, and switch plates replaced with regular rails. Turnouts should be removed from
curves where possible.
3
c. The general condition of the turnout should be evaluated with the following items being observed and noted:
(1) The size of a turnout is dictated by the number of its frog. The larger the frog number the smaller the frog angle
allowing for higher train speeds through the diverging route of the turnout. Typically, most railroads do not use
turnouts with less than a No. 10 frog in mainline track and crossovers. Turnouts in yards and industry tracks are
more site specific. Data contained in Plan No. 910-41 of the AREMA Portfolio of Trackwork Plans may be useful
in determining the turnout number. 4
(2) Frogs should not be excessively worn or chipped. A frog gauge can be used to make this determination. Special
attention should be given to spring frogs to ensure the proper springs, housings, and clearances are in good
condition, and that the frog is operating properly. All frog bolts should be in place and tight. Guarding faces,
whether on the frog or by guard rails, should be checked for proper gage, condition, and position.
(3) The condition of the switch ties should be inspected particularly under the frog, switch points, and rail joints. Any
indication of pumping in the track should be investigated and repaired. Cribbing and shoulder cleaning or
replacement are good initial repair techniques. More aggressive action up to and including removal and
undercutting may be required for more severe conditions.
(4) Switch points should not be excessively worn or chipped. Switch points should be securely fastened with the
appropriate switch rods, heel blocks, and clips, with all bolts present and tight, and all cotter keys in place. Ballast
and debris should be kept clear of the switch points to ensure that they move freely when thrown. Switch points
should also be of the proper length and type for the turnout with appropriate switch plates. Recommended switch

point lengths can be found in AREMA Plan No. 910-41 of the AREMA Portfolio of Trackwork Plans. Switch
points should be flush against the rail with no space between the point and stock rail.
(5) Switch stands should be securely fastened to the head block ties and in good working order. Connecting rods
should be securely fastened to the switch rods and switch stand with the crib areas occupied by the rods free from
ballast that may interfere with their movement. Switch stands should hold the switch points tight against the stock
rail. Switch stands should throw with equal effort for both movements. Switch indicator signs or targets should be
in good condition and clearly visible and installed per the railroad’s operating rules.
(6) The general condition of the switch plates, rail braces, heel blocks, and other turnout components should be
inspected. Rail braces should be tight against the stock rails.
(7) The general condition of the rail, joint bars, insulated joint bars, spikes, tie plates, rail anchors, and other general
track materials should be inspected. Tie plates should be added to turnouts that do not have them. Rail anchors
may also need to be added depending upon the class of track.
(8) The condition of the track surface and alignment through and adjacent to the turnout should be inspected. Track
gage at the frog, guard check gage, and guard face gage should be measured and recorded.
d. The AREMA Portfolio of Trackwork Plans contains many turnout material plans and should be consulted when
developing a Rehabilitation Plan.
e. Refer to Chapter 5, Section 5.11, Recommended Practices for Switch Point and Stock Rail Changeout (1995) of the
this Manual for more information regarding turnouts.
2.3.4.9 Yards and Sidings vs. Main Tracks
a. Yard and siding tracks are often subject to different train operating requirements than main tracks. Yard and siding
tracks are often operated at lower speeds than main tracks. Some sidings and yard tracks may only see an occasional
train, while others may see significant tonnage.
b. A rehabilitation plan for a yard or siding track largely depends on the expected use for that track. A siding frequently
used by trains to meet other trains should be in a condition similar to the adjacent main track, while infrequently used
tracks could be maintained at a lower standard.
c. The spacing between yard tracks, sidings, and ladder tracks should be inspected for adequate clearance. Many states
have specific rules for the required clearances measured from the track centerline. Some older sidings or yard tracks
may have lesser clearances than modern railroad operating requirements may dictate, and some states may require
tracks to be brought to proper clearances when the tracks are rehabilitated, see Chapter 28 of this Manual for more
information.
d. Public or private grade crossings in yards or sidings can present a significant safety hazard for both motorists and
railroad personnel and restrict track storage capacity. Attempts should be made to close and remove or consolidate
grade crossings where possible. Consideration should be given to placing “STOP” or other traffic control signs.
Approval from state or local authorities may be required before closing or altering any public crossings.
e. Lack of adequate drainage is often a problem in rail yards, particularly large flat yards. The condition of existing
drainage facilities should be inspected as well as the general condition of drainage in the yard. With some soil types
and lack of an adequate ballast section, yard tracks that are used to store loaded cars for long periods of time can
experience subgrade failure, as evidenced by subgrade material squeezing up between or around ties, or non uniform
track settlement. Inadequate drainage leads to accelerated tie decay, therefore tie condition in yards should be
evaluated. The location of any existing drain pipes should be determined prior to beginning any track work. Drains
should be clear of debris and vegetation and clearly marked. Operators of equipment that could potentially damage

Track
drains should be briefed of the location of drainage structures before commencing work. Drainage structures should be
repaired or replaced if damaged or in poor condition.
f. The general condition of the yard should be evaluated with regards to trash, debris, or other materials fouling tracks or
walkways. Walkways should be kept clear to maintain a safe area for trainmen or other employees to perform their
required duties.
g. Yard tracks should be free of vegetation so that inspection of track and railroad equipment can be made, and the yard is
safe for trainmen switching cars in the yard. Vegetation is usually an indicator of fouled ballast and poor drainage in a
yard.
h. A yard should be evaluated to determine if derails are warranted where yard tracks meet main tracks. Great care should
be exercised when placing derails to ensure that derailing cars are directed into the proper location with regard to any
main tracks. Derails should be clearly marked or signed.
a. A study should be conducted to assess traffic and site conditions for a crossing intended for rehabilitation. This study
should include the items below, which will help establish crossing and protection design requirements:
(1) Amount and character of vehicle and train traffic.
(2) Train and vehicle operating speeds.
(3) Crossing angle and horizontal and vertical approaches of road and track.
1
(4) Available sight distances, from all directions, for vehicles approaching the track and from trains approaching the
crossing.
(5) Previous accident or incident history.

3
b. It is suggested that a team perform the crossing study. The team may include a representatives of the state or local
highway department, state Department of Transportation (or Public Utilities), local governing agency, and the railroad.
c. The investigation team and the railroad should select the most cost-effective crossing surface based on the study results
and also determine the need for crossing protection or additional protection.
d. The design and construction of the crossing should be done in accordance with applicable railroad and highway 4
industry standards. The following references will be useful for this purpose:
(1) Chapter 5, Part 8 of this manual.
(2) Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, FHWA.
(3) Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Handbook, FHWA.
e. Grade crossings should be evaluated using a corridor approach to see if there are clusters of grade crossings where
some may be closed to vehicular traffic and the traffic rerouted to other nearby crossings. Reducing the number of
grade crossings improves public safety and saves valuable railroad resources. Approval from state or local authorities
may be required before closing or altering any public crossings.
f. Sufficient sight distance should be maintained around grade crossings. Some states require railroads to keep their rights
of way clear of vegetation and other obstructions for a prescribed distance along the track from the crossing to optimize
vehicle train sight distances.

g. The crossing surface condition and type should be noted. Generally, the grade crossing surface should provide a similar
ride quality to the motorist as the adjacent roadway. Grade crossing materials can include gravel, timber, timber and
asphalt, concrete, rubber, steel, and others. Timber crossings fastened with lag screws or drive spikes should be
inspected to ensure the fasteners are snug and not working out of the timbers thus presenting a hazard for motorists.
h. Grade crossings can be an area of poor track drainage, and evidence of poor drainage could include pumping or muddy
track at or near the crossing. Track gage, alignment, and surface should be checked in and near the crossing. Ditches
near crossings, particularly at the four corners of a crossing, should be in good condition and constructed and
maintained to convey water away from the crossing.
i. Each crossing should be inspected to ensure that the existing warning devices are present and in good condition. At a
minimum, each public crossing should be equipped with standard reflectorized crossbuck signs. Some grade crossings
may have automatic warning devices, and they should be checked to ensure that they are in proper working order.
j. For grade crossings with sidewalks, particular attention should be given to ensure a smooth surface for pedestrians to
cross the tracks especially at the flange way openings.
k. Each crossing should have its unique DOT identifying number displayed at the crossing. It is good practice to have an
emergency telephone number displayed at crossings, particularly those with active warning devices, that law
enforcement personnel or the general public can use to report any problems with the crossing location.
l. Refer to Chapter 5, Part 8 of this Manual for more details regarding highway-railway crossings.
2.3.4.11 Bridges
a. Bridges can be an area of high maintenance for railroads. Light density and short line railroads often have bridges that
may have been designed and constructed to a lower standard than bridges on main lines.
b. The alignment and surface across a bridge and the bridge approaches should be consistent with no dips or swags.
c. Refer to Chapter 18, Part 3 of this Manual for more details relating to bridges.
2.3.4.12 Terminal Areas
a. Terminal areas often contain a number of different facilities or activities. Inadequate drainage around terminal areas
can cause many problems. The existing drainage facilities should be evaluated as well as the general drainage
condition as evidenced by standing water, or other problems.
b. Yard roads, air, water, power, and fuel lines should be inspected with their condition being noted.
c. Utilities, both overhead and underground, sound barriers, and similar items should be evaluated.
d. Hazardous materials may be present in terminal areas. If the materials must be moved or disturbed, then the hazardous
materials must be stored and handled in accordance with applicable laws, rules, and regulations.
e. Refer to Chapter 14 of this Manual for more information regarding yards and terminals.
2.3.4.13 Signals and Communication
a. Signal and communication facilities include, among others, wayside signals, interlockings, highway-rail crossing
signals, hot box detectors, and radio systems.
b. The location of signal and communication facilities should be noted with regards to the availability of access by
maintenance personnel.

Track
c. Signal locations and foundations should be inspected for adequate clearance, embankments, backfill conditions, and
elevation or height above nearby water ways, and the potential for flooding.
d. Specific federal regulations govern the minimum maintenance and inspection of railroad signal systems. Additional
information regarding signal and communications facilities can be found in the AREMA Communications and Signals
Manual of Recommended Practice.
2.3.4.14 Buildings
a. There are many types of buildings used in railroad service: office buildings, depots, shops, sheds, and others. All
buildings should be in habitable condition and safe for their intended use. Railroad buildings may be old and subjected
to years of deferred maintenance therefore careful inspection may be required.
b. Poor drainage around buildings can lead to excessive decay and deteriorate the structural stability of a building.
Buildings should be checked for standing water near or against the buildings and for adequate gutters and down spouts,
as well as noting where the water is directed or handled.
c. Buildings should be checked for leaks in the roof, around windows and doors, and through walls.
d. Some older buildings may contain asbestos products or lead based paints, which should be handled pursuant to the
latest applicable rules and regulations.
e. The condition of heating, air conditioning, water, sanitary sewer, electrical, and other mechanical systems should be
inspected and evaluated.
1
f. Buildings should be checked for adequate and proper ingress and egress to ensure that those pathways are clear.
2.3.4.15 Utilities
a. The location and type of utilities occupying or crossing railroad property should be properly marked and their locations
recorded on the appropriate maps or plans. A copy of the agreement authorizing a utility crossing should be acquired. 3
b. Any potential conflict between a utility and the proposed rehabilitation work should be reviewed well in advance of the
rehabilitation work so that any necessary utility adjustments can be made. Agreements concerning affected utilities
should be located and reviewed, as utility adjustments may have to be performed by the utility owner at utility expense.
c. Refer to Chapter 1, Part 5 of this Manual for more information regarding the installation of utilities on railroad
property. 4
2.3.4.16 Clearances
a. Before any rehabilitation work is performed the overhead and side clearances along the length of railroad to be
rehabilitated should be verified and recorded. Vertical clearances are measured relative to the plane produced by the
tops of both rails. Side clearances are measured from the centerline of the track. Many states have rules regarding the
required clearances in these areas. See Chapter 28 of this Manual for more information.
b. Overhead and side clearances should be reviewed at shops, terminal areas, sidings, and industrial spurs. Areas with less
than minimum required clearance should be properly identified and marked.
c. Overhead clearances should be verified and recorded where overhead utility lines cross railroad property and tracks.
The National Electric Safety code serves as the national standard for electric utilities.
d. Overhead and side clearances should be reviewed and recorded at all bridges or structures that cross railroad track.
Clearances should also be evaluated through all railroad tunnels.

e. Further information on clearances can be found in Chapter 28 of this Manual.
2.3.5 FINAL PLANS AND WORK PREPARATION (2000)
a. If work is to be performed under contract, final (contract) plans and specifications should spell out all work in detail. If
not previously done, a final check and inspection should be conducted to assure correctness of work requirements,
work locations, and work and material quantities.
b. All ties, rail, joint bars, bridge members, and other components intended for replacement should be individually
marked, as well as the limits for all work locations. When marking defective parts, especially ties, bridge members,
switch points, and frogs, those items which are in marginal condition (less than three to five years additional life)
should also be included (and marked) for replacement.
c. Before final plans and estimates are prepared, ditch profiles and cross sections should be taken to determine final ditch
gradients and verify earthwork quantities. This information is also needed to specify the exact work to be done and to
guide the work in the field.
d. Surveying existing and calculating proposed profiles (elevation measurements from a survey along the top of the rail at
points 50 to 200 feet apart) may be helpful when ballast is added to the track and the track is to be raised by three or
more inches. These profiles will help in checking the final surface and for checking the ballast quantities actually used.
Taking top-of-rail profiles is recommended where sufficient overhead clearances may be of concern. A simple way of
estimating track raise is to dig out the ends of a sampling of ties and measure the depth of clean ballast under the tie.
e. Clearance requirements should be marked on the plans and at the site locations.
2.3.6 CONSTRUCTION AND ON-SITE INSPECTION (2000)
a. Quality on-site inspection, during all rehabilitation work, is an essential element for a successful track rehabilitation.
While such inspection is certainly no substitute for professionally done track work, it is an effective means of assuring
that all work is, in fact, performed according to the plans and specifications.
b. On-site inspection during rehabilitation work can discover deficiencies or errors which would be difficult to detect
after the work has been done, or expensive to correct if discovered only after work was completed. Such items include:
(1) Was all excess vegetation removed before ballast was unloaded?
(2) Where track in crossings was to be completely rebuilt, was the old ballast completely stripped?; was the
subgrade properly graded?; was geotextile fabric installed?; were all new ties installed?
(3) If earthwork was performed, was it properly placed and compacted?
(4) If sub-ballast was specified, was it placed to the specified depth and properly compacted?
(5) Did the track actually receive its full intended raise (or were the rough spots just smoothed out)?
(6) Was every tie tamped; did each tie get the designated number of insertions by the tamper; if specified, did joint
ties (on the joint side only) get an additional insertion?
(7) Did all tie and ballast material meet the required specifications?
(8) Was old, fouled ballast in shoulders fully plowed out before new ballast was unloaded?
(9) Were culverts properly positioned and the site properly graded properly before culverts were installed?

Track
c. It is recommended that the work be inspected by knowledgeable and experienced people who are familiar with the
plans and specifications.


18
Part 3
Bridges
— 2002 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 Bridge Management Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-2

3.1.1 Definition (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-2
3.1.2 Elements (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-3
3.1.3 Management Actions (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-4
1
3.2 Construction Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-5
3.2.1 Introduction (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-5
3.2.2 Major Bridge Components (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-5
3.2.3 Types Of Bridges (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-7
3.3 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-9 3

3.3.1 Purpose Of Inspection (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-9
3.3.2 Inspection Reporting (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-9
3.3.3 Results Of Inspections (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-9
3.3.4 The Inspection Plan (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-10
3.3.5 Common Inspection Items (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-10
3.3.6 Inspecting Masonry Bridges (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-10
3.3.7 Inspecting Timber Bridges (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-11
3.3.8 Inspecting Iron and Steel Bridges (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-12
3.4 Bridge Inspection Checklist (To Be Developed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-14
LIST OF FIGURES
18-3-1 Typical Concrete and Masonry Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-15

18-3-2 Typical Timber Trestle Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-16
18-3-3 Typical Deck Plate Girder (DPG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-17
18-3-4 Typical Through Plate Girder (TPG). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-18
18-3-5 Typical Types of Trusses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-19
18-3-6 Typical Truss Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-20
18-3-7 Typical Types of Bearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-21

18-3-8 Typical Concrete Trestle Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3-22
FOREWORD
The American Railway Engineering Association recommends a minimum bridge inspection frequency of once per year. In the
case of short lines and light density lines, an annual inspection by a qualified bridge inspector may not be feasible. However,
interim inspections by railroad personnel who are knowledgeable of the basics of bridge inspection may be used to supplement
the inspections by qualified inspectors.
These interim inspections are essential for monitoring general bridge conditions, identifying suspected problems or
deficiencies, and for providing useful information to assist a qualified bridge engineer/inspector. The value of regular,
thorough bridge inspections cannot be overemphasized.
This part is intended for railroad personnel who may not be specifically qualified to perform detailed bridge inspections, but
with the guidance provided here, may permit them to make necessary interim inspections. Suspected problems or deficiencies
detected through these inspections should be reported to an experienced railroad bridge engineer for final diagnosis.
Additional information on recommended inspection points, procedures and reports is contained in Chapter 7 Timber
Structures, Chapter 8 Concrete Structures and Foundations, and Chapter 15 Steel Structures.
Plans, specifications, and guidance for the design, rehabilitation, or major repair of any bridge should be obtained from an
experienced railroad bridge engineer using the criteria in Volume 2. Likewise, an experienced railroad bridge engineer should
supervise all construction, rehabiltation, and major repairs at the field site.
Information on live loads for bridges on light density railroad lines may be found in Chapter 15, Article 9. 1.3.13 Fatigue
(2007), paragraph (q).
SECTION 3.1 BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
a. A bridge management program is a process for making cost-effective decisions regarding the inspection, maintenance,
repair, rehabilitation, and replacement of bridges, as well as appropriate operating policies for trains crossing the
bridges. The primary objective of a bridge management program is to provide for the continued safe operation over the
bridges.
b. A bridge management program may employ a computer and software to store information, perform calculations, and
produce a variety of reports. Or, it may rely on information recorded on paper and written policies to guide decisions.
In either case, a bridge management program is intended to be a rational, sytematic process for making decisions.

Bridges
3.1.2 ELEMENTS (2000)
The following articles describe the elements (the process and information) required to establish and maintain a bridge
management program. If bridge work is done by contract, the owner should check to see that this (or a similar) process has
been followed and to ensure that appropriate conclusions have been reached, as ultimately, it is the owner who is responsible
for the bridges and for assuring their safe condition.
3.1.2.2 Inventory
Generally, the inventory is a listing and description of all bridges on the railroad. It includes drawings, plans, and all other
information which describes a bridge, its location, current load rating, and any clearance or load restrictions. Before any
assessment of a bridge is made, the files should be checked to see that they contain a set of drawings which show the bridge as
it currently exists - that any changes that may have been made during construction or later modifications have accounted for.
3.1.2.3 Repair History
This is a record of repairs and modifications which have been done to a bridge since it was constructed. This record will help
in assessing a bridge and in checking or updating the drawings.
3.1.2.4 Inspection
This is the process of examining a bridge to determine the type and severity of any defects or deterioration which may be 1
present. The observations made during an inspection should be thoroughly documented, and records of past inspections
should be kept and reviewed prior to future inspections.
3.1.2.5 Condition Evaluation
Generally, this is a determination of whether the bridge is suitable for carrying its intended loading. It includes an assessment
of all bridge elements, major and minor, and is based on bridge design, repair history, current inspection, and on current and 3
future traffic and load requirements.
3.1.2.6 Cost Estimating
Based on the condition evaluation, cost estimates are made for correcting any defects or deficiencies.
3.1.2.7 Budgeting and Project Prioritization 4

Based on the condition evaluations, cost estimates, and required traffic and load-carrying requirements, corrective work on the
bridges is prioritized within allowable budget levels.
3.1.2.8 Work or Action Plan
Generally, this is a final determination of what action will be taken on each bridge. It includes plans and schedules for the
required corrective work. In cases where work needs exceed the budget, and after potential adverse affects on operations have
been assessed, it may also include placing certain restrictions (slow orders, load limits) on a bridge until corrective work can
be performed. It may also include the decision to inspect certain bridges or reported defective components more frequently.

3.1.3 MANAGEMENT ACTIONS (2000)
Management actions resulting from the bridge management process may be generally grouped into the categories described in
the following paragraphs. The intent of a bridge management program is to produce the most cost-effective combination of
these actions within the allowable budget level and with proper consideration of operating requirements to carry traffic over
the line. In practice, there is often no clear dividing line between some of the action categories, particularly between
maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation. Typically the action category is based on the amount and type of work to be done, and
sometimes a bridge project may include action in more than one category on a single bridge. Once action is taken, bridge
inventory (plans, drawings) and repair history should be updated accordingly.
3.1.3.2 Observation
The action plan may include making a list of bridges or components which, while still in acceptable condition, warrant more
frequent inspection to prevent unacceptable conditions from occurring before the next regular inspection is performed. It may
also be advisable to increase the inspection frequency for any bridges on which operating restrictions have been placed.
3.1.3.3 Maintenance
Generally, this is work to keep a bridge in its current, safe condition so it can continue to carry loads at the required capacity.
This work includes necessary housekeeping such as cleaning structures to retard deterioration of members subject to rusting or
decay, patch painting, applying preservatives to the bridge, approach maintenance, and cleaning debris from bearings. It also
includes removal of nearby drift, debris, and unwanted vegetation to reduce the likelihood of fire starting or spreading to the
bridge and to prevent scour from occurring around supports of bridges over waterways or drainage pathways.
3.1.3.4 Repair
Generally, this is work on a bridge which is overall in sound condition, but has a few defects or deficiencies which may
actually or potentially threaten its desired load-carrying capacity. Repair work typically involves replacing or strengthening
defective or deteriorating members, replacing broken or nonfunctional fasteners, posting critical piles or posts, pointing and
grouting of masonry structures, and repair welding of steel components.
3.1.3.5 Rehabilitation
More extensive than repair work, it involves restoration of a bridge which has serious defects, or in overall condition, only
barely allows handling its desired load and traffic requirements. It may also involve restoring a bridge so that operating
restrictions may be removed. Generally, the intent of rehabilitation is to extend the service life of a bridge by many years.
3.1.3.6 Upgrading
This work involves increasing a bridge’s load-carrying capability by the addition of members (such as stringers) or by
strengthening currently sound members with cover plates or by other modifications so that additional load can be safely
handled.
3.1.3.7 Replacement
When a structure cannot be economically repaired or strengthened to permit continued safe operation or desired upgrading,
replacement is the next option. In many cases, some or all of the supporting components (the piers) may be saved and a new
deck and superstructure can be built on top of them. Otherwise, an entirely new structure may be needed.

Bridges
3.1.3.8 Operating Restrictions
a. When needed bridge work exceeds allowable budget levels, one option is to place operating restrictions on a bridge
which is still in overall sound condition, but does require repair, or possibly, rehabilitation. These restrictions may be:
required slower speeds for trains while traveling over the bridge, limits on loads allowed over the bridge, or limits on
the type of engines or (loaded) cars permitted on the bridge.
b. The ability to continue safe operation over a bridge if operating restrictions are applied should be determined only by
an experienced railroad bridge engineer. Recommendations for the appropriate restrictions should come from the
bridge engineer who will consider bridge condition and railroad operating requirements in producing an appropriate
recommendation.
SECTION 3.2 CONSTRUCTION FUNDAMENTALS
To understand the basics of bridge inspection it is important to first understand the different types of bridges, their general
design, and to know the names of their components and what their purpose is. The following articles in this section are
intended to provide this basic information.
3.2.2 MAJOR BRIDGE COMPONENTS (2000) 1

Railroad bridges, regardless of type, have some common elements. These common major components are described in the
following articles. With some bridges, it may be difficult to clearly distinguish these major components because of the way
the bridge was designed, as two or more major components may be combined together within the construction.
3
3.2.2.2 Substructure
a. The substructure transfers the entire weight of the bridge to the earth or rock which supports the bridge and its loading.
It’s two main components are abutments and piers, which vary with bridge design, and in turn, contain other
components.
4
b. It is preferable to have a bridge supported on rock due to its strength. To accomplish this in situations where a layer of
rock is available with minimal earth covering, excavation is done to expose the rock, allowing the substructure to be
built directly on it.
c. Piers generally consist of footings, columns (or pile bents), and caps. The footing supports the rest of the pier, and in
simplest form, rests directly on the rock. When a suitable layer of rock is not readily available, a spread footing which
bears on earth can be used. The spread footing spreads the load over a greater area, allowing the weaker earth to
support the bridge without settlement.
d. When it is not possible to obtain sufficient bearing directly on the earth, piles can driven until their bottom ends reach
a layer of rock, or down to a depth which allows the friction between the sides of the pile and the surrounding earth to
provide proper support. In these cases, no footing is used.
e. Pile substructures can consist of piers or bents. A bent generally consists of piles that extend up to a cap on which the
superstructure bears. A pier is typically made from stone or concrete which is supported on a timber or concrete mat
on top of the piles and which, in turn, has a bridge seat at the top on which the superstructure is supported. While

bridge piers are generally of a solid type of construction, bents are of an open type of construction and must be
adequately braced to make the individual piles work in concert with the rest of the piles in the bent.
f. The bridge seat or bearing is the interface between the superstructure and the substructure. The loads from the
superstructure are transmitted to the substructure either by direct bearing or through some type of bearing structure.
g. Every bridge will have an abutment each each end. This is the interface area where the relatively flexible track
structure connects with the relatively stiff bridge structure. This area is susceptible to greater impact and compaction
and will often require additional attention to ensure that a dip does not form at the end of the bridge.
h. Abutments typically consist of a backwall and wingwalls. The backwall is built directly against the end of the
embankment on which the adjacent track is built. The wingwalls are built on either side of the backwall help keep the
end of the embankment in place. Stone or concrete abutments are most common for larger structures. Steel or timber
end bents typically serve as abutments for shorter trestle-type structures.
i. The abutment must not only support the vertical loads of the bridge but also accommodate any transverse or
longitudinal horizontal loads imposed by the bridge or by the pressure of the earth behind the backwall and wingwalls.
3.2.2.3 Superstructure
a. The superstructure contains the components of the bridge supported by the substructure. Its purpose is to support the
deck and transmit all vertical, longitudinal, and transverse loads through the bearings to the substructure and then to the
supporting earth. Depending on bridge design, the superstructure may incorporate the deck as well.
b. The superstructure of an arch type bridge can be of stone, reinforced concrete or steel. Timber arches are somewhat
rare. The superstructure of a beam type bridge can range from a simple beam to a complex truss.
3.2.2.4 Deck
a. The bridge deck is the support for the track structure on the bridge. Bridge decks generally fall into two basic types:
open decks and ballast decks. An open deck has the track structure supported on ties that are directly supported by the
bridge superstructure. A ballast deck has a floor and curbs which retain a ballast section which provides lateral and
longitudinal restraint to the track structure.
b. An open deck generally makes it easier to inspect the top of the superstructure members whether masonry, timber or
steel. A ballast deck, with its floor that supports the ballast, usually makes it impossible to view the top of the
superstructure member that supports the deck. Open decks have the advantage of providing good drainage, but as the
ties are structural members, close attention must be given to the fastenings which hold the ties to the superstructure so
that adequate transverse and longitudinal restraint is provided.
c. Ballast decks use ordinary track ties which get transverse and longitudinal restraint from the ballast. This makes it
easier to maintain line and surface on the bridge since the same machinery that is used to line and surface the track on
each end of the bridge can be used on the bridge itself. Over time, as track across the bridge is repeatedly raised,
additional curbs must be added to retain the extra ballast depth, which puts more weight on the structure.
3.2.2.5 Auxiliary Members
Auxiliary bridge members, while part of the structure, usually do not assist in carrying the primary loading on the bridge.
These can include footwalks, railings, wireline supports, pipeline supports and, in some cases, roadways. These auxiliary
members are fastened to and supported by the bridge structure in a wide variety of ways and must be considered in the bridge
inspection since they not only impose additional loads on the structure but may also affect bridge safety or the safety of those
who must cross of inspect the bridge.

Bridges
3.2.3 TYPES OF BRIDGES (2000)
a. Bridges may be categorized in different ways: by the type of deck on them, by the primary type of material used in
their construction, or by their general design.
b. With respect to their design, railroad bridges may be generally categorized as beam or arch type bridges. Beam
bridges transmit their loads vertically to the supports. This type includes trestles, beam spans, girder spans, and
trusses. Arch type bridges transmit their loads diagonally to the supports. Arch bridges are commonly of masonry
construction.
c. By type of material, bridges may be categorized as masonry, timber, and steel However, it is common for a single
bridge structure to incorporate each of the basic materials within its construction. The following articles describe
bridges according to their primary construction material, along with the advantages and disadvantages of each type.
3.2.3.2 Masonry Structures: Stone, Brick, Concrete1
a. Masonry construction is generally very resistant to damage from fire and is not susceptible to attack by insects or
animals. It is usually resistant to deterioration due to chemical attacks and water, although certain chemicals can have
an adverse effect on specific types of stone and concrete. Similarly, all masonry is susceptible to damage from
repeated freeze-thaw cycles if water is able to get inside the structure through cracks or joints. With good maintenance
masonry structures can have a very long life; many masonry structures of the earliest construction are still in service
today. Aside from steel reinforced concrete, masonry materials are limited to compressive loadings. 1
b. The strength of masonry construction is dependent on the material used; even different types of stone have different
strengths. Stones can be cut in much larger sizes and more complex shapes than bricks. However, stone is very rigid
and cannot deform to accommodate uneven bearing surfaces. Therefore, it requires good, even bearing to ensure that
cracking does not occur due to uneven pressures. Brick can be stronger than some types of stone and, in specific
instances, might be more readily available and easier to work with than stone. The strength of concrete can be readily
adjusted by the mix used and concrete is generally more workable than brick since it can be formed into more complex 3
shapes and can be reinforced to permit longer spans.
3.2.3.3 Timber Structures2
a. The strength of timber varies widely with the species of wood which is being considered. Wood is also susceptible to
fire, decay and attack by termites, marine borers and other insects. The main benefit of utilizing timber, at least in the
early years of railroad construction, was the availability and workability of timber. Over time, however, the 4
availability and quality of timber, particularly in larger sizes, has declined. However, timber is still easily cut, drilled
and handled. In earlier times, timber was not treated to reduce susceptibility to decay. Later, treatment with creosote
was predominant and worked quite well. More recently, use of creosote has been discouraged for health and
environmental reasons and use of other chemical treatments has been encouraged. However, creosote remains the
better treatment.
b. Timber deforms easily under load and, as a result, when there is uneven bearing pressure, it will crush until the bearing
pressure evens out. This makes it a very useful and workable material. Timber products possess tensile strengths
between masonry and steel with most loadings designed to take advantage of wood's compressive strength. Timber
does have a service life that will vary with species, climate, treatment, and other factors.
c. Timber structures generally have timber or concrete backwalls with timber or, more recently, concrete caps and timber
stringers. The decks can be either open or ballasted.
1
See Figure 18-3-1
2
See Figure 18-3-2

3.2.3.4 Iron and Steel Structures1
a. In the early years of railroad construction, metal structures were primarily of wrought or cast iron and, as the
technology improved, steel. Over time, the use of steel alloys and the improved control over the chemistry of steel has
permitted rolling of a multitude of shapes and sizes of steel members. The improved workability of steel over masonry
and the greater strength of steel over timber made it a desirable material for construction of railroad bridges at the
height of railroad construction. With the progression of means of fastening from rivets to high strength bolts and
welding and the availability of weather resistant and higher strength steels, use of steel as a material for bridge
construction has remained predominant.
b. Iron and steel are more susceptible to damage by fire than masonry and concrete but less so than timber. Iron and steel
are susceptible to chemical attack by acids and will deteriorate due to rusting over time. Iron and steel are generally
less brittle than masonry but more brittle than timber; this makes them susceptible to fatigue failures due to repeated
flexural (bending) loadings. The superior tensile strength of steel, when compared to masonry and timber, allows the
design of structures which load members with both tensile and compressive loadings. More than masonry or timber,
metal is subject to thermal expansion and contraction. The extent of this phenomenon is directly proportional to the
length of the member and the change in the temperature. The bearings of metal structures must take these thermal
changes into account.
c. Iron and steel structures generally do not have steel abutments or backwalls. This is probably due to the general
tendency to rust or corrode when exposed to air and moisture, both of which would be present in an abutment or
backwall. Steel substructures are quite common although towers and bents founded on stone or concrete footings are
more common in older structures than in newer structures. Steel H-piles, pipe piles and other such driven structures are
generally of more recent construction.
d. More than concrete and timber, iron or steel members can be made up of multiple parts fastened and laced together to
form a structural shape. Members can be made stronger by addition of cover plates at strategic points.
e. Depending on the type of structure being observed, bearings of the superstructure on end bents, abutments, piers and
other substructure members may be of various types. In the simplest trestle type structure, the stringer may bear
directly on the top of the cap and be fastened to it. In more complex structures where the span length becomes greater,
some type of bearing that can accommodate the thermal expansion and contraction of the steel superstructure is usually
employed. In addition to thermal considerations, as the length of a span increases, the allowable deflection increases
and the bearings must be able to transmit the vertical loads to the substructure evenly while accommodating the
permissible deflection of the structure.
3.2.3.5 Deck Plate Girder Bridges2
In this type, the deck bears directly on the main girder members. These girders are similar to beam type structures with the
exception that they are usually built-up members. More conventional structures would have bolted or riveted connections and
might incorporate flange and web splices to achieve the design length. General modes of failure of the these type structures
are very much the same as those of the simpler beam type spans. However, the relative increase in the number of fasteners will
increase the areas to be observed. Secondary members such as cross frames and lateral bracing systems become more
complex as the length of the structure increases.
3.2.3.6 Through Plate Girder Bridges3
In through plate girder spans, the deck is located between the main girders and is supported on some type of floor system
which transmits the loads to the main girders. In this design, longitudinal stringers support the deck structure. The vertical
loads of the stringers are transmitted to the transverse floorbeams which, in turn, transmit the loads to the main girders. There
1
See Figure 18-3-3 thru Figure 18-3-7
2
See Figure 18-3-3
3 See Figure 18-3-4

Bridges
are variations in through plate girder spans in which no stringers are present and a series of floorbeams is utilized to support
the deck structure and transmit the loads to the main beams. In through plate girder spans, the secondary members and bracing
systems perform essentially the same function as in simpler beam type structures.
3.2.3.7 Trusses1
Truss spans have traditionally been used by railroads for longer spans. In a truss span, the deck structure is supported on a
floor system, usually stringers, which transmits the load to transverse floorbeams and the floorbeams transmit the loads to the
truss. The top chord of the truss is the compression member and the bottom chord of the truss is the tension member. Rather
than a web plate, the diagonal and vertical truss members transmit the floorbeam loads to the chord members and, ultimately to
the bearings. In most older spans, tension members are readily identified since they are eyebars. In more recent trusses, rolled
sections or built-up members have been utilized for both tension and compression members. Trusses can be either through
truss spans, pony truss spans or deck truss spans. In a through truss span, the deck structure is located between the trusses and
the trusses extend above deck level with transverse sway bracing and lateral bracing located over the track. The pony truss is
similar to the through truss span except that there is no overhead transverse bracing. In a deck truss span, the deck structure
sits above the truss structure and there is no impairment to overhead or side clearances.
SECTION 3.3 INSPECTION
3.3.1 PURPOSE OF INSPECTION (2000) 1

a. The purpose of bridge inspection is to find and document flaws or defects in a bridge structure. Once these are
documented, their affect on bridge operating safety and load-carrying capability can be determined. Then, the required
repairs or component replacements can be scheduled and budgeted.
b. In addition to describing bridge condition, records from past inspections can help to determine the rate of degradation
of the structures. This deterioration or degradation rate will be most helpful in finalizing the work or action plan, as it 3
will indicate how soon action is needed and what type of action to take. For example, defects or deterioration which
are not yet serious and appear stable from recent past inspections may be allowed to remain if watched more
frequently, allowing other work to be included in the current budget. In another example, rapid deterioration of timber
bridge members may indicate that applying a preservative at this point may be an insufficient action to maintain an
acceptably safe condition and replacement may then be the most appropriate action.
4
3.3.2 INSPECTION REPORTING (2000)
The results of the inspection should be recorded while still at the site on a form intended for that purpose. Available
information gathered on previous inspections and information on repairs or maintenance performed since the last inspection
should be taken to the field for reference and to ensure that any repairs or changes since the last inspection can be recorded.
3.3.3 RESULTS OF INSPECTIONS (2000)
The results of a bridge inspection should be reported to the responsible party so that bridge condition can be properly
evaluated and the remaining steps in the bridge management program followed, ending in a work or action plan.
1
See Figure 18-3-5, Figure 18-3-6 and Figure 18-3-7

3.3.4 THE INSPECTION PLAN (2000)
To ensure that all necessary items are observed, a plan should be made to inspect the bridge in an orderly sequence. Usually,
an inspection from top to bottom, near end to far end with the deck being inspected on the return will serve well. The
importance of inspection items varies with different types of structures, and each type of structure will require different
observations to be made. These will be discussed in the following articles. More detailed discussion of inspection items can
be found in Chapter 7 Timber Structures, Chapter 8 Concrete Structures and Foundations, and Chapter 15 Steel Structures.
3.3.5 COMMON INSPECTION ITEMS (2000)
a. On arrival at a bridge, it is generally quite easy to observe the condition of the line and surface of the track approaching
and across the bridge. High spots, low spots and areas where the track is out of alignment should be noted and closely
observed to determine the cause of the defect.
b. The condition of the ballast section at the near backwall should be observed to determine if it is adequate to provide the
required lateral support to the track structure. In many instances, numerous track raises as part of the surfacing process
have raised the track well above its design elevation. The bridge backwall may not have been raised to permit it to
retain the full ballast section. This may permit ballast to spill over on to the bridge seat and reduce the lateral support
the ballast section gives to the track structure.1
c. Similarly, the wingwalls at the near end should be observed to ensure that they extend far enough to provide adequate
restraint to the embankment at the abutment. The condition of the wingwalls should be observed the ensure that they
are structurally sound. Any settlement, cracks, deterioration or other defects should be noted.
d. From track level, the streambed or waterway should be observed to determine if any scouring, change of alignment or
need for riprap has occurred since the last inspection or if any corrective work has been done since to last inspection.
e. The structure should be observed for the presence of excessive vegetation under as well as on the bridge. Live
vegetation can lead to accelerated deterioration of the structure by opening cracks and permitting the entry of water to
the interior of the structure. Accumulations of drift and debris around the substructure or in the waterway should be
noted for removal as they can divert water flow and cause scour. In the dry state, all vegetation can pose a significant
fire hazard to the structure.
3.3.6 INSPECTING MASONRY BRIDGES (2000)2
a. In a masonry structure, the condition of the individual stones should be observed for cracks or surface deterioration.
The condition of the joints between the stones should be observed to ensure that even and adequate bearing of stone on
stone is provided to prevent development of uneven bearing pressures that may result in cracking of the stones. Since
concrete and masonry cannot deform to accommodate settlement or movement, open joints may be indicative of some
more serious problem. Stone arch structures depend largely on their shape for their strength and, if a stone in the arch
is displaced or seriously deteriorated, loads may not be properly transferred to the abutments and the earth.
b. In a concrete structure, the general condition of the concrete should be observed for cracks or surface deterioration.
Areas of honeycombing of the concrete or places where the reinforcing steel is too near the surface should be noted and
the condition at the time of the inspection should be noted for future reference.
c. Cracks should be marked and measured, with the results being noted for future reference. Photographs are also useful
in documenting crack conditions. In later inspections, it can then be readily determined if the crack has progressed and
to what extent. Progression of cracking can be an indication that additional settlement or movement has taken place. If
1
See Figure 18-3-1
2
See Figure 18-3-1 and Figure 18-3-8

Bridges
possible, the structure should be observed during the passage of a train to determine if the cracks are opening and
closing under the moving loads.
d. Concrete and stone piers should be observed to determine if they are plumb and concrete slabs should be observed to
ensure that they have adequate bearing on the pier tops. Again, the rigid nature of concrete and stone does not permit
for deformation to accommodate uneven surfaces. Therefore, some type of compressible bearing material is usually
applied to provide full and even bearing over the bearing surface.
e. Bottoms of concrete slabs should be observed for transverse cracks which may be indicative of overloading.
Observing the slab under load may show that cracks are opening and closing which could be evidence of a serious
condition.
f. The full substructure of the bridge would be inspected in the same manner. The far abutment would be inspected in the
same manner as the near abutment was. Following the plan, the deck would be the next part to be inspected.
g. Concrete and masonry structures most generally have ballasted decks. The decks should be inspected for ballast leaks.
Drainage scuppers and other systems should be observed to ensure that they are functioning as designed. Removal of
water from the surface of the deck structure is important to prevent freeze/thaw damage which can result in accelerated
deterioration of the structure. Water in the ballast section can also result in fouling of the ballast which can lead to
accelerated deterioration of the track ties and uneven surface of the track.
h. Ballast curbs should be observed to ensure that they retain the ballast in the deck structure. Ballast curbs can also
support auxiliary structures such as wireline poles, railings and walkways. These should be observed to ensure that
they are safe and functioning as designed.
1
3.3.7 INSPECTING TIMBER BRIDGES (2000)1
a. Because of timber's compressibility, observing a bridge under load (while a train passes over) can often provide
valuable observations which would not be evident under static (unloaded) conditions.
b. The adequacy and condition of the timber backwalls and wingwalls should be observed to determine if they are 3
performing the function of retaining the embankment behind the walls and providing for an adequate ballast structure
at the bridge ends. Rotten or deteriorated timbers should be noted. Scour at the end bent should be noted since this is
usually a precursor to a requirement to lower the bottom of the backwall to provide adequate retention of the earth
behind the backwall.
c. The condition of the timber or concrete cap should be observed. Mechanical wear of a timber cap where the cap sits on
the piles is usually indicative of a poor bearing condition which allows the cap to move relative to the piles. 4
Mechanical wear of the timber stringers or the top of the timber cap where the stringers rest on the cap may be
indicative of excessive deformation of either the cap or the stringers.
d. The condition of piles should be observed for bulging, cracking or presence of ground line decay. Sounding with a
hammer will give an indication of interior decay and hollow spots. Adequacy of the bracing which makes the
individual piles work in concert and of the fasteners that hold the bracing to the piles should also be observed. Broken
bolts or bracing may indicate excessive movement of the piles. In bents where the distance from base of rail the
ground is relatively small, bracing may not be required. In bents where scour has occurred, the bottom of the lowest
bracing may be too far above the groundline and rearrangement of the bracing may be required to make the bent
conform to original design standards.
e. Posts (short sections spliced into a pile to repair a decayed area) which have been installed should be observed for
adequacy of bearing on both ends. Sills under one or more posts should also be observed for condition and adequacy
1
See Figure 18-3-2

of fastenings. Bracing of posted bents is a major factor and particular attention should be given to the bracing when
one or more posts are present in a bent.
f. The timber stringers should be observed for full bearing on the caps. Longitudinal movement of the stringers will
result in inadequate bearing. The bottoms of the stringers and the sides, where visible, should be observed for cracking
or bulging or other evidence of distress. Fasteners which connect the stringers to the caps and the deck structure to the
stringers should be observed for tightness and adequacy. In more recent times, installation of welded rail across open
deck timber bridges has created a necessity to strengthen the fastenings and add more fasteners to provide the
longitudinal and transverse restraint required by welded rail.
g. As the inspection continues along the length of the bridge, timber bents should be observed to ensure, in addition to the
condition of the individual members, that they are plumb and in good lateral alignment. Any unusual movement may
indicate lack of penetration, broken piles, or some other failure of the substructure. In addition to lateral bracing,
longitudinal bracing between the bents should be observed to ensure that it is in acceptable condition and functioning
as designed.
h. Timber mats or cribs as part of the substructure should be observed for their general condition. In times of extremely
low stream stages, portions of the bridge that may usually be submerged can become visible. When these conditions
do arise, a special inspection may be advisable because the members may not otherwise be accessible.
i. Completing the inspection along the length of the bridge structure, the far end bent, backwall and wingwalls should be
observed in the same manner as described for the near end.
j. Auxiliary members such as wirelines, footwalks and handrails should be observed for their condition and adequacy to
perform their intended function.
3.3.8 INSPECTING IRON AND STEEL BRIDGES (2000)1
a. Members such as piles should be observed at the ground line for evidence of rusting or corrosion. Metal caps should
be observed for adequacy of bearing on the piles and the condition of fastening of the pile to the cap. In addition, the
general condition of the member should be observed for signs of corrosion, cracking and permanent deformation or
bending.
b. Iron and steel members probably rely more heavily on the fasteners which make the various parts of a structural
member work together than other types of construction. Fasteners may be ordinary bolts, rivets, high strength bolts or
welds. These fasteners may occur in any combination in any given structure. Inspection of fasteners should include
loose bolts or rivets which usually are evidenced by bleeding or bright red rust coming from under and around the
individual fastener. Broken welds, in the earliest stages, are sometimes difficult to see. Dye penetrant tests as well as
electronic and magnetic test procedures are available but often can not be incorporated in an interim inspection such as
is being addressed at this time. As the failure of a weld progresses, cracks and bleeding may become visible to the
naked eye.
c. Bearings which are rusted into an almost fixed condition and can not move to adjust to expansion and contraction or
deflection should be noted so that they can be cleaned, lubricated or otherwise adjusted to permit them to function as
originally intended.2
d. The bearing of the superstructure on the substructure should be observed to ensure that the bearing is full and even.
The substructure should be observed to determine if the bearing is wearing down into the substructure. Anchorage of
the bearing to the substructure should be observed to ensure that adequate lateral and longitudinal restraint is present.
Fastening of the superstructure to the bearing should be observed to ensure that it is intact.
1
See Figure 18-3-3 thru Figure 18-3-7
2
See Figure 18-3-7

Bridges
e. The superstructure of iron and steel bridges can range from simple beams which usually have relatively short spans to
complex truss spans which have very large spans. For short span beam type bridges, the primary stress in the span is
bending which is resisted by the shape and size of the structural member. Overstress of the member in bending will be
characterized by either deflection of the top (compression) flange due to a tendency to collapse the flange or cracking
of the bottom (tension) flange due to a tendency to tear the flange. Web stiffeners, lateral bracing and other secondary
members play a great part in maintaining the structural integrity of short span beam type bridges.
f. Older structures, before the advent of large size rolled beams, were generally made up of built-up members composed
of angles fastened to a web plate to form top and bottom flanges. For additional strength, cover plates could be added
to the top and bottom flanges. These older structures usually had multiple fasteners, either bolts or rivets, and the
condition of these fasteners is critical to the overall functioning of the member in the intended fashion. In more recent
construction, availability of larger and stronger rolled sections (in which the web and flanges are one homogeneous
shape) has eliminated the need for the multitude of fasteners; but there is a possibility of failure in the fillet area where
the flanges adjoin the web of the member. This type of failure would be characterized by a crack in the fillet and, as the
crack grows, bleeding of red rust from the crack.
g. Welds must be observed to ensure that they maintain their integrity. Weld failure would be characterized by visible
cracking or bleeding.
h. A through plate girder span has connections which transfer the loads from the stringers to the floorbeams and from the
floorbeams to the main girders. These connections are subject to failure from excessive flexure which would be
characterized by cracking of the connection angles, usually through the fillet. They are also subject to failure of the
fasteners due to prying action and rivets can be stretched and become loose or even have the heads popped off.
i. In trusses the floor system should be inspected for the same items that were mentioned in the discussion of the floor
1
system of through plate girders. The diagonal and vertical truss members and the main truss members should be
observed for straightness. In a tension member, sagging or bending may be indicative of stretching of the member or
excessive wear in pin connections. In a compression member, kinking of the member may be indicative of excessive
compressive stress which may be a result of improper distribution of loads through the truss. Members should also be
observed for cracks, nicks, or other signs of distress. Condition of all lacing members and fasteners should be observed
to ensure that they are present and functioning as designed. 3
j. Stringer connections, floorbeam connections and main truss member connections should be closely observed to ensure
that they are intact. Pin connections should be observed for excessive wear or movement and the nuts on the pins
should be inspected to ensure that they are tight. Horizontal surfaces of all members should be observed for cleanliness
and corrosion due to retention of moisture on the surface. As the corrosion progresses, plates can develop holes or can
become so thin that cracks develop due to tensile stresses. The end or hip hangers on pin connected trusses are
particularly susceptible to fatigue failure at the hip connection. 4
k. In vertical members and at the ends of riveted or bolted cover plates, as moisture causes rusting between the bearing
surfaces of steel plies, a phenomenon known as rust jacking can occur. As the rusting takes place, the two surfaces are
jacked apart and the opening in which moisture can collect is increased. It is possible for rust jacking to result in
popping the heads off rivets or bolts.
l. Steel flexural members which are subjected to repeated cyclic loadings can show the effects of fatigue. Fatigue cracks
are caused by primary stress cycles and by secondary out-of-plane distortion. Primary stress cracks are perpendicular
to the direction of the force and can propagate quickly. If not found and repaired, they can result in a sudden failure of
the member. Critical cracks will generally occur only in tension areas. Attention should be given to details which
could increase the likelihood of fatigue cracking. These would include nicks, notches, corrosion, tack welds, reentrant
cuts and weld details such as welds located at the ends of cover plates, gusset plate welds to transverse stiffeners,
groove welds in flange transitions and flanges or plates that frame into or pass through webs.
m. Fastening auxiliary structures such as wirelines, walkways and railings to steel bridges will require the use of bolts or
welds. Also, cable railings may pass through bridge members. Any additional holes that are drilled in to steel

members are areas of potential deterioration. The fasteners should be observed for tightness and for any sign of
distress in the area of holes through structural members.
SECTION 3.4 BRIDGE INSPECTION CHECKLIST (TO BE DEVELOPED)

Bridges
Figure 18-3-1. Typical Concrete and Masonry Construction
See Section 3.2.3.2 and Section 3.3.6.

Figure 18-3-2. Typical Timber Trestle Construction

Bridges
Figure 18-3-3. Typical Deck Plate Girder (DPG)
See Section 3.2.3.4, Section 3.2.3.5 and Section 3.3.8.

Figure 18-3-4. Typical Through Plate Girder (TPG)

Bridges
Figure 18-3-5. Typical Types of Trusses

Figure 18-3-6. Typical Truss Construction

Bridges
See Section 3.2.3.4 thru Section 3.2.3.7 and Section 3.3.8.
Figure 18-3-7. Typical Types of Bearings
Figure 18-3-8. Typical Concrete Trestle Construction
Section 3.2.3.2 and Section 3.3.6.

18
Part 4
Communication and Signals
(To Be Developed)
— 2000 —


18
Part 5
Rehabilitation/Upgrade of Track and Structures for
Handling 286,000-lb Cars
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
5.1 Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-1
5.1.1 Introduction (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-1
5.1.2 Develop or Update the Operating Plan (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-2
5.1.3 Document and Analyze Roadway and Track Conditions (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-2
5.1.4 Develop the Work Plan and Cost Estimates (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-3
5.1.5 Progressive Rehabilitation/Upgrade for 286k (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-4 3
5.2 Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-4
5.2.1 Introduction (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-4
5.2.2 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-5
5.2.3 Rehabilitation (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-5
5.2.4 Strengthening (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5-5
SECTION 5.1 TRACK
a. The objective of the rehabilitation / upgrade work is to provide a track structure that will withstand the vertical, lateral,
and longitudinal forces from 286,000-lb (286k) cars over the longer term, requiring only routine maintenance to
continue to function well.
b. The following sections describe the process of producing a track rehabilitation / upgrade plan for rehabilitating /
upgrading a route to support carrying 286k cars. The three primary steps in the process are:

(1) Develop or update the railroad's operating plan (or service design), based on the expected level of 286k carloads
and the expected service requirements.
(2) Document and analyze current track and roadway characteristics and conditions, and use this information, in
conjunction with the operating plan, to determine the type and extent of repairs or improvements needed to
provide the required service.
(3) Develop a work plan and cost estimates for accomplishing the selected improvements.
5.1.2 DEVELOP OR UPDATE THE OPERATING PLAN (2012)
a. Estimate the expected annual number of 286k carloads to be handled and the number of those cars to be transported
over the different portions of the railroad. Estimate the total expected traffic to be carried over the railroad (expressed
in numbers of carloads and tonnage) and the percentage of 286k carloads, and itemize the estimates by the type of
commodities to be transported. If hazardous materials are included, review the applicable AAR Circulars and Pipeline
and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) and Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) regulations for
risk analysis.
b. Based on the required service levels, determine the optimum operating speeds - those which will allow the railroad to
provide the expected service while also achieving the railroad's other operating and economic objectives. The
operating speed will affect the dynamic forces applied to the track.
c. Determine the average (and maximum) length and tonnage of trains to be operated and the manner in which the 286k
traffic is to be handled: as individual cars, in multiple car blocks, or in unit trains. Also determine the types of cars to
be handled.
d. Based on the service design, determine the optimum locomotive assignments to haul the trains. Optimum assignments
will depend on train tonnage, route profile and alignment (the grades and curvature along the route), and the number
and character of locomotives in the fleet: their horsepower and tractive effort, whether four-axle or six-axle, and if
equipped with dynamic brakes. Both locomotive assignment and train operation can also be affected by the manner in
which the power is employed, as whether distributed power is used and how that power is divided within the train
length. With respect to the track, and the requirements for rehabilitation / upgrade, train make-up and power
assignment can affect especially the lateral and longitudinal forces to which the track is subjected.
5.1.3 DOCUMENT AND ANALYZE ROADWAY AND TRACK CONDITIONS (2012)
a. The purpose of this step is to obtain sufficient information about the character and condition of the track and roadway
to help determine, in conjunction with the operating plan, the type and extent of improvements needed.
b. The site condition inspection should be conducted by viewing the entire line by hy-rail and by periodically inspecting
representative segments on foot. During the condition inspection, a detailed record should be made of the character
and condition of the rail, tie plates, fasteners, rail anchors, ties, ballast, subgrade, track surface and alignment, trackside
drainage and culverts, track on and approaching bridges, turnouts, and road crossings. For each mile or segment, note:
the rail weight and section (with beginning and endpoints); the average number of defective ties per rail length; and
locations with skewed ties, plates, or fasteners.
c. During the condition inspection, be alert to locations where some aspect of track condition may begin to change. This
will often occur at locations where gradient, alignment, or relative elevation significantly changes, as at the beginning
and endpoints of grades, tangents, curves, cuts, and fills.
d. When assessing tie replacement requirements during the condition inspection, observe the condition and position of
fasteners; this will help in identifying ties that are in marginal condition and have little effective remaining life.

Rehabilitation/Upgrade of Track and Structures for Handling 286,000-lb Cars
e. Drainage evaluation is best done during and shortly after a rain. All along the route check to see if the complete
drainage path is clear and functioning. Follow the drainage path from the track center, through the ballast, to the track
ditches, through culverts and other drainage structures to a proper outlet off the right-of-way. One or two days after a
heavy rain, dig into the ballast shoulder in selected spots down to the level of the bottom of the ties and check if the
material is relatively dry and not full of fines and fouling material. Poor surface and alignment in locations where tie
condition is at least fair may indicate insufficient ballast drainage.
f. Each turnout should be inspected on foot, including operating the switch.
g. Where there is a question of whether the present rail can adequately support an increase in load (and perhaps also
speed, which would then further increase the forces and impacts on the rail) the status of rail structural integrity must
be determined. An internal rail flaw inspection will provide this information. In cases where rail breaks are presently
frequent, a rail flaw inspection may be unnecessary, as it should be clear that an increase in load and/or speed will
likely significantly increase that frequency. Where rail flaw inspections are conducted, the regulartory Standards
require the proper remediation of detected defects. For rehabilitation / upgrade planning, the purpose of the inspection
is not necessarily to inspect every foot of rail, but rather to obtain sufficient information to make a well-informed
engineering and business decision on whether to keep or replace all or portions of the rail. Thus, the required
information might be obtainable by conducting a rail flaw inspection over representative sample sections of the route,
continuing until it becomes clear either that the rail structural integrity is likely adequate or not adequate.
5.1.4 DEVELOP THE WORK PLAN AND COST ESTIMATES (2012)
a. The work plan and cost estimates may be completed in two stages:
1
(1) Stage 1 is a level sufficient for budgeting and planning. The purpose here is to determine the extent of the work
needed and whether the initial plan is consistent with available funding, and if not, whether adjustments can be
made to still achieve a satisfactory result within funding limits. Where initial plans exceed funding limits,
progressive rehabilitation / upgrade (see Article 5.1.5) may be a realistic option.
(2) Once final decisions have been made, stage 2 would be completing the plan with full detail sufficient for
producing contract plans and specifications. 3
b. For rehabilitation / upgrade purposes, simply meeting the requirements in the minimum regulatory Track Safety
Standards does not usually produce a cost-effective result, as these standards represent the minimum acceptable
conditions in which train operation at a given speed is permissible. The proper objective is long term track durability
for the expected axle loads and traffic that the track must support.
c. When deciding if the present rail is suitable, consider the rail section, age (roll date), if it is control cooled, and the 4
consistency of rail sections along the route (if sections and ages are similar within segments or considerably mixed), as
well as the likely future availability of matching replacement rail for maintenance requirements. Rail external and
internal condition must also be assessed:
(1) External condition: amount of vertical and side wear on the head (particularly in curves), extent of surface defects
(such as engine burns, corrugation, and spalling), and web and base corrosion; for jointed rail, how much of it may
be surface bent and the severity of the bending, and the condition of rail ends - the severity of the end batter.
(2) Internal condition: the extent to which internal defects may be present and the likely future susceptibility to
internal defect formation if loads and/or speeds are increased (seeArticle 5.1.3d).
For even small amounts of 286k traffic, rail size should be no less than 90-lb, however, rail sizes smaller than 112-lb
must have uniformly solid support to adequately handle 286k loading. If jointed (bolted) rail is to be replaced, the
choice between jointed or welded (CWR) replacement rail should also be evaluated. If the tie plates are in acceptable
condition, a replacement rail with the same base width as the present rail could allow the tie plates to be re-used. As an

example, certain 100-lb sections, 110-lb, 112-lb, and 119-lb rail all have a 5-1/2” base width, which matches that of
115-lb rail, one of the common rail replacement choices.
d. Establish an adequate anchor and spiking pattern. Any increase in axle load, operating speed, or train tonnage will
likely require greater rail restraint - lateral and longitudinal. Inadequate rail restraint will contribute to premature tie
deterioration and inadequate gage-holding (narrowing or widening).
e. Determine the tie replacement required to provide a track structure that will satisfy the operating plan for the long term.
If any of the smaller rail sections (less than 112-lb size) will be retained, consider the practicality of reducing tie
spacing to improve rail support. In areas with an excessive number of skewed ties, determine the work that may be
needed to ensure that most of the ties will remain attached to the rail during surfacing. Also determine the additional
work necessary to prevent skewed ties after the rehabilitation.
f. In areas where ballast shoulders are fouled and retain water, the shoulders are best plowed out and replaced with new
ballast during the rehabilitation / upgrade work. Water remaining in the track for long periods after rains or snowmelt
will accelerate tie and track surface deterioration. (Adding clean ballast on top of fouled ballast and raising the track a
few inches will not correct the drainage deficiency).
5.1.5 PROGRESSIVE REHABILITATION/UPGRADE FOR 286K (2012)
a. In many situations, the need for light density and short line railroads to become 286k-capable is progressive as the
amount of 286k traffic increases. A full rehabilitation / upgrade may not be justified if the estimated amount of 286k
traffic in the near future is insufficient to produce the revenue required to fund the work. In such cases, a 286k upgrade
might practically be accomplished in stages, with the highest priority work in the plan accomplished first.
b. Tie rehabilitation costs might be spread over several years, with ties installed in stages to gradually rehabilitate the
railroad from FRA-Excepted Track to FRA Class 1, 2, 3 (in the U.S.) or higher as the traffic volumes increase and the
operating plan warrants.
c. As rail is the most expensive track component to replace, careful consideration should be given to options that would
allow the railroad to begin handling 286k traffic in the near future while completing the rail upgrade over time. For
example, if a railroad were constructed with 112-lb control cooled rail which is end-bent and/or has battered joints, it
may be practical to consider joint elimination - keeping the rail, but having the ends cropped off and remaining lengths
welded together, with pieces added to make up for the cropped footage. Another possibility is cascading rail -
replacing all the rail in a critical or high priority segment and relaying the good pieces that were removed in another
location.
SECTION 5.2 BRIDGES
The objective of the rehabilitation / strengthening is to ensure the light density and short line railroad’s bridge structures will
withstand the vertical, lateral, and longitudinal forces from 286,000-lb (286k) cars over the longer term, requiring only routine
maintenance to continue to function well. This is primarily an extension of the bridge management program set forth earlier in
this chapter.
This section is intended to give a general overview of the bridge rehabilitation / strengthening process and thereby is not
intended as guidance to the qualified bridge engineer who must be involved in the structural work.

Rehabilitation/Upgrade of Track and Structures for Handling 286,000-lb Cars
5.2.2 GENERAL (2012)
To prepare a bridge for 286k cars, it is first necessary to determine whether a particular bridge is currently capable of carrying
286k cars without any additional operating restrictions. This determination is accomplished utilizing the bridge load rating.
If the bridge’s normal rating is at or above 286k car loading, then the level of maintenance required to maintain its capacity
would be determined from the inspection program set forth earlier in this chapter.
If the bridge’s normal rating is below 286k car loading, whether due to the original design or deterioration in the members of
the structure that has taken place over time, then it must be determined if the bridge can be strengthened or rehabilitated to
make it capable of routinely carrying these heavier loads.
5.2.3 REHABILITATION (2012)
If the bridge design is adequate for 286k car loading, but the condition of the bridge has deteriorated such that its rating is
insufficient, rehabilitation should be considered. Rehabilitation should restore the members of a bridge to the condition
necessary for the desired normal load rating. Rotted, corroded, cracked or otherwise deteriorated members should be repaired
or replaced in kind or better.
As proposed rehabilitation gets more extensive and expensive, replacement of the bridge should be considered.
5.2.4 STRENGTHENING (2012)
If the subject bridge design is inadequate for 286k car loading, strengthening of the bridge may be an option. Strengthening 1
the bridge involves identifying the members that are insufficient and strengthening those members. Timber trestle
strengthening may include replacement of timber caps with concrete caps and the addition of stringers. Floor beams, stringers,
and girders on steel structures may possibly be strengthened by the addition of cover plates on the bottom and top flanges and
/ or web stiffeners. Trusses may be able to be strengthened by the addition of eyebars or cover plates on existing members. For
specific details refer to Chapters 7, 8 and 15. The bridge engineer might also consider the age of the structure and possible
fatigue concerns in the recommendation as to whether to strengthen or replace.
3


0
CHAPTER 27
MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY WORK
EQUIPMENT1
FOREWORD
Part 3 Reports and Records was deleted in its entirety in 1996.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-1
1.1 Recommended Colors for Painting Motor Cars, Roadway Machines, Work Equipment and Rail Guide Wheel
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-3
3
1.2 General Care and Maintenance of Maintenance-of-Way Equipment (Including Rail Gear Equipment) 27-1-4
1.3 General Information Associated with Wire Rope as used on Roadway Work Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-6
1.4 Bar Codes and Their Application for Roadway Work Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-18
1.5 Equipment Operators Training and Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-22
2 Roadway Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-1

2.1 Specifications for Track Motor Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-4
2.2 Specifications for Railway Push Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-23
2.3 Specifications for On-track Roadway Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-27
2.4 Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43
2.5 Hydraulic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43
1

2.6 Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-46

2.7 Specifications for Rail Guide Wheel Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-47
2.8 Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) During Maintenance of Roadway Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-58
2.9 Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility Guildeline for New On-Track Machinery 27-2-61
2.10 Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-63
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-R-1
INTRODUCTION

27
Part 1
General
— 2009 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Recommended Colors for Painting Motor Cars, Roadway Machines, Work Equipment and Rail Guide Wheel
Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-3
1.1.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-3
1.2 General Care and Maintenance of Maintenance-of-Way Equipment (Including Rail Gear Equipment) 27-1-4 1
1.2.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-4
1.3 General Information Associated with Wire Rope as used on Roadway Work Equipment 27-1-6
1.3.1 Introduction (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-6
1.3.2 General (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-6
1.3.3 Diameter (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-6 3
1.3.4 Construction (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-7
1.3.5 Types of Strand Construction (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-8
1.3.6 Classification of Wire Rope (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-9
1.3.7 Wire Rope Lays (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-11
1.3.8 Grades of Wire Rope (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-12
1.3.9 Factor of Safety (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-13
1.3.10 Lubrication of Wire Rope (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-13
1.3.11 Cause of Failures (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-13
1.3.12 Abrasion Versus Flexibility (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-14
1.3.13 Wire Rope Connections (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-15
1.3.14 References and Sources of Additional Information (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-15
1.4 Bar Codes and Their Application for Roadway Work Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-18
1.4.1 Introduction (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-18
1.4.2 Benefits of Bar Codes (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-18
1.4.3 Equipment (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-19
1.4.4 Bar Code Format (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-19
1.4.5 Applications (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-20
1.4.6 Manufacturers Requirements for Parts Books (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-21

Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment
1.5 Equipment Operators Training and Certification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-22

1.5.1 Introduction (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-22
1.5.2 Operator Training Methods - Background (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-22
1.5.3 Candidate Selection and Class Size Criteria (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-23
1.5.4 Operator Training Program Requirements (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-23
1.5.5 Retraining and Recertification (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-24
LIST OF FIGURES
27-1-1 Determining the True Diameter of Wire Rope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-6

27-1-2 Component Parts of Wire Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-7
27-1-3 Wire Rope Cores and Cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-9
27-1-4 Common Lays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-11
27-1-5 Abrasion and Fatigue Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-15
27-1-6 Clip Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-16
27-1-7 Efficiency of Wire Rope Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-17
27-1-8 Sample Bar Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-20
LIST OF TABLES
27-1-1 Recommended Colors for Painting Motor Cars, Roadway Machines, Work Equipment and
Rail Guide Wheel Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-3
27-1-2 Recommended Colors for Painting of Parts/Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-3
27-1-3 Wire Rope Grades and Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-12
27-1-4 Minimum Tread Diameter of Sheaves and Drums for Various Construction of Steel Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-14
27-1-5 Clip Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-16
27-1-6 Example Part Number Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1-22

General
SECTION 1.1 RECOMMENDED COLORS FOR PAINTING MOTOR CARS, ROADWAY

MACHINES, WORK EQUIPMENT AND RAIL GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT1
— 1996 —
1.1.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. The most suitable colors for painting Motor Cars, Roadway Machines, Work Equipment and Rail Guide Wheel
Equipment are as shown in Table 27-1-1.
Table 27-1-1. Recommended Colors for Painting Motor Cars, Roadway Machines,
Work Equipment and Rail Guide Wheel Equipment
Standard
Equipment Color
Spec. No.
Motor Cars Yellow 13538
Roadway Equipment Yellow 13538
Roadway Work Equipment (cranes, etc.) Yellow 13538
Work Equipment (Jordan Spreaders, etc.) Mineral Red 10076
Rail Guide Wheel Equipment Black 17038
b. The predominant colors of equipment will be a specified color, but some parts or components may require custom 1
painting (reference Part 2, Roadway Machines, Section 2.3, Specifications for On-t rack Roadway Machines,
Article 2.3.17). Some of the more notable items are listed in Table 27-1-2.
Table 27-1-2. Recommended Colors for Painting of Parts/Components
Component Area Color

Standard 3
Spec. No.
Gasoline Tank Red 11086
Diesel Fuel Tank Green 14110
Hydraulic Reservoir Blue 15180
Coolant Reservoir Gray 16251
4
Lifting Lugs Black 17038
Safety Locks Red 11086
c. The colors listed under Standard Specification Numbers are consistent with those indicated in the “Federal Standard
595-B, Colors Used in Government Procurement.”
NOTE: It should be understood that some Railroads may have special painting requirements which will supersede
the above recommended practices or guidelines.
1
References, Vol. 32, 1931, pp. 472, 754; Vol. 43, 1942, pp. 213, 727; Vol. 44, 1943, pp. 251, 670; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 638, 1373; Vol. 55, 1954, p. 1069; Vol.
62, 1961, pp. 454, 931; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 103; Vol. 94, 1993, p. 125, Vol. 97, p. 218.

SECTION 1.2 GENERAL CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY

EQUIPMENT (INCLUDING RAIL GEAR EQUIPMENT)1
— 2009 —
1.2.1 GENERAL (2009)
a. The varying conditions on different railroads do not permit the universal acceptance, in all details, of any specific
outline or an organization for the use, maintenance, and repair of the equipment. To determine the proper organization
best adapted to produce maximum service and productivity, at a minimum cost, from its fleet of equipment each
railroad must review and analyze various conditions which will greatly influence these factors. Some of the more
important areas are listed below.
(1) The quantity and age of the major and minor units of equipment.
(2) The level of mechanization and sophistication of the equipment.
(3) The type of managerial organization established for utilizing, supervising and maintaining the equipment.
(4) Geographic location and total trackage involved with the railroad.
(5) Organization of Equipment Repair Shops, i.e. centralized or decentralized, Engineering, Mechanical, or Fleet
jurisdiction, manpower, etc.
b. However, there are certain principles in the use and maintenance of machinery which will be found desirable, if not
essential, if the equipment is to be maintained and used economically. Special attention should be directed to the
following areas:
(1) The organization for supervising and maintaining the equipment should be headed by a practical railroad
employee, with sufficient executive ability and solid mechanical knowledge to supervise the maintenance and
operation of all equipment on the system. The appropriate department should have authority, and sufficient
personnel to institute and enforce regulations for the maintenance and operation of the equipment. Duties should
embrace direct or indirect control of mechanical details of the equipment, in both field and shop, the supervision of
maintainers, involvement with necessary reports and managing data base information. He/she should work closely
with the supervisory forces in the assignment and use of the equipment. He/she must also work very closely with
the Purchasing and Material Department as it relates to acquisition of new equipment, component parts and the
distribution of supplies required for the maintenance and repair of equipment.
(2) It is desirable that adequate instructions for the care and operation of the equipment be issued. Such instructions,
developed by the AREA, were first published in the proceedings in 1947 and were later reprinted in handbook
form under the title “Manual of Instructions for Care and Operation of Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment.”
(3) Cooperation on the part of supervisory officers in seeing the instructions are carried out are of the utmost
importance. This cannot be secured unless each such officer recognizes the importance of the work he/she is
supervising in an effort to keep the equipment in operation. In order to achieve maximum results of equipment
productivity and availability, through proper operation and preventive maintenance procedures and practices, the
local and upper management levels must give their full support to the program.
1
References, Vol. 27, 1926, pp. 1028, 1449; Vol. 49, 1948, pp. 148, 593; Vol. 53, 1952, pp. 366, 1088; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 638, 1373; Vol. 58, 1957, pp. 580,
1218; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 455, 931; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 352, 738; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 103, Vol. 97, p. 218.

General
(4) Prevention of disabling conditions in any machine is as truly maintenance as is the correction of such conditions
after they have developed; and prevention will save the loss of time and money required for repairs.
(5) As a result of following a thorough preventive maintenance program, the need for emergency and/or unscheduled
repairs can be substantially reduced. A preventive maintenance program is basically a repair prior to failure
philosophy and can be characterized by the following:
(a) Keeping equipment clean.
(b) Operating the equipment safely and within its limit of capacity.
(c) Well controlled lubrication program.
(d) Performing required inspection, adjustment, and scheduled maintenance at the proper intervals.
(e) Utilizing a formal record keeping system, i.e. operators and maintenance personnel, daily log, machine
history file, failure reporting system, cost involved with equipment use, which will provide a solid foundation
for a computerized record keeping and cost capturing system.
(f) Ongoing training program for operator and service/maintenance personnel.
(6) Material Department operations should be properly located and adequately stocked so that repair parts, when
needed, can be supplied with the least delay. This area can be streamlined with the use of highway type van
trailers, properly sized, well organized, and adequately stocked to eliminate some of the current problems
associated with using rolling stock tool cars. Some of these problems are delay in timely spotting of the car at the
1
work site and damages to the parts inventory due to rough handling. The use of relief equipment and power plants
will reduce delays in the event of equipment failures.
(7) In scheduling the shopping of equipment for major repairs, consideration should be given to the capacity of the
shop as well as the conditions of the equipment. In so far as possible, the equipment used in seasonal work should
be overhauled during the slack season. 3
(8) Shops for the repair of equipment should be centrally located and under the control of the appropriate department.
These shops should be equipped with the necessary tools, shop machinery, and in general provide repairs in the
most timely and cost effective method.
(9) The expense of maintaining the equipment can be reduced through the adoption by each railroad, of the fewest
number of makes and type of the equipment required to meet its needs. Such a restriction to adopt its standards 4
will reduce investment in stock parts and lower maintenance costs.
(10) Adequate reports and records should be prepared as a means of maintaining close check on the use being made of
the equipment, the care of it, and to assist in passing judgment on purchase of new equipment.

SECTION 1.3 GENERAL INFORMATION ASSOCIATED WITH WIRE ROPE AS USED ON

ROADWAY WORK EQUIPMENT1
— 1991 —
a. Wire rope is a much more complex mechanism than one generally realizes. But when its fundamentals and capabilities
are understood, wire rope can perform with economy, dependability and safety.
b. It consists of many wires capable of transmitting dynamic stresses or supporting static loads. Wire rope is one of the
strongest products manufactured for its size and weight. Wire rope is made to withstand the demands of tensile and
bending stresses and abrasive wear, present in practically all job applications. It is available for a wide variety of
applications and ever expanding number of operating conditions.
1.3.2 GENERAL (1991)
Wire rope is a piece of flexible, multi-wired, stranded machinery made of many precision parts. The usual type of wire rope
consists of a core member, around which any number of multi-wired strands are “laid” or helically bent. In general, the greater
the number of wires in the strand and the greater number of strands for a given size rope, the more flexible it will be.
1.3.3 DIAMETER (1991)
The true diameter of a wire rope is the diameter of a circle which will enclose it. In using a caliper to determine the diameter,
be careful to measure across the crowns or the widest diameter at any given point, and avoid measuring across adjacent strands
(Figure 27-1-1).
Figure 27-1-1. Determining the True Diameter of Wire Rope
1
References, Vol. 44, 1943, p. 256; Vol. 45, 1944, pp. 110, 609; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 638, 1373; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 352, 738; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 102. Revised
1991.

General
Wire rope has three main component parts consisting of core, strands and wires, of which each is indicated in Figure 27-1-2.
1.3.4.1 Core
Supports the outer strands and also maintains position of strands during movement involving bending and load stresses.
1.3.4.1.1 Fiber Core – (FC)
Are generally sisal, manila, or man-made synthetic fiber rope as polypropylene, polyester or nylon. It is treated with a special
lubricant and recommended for high duty service. The limitations of fiber core ropes are reached when pressure such as
crushing results in core collapse and distortion of the rope strands.
1.3.4.1.2 Independent Wire Rope Core – (IWRC)
Generally used under severe conditions. The wire core can be independent wire rope, steel strand or armored core. The
independent wire rope core is composed of a separate 7 × 7 wire rope. It is recommended for heavy-duty service because of its
ability to minimize crushing and distortion.
Figure 27-1-2. Component Parts of Wire Rope

1.3.4.1.3 Wire Strand Core – (WSC)
Are normally used on small diameter ropes and aircraft cords. A WSC consists of a single strand, either of the same
construction or sometimes more flexible than the main rope strands.
1.3.4.2 Strands
These are supported by a core. Size, strength and number of strands depends upon the job the wire rope has to perform. Also,
strands are laid around the core with a length of lay (or pitch) suitable to form the finished wire rope best suited for the job.
Strands are composed of wires, varying in number from 3-91 with the majority being 7, 19, 25, or 37. These are laid helically
around the core.
1.3.4.3 Wires
THESE MAKE UP THE STRANDS. They are produced in various grades such as “plow steel,” “improved plow steel” and
“extra improved plow steel.”
1.3.5 TYPES OF STRAND CONSTRUCTION (1991)
There are two general types: round strands and strands that have been shaped or formed.
1.3.5.1 Round Strand Ropes
1.3.5.1.1 Ordinary
Wires are all of the same size.
1.3.5.1.2 Seale
Strands have larger diameter wires on the outside of the strand to resist abrasion and smaller wires inside to improve flexibility.
1.3.5.1.3 Warrington
Alternate wires are larger and smaller to combine flexibility with resistance to abrasion.
1.3.5.1.4 Filler
Has many small wires in the valleys between the outer and inner rows of wires to provide good abrasion and fatigue resistance.
1.3.5.2 Flat or Formed Strand Ropes
a. This is a special rope construction made up of triangular-shaped strands providing outstanding service for special
heavy-duty jobs. This design forms an outer rope surface more nearly approaching a smooth continuous cylinder of
steel, as compared with round strand rope.
b. These formed strand ropes have a “flat” strand surface for greater load support and more contact area on sheaves and
drums, and is provided in three “styles.” First, seven large strand wires formed over a single triangle center wire is a 6
× 8 Style D (Figure 27-1-3); second, multiple strand wires formed over a single triangular center wire is a 6 × 25 Style
B and third, 6 × 30 Style G has six smaller wires forming the triangular center. The visual comparison shown on
Figure 27-1-3 indicates that flattened strand provides a sheave point bearing much greater than round strands, and this
principal of greater wear distribution applies equally to strand wear.

General
3
Figure 27-1-3. Wire Rope Cores and Cross-sections
(Sheet 1 of 2)
1.3.6 CLASSIFICATION OF WIRE ROPE (1991)

4
a. This design or arrangement of wire rope, consisting of wire, strands and core is called the construction, The
classification of wire rope is the numerical designation of construction. It defines the number of strands placed around
the core as well as the number of wires in each individual strand.
b. For example, 6 × 7 means that there are 6 strands, each strand composed of 7 wires; 6 × 19 means 6 strands composed
of 19 wires; 6 × 37 denotes 6 strands composed of 37 wires. Note the cross section of a 7-wire strand that forms a part
of 6 × 7 rope. (See Figure 27-1-2.) Each of the wires are the same diameter, and 6 wires fit snugly around the wire in
the center. For this reason, a 6-strand rope with center core is most common today. With bigger and heavier-duty
equipment and the demand for maximum efficiency on many more applications, extra qualities of resistance to
abrasion, increased flexibility and resistance to bending fatigue are now being required of wire rope. The 19-wire
classification fulfills these requirements with twelve or less outer wires and combinations of inner wire arrangement.

Figure 27-1-3. Wire Rope Cores and Cross-sections

(Sheet 2 of 2)
c. The 37-wire classification was created because of the requirements of extreme flexibility in ropes. Generally speaking,
the more wires per strand, the greater the flexibility of the rope. Many varieties of classifications of strand construction
are designed for all types of applications. To avoid confusion, a simplified method to identify wire rope constructions
has been adopted. Although the “6 × 19 classification” and “6 × 37 classification” are not factually descriptive of one
classification, they do cover the largest variation of wire ropes of similar weight and strength. Note the many end views
on Figure 27-1-3, showing wire rope classifications to suit most every wire rope application.
• 6 × 19 CLASSIFICATION–Six strands having 16 through 26 wires but not more than 12 outer wires in each strand.
• 6 × 37 CLASSIFICATION–Six strands having 27 through 49 wires, but not more than 18 outer wires in each strand.

General
1.3.7 WIRE ROPE LAYS (1991)
a. The term “lay” means direction in which wires are laid into strands or strands into rope. The most common are
indicated on Figure 27-1-4.
b. Each one offers variations and flexibility in resistance to wear and crushing. The direction strands “lay” in the rope are
either RIGHT or LEFT. When you look along a rope, strands of the right lay rope follow the right-turning pattern. Left
lay rope follows the left-turning pattern. It makes no difference which direction you lock to determine the lay rotation.
(1) Right Lay Rope. When the strands of a rope are laid in a right-turning or helical twist pattern.
(2) Left Lay Rope. When the strands of a rope are laid in a left-turning or helical twist pattern.
(3) Regular Lay Rope. The wires which make up the strands are spirally laid in the opposite direction to the rope lay.
(4) Lang Lay Rope. When the wires which make up the strands are spirally laid in the same direction as the rope lay or
strands themselves.
c. The difference between “Regular” and “Lang” lay is easily recognized. The outer wires in Lang lay appear to run at an
angle to the axis of the rope. The outer wires in Regular lay appear to run in the same direction as the rope axis.
d. Regular Lay Ropes have better resistance to crushing, rotation and distortion than Lang lay ropes under load. The
difference in direction of the wire and strand lays offer these advantages and also applications where only one end of
the rope may be secured. 1
e. Regular Lay Applications include winch lines, overhead crane ropes, holding and closing lines on clam shells, rotary
drilling and cable tool lines in the oil and gas market, logging ropes, elevator ropes, mining machine ropes, hoist lines
on railroad wreckers and cranes, hoists on small shovels, boom lines, tendons and slings.
f. Lang Lay Ropes are generally more flexible and have more resistance to abrasion and bending fatigue than regular
ropes. 3
Figure 27-1-4. Common Lays

g. Lang Lay Applications include scraper and dozer ropes, drag line crowd, retract and hoist lines on shovels, and many
other applications subject to heavy abrasion conditions when both ends of the rope are tied down or anchored.
1.3.8 GRADES OF WIRE ROPE (1991)
a. One of the primary points to consider in selecting wire rope is the material from which the rope is constructed. This is
known as the grade of the wire rope.
b. Quite obviously, the grade of wire will affect such things as strength, resistance to wear, fatigue resistance, corrosion
resistance, etc. Today, the greatest portion of all wire rope is made from two grades of wire – improved plow steel (IPS)
and extra improved plow steel (XIP). Both are tough, strong, wear-resisting carbon steel, with XIP providing about
15% greater tensile strength.
c. Some of the other grades of rope wire, along with the distinctive characteristics of each, are shown in Table 27-1-3.
Table 27-1-3. Wire Rope Grades and Characteristics
Grade of Wire Characteristics

“POWERSTEEL” Special grade of high-carbon steel wire unexcelled in strength, toughness and uniformity.
Extra Improved Plow Steel Used in “POWERSTEEL” rope for severe conditions.
YELLOW STRAND The quality used in Yellow Strand is surpassed in strength and toughness only by
Improved Plow Steel “POWERSTEEL.” Recommended for a wide variety of applications.
PLOW STEEL Lower in carbon content and tensile strength, this grade of rope will not resist abrasion as
well as “Yellow Strand.” Should be limited to applications where service is less severe.
GALVANIZED “BROGAL” All ropes may be made up either bright (not galvanized) or “BROGAL” galvanized. Used
for many marine and industrial applications as protection against the corrosive effects
such as usually-present moist or wet weather, salt water and many industrial
atmospheres.
STAINLESS STEEL Stainless Steel ropes have breaking strengths approximately equal to ropes of similar size
in the “Yellow Strand” grade. The 18% chromium, 8% nickel alloy stainless has found
wide acceptance in both marine and industrial applications for corrosion-resisting ropes
with high tensile strength.
TRACTION STEEL This is a special grade of steel. Traction steel ropes are used on elevators, both passenger
and freight.
IRON This is a special type of low-carbon wire. Its major uses are for sash cord, serving strand,
iron tiller rope and on some older type, slow speed elevators.
NON-FERROUS Corrosion resistance to marine and industrial atmospheres are the main functions of
bronze and monel ropes. Not recommended where heavy loads or abrasion is present.

General
1.3.9 FACTOR OF SAFETY (1991)

a. The factor of safety, applying to a wire rope installation, may be defined as the ratio of the ultimate strength of the rope
to the actual load that has been imposed upon it by service conditions.
b. For all practical purposes, the rated catalog strength for a size and grade of rope in question may be used for this
calculation if the rope is a new one. However, if the end fittings on the rope are less than 100% efficient, this value
should be reduced by the efficiency of a particular fitting used. The actual load on the rope should include the static
load, as well as any dynamic or live loads.
c. The factor of safety should be determined after consideration of such data as types of loads; acceleration and
deceleration; rope speed; rope attachments; number, size, and arrangements of drums and sheaves; conditions causing
corrosion and abrasion; and the time the rope has been in service.
d. The working load on a wire rope will vary depending on the application, from approximately a safety factor of 3 to
perhaps 12 or more. However, for general hoisting service, a safety factor of 5 usually is adequate for a preliminary
determination of the rope size.
1.3.10 LUBRICATION OF WIRE ROPE (1991)

a. Lubrication is necessary for wire rope to increase its service life, similar to any other machine. When one realizes that
in a 6 × 19 rope there are 114 wires and a fiber core totaling 115 working parts, the necessity for lubrication is evident.
A second important reason for lubricating iron and steel ropes is to prevent corrosion of the wires. A rusty rope is a
liability, since there is no known means of inspection which will even approximate the strength of a corroded rope.
1
b. Crude oil should not be used for rope lubrication as it is very apt to contain impurities that are harmful to both the core
and the steel wire. Whenever possible, hot lubricants should be used and applied when the rope is under a very light
load so as to get the most penetrating effect possible. The frequency of lubrication must be determined by judgment
based on the service being performed, and often enough to keep the rope pliable with evidence of lubrication in the
valleys between the strands. The types of lubricant used, the amount, and the method of application depend upon the
size and construction of the rope and the service it is performing. Special lubricants are available for most all unusual
applications.
3
1.3.11 CAUSE OF FAILURES (1991)
The following are some of the more common causes of wire rope failures.
a. Use of ropes of incorrect size, construction or grade. 4

b. Allowing ropes to drag over obstacles. In this manner, rope is exposed to unnecessary wear, kinking, etc.
c. Lack of proper lubrication, which causes heating and excessive friction wear.
d. Sheaves and drums of inadequate size that cause short radius bends. The largest practical size of drums, sheaves and
pulleys should be utilized, and high speed should be avoided. The tread diameter of a drum or sheave should be in
accordance with Table 27-1-4.

Table 27-1-4. Minimum Tread Diameter of Sheaves and Drums for Various Construction of Steel Rope
Average Recommended Minimum Recommended

Rope Construction
Tread Diameter Tread Diameter
6×7 72 d 42 d
6 × 19 45 d 30 d
6 × 31 33 d 22 d
6 × 37 27 d 18 d
8 × 19 31 d 21 d
d = Diameter of rope in inches
e. Over winding or cross winding drums.
f. Sheaves and drums defective or out of alignment. Badly worn sheaves cause winding and cutting of strands. Poor
alignment of sheaves causes excessive wear and often over stresses the rope.
g. Ropes jumping sheave flanges. Rope should be let out slowly in order to be taut at all times.
h. Effects of heat moisture or acid fumes.
i. Improper fittings. Clamps, thimble and other rope fittings should be of proper size.
j. Permitting rope to untwist. This can be avoided if the ends are properly seized.
k. Kinking. Rope should be allowed to twist when slack; if a kink is formed, it should be straightened out before it enters
a sheave or a strain is placed on the rope.
l. Severe overloads, reverse bends, and other excessive strains.
m. Internal wear because of grit penetrating between strands and wires. Unless absolutely necessary, ropes should not be
allowed to drag along the ground or through piles of material where they are likely to pick up grit.
n. The angle between center line of the sheaves and the rope as it winds on and off the drum is called the fleet angle. Keep
the fleet angle as low as possible (1-1/2 degrees). A large fleet angle may cause the rope to spool loosely on the drum
or crowd itself until it jumps back to the previous layer, and also cause the rope to rub against the flanges of the sheave
and thus produce undue wear.
1.3.12 ABRASION VERSUS FLEXIBILITY (1991)
a. The best illustration of the design compromise mentioned above is the inter-relationship between resistance to abrasion
and fatigue resistance.
b. Fatigue resistance – which is the measure of the capability of bending repeatedly under stress – is accomplished by
using many flexible wires in the rope strands. Resistance to abrasion or metal loss is achieved primarily with a rope
design which uses fewer, larger wires so that the outer layer of wire can better withstand scrapes.
c. So when anything is done from an engineering standpoint to alter either abrasion resistance (resistance to metal loss) or
fatigue resistance, both of these characteristics are affected – and possibly rope strength also. (See Figure 27-1-5.)

General
Figure 27-1-5. Abrasion and Fatigue Resistance
1.3.13 WIRE ROPE CONNECTIONS (1991)
1.3.13.1 Typical Cable Connections Using Wire Rope Clips 3

a. Clips are made of drop-forged steel to resist distortion in heavy duty service. All parts are hot dip galvanized to prevent
corrosion. When properly applied in sufficient number as indicated in Table 27-1-5, clips will develop approximately
80% of the full breaking strength of the rope and may be revised if undamaged. Figure 27-1-7 indicates the different
estimated efficiencies of various types of wire rope connections.
b. Wire rope clips should be attached properly to insure maximum holding power (Figure 27-1-6). The base of the clip 4
should be applied to the live or long end, and the U-bolt against the dead or short end of the wire rope. Wire rope
thimbles are required to insure the best loop protection.
c. The clip nuts should be retightened to the specified torque after applying an initial load, as rope will stretch and shrink
in diameter when loads are applied. The tightening torque values shown are based upon the threads being clean, dry
and free of lubrication.
1.3.14 REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (1991)
Refer to the References located at the end of this chapter.

Figure 27-1-6. Clip Installation
Table 27-1-5. Clip Installation
A B C
Rope Number of Center to Length of Torque Weight

Diameter In Clips Center Rope Turned in Per Clip
Inches (Minimum Spacing of Back Excl. of Ft - Lb Pounds
(Note 1)) Clips – Inches Eye – Inches
1/8 2 1-1/8 6 4.5 0.05
3/16 2 1-1/8 8 7.5 0.10
1/4 2 1-1/2 8 15 0.20
5/16 2 1-7/8 10 30 0.30
3/8 2 2-1/4 10 45 0.50
7/16 3 2-5/8 12 65 0.70
1/2 3 3 12 65 0.80
9/16 3 3-1/2 14 95 1.0
5/8 3 3-3/4 16 95 1.1
3/4 4 4-1/2 20 130 1.7
7/8 4 5-1/4 24 225 2.5
1 4 6 30 225 3.0
1-1/8 5 6-3/4 36 225 3.4
1-1/4 5 7-1/2 40 360 4.6
Note 1: The number of clips shown is the minimum recommended for ordinary usage.
The number of clips shown is based upon using right regular or lang lay wire rope, 6 × 37 class,
fibre core or IWRC, IPS or EIPS. If greater number of clips are used than shown in the table, the
amount of rope turn-back should be increased proportionately.
IMPORTANT: Failure to make a termination in accordance with instructions will cause a
reduction in the efficiency rating.

General
Figure 27-1-7. Efficiency of Wire Rope Connections

SECTION 1.4 BAR CODES AND THEIR APPLICATION FOR ROADWAY WORK
EQUIPMENT1
— 1992 —
a. Equipment maintenance and management in today’s world is rapidly gaining a level of sophistication never before
experienced in the industry. Sophisticated management is necessary to cope with the increasing complexity of day-to-
day operations; as a result, good managers of equipment cannot afford to operate without various forms of
computerization.
b. One of the most important waves of technology sweeping American industry is the use of bar codes for Systematic
Data Collection. It is driven by the need for accurate and timely data gathering from the manufacturing, inspection,
maintenance, transportation, material acquisition and inventory cycles of a business operation. There is a natural fit in
equipment management where machine identification, part numbers and related information are basic and well suited
to this technology.
c. BN Codes have gained acceptance as one of the most accurate and practical media to implement automatic collection
of printed data. Bar codes are achieving this wide-spread popularity because they can be incorporated in the primary
source marking of products from production to consumption.
1.4.2 BENEFITS OF BAR CODES (1992)
a. Bar codes streamline identification. The black and white bars seen on most all grocery items in a supermarket represent
a unique identification for that specific product. Bar codes have received overwhelming acceptance because they offer
the simplest and most accurate, cost-effective approach for identifying objects by using reading machines (Scanners).
b. Some of the more frequent errors involved with a manual data entry system are as follows:
• Incorrect parts numbers.
• Transposing of alpha or numeric characters.
• Incorrect order units, i.e. each, feet, gallons, etc.
• Insufficient or incorrect ordering description.
• Missing or incorrect shipping instructions or addresses.
• Illegible handwriting.
c. Some of the main advantages of bar codes are as follows:
(1) Accuracy of data input.
(a) One of the primary advantages of bar codes over other technologies is its low susceptibility to errors involved
with data input.
(b) The estimated error rate for generating errors due to interpreting handwritten alpha or numeric data is one
error per 1,000 characters generated. This error rate is greatly influenced by the penmanship of the individual
1 References, Vol. 92, 1991, p. 303 and Vol. 93, 1992, p. 143.

General
generating the document. The estimated error rate for keyed data entry is one error per 10,000 key strokes;
whereas, the rate for Bar Code scanning is one error per 3,000,000 characters scanned.
(2) Speed of entering data into the computer system. Scanning a bar code is much faster than manually recording
information or keying data into a terminal.
(3) Timeliness of information for more effective management of resources and repair parts inventories. Bar codes
information can be immediately transferred to a host computer, and real-time data collection enables timely
information to be accessed almost instantly.
(4) Labor savings realized through elimination of manual systems. Improved efficiency can be realized by substituting
bar code systems in place of manual systems, resulting in increased productivity and reduced labor costs.
1.4.3 EQUIPMENT (1992)
One of the compact type portable units currently used for material acquisition is portable data terminal with 32K RAM
including an integral printer. The scanner is a contact type, high density, laser wand with 6 Mil. aperture.
1.4.3.1 Scanners
Reading devices (or scanners) fall into two categories, contact and non-contact readers. Contact readers are normally handheld
units, while non-contact readers can either be handheld or stationary units.
1.4.3.1.1 Contact Readers 1

a. Contact readers must either touch or come in close proximity to the bar code symbol. The most common type of
contact reader is a pen wand or light pen. They serve as an excellent substitute for the traditional clipboard, paper and
pencil, or keyboard data-entry and collection methods. Primary benefits from using contact readers include a reduction
in the number of clerical errors in recorded data, a reduction in labor and paperwork to process the data, faster and
more accurate inventory taking, material acquisition or payroll document completion. Careful attention must be given
to match the wand resolution to the bar code density. A high-density resolution wand used to read a low-density 3
symbol might see an ink spot as a bar, or an ink void as a space. Conversely, a low-resolution wand may not be able to
recognize the narrow bar of a high-density bar code.
b. The angle at which the wand is positioned to the surface of the symbol (45–90 degrees), as well as the speed at which
the wand is moved across the symbol (3–6 inches per second), are both key parameters affecting high first-pass read
rate.
4
1.4.3.1.2 Non-contact Readers
Non-contact readers include handheld and stationary scanners. The main characteristic of these scanners is that they don’t
have to come in contact with the bar code symbol and can read bar codes up to several feet depending on the symbol size and
scanner type. One of the disadvantages of using non-contact scanners is the possibility of reading the wrong bar code when
several bar codes are located in close proximity, as would be the case with work equipment repair parts books.
1.4.4 BAR CODE FORMAT (1992)

a. The bar code format that has been standardized by many railroads and the current material acquisition process is Code
39 (3 of 9). Code 39’s flexibility to encode alpha and numeric characters has contributed to its widespread use, with
some of the prominent advantages being:
• Incorporates alpha and/or numeric characters.
• Codes can be variable in length.

• Allows bi-directional scanning.
• Density is approximately 3-9.5 characters per inch.
• Applications include LOGMARS (Department of Defense), GSA, AIAG (automotive) and wide acceptance
throughout general industry.
• The quiet zone is 10 times the width of the narrow bar.
b. The 3 of 9 bar code is a variable length, bi-directional, discrete, self-checking alpha-numeric bar code. Its data
character set contains 43 characters:
0-9, A-Z, -, ., $, /, +, % and space.
c. Three of the nine elements are wide and six are narrow. A common character (*) is used exclusively for both a start and
stop character and must be included in every bar code symbol to provide the bar code to be bi-directionally scanned.
d. Typical samples of a low medium and hi-density code of 3 of 9 bar code is shown in Figure 27-1-8.
Figure 27-1-8. Sample Bar Codes
1.4.5 APPLICATIONS (1992)
a. There are currently three primary applications which are being pursued for bar code use with Roadway Work
Equipment:
(1) Repair parts, material acquisition,
(2) Repair parts, material inventory control system,

General
(3) Collection of payroll data information for shop and field maintenance personnel.
b. Great efforts are currently being made to incorporate bar codes into the material acquisition process for work
equipment field and shop maintenance personnel to ease the data entry process. It is obvious this type of process
greatly reduces the potential for data entry errors.
1.4.6 MANUFACTURERS REQUIREMENTS FOR PARTS BOOKS (1992)
In order to achieve a level of uniformity throughout the railroad industry in the work equipment departments, it is required the
following guidelines be adhered to:
a. The bar code comply with the Code 39 (3 of 9) format guidelines.
b. The parts books will contain bar codes, and human readable information for the manufacturers part number as well as
the noun description for that particular part number.
c. The maximum readable characters for part numbers and noun description will be 16 characters. This does not include
the start/stop (*) characters.
d. The “quite zone” preceding and following the start/stop character must be a minimum of 1/4 inch.
e. The bar codes should be 1/4 inch in height to again minimize space requirements, and in no instances should the bar
codes be less than 1/4 inch high.
1
f. The bar code symbols shall use the hi-density format, 7-9 characters per inch, to make the best utilization of available
space. This will also be required to minimize the expansion in overall size of existing non-bar coded parts books.
g. Common readily available standard hardware type items such as wrought iron washers, hex bolts and nuts, machine
screws, cotter keys, hydraulic hoses, fittings, non-special adapters, etc., should not be coded. This will assist in
conserving valuable space in the parts books. The parts books will contain human readable part numbers, as well as the
corresponding detailed non-truncated noun description for all items of the parts books. This can be accomplished 3
through use of a bill of material layout or similar format. It should be noted that non-bar coded items could still be
ordered by manually entering the part number and non description via the handheld computer.
h. The human readable and bar coded part number and noun description for each item in the parts book should be laid out
to be operator friendly; with each item being easily recognizable and set apart or divided from each other to minimize
confusion and the possibility of the operator inadvertently ordering incorrect repair parts.
4
i. The high density bar codes must have a high “first read rate,” meaning the percentage of correct readings that will be
obtained in one pass of the scanner over the bar code symbol.
j. It is recommended the laser printer used to generate bar codes have the capability of producing print with a minimum
of 300 dots per inch, and periodic monitoring of the toner adjustment has found to provide consistency in “First Read
Rate” ability.
k. The manufacturers part number should be compressed so there are no spaces or dashes and numeric character strings.
See Table 27-1-6 for examples.

Table 27-1-6. Example Part Number Formats
Traditional Part # Revised Part Number Format

A-7288-Y-01 A728Y01
0-1406079-0-02 01406079002
l. Providing these guidelines are followed, the sophisticated and time saving bar code parts ordering data collection
system can be used to a great advantage.
SECTION 1.5 EQUIPMENT OPERATORS TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION

— 2009 —
The training of operators for railway maintenance and construction equipment is carried out for the purpose of improving the
safety profile, the efficiency, and the productivity of track maintenance equipment. The capital investment required to own
and operate this equipment, coupled with the requirement to achieve production and maintenance goals within decreasing
availability of track time windows demands competent operators with the training and skills to maximize the efficiency of
these assets.
1.5.2 OPERATOR TRAINING METHODS - BACKGROUND (2009)
a. OJT or "on-job training" has traditionally been the fundamental method used by railways as labor skills were
supplemented by equipment. This method typically consists of either no, or only rudimentary, instruction to the new
operator. In the short term, this method can be effective for less complex pieces of equipment.
b. Informal training has become a minimum necessity as track maintenance equipment has increased in complexity and
the time available for program rework and equipment maintenance has minimized. Differing levels of expertise can be
gained by the operator using Operator-Instructors and/or manufacturer representatives as trainers. While more
complete than "on-job training", this method suffers from not providing comprehensive instruction in a variety of
operating conditions.
c. Advanced training is a hybrid and generally couples informal field training with equipment videos and classroom
training. However, the training is not concurrent and it is generally not application-specific. It is a combination of
"hands on" practice to develop correct technique, followed at a later time by lectures and provided related reference
materials for the operator.
d. Certified training programs begin with established goals, have comprehensive and concurrent practical and
theoretical sessions, and test the newly-trained operator to dually determine learned skills and effectiveness of the
program. These programs are typically multi-day, and can be taught by railroad trainers, representatives of a
manufacturer, or a third party training specialist. These can be held either on railroad property or at dedicated training
facilities. Formal documentation shall be provided.
e. Recurrent training takes the training program and expands it to occur periodically, in order to reinforce correct
operating and maintenance techniques. Various forms of this exist on different properties, utilizing a variety of training
formats, information sources, and training aids. (Promising technologies and computer-based training are on the
leading edge of these efforts.) This is the only method which addresses the problem area of an increasing pace of
change to operating and maintenance procedures that utilize the latest training methods.

General
1.5.3 CANDIDATE SELECTION AND CLASS SIZE CRITERIA (2009)
a. The selection of potential equipment operators should consider the work history and past experience of the individual.
Items such as past injury exposure, safe working habits, and personal attitude are indicative of potential success of the
employee in the training program.
b. Past equipment experience is an obvious desirable objective attribute. Should the individual be able to demonstrate
maintenance responsibilities and operating capabilities with similar equipment, the probability of acquiring additional
skills from training programs is high. In cases of specialized equipment where there may not be any similar experience
for the new operator, aptitude testing can provide significant guidance as long as relevant criteria are utilized.
c. A subjective attribute which is typically a determinant of success is a desire to improve on behalf of the employee. A
positive attitude and "wanting to learn" are perhaps the most important indicators of a potential training success.
While modern roadway maintenance equipment is more user-friendly, it also has more features and requires more
knowledge to operate safely and effectively.
d. For the group to be trained, the trainee-to-trainer ratio should not exceed twelve to one for a classroom session. For
practical training with equipment at a work site, half of that ratio should be the maximum. While that ratio may seem
high for certain types of equipment, the trainer should interface individually with each student for specific instruction,
allowing the others to observe and learn through the repetitive process.
1.5.4 OPERATOR TRAINING PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS (2009)
a. Training programs have cost and benefit elements associated with them, and must be budgeted accordingly. 1
b. Each training program must have established goals. Safety and minimization of injury occurrences are always
paramount in these goals, as are reduction of damages to railway assets and property. The instructional goals must be
application-specific, critical skill-based, and relevant to both the work conditions encounteredand the level of
operating and maintenance capability of the trainee.
c. Following these goals, the development of a custom training manual should be undertaken. As opposed to a copy of an 3
available operating manual, it should be designed for specific tasks in line with the established goals, and be brief and
easily understandable to the student. The training manual must cover both the theoretical aspect of the program during
the training, and act as a resource for the trained operator following completion of the program.
d. Practical, or "hands on", training within a variety of operating situations is imperative. This eliminates the "trial and
error" technique which can generate poor operating and maintenance learned skills. Further, instructor corrections
during practical training reduce the operator learning curve, and discourage the development of poor equipment 4
maintenance practices. "Hand ons" training should also include automation training, specifically the proper set-up of
computer-assisted track maintenance machines. In practical training it is important that as few distractions as possible
are allowed, and that similar equipment, or an appropriate simulator, be used during the training.
e. Determination of what was learned in the training is important for both the employee and the trainer. The only way to
measure this objectively is to pre-test the employee for skills or knowledge, and to follow the training program with a
comprehensive examination to determine knowledge gained. In most cases a practical demonstration of learned skills
in accord with the program goals should suffice. However, with more complicated machinery it may also be
appropriate to test learned knowledge with a combination of written testing and a practical demonstration of
proficiency.
f. On the trainer's behalf, the result of the testing should give clues as to which parts of the program or curriculum is weak
or strong, such that appropriate adjustments can be made prior to the next group of trainees. Another very important
part of the feedback loop for the trainer is a formal course evaluation by the students with regard to content. Finally,
equipment supervisory employees should be utilized to provide feedback to determine if learned skills are being

practiced by the operator in the work environment. The latter can be done informally, but is an important source of
feedback information for the design of future programs.
g. Certification of the trained operator includes all of those requirements involved with documentation of the training
program. Initial certification is an important step in the training process, and subsequent levels of certification should
be established such that an operator can progress through a series of training programs. A training time limit should be
established to determine when specific retraining is necessary, and that schedule distributed among affected operators.
h. It is desirable that labor agreements reflect program needs of selecting capable employees and placing trained
personnel according to the individual's ability.
i. These guidelines should be set to adhere to existing policies and standards as applicable to the individual railroad.
1.5.5 RETRAINING AND RECERTIFICATION (2009)
With track maintenance equipment changing at an ever-increasing rate and with continuing reductions in maintenance fleet
size, a recurrent training and recertification process for experienced operators can be as important as original training and
certification for new operators. Reinforcement of correct operating and maintenance techniques is critical in order to be
effective and productive in maintaining the roadway. Periodic practical reviews of competency designed to maximize
production time and minimize repair expenses, and to eliminate injuries and lost time due to accidents, should be encouraged
by the establishment of criteria associated with successive levels of recertification.
The documentation of recertification and recurrent training is a valuable tool for gauging the value of each training session on
the capabilities of operators. Mandatory certification and recertification is a tool that is making the industry safer, more
reliable and accountable.

27
Part 2
Roadway Machines1
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Specifications for Track Motor Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-4

2.1.2 Operational Requirements (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-4
2.1.3 Engine (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-5
2.1.4 Frame, Wheels, Axles and Bearings (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-6
2.1.5 Suspension (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-7
1
2.1.6 Fuel Tank (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-7
2.1.7 Hydraulic System (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-8
2.1.8 Pneumatic System (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-9
2.1.9 Brake Systems (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-10
2.1.10 Travel Speed and Performance (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-10
2.1.11 Cab (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-11 3
2.1.12 Standard Equipment (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-13
2.1.13 Miscellaneous (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-14
2.1.14 Paint (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-15
2.1.15 Stenciling (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-15
2.1.16 Optional Equipment (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-16
2.1.17 General (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-16
2.1.18 Reliability (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-17
2.1.19 Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-20
2.2 Specifications for Railway Push Cars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-23

2.2.2 Operational Requirements (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-23
2.2.3 Frame, Wheels, Axles, and Bearings (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-24
2.2.4 Suspension (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-25
2.2.5 Standard Equipment (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-25
2.2.6 Miscellaneous (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-25
2.2.7 Paint (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-25
2.2.8 Stenciling (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-26
1
References, Vol. 31, 1930, pp. 1254, 1820; Vol. 2, 1931, pp. 541, 751; Vol. 33, 1932, pp. 162, 713; Vol. 34, 1933, pp. 356, 804; Vol. 39, 1938, pp. 606, 878;
Vol. 41, 1940, pp. 266, 849; Vol. 47, 1946, pp. 180, 607; Vol. 48, 1947, pp. 339, 868, Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 244, 825; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 638, 644, 1373; Vol. 56,
1955, pp. 513, 1099; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 630, 1235; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 356, 738; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 102, Vol. 97, p. 220. Revised 1996.

2.2.9 Optional Equipment (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-26

2.2.10 General (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-26
2.3 Specifications for On-t rack Roadway Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-27

2.3.1 General (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-27
2.3.2 Material (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-28
2.3.3 Brakes (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-28
2.3.4 Wheels, Axles and Bearings: Frame and Suspension (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-29
2.3.5 Insulation (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-30
2.3.6 Engine and Power Train (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-30
2.3.7 Fuel Tank (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-31
2.3.8 Exhaust System (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-31
2.3.9 Hydraulic System (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-31
2.3.10 Electrical System (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-35
2.3.11 Pneumatic System (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-36
2.3.12 Body or Cab Top (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-37
2.3.13 Travel Speed (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-37
2.3.14 Controls (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-38
2.3.15 Clearance and Safety (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-38
2.3.16 Initial Preparation and Servicing (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-38
2.3.17 Paint (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-39
2.3.18 Shipping (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-40
2.3.19 Parts and Instruction Books (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-40
2.3.20 Repair Parts and Service (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-40
2.3.21 Additional Specifications (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-41
2.3.22 Noise Exposure (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-42
2.3.23 Delivery (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-42
2.3.24 Non-Compliance (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-42
2.4 Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43
2.5 Hydraulic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43

2.5.1 Introduction (1980). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43
2.5.2 General (1980) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-44
2.6 Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-46

2.6.1 Introduction (1980). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-46
2.6.2 General (1980) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-46
2.6.3 Electrical Apparatus Cabinets (1980). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-46
2.6.4 Motor Control Apparatus Overload Relays (1980) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-47
2.7 Specifications for Rail Guide Wheel Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-47

2.7.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-47
2.7.2 Material (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-48
2.7.3 Brakes (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-48
2.7.4 Wheels, Axles and Bearings (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-49
2.7.5 Insulation (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-49
2.7.6 Hydraulic System (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-50
2.7.7 Electrical System (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-52

Roadway Machines
2.7.8 Pneumatic System (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-53

2.7.9 Controls (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-54
2.7.10 Clearance and Safety (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-54
2.7.11 Initial Preparation and Servicing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-54
2.7.12 Paint (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-54
2.7.13 Shipping (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-55
2.7.14 Parts and Instruction Books (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-55
2.7.15 Repair Parts and Service (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-56
2.7.16 Additional Options (To be completed by vendor or manufacturer.) (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-56
2.7.17 Delivery (2009) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-56
2.7.18 Mounting of Rail Guide Wheel Equipment to Vehicle (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-56
2.7.19 Setup and Alignment (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-57
2.7.20 Non-Compliance (1996) R(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-58
2.8 Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) During Maintenance of Roadway Machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-58

2.8.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-58
2.8.2 Definitions (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-58
2.8.3 Requirements (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-59
2.8.4 Procedures (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-60
1
2.9 Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility Guildeline for New On-Track Machinery 27-2-61
2.9.1 General (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-61
2.9.2 Definitions (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-61
2.9.3 Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility for “Travel” Mode (2011) . . . . . . . . . 27-2-61
2.9.4 Mirrors and Cameras (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-63
2.10 Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-63 3

2.10.1 Purpose (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-63
2.10.2 Scope (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-63
2.10.3 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-64
LIST OF FIGURES
4
27-2-1 AREMA Wheel and Flange for 14 Inches, 16 Inches and 20 Inches Wheels on Motor Cars, Trailers and Push Cars
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-7
27-2-2 Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-20
27-2-3 Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications for Work Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-43
27-2-4 Direction of Travel Sightlines and Visibility, Top View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-62
27-2-5 Direction of Travel Sightlines and Visibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-63
27-2-6 Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-64
27-2-7 Steps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-64
27-2-8 Handrails and Handholds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-65
27-2-9 Platforms, Walkways and Guardrails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-65
27-2-10 Stairways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-66

LIST OF TABLES
27-2-1 Recommended Cleanliness Level of System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-33

27-2-2 Paint Specifications for Specific Equipment and Component Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-39
27-2-3 Paint Specifications for Rail Guide Wheel Equipment and Component Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2-55
27-2-4 Recommended Dimensions for Steps, Stairs, Platforms, Guardrails, Handholds and Ladders. . . . . . . . . . 27-2-66
SECTION 2.1 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TRACK MOTOR CARS
a. This specification covers a TRACK MOTOR CAR for railway use on 4′-8-1/2″ standard gage track, constructed with
bolted and/or continuous welded rail up to 140 lb, head contact and/or head free, on wood and/or concrete track ties, in
slag and/or crushed rock ballast, on ballast deck and/or timber deck bridges.
b. All equipment and components furnished under this specification shall be new, unused and of current manufacture, and
shall equal or exceed the following unless otherwise specified.
c. Design, construction and materials used in the unit shall assure that it will function reliably and efficiently in sustained
operation under hard usage in an adverse railway environment.
d. Each unit shall be free from defects such as incomplete welds, welds that cross welds, corrosion, loose or improper
fastenings, leaks or contamination and any other defects that could impair its operation or serviceability.
e. The design of the unit shall provide for ease of service, replacement and adjustment of components, including filters
and fluids, with a minimum disturbance of other components.
f. All units shall comply with all Federal and State/Provincial environmental; safety and health regulations and the
current AREMA specifications in force at the time of delivery. In the event of conflict or variation between the
regulations and these specifications, the most restrictive requirement will apply.
2.1.2 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS (1993)
a. Units must be capable of seating the following: Inspection – two men; Section – four men; and Gang – six men;
safely and comfortably, and have room for two additional men in emergency situations. The unit must have sufficient
power and speed to enable railway employees to conduct normal operation and maintenance procedures (inspections,
pulling loads of rail, ties, etc.).
b. The unit is to be equipped with a drive system that is suitable for the intended use. Manufacturer is to provide details of
this drive system in the quotation.
c. Gross Weights:
(1) Gross weight of the inspection car is not to exceed 950 lb (empty).
(2) Gross weight of the section car is not to exceed 1,150 lb (empty).
(3) The gross weight of the gang motor car, complete with cab and all accessories, is not to exceed 2,150 lb (empty).

Roadway Machines
d. Lifting Weights:
(1) For inspection car, lifting weight is not to exceed 200 lb.
(2) For section car, lifting weight is not to exceed 200 lb.
(3) The lifting weight of the gang motor car, with lift handles fully extended to the normal position, is not to exceed
400 lb.
e. Manufacturer is to supply and apply “Safe Lifting Procedure” decals to both ends of the car, between the lifting
handles.
f. Units are to be uninsulated or insulated against activation of track signals, at the purchaser’s option.
g. The unit must also be equipped with the following:
(1) Demountable pressed steel wheels (16″ × 5/16″ × 4-1/2″).
(2) Safety rails and front pipe skids.
(3) Extension lift handles with a device that will not allow the handle to vibrate out during travel.
(4) Blade type adjustable rail sweeps on the front and rear.
(5) Bumper bars – front and rear.

1
(6) Safety coupler.
h. Inspection motor cars must also be equipped with two cushioned seals with backrests (one each side).
2.1.3 ENGINE (1991)

a. The engine supplied for this unit is to meet all horsepower and rpm requirements of the work mode and travel mode of
the unit within the continuous rating of the engine.
3
b. The engine’s intermittent rating power availability is to be reserved and available for extreme power requirements (i.e.
extra high track curvature and excessive adverse grades). The latest S.A.E. Diesel Engine Rating Code is to apply.
c. The make, model and horsepower rating of the engine supplied, and the unit’s horsepower requirements, under
maximum load in the work mode and in the travel mode, shall be stated.
4
d. The engine’s fuel consumption figures, in Imperial and U.S. gallons per hour, at the engine’s maximum intermittent
output rating, and maximum continuous output rating, are to be provided.
e. A detailed list of the engine manufacturer’s service and parts supply outlets that are available are to be provided.
f. Diesel engines are to be fitted with a one-piece combination silencer/spark arrestor with rain cap, adequately sized for
the engine supplied, and must conform with the eight-hour exposure of applicable Noise Control Regulations of the
Federal, State, Local or Labor Code.
g. The engine is to be equipped with a spin-on type oil filter and fuel filters.
h. Engine starting shall be by a positive type of gear engaging starter. A minimum 75 amp hour battery is to be provided.
i. Engine shall start within 2/3 of the cranking system’s time rating.
j. Engine offered shall provide ample power with clean exhaust for all equipment functions under the following
conditions:

(1) Altitude – 0 to 3000 feet (900 m).
(2) Temperature – Minus 40 degrees F (–40 degrees C) – Plus 140 degrees F (40 degrees C).
(3) Atmosphere – Extreme dust to 1 inch of rain per hour.
k. Engine compartment to be fully enclosed, sound dampened and lockable with hook and hasp type fixtures for use with
padlocks. All covers are to be hinged to facilitate ease of servicing.
l. Unit must have sufficient power to propel itself up an equipment loading ramp onto a railway flat car (approximately
6% grade).
2.1.4 FRAME, WHEELS, AXLES AND BEARINGS (1991)
a. The frame, axles, wheels and bearings must be designed to withstand maximum stresses induced under normal
operating and traveling conditions. The machine shall withstand a free drop of six inches without damage.
b. All welding and joint preparation is to follow the latest welding code.
c. Lifting points (suitable for lifting the machine level with equal length cables) and jacking pads must be provided and
clearly indicated.
d. Unit is to be protected from undercarriage damage by derail skids front and rear. Stop blocks are to be welded inboard
and outboard of rail head area to prevent unit from leaving track area in case of derailment. Skids are to be
manufactured in such a way as to not deform should machine derail.
e. Wheels and axles are to be in alignment and gage, with the following allowable tolerances:
(1) Gage: 1/8 inch maximum tolerance (56.375 inches–56.5 inches).
(2) Tram: ±1/8 inch maximum tolerance.
(3) Diagonal measurement:
• ±3/16 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases up to 9 feet.
• ±1/8 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases greater than 9 feet.
f. No excessive vibration, wobble or eccentric action is to occur at any speed for which the machine is intended.
g. Wheel contour and gage shall comply with the standards set by AREMA or AAR (Mechanical Division) as required
for size and type of wheels furnished. (See Figure 27-2-1.)
h. Wheels shall be firmly fixed to axles that are supported in anti-friction bearings.
i. Axle material is to have a minimum Charpy value of 20 ft-lb at minus 30 degrees F.
j. The axle sprocket (if applicable) shall be of the split sprocket type and to be connected to the axle by means of a taper-
lock bushing and hub (similar to the Browning Taper-Loc).
k. Chain drive (if applicable) is to be double roller chain with chain lubricator.

Roadway Machines
Figure 27-2-1. AREMA Wheel and Flange for 14 Inches, 16 Inches and 20 Inches Wheels
on Motor Cars, Trailers and Push Cars
3
2.1.5 SUSPENSION (1991)
a. A suspension system is to be provided to ensure a safe and comfortable ride (coil spring, leaf spring, air bag, etc.).
b. The suspension must be sufficiently flexible, or at least one axle must be spring mounted, to allow any wheel to drop
below the plane established by the other three wheels. This amount of drop in inches shall be equal to or more than the 4
wheelbase in feet divided by eight.
2.1.6 FUEL TANK (1991)
a. It must be adequate to provide fuel for 12 hours operation of the engine producing at its maximum continuous
horsepower rating. If two or more tanks are provided, fillers are required on all tanks to facilitate faster fueling.
b. Fuel tanks shall be in a location to eliminate any fire hazard from spilling, overflow or draining of fuel and shall be
protected from impact damage due to collision.
c. Diesel fuel and gasoline tanks are to be equipped with hook and hasp type fixtures for use with padlocks.
d. The filler opening is not to be located such that a filler can or nozzle could possibly contact an electrically-energized
component or connection.

e. Gas lines must be equipped with an in-line fuel filter.
f. Diesel fuel systems are to be equipped with a water separator/filter assembly.
2.1.7 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM (1991)
a. The system shall conform to the recommendations of the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA), American
National Standards Institute (ANSI), and the International Standards Organization (ISO).
b. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation, all parts of the system shall be clean and free of
contaminants. Threads, holes, cuts, flares and machining must be deburred and cleaned.
c. All fluid must be pre-filtered through a 10-micron nominal or finer filtering system before being added to the system.
d. The hydraulic components and the design of the system shall be suitable for the intended service. The system must be
capable of maintaining an operating temperature not exceeding 70 degrees C (158 degrees F) at ambient temperatures
of 40 degrees C (104 degrees F).
e. All return oil (pilot and case drains excepted) must be manifolded and filtered through 10-micron nominal filters.
f. Hydraulic hoses are to have a minimum of two wire braid reinforcement (return lines excepted) with a bursting
pressure safety factor of 4:1, and are to be in accordance with S.A.E. Specification J-517 (latest revision).
g. Reusable hose fittings are required throughout the unit (Hydrostatic systems excepted).
h. Hoses are not to be:
(1) Flexed to less than their rated minimum bend radius.
(2) Installed or routed to expose them to temperatures above or below their rated operating temperature ranges.
(3) Subjected to any twisting, pulling, kinking, crushing or abrasion.
NOTE: If necessary, hoses subject to excessive abrasion are to be wrapped with an abrasion resistant wrapping or
sleeve.
i. If tubing is used, it must be steel and SAE 37 degrees flared ends are required.
j. Tubing and piping is to be mounted to minimize vibration. Tubing bends shall have a radius of not less than three times
the ID.
k. Vacuum at the pump inlets is not to exceed 60% of the pump manufacturer’s recommendation or four inches of
mercury, whichever is less, under normal operating conditions. A test port is to be provided.
l. Heavy duty chrome is required on all hydraulic cylinder rods. Please specify the chrome type and thickness.
m. Reservoir must be equipped with the following:
(1) a lockable drain tap (minimum 3/4 inch pipe).
(2) lockable suction oil shut-off valves (if reservoir oil level is above pumps).
(3) a raised inspection/cleaning cover.

Roadway Machines
(4) a combined thermometer and static fluid level gage, in plain view, protected from damage and located as near to
the intake lines as possible.
(5) a 10-micron absolute filtered breather (sealed and pressurized systems excepted).
n. Pressure testing tees shall be provided at locations to provide easy access for checking hydraulic pressures on all
circuits. Tees are to incorporate a male quick-disconnect coupling, c/w protective cap. An adequately sized gage
connected to an equally sized female quick-disconnect coupling is to be provided and stored in the tool box.
o. Hydraulic reservoirs are to be filled with a hydraulic oil as specified by the ‘Railroad.’
2.1.8 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM (1991)
a. Air reservoirs must be constructed in accordance with the following:
(1) The capacity of the reservoir must be less than five cubic feet.
(2) The diameter of the reservoir must be less than six inches.
b. Extra reservoirs must be added in parallel if larger capacity is required.
c. If the reservoir is greater than five cubic feet capacity and/or greater than six inches in diameter, the reservoir is to be
manufactured per the following:
1
(1) A metal tag or badge plate is to be firmly attached to the reservoir indicating the serial number and the authorized
working pressure.
(2) The reservoir(s) are to be telltale drilled over the entire surface, both shell and head, with standard 3/16 inch drill,
spaced not more than 12 inches apart, measured longitudinally and circumferentially, to a minimum depth
determined by the following formula:
3
D = 0.6PR/S-0.6P
where:
D = minimum depth of telltale holes in inches, but in no case less than 1/16 inch
P = design pressure in pounds per square inch 4
S = 1/5 of the minimum specified tensile strength of the material in pounds per square inch
R = inside radius of the reservoir in inches
(3) On horizontal reservoirs, one row of holes shall be drilled lengthwise in a line at the bottom of the reservoir.
(4) On vertical reservoirs, one row of holes shall be drilled on a line passing through the lowest point of the reservoir.
(5) The holes drilled in each head shall be radially in line with the longitudinal rows of holes in the shell.
(6) Flange connections, longitudinal seams or other permanent connections to the air reservoir that interfere with the
telltale hole lines or circles must be cleared by at least 1 inch.
(7) Each reservoir, after drilling, shall be hydrostatically tested to a pressure at least 25% greater than the design
pressure, before being installed on the unit.

(8) The following information must be forwarded to the System Manager Work Equipment prior to the unit being
accepted.
Manufactured by:
Manufacturer No. Constructed at: Date:
Design Pressure: lb/sq in. Factor of Safety
Authorized working pressure lb/sq in.
Diameter of Reservoir Radius of Heads Top and Bottom
Material of Shell Plates Minimum of Tensile lb/sq in.
Material of Heads Minimum of Tensile lb/sq in.
Thickness of Shell Plates
Thickness of Heads
Welded or Riveted Construction
Diameter of Rivets in Shell
Diameter of Rivets in Circumferential Seams
Diameter of Rivets in Heads
Number and Size of Manholes
Position of Reservoir – Vertical or Horizontal
Number, Size, Make and Model of Safety Valves
Location of Safety Valves (on Reservoir, in Supply Line, etc.)
Safety Valve or Valves Set at
Telltale Drill Depth
Attach copy of drawing used for manufacturing reservoir to the affidavit.
d. All air reservoirs must be provided with an automatic condensation drain valve AND a manual drain valve, located at
the lowest part of the reservoir.
e. System must be provided with an air dryer and a lubricator.
2.1.9 BRAKE SYSTEMS (1991)

a. The brakes are to be individually adjustable and hand operated.
b. The brake system is to consist of four (4) self-centering shoes with renewable metal liners.
2.1.10 TRAVEL SPEED AND PERFORMANCE (1991)
a. Unit must be self-propelled and must achieve and maintain the following speed parameters in both the forward and
reverse directions, on any straight or curved, bolted or CWR track rated at 50 mph or more for freight trains:
• 0% grade – 35 mph.
• 1% adverse grade – 25 mph.
• 2% adverse grade – 20 mph.

Roadway Machines
b. Tractive effort/drawbar pull:
(1) Inspection and section motor cars must be capable of pulling a load up to 4,000 lb at a speed of 20 mph.
(2) Gang Motor Cars must be capable of pulling a load of up to 6,000 lb, at a speed of 35 mph.
2.1.11 CAB (1991)
2.1.11.1 Materials
a. Cabs are to be constructed with fiberglass, to a thickness of not less than 20 mils. The body and doors are to be
constructed of fire retardant material, to meet A.S.T.M. Self Extinguishing Specifications
D-636 (latest revision).
b. Reinforcement is to consist of a layer of 1.5 oz per square foot chopped strand mat, followed by a layer of 24 oz woven
roving, followed by another layer of 1.5 oz per square foot chopped strand mat, to make up and approximate laminated
thickness of 3/16 inch.
c. All materials used in the construction are to be of top quality and must be rot, rust and mildew proof.
NOTE: Alternate materials will be considered.
1
a. All leading edge supports, window frames, door frames and roof, front and rear of cab, are to be reinforced with
plywood or other suitable material.
b. All openings, such as doors, windows, engine shroud areas, etc., are to be reinforced with extra layers of chopped
strand mat in such a manner as to eliminate cracking in these areas and to add enough rigidity to allow proper closing
of doors and installation of window glass.
3
c. Doors are to have extra reinforcement to reduce flexing and provide a uniform fit, and are to be provided with a good
quality weather stripping.
d. Plastic conduit (1/2 inch ID) is to be molded into the cab interior walls for concealing electrical wiring harnesses.
e. Cabs are to be case in molds of good construction and finish in order to furnish a good quality product.
4
2.1.11.3 Finish
a. The interior finish of the cab is to be smooth textured and free from all unsightly and/or sharp protrusions.
b. Interior of cab is to be painted a color as specified by the purchaser.
c. Finished fiberglass shall have a hardness of Barcol 45-55, shall be smooth, glossy, weather resistant, and shall be free
of pin holes, bubbles, ripples, cracks or chipping of any kind and shall not appreciably fade or dull in normal service.
d. Color of the cab will be advised and is to be free from any streaking or blotching.
e. All exposed, trimmed or cut edges are to be true to line and smooth.
f. All exposed rivets or bolts are to be free of sharp edges and coated for appearance and protection.

2.1.11.4 Windows
a. Front windows (25.5″W × 21″H) and rear window (36″W × 12″H) are to be laminated safety glass in accordance with
Motor Vehicle Safety Standards.
b. All side windows are to be 3/16 inch high mar-resistant Lexan or equivalent.
c. Windows in doors are to be approximately 26″W × 14.5″H in the gang cars.
d. All windows are to be mounted to the cab with rubber window channel.
2.1.11.5 Doors
a. Doors are to be hinged at the rear to allow for “head-wind” assist in emergency opening.
b. Doors are to be equipped with “T” type door handles c/w latch and striker plate, and located at the midpoint between
the top and bottom of the door, at the leading edge, also a hook and hasp fixture for use with padlock.
c. Doors for section car are to be 34.5 inches wide by 46 inches high.
d. Doors for inspection car are to be 28.5 inches wide by 46 inches high.
2.1.11.6 Others
a. Cars must also include the following:
(1) Front and rear defroster fans.
(2) Heavy duty windshield wipers (motors, arms and blades), front and rear.
(3) Fire extinguisher (5 lb dry chemical, ABC type).
(4) Interior cab lights.
(5) Fully lighted instrumentation (where applicable):
• Engine hourmeter.
• Oil pressure gage.
• Air pressure gage.
• Water temperature gage (engine temp).
• Ammeter.
• Fuel gage.
(6) Pre-operation check list and lubrication chart to be displayed in cab (in specified languages).
(7) Separate fused, 12/24 volt, 25 watt circuit for a two-way radio.
(8) Interior adjustable rear view mirrors.

Roadway Machines
(9) Two containers for manuals and timetables, etc., to be provided.
(10) Adjustable sun visors.
b. Cab and machine to conform to applicable Labor Code, Material Handling Regulations and Noise Control Regulations
for 8-hour exposure level (latest revisions).
2.1.12 STANDARD EQUIPMENT (1991)
2.1.12.1 Safety
a. All equipment produced should be free from nicks, gages tool cuts, weld spotter, feather edges caused by cutting or
shearing. Sharp corners should be avoided or protected.
b. Hose lines, electrical wires, conduits and such should be adequately clamped. They should be located so that they are
not used as hand holds.
c. Mechanical safety locks on all attachments.
d. No component is to be less than 3 inches (76 mm) from top of rail, either between the rails or for 30 inches (762 mm)
outside each rail, when in the travel mode.
e. All components that could be a hazard to the operator, mechanic or bystanders are to be protected with a guard.
1
f. Handrails and/or grab irons are to be provided where it is intended that personnel mount the unit. The lowest step used
for mounting the unit is not to be more than 12 inches (305 mm) above the top of rail. Any area that is more than 3 feet
(915 mm) above the top of rail, where persons are expected to walk or pass, is to be protected by rigidly fastened
handrails, 42 inches (1067 mm) high, with a secondary rail at 24 inches (610 mm) high. This area is also to have a non-
skid walking surface.
2.1.12.2 Materials 3
a. All steel plates, shapes, bars and sheets shall be of a quality that has good weldability, high impact resistance and high
notch toughness at low temperatures (–20 degrees C/–4 degrees F to –40 degrees C/–40 degrees F). Steel items shall be
of alloy and grades normally used for Maintenance-of-Way equipment. Design of structural members subject to normal
working loads shall have a minimum design factor of 2 to 1. If structural members are subjected to impact stresses, a
minimum design factor of 3 to 1 shall be utilized. It is generally recognized this is only a minimum recommended
guideline and increased design factors may be required as necessary. 4
b. All bolted applications must have at least two full threads protruding beyond the nut after the fastener has been
properly torqued.
c. All non-ferrous metals shall be of alloys having strength and corrosion resistance suitable for the intended use.
2.1.12.3 Electrical
a. Electrical systems shall conform to recommendations of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the
International Standards Organization (ISO), where applicable.
b. Upon completion of manufacture and prior to operation, all parts shall be clean and free from scale, rust, water or any
contaminants. All material and workmanship must be of good quality for the use intended.
c. Components shall be interchangeable, wherever possible.

d. Except in protected areas, thin wall conduit shall not be used. All cable is to be routed in such a manner as to prevent
damage.
e. DC systems, when grounded, are to be negative ground. Battery boxes are to be vented, lockable and are to have a
drain hole incorporated.
f. Electrical cabinets are to be weatherproof and are to be adequately lighted.
g. Interior metal surface walls must be painted with electrical insulating paint or covered with other approved electrical
insulating material, and nominal voltages used must be clearly indicated on the outside of the cabinet.
h. Wires are to be equipped with good quality terminals and identified with permanent numbered markers and must be
color coded where practical. Terminal strips are also to be plainly marked. All wires must be neatly dressed and
clamped.
i. Charging circuit alternator is to be of sufficient capacity to handle full load requirements (i.e. the use of all electrical
accessories simultaneously) at idle and full R.P.M.
2.1.13 MISCELLANEOUS (1991)
Unit delivered must include the following equipment:
a. Concealed master cutoff switch for electrical system.
b. Battery cable is to be encased at the battery box to prevent wear and shorting.
c. Engine ignition switch is to be 4-terminal, spring return, and connected to control all accessories.
d. Unit must be equipped with a device to prevent starting of the engine if the travel mechanism is engaged.
e. Roof-mounted amber revolving light with wire mesh vandalism protection.
f. Traveling lights, 2 front and 2 rear, independently operated.1
g. Red marker lights, 2 front and 2 rear, independently operated.1
h. Dual electric or air horns to the front.
i. Tool box attached to machine, and any specialized tools. (List tools supplied.)
j. Axle mounted hubodometer to record actual distances traveled, regardless of direction of movement of machine (miles
or kilometers).
k. Tow bar connections front and rear (14 inches ±1/2 inch above top of rail).
l. All threads to be U.S. standard.
m. All filler and vent caps must be lockable with hook and hasp type fixtures for use with padlocks.
1 One pair white, opposite pair red lights to operate simultaneously.

Roadway Machines
n. All controls and machine functions are to be labeled, using universal symbols as outlined by S.A.E.
J-298 (latest revision). Specified language labeling will be required on all charts and also locations where universal
symbols cannot be used. These are to be on etched plates, firmly affixed to machine.
o. Complete sets of all operation, maintenance, parts and service manuals, lubrication data and spare parts list.
• Parts and operation manuals are to contain complete and easily read diagrams of all systems on the unit, including
schematics for hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical systems and shall employ American Standard symbols and
notations.
• The maintenance portion of these manuals must include a “troubleshooting guide”, listing in order of likelihood
those systems or subsystems which should be checked upon failure of any portion of the machine operation. Special
tools required for regular maintenance must be listed.
2.1.14 PAINT (1991)
a. Units are to be cleaned and prime painted.
b. The complete unit must be painted to railway specification with the exception of the following:
• Diesel fuel tanks to be painted GREEN.
• Gasoline tank to be painted RED.

1
• Hydraulic reservoir to be painted BLUE.
• Wheels, handrails, and steps to be painted BLACK.
• Lifting and tie down lugs to be painted BLACK.
• Jacking pads to be painted BLACK. 3

• Safety locks to be painted RED.
• Stenciling to be BLACK.
c. Units are to be safety striped, as specified by the purchaser.

4
2.1.15 STENCILING (1991)
a. Stenciling must be 1 inch standard lettering.
b. Unit is to be stenciled with the following information on both sides, in English and metric measures:
(1) Total weight of unit.
(2) Overall length.
(3) Overall width.
(4) Overall height.

c. Manufacturer is to affix the railway logo and the machine running number at four locations: front, back and both sides.
The logo and running number sizes are to be as specified by the purchaser. Manufacturer to be advised on purchase
order of the running numbers.
2.1.16 OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT (1991)
Quote separately on the following:
a. Cab only, manufactured per paragraph j of this specification, not including installation. (Replacement cabs.)
b. Unit per this specification but with 8-man seating capacity. (For Gang Motor Car requirement only.)
c. Aluminum cab without doors and windows. (For Gang Motor car requirement only.)
d. Cab heater using coolant/forced air. (For Gang Motor Car requirement only.)
e. Cab heater using heat from the engine cylinder head. (Provide details with quotation.)
f. Carburetor de-icing kit and engine oil pan heater.
g. Complete set of parts, operation and maintenance manuals in alternate language.
h. Itemized price for a complete manufacturer’s recommended spare parts package.
i. Vandalism covers for windows and instruments when machine is in storage.
j. Any other available options.
2.1.17 GENERAL (1991)
2.1.17.1 Noise Exposure
a. Shall not exceed permissible exposure for operators, assistants and workmen for a continuous eight-hour work day.
Noise sources and machine cab shall be treated to bring about total compliance.
b. Provide in writing with your quotation the sound decibel readings (in DBA) at the operator’s station, and also in a
three-foot grid pattern on all sides of the unit, to a distance of twelve feet, when the unit is under maximum working
conditions.
2.1.17.2 Delivery
Bid shall specify delivery date of all equipment offered. At the time of order, date will be reaffirmed or a new date established.
A manufacturer’s representative shall place equipment in service and instruct purchaser’s operators, mechanics and
supervisors at a location to be specified by purchaser (not necessarily the machine delivery point).
2.1.17.3 Operation and Maintenance
The manufacturer must instruct those Railway employees, operators and mechanics designated by the Railway, in the
operation and maintenance of the machines, so as to permit these Railway employees to maintain the machine at a top level of
performance.

Roadway Machines
2.1.17.4 Parts
Suppliers of roadway machines are required to maintain a stock of parts as per the supplier’s list of “recommended spare
parts” in sufficient quantity to protect those machines in service (minimum 10 years).
2.1.17.5 Non-Compliance
These specifications are not intended to eliminate any product from the bidding. Where equipment does not comply, bidders
shall clearly describe each deviation. These specifications are in full effect unless amended in writing by the purchaser.
Purchaser reserves the right to reject any bid and the right to accept bids deviating from the specifications.
DATE: ______________________ 20 ________
Specifications reviewed and completed by:
SIGNATURE: ____________________________________________________
TITLE: __________________________________________________________
COMPANY: ______________________________________________________
TO COVER: MACHINE _________________ MODEL _________________
2.1.18 RELIABILITY (2004) 1

The intent of this section is to provide guidelines for the application of reliability engineering as applicable to the railway
industry, in particular as applied to Maintenance of Way Roadway Track Maintenance Equipment.
2.1.18.2 Reliability Engineering 3

Reliability is an engineering discipline, therefore reliability is to be approached in a systematic mathematical manner.
Reliability as well as maintainability should always be designed into the initial design. Reliability is very difficult to retrofit
into an existing component or machine.
Reliability and maintainability are analyses prediction of components and/or systems to perform under given circumstances
and maintenance. These analyses are usually based on available prediction models. Some of the most used models are as 4
follows:
Electrical components- MIL-NDBK-217, or Telcordia or RDF 93, or HDR5
Mechanical- Handbook of Reliability Prediction Procedures for Mechanical Equipment
NSWC-94L06, RDF 93(France Telecom,copyright), FMEA/FMECA, SAE International RMS Committee (G-11) Reliability,
Maintainability, and SupportabilityGuidebook. These and many other publications are available both in private industry and
the military.
2.1.18.3 Reliability Terminology
Reliability Engineering is a method of analyzation and predictability of a component or multiple components performing
failure free, its intended function, under stated conditions for a specified period of time.

Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) is an average period of time in hours between failures, over long periods with a large
number of repairable parts.
Expressed as: MTBF = 1,000,000 cycles / failure rate in hours of components with exponential distribution.
Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) is a measure in hours of the total time to correct all problems.
Reliability measures values used to define reliability, i.e. failure rate, mean time between failures, percent of availability, etc.
Operating Environment depicts operating situations, the measured component or components are to perform to required
reliability levels.
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) is cost of component or components over their life cycle.
Percentage of availability measured from 0 to 1 to project component or components availability to perform taking into
account failures and time to repair. Expressed as:
Percentage of availability = MTBF / MTBF + MTTR
2.1.18.4 Reliability Evaluation Technique
A Major goal of any effective reliability program is the ability to maintain a system in a manner which permits and /or allows
a system to operate at a prescribed reliability or availability level. Factors which must be taken into account for increased
system availability would be safety, testing ability, accessibility, visibility, repair ability, simplicity and interchange ability
requirements.
2.1.18.5 Reliability Guidelines
Guidelines must be set to avoid misunderstanding of the stated reliability and/or availability requirements.
a. Start and end of reliability and /or availability periods.
b. Duty cycle
c. Operating environment
d. Policy of maintenance and support ability
e. Stated acceptance level of reliability and/or availability
f. Life cycle
EXAMPLE:
Travel
From siding to work site on track and return to siding
2.0 hours - 1 hour each direction
Maximum speed 30 mph on 2 percent grade on track
Temperature range - -29 degrees centigrade to 50 degrees centigrade

Roadway Machines
Environment - rain/hail, sand/dust, pressure washing with cleaning compounds
Vibration - rail shock (humping), handling shock, acoustic noise, engine, hydraulic
Maintainability required to achieve 95% availability or mean time between failures in hours.
Availability required under stated conditions 95% or mean time between failures in hours.
Life cycle cost for 15 years
Working
Start 20 minutes following travel to 20 minutes prior to traveling
Hours in service - 4.0 hours
Maximum speed 30 mph on 2 percent grade on track
Temperature range - -29 degrees centigrade to 50 degrees centigrade
Environment - rain/hail, sand/dust, pressure washing with cleaning compound
Vibration - rail shock, operational shock, acoustic shock, engine, hydraulic
Maintainability required to achieve 95% availability or mean time between failures in hours
1
Availability required under stated conditions 95% or mean time between failures in hours
Life cycle cost for 15 years

2.1.19 MAINTENANCE OF WAY - WORK EQUIPMENT BULLETIN (2004)
Figure 27-2-2. Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin

Roadway Machines
Figure 27-2-2. Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin (Continued)

Figure 27-2-2. Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin (Continued)

Roadway Machines
SECTION 2.2 SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILWAY PUSH CARS
a. This specification covers a RAILWAY PUSH CAR, for use on 4′-8-1/2″ standard gage track, constructed with bolted
and/or continuous welded rail up to 140 lb, head contact and/or head free, on wood and/or concrete track ties, in slag
and/or crushed rock ballast.
b. All equipment and components furnished under this specification shall be new, unused and of current manufacture, and
shall equal or exceed the following unless otherwise specified.
c. Design, construction, and materials used in the unit shall assure that it will function reliably and efficiently in sustained
operation under hard usage in an adverse railway environment.
d. Each unit shall be free from defects such as incomplete welds, welds that cross welds, corrosion, loose or improper
fastenings, leaks or contamination, and any other defects that could impair its operation or serviceability.
e. The design of the unit shall provide for ease of service, replacement and adjustment of components, including filters
and fluids, with a minimum disturbance of other components.
f. All units shall comply with all Federal and State/Provincial environmental safety and health regulations, and the
current AREMA specifications in force at the time of delivery. In the event of conflict or variation between the
regulations and these specifications, the most restrictive requirement will apply.
1
2.2.2 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS (1991)
a. The unit must be capable of carrying and hauling any and all loads up to its capacity and must be sturdy enough to be
pulled from either end by a track machine, when fully loaded.
b. The unit is to be non-insulated or insulated against the activation of track signals, at the purchaser’s option.
3
c. The unit is to be constructed of aluminum alloy frame members, with a wooden deck.
d. The unit must be equipped with the following:
(1) Differential axles on one end only.

4
(2) Tow bar connections at each end.
(3) Safety coupler.
e. Dimensions (Approx. Please state actual)
Deck size: 48″ × 45″ with steel edges for 1,000# cap push car
48″ × 65″ with steel edges for 2,000# cap push car
48″ × 45″ for 2,000# cap – 2 section push car

Height above rail: 16 inches for 1,000# cap push car

16 inches for 2,000# cap push car
8 inches for 2,000# cap – 2 section push car
Length: 5″-4″ for 1,000# cap push car
7 ft for 2,000# cap push car
8′-6″ for 6,000# cap push car
8′-6″ for 10,000# cap push car
Wheel base: 36 inches for 1,000# cap push car
Weight: 280 lbs for 1,000# cap push car
390 lbs for 2,000# cap push car
190 lbs for (95 lb/sec) for 2,000# – 2 section push car
2.2.3 FRAME, WHEELS, AXLES, AND BEARINGS (1991)
a. The frame, axles, wheels, and bearings must be designed to withstand maximum stresses induced under normal
operating and traveling conditions. The machine shall withstand a free drop of six inches without damage.
b. All welding and joint preparation is to follow the latest structural welding code.
c. Lifting points (suitable for lifting the machine level with equal length cables) and jacking pads must be provided and
clearly indicated.
d. Wheels are to be pressed steel, 16″ × 5/16″ × 4-1/2″ except on 2 piece, 2,000 lb capacity unit.
e. Wheels and axles are to be in alignment and gage, with the following allowable tolerances:
(1) Gage: 1/8 inch maximum tolerance (56.375 inches – 56.5 inches).
(a) ±3/16 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases up to 9 feet.
(b) ±1/8 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases greater than 9 feet.

Roadway Machines
f. No excessive vibration, wobble, or eccentric action is to occur at any speed for which the machine is intended.
g. Wheel contour and gage shall comply with the standards set by AREMA or AAR (Mechanical Division) as required
for size and type of wheels furnished.
h. Wheels shall be firmly fixed to axles that are supported in antifriction bearings.
i. Axle material is to have a minimum Charpy value of 20 feet-lb at –30 degrees F.
2.2.4 SUSPENSION (1991)
The suspension must be sufficiently flexible, or at least one axle must be spring mounted, to allow any wheel to drop below the
plane established by the other three wheels. This amount of drop in inches shall be equal to, or more than the wheelbase in feet
divided by eight.
2.2.5 STANDARD EQUIPMENT (1991)
2.2.5.1 Safety
All components and/or sharp corners or edges that could be a hazard to the operator, mechanic, or bystanders are to be
protected with a guard.
2.2.5.2 Material
1
a. All steel plates, shapes, bars, and sheets shall be of a quality that has good weldability, high impact resistance, and high
notch toughness at low temperatures (–20 degrees C/–4 degrees F to –40 degrees C/–40 degrees F). Steel items shall be
of alloy and grades normally used for Maintenance-of-Way Equipment. Design of structural members subject to
normal working loads shall have a minimum design factor of 2 to 1. If structural members are subjected to impact
stresses, a minimum design factor of 3 to 1 shall be utilized. It is generally recognized this is only a minimum
recommended guideline and increased design factors may be required as necessary.
3
b. All bolted applications must have a least two full threads protruding beyond the nut after the fastener has been properly
torqued.
c. All nonferrous metals shall be of alloys having strength and corrosion resistance suitable for the intended use.
2.2.6 MISCELLANEOUS (1991) 4

Unit delivered must include the following equipment:
a. All threads to be U.S. standard.
b. Complete sets of all operation, maintenance, parts and service manuals, lubrication data, and spare parts lists.
2.2.7 PAINT (1991)
a. Units are to be cleaned and prime painted.
b. The complete unit must be painted to Railway specification with the exception of the following:
• Wheels, hand rails, and steps to be painted BLACK.

• Lifting and tie down lugs to be painted BLACK.
• Jacking pads to be painted BLACK.
• Safety locks to be painted RED.
• Stenciling to be BLACK.
c. Units are to be safety striped as specified by the purchaser.
2.2.8 STENCILING (1991)
a. All stenciling must be in language choice(s) specified on purchase order.
b. Stenciling must be 1 inch standard lettering.
c. Unit is to be stenciled with the following information on both sides, in standard and metric measures:
(1) Total weight of unit.
(2) Overall length.
(3) Overall width.
(4) Overall height.
d. Manufacturer is to affix the railway logo and/or the machine running number at two locations: front, back, or both
sides. The logo and running number sizes are to be as specified by the purchaser. Manufacturer to be advised on
purchase order of the running number.
2.2.9 OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT (1991)
Quote separately on the following:
a. Four wheel brakes with metal liners.
b. Any other available options.
2.2.10 GENERAL (1991)
2.2.10.1 Delivery
A manufacturer’s representative shall place equipment in service and instruct purchaser’s operators, mechanics, and
2.2.10.2 Operation and Maintenance
The manufacturer must instruct those Railway employees, operators, and mechanics designated by the Railway, in the
operation and maintenance of the machines, so as to permit these Railway employees to maintain the machine at a top level of
performance.

Roadway Machines
2.2.10.3 Parts
Suppliers of roadway machines are required to maintain a stock of parts as per the suppliers list of “recommended spare parts”
in sufficient quantity to protect those machines in service. (Minimum 10 years.)
2.2.10.4 Non-Compliance
DATE: ______________________ 20 ________
SIGNATURE: ____________________________________________________
TITLE: __________________________________________________________
COMPANY: ______________________________________________________

1
SECTION 2.3 SPECIFICATIONS FOR ON-TRACK ROADWAY MACHINES1
— 2000 —
3
Specifications must be reviewed by the Manufacturer and returned to purchaser with bid. Compliance with each section must
be acknowledged by checking “yes” or “no” at the close of each Section; remarks may be made there or on a separate
attachment.
2.3.1 GENERAL (2000)

4
2.3.1.1 Scope
These specifications cover on-track roadway machines except for motor cars, push cars, trailers and road-rail equipment.
2.3.1.2 Model
Machines shall be of the latest type in production at the time of delivery. Components which are obsolete, nearing the end of
production or out of production shall not be used. All machines delivered under the same Purchase Order shall be identical in
construction. Manufacturer should quote base machine and show options separately (to facilitate comparison of bids).
2.3.1.3 Reliability
Design, construction and materials used in the equipment shall assure that it will function reliably and efficiently in sustained
operation under hard usage in an adverse railway environment, including but not limited to severe grades and superelevation.
1 References, Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 267, 643; Vol. 82, 1981, p. 260; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 93; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 111.

2.3.1.4 Workmanship
Each machine shall be free from defects such as incomplete welds, welds that cross welds, corrosion, loose or improper
fastenings, leaks or contamination and any other defects that could impair its operation or serviceability.
2.3.1.5 Maintenance
Design shall provide for ease of service, replacement and adjustment of components, including filters and fluids, with
minimum disturbance of other elements.
2.3.1.6 Legal
Machines shall comply with Federal and State/Provincial environmental, safety and health regulations in force at the time of
delivery. In the event of conflict or variation between regulations and these specifications, the most restrictive requirement will
apply.
Comply: Yes __________ No __________ Remarks: ________________________________________________________
2.3.2 MATERIAL (2000)
a. All steel plates, shapes, bars and sheets shall be of a quality that has good weldability, high impact resistance and high
notch toughness at low temperatures (0 degrees F to –40 degrees F). Steel items shall be of alloy and grades normally
used for maintenance-of-way equipment and railway rolling stock. Design of structural members subject to normal
guideline and increased design factors may be required as necessary.
b. All fasteners shall meet strength requirements of ASTM-A-449 or stronger. All bolted applications shall have at least
two full threads protruding beyond the nut after the fastener has been properly torqued.
c. All non-ferrous metals shall be of alloys having strength and corrosion resistance suitable for the service intended.
2.3.3 BRAKES (2000)
a. Self-propelled machines capable of speed in excess of 10 mph, on straight and level track shall be equipped with fail-
safe spring applied, power released brakes on all wheels. Service brakes shall be progressive in force application and
capable of sliding all wheels on dry, sanded rail when fully applied at maximum travel speed.
b. All other self-propelled machines and all non-self-propelled machines equipped for towing, shall have a combination
emergency and parking brake.
c. Hydraulic-dynamic type braking will not be accepted for service brakes but may be used to index the machine.
d. Brake shoes shall not be applied so as to cause a bending force in an axle. A single shoe at the top of a wheel may apply
downward pressure along a line passing through the wheel center within 15 degrees of vertical. Double shoes applying
equal opposing forces may be used in any position.

Roadway Machines
e. In emergency situations a system must be provided for releasing each brake in not more than 2-1/2 minutes per wheel.
f. Air brake systems must utilize SAE J1402 Table A (formerly Type E), DOT #FMV-SS 106-74 Type A1 air brake hose
with reusable fittings. Brake system must have pressure regulator, pressure gage and standard truck type reservoir.
g. Reservoir must conform with SAE J10-B specifications. Manufacturers shall also be able to provide these types of
reservoirs which meet ASME specifications for certification when requested as an option. System must be activated by
standard truck type, foot or hand operated, control valve and one truck type, quick release valve for each two wheels.
h. Air brake system must maintain operating pressure, above 70 psi but not more than 105 psi. An audible low pressure
alarm shall be furnished which will activate whenever the pressure is 70 psi or less.
EXCEPTION: Machines designed to handle railway cars must utilize train type brakes.
2.3.4 WHEELS, AXLES AND BEARINGS: FRAME AND SUSPENSION (2000)
a. Wheels and axles shall be in alignment and gage, with the following allowable tolerances.
(1) Gage: 1/8 inch maximum tolerance (56-3/8 inches – 56-1/2 inches).
1
(a) ±3/16 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases up to 9 feet.
(b) ±1/8 inch maximum tolerance for wheel bases greater than 9 feet. 3
No excessive vibration, wobble or eccentric action shall occur at any speed for which the machine is intended.
Suspension shall provide for damage-free operation under maximum foreseeable operating stresses. Entire machine
shall withstand a free drop of six inches to a non-resilient surface without impairing normal travel or operating
functions. Derail guards shall be incorporated near each wheel to cover inboard and outboard rail area, so that in the
event of derailment the machine will not leave the rail. Machine shall push or tow easily when not working.
4
b. Wheel contour and gage shall comply with standards set by AREMA (Engineering Division, AAR) or Mechanical
Division, AAR as required for size and type of wheels furnished.
c. Machines with an operating weight of 6,000 pounds or more shall incorporate the following axle/bearing design.
(1) Solid axles shall utilize double row, tapered roller type axle bearings. Where pillow block bearings are used, they
shall be self-aligning, double row, roller type axle bearings, and shall have cast steel or ductile iron housings and
their location is to be fixed to avoid movement.
(2) Automotive/truck type drive axles shall utilize double tapered roller bearings.
(3) Bearings selected for use shall have a radial load capacity of 20,000 hours B-10 life at 50 RPM to exceed static
wheel load of the machine.

d. Frame must be sufficiently flexible, or at least one axle must be free to float, so that any wheel can drop below the
plane established by the other three wheels. The amount of drop in inches shall be equal to, or more than the wheelbase
of the machine in feet divided by eight.
e. Vertical reference wheels and small carrier wheels shall be a minimum of 10 inches in diameter to reduce the
possibility of their derailing and giving false readings. Bias indicating wheels, used only during work mode, shall be a
minimum of 4 inches in diameter.
f. Machine shall be provided with a means of lifting it with a crane hook without damage to any equipment. Spreader
bars and slings, when required, may be bid as an option. Lifting with rail tongs shall be limited to machines weighing
less than 2,000 pounds. Lifting points and balance points must be clearly marked and labeled.
g. Machines which cannot be promptly removed from track by hand methods shall have a towing connection at each end
of frame, 14 inches ±1/2 inch above top of rail.
2.3.5 INSULATION (2000)
a. Equipment specified as “insulated” shall be so constructed that no track circuit shunt can occur during work or travel.
b. Equipment specified as “non-insulated” shall not be converted from insulated design by bonding around insulating
parts.
2.3.6 ENGINE AND POWER TRAIN (2000)
All engines offered to this purchaser, whether standard or optional equipment, shall start within 2/3 of the cranking system’s
time rating. Engine shall be equipped with a high temperature coolant and low oil pressure automatic shut-down system. It
shall provide ample power, with clean exhaust, for all equipment functions under the following conditions:
Altitude: ________ ft to ________ ft above sea level.

Ambient temperature: ________ degrees F to ________ degrees F.
Atmosphere: dusty to ________ inches of rain per hour.
Grade of track: ________%.
Curvature: ________ degrees, ________ in. super-relevation.

Roadway Machines
2.3.7 FUEL TANK (2000)

(Except small engines with tank and carburetor mounted as one unit.)
a. Capacity of tank shall provide for continuous operation of the machine for a period of no less than ______ hours.
b. Filler shall be equipped with a 3 inch diameter pipe removable strainer (removable only with the use of common hand
tools) and a hinged or chained filler cap. Filler cap must be lockable for use with a standard padlock.
c. The filler opening shall be located so as to make it impossible for fuel can or nozzle to contact electrically energized
parts. Tanks shall be located to eliminate fire hazard from spilling, overflow or draining of fuel and shall be protected
from impact damage due to collision.
d. Tank shall have a sump and petcock with pipe plug at lowest point.
2.3.8 EXHAUST SYSTEM (2000)
a. System shall be so located that it will cause no adverse temperature rise in any other part of the equipment and so that
a minimum of heat and exhaust gas can reach the operator.
b. Machines equipped with enclosed cab or cab top shall have exhaust discharge at least 12 inches above cab top.
c. An exhaust muffler, located as close as possible to the engine, shall be provided. 1

d. Thin wall mechanical tubing is preferred for exhaust piping. Not more than 36 inches of flexible metal exhaust pipe
may be used, where necessary to reduce transmission of vibration. Black iron pipe may be used, if properly braced to
eliminate all shocks to junctions with manifold and muffler. System shall provide for expansion, contraction, vibration
and stress produced by operation of the machine.
e. When utilizing exhaust tubing in the vertical position, the end shall be bent or a rain cap incorporated to eliminate 3
moisture entry into the exhaust system.

4
a. Systems shall conform to the recommendations of the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA), American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), and International Standards Organization (ISO).
b. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation, all parts of the system shall be clean and free from
contaminants. Threads, holes, cuts, flares and machining must be deburred and cleaned.
c. Manufacturers must pre-filter all oil through a 10 micron absolute or finer filtering system on initial filling of hydraulic
system.
d. Design:
(1) All reservoirs shall be designed and constructed to prevent entry of foreign matter, including water.
(2) Reservoirs of 10 gallon or larger shall include:

(a) Baffles to separate intake and return lines to facilitate the separation of air and foreign matter from the
hydraulic fluid, separate pump inlet from the settling portion of the tank and shall direct flow toward tank
walls for maximum heat dissipation.
(b) Access panels large enough for complete cleaning, inspection, maintenance and servicing of sump filters with
an accessible means to empty the reservoir in the event the fluid is to be retained.
(c) An air inlet breather which is of sufficient capacity to maintain approximate atmospheric pressure at
maximum demands on the hydraulic system and to assure vacuum at pump inlet(s) shall not exceed 60% of
pump manufacturer’s recommendations. Air breather system shall be equipped with a 10 micron (B10 = 10) or
finer filter, either cartridge or spin-on type.
EXCEPTION: Sealed and pressurized system.
(d) A filler with at least a 100 mesh screen, protected from external damage. Filler shall have a minimum capacity
of 5 gallons per minute with 5,000 ssu viscosity fluid. Filler cap must be lockable for use with a standard
padlock.
Manufacturers shall provide, as an option, a system to fill reservoirs by use of external hand pump and
separate 10 micron filters.
Manufacturer shall provide, as an option, a system to fill reservoirs by use of an external hand or power
hydraulic pump through a separate 10-micron (B10 = 10), screw on, non-bypass filter. The filtration capacity
of the filter assembly shall be rated and designed to accommodate 30 GPM at 32 degrees F, based on
manufacturer’s recommended hydraulic oil. This system should also contain a sealed hydraulic system with a
10-micron (B10 = 10) breather and elimination of the normally supplied fill cap with strainer. A 1 inch NPT
‘T’ shall be provided between the separate hydraulic filter and replenishing pump so the system can easily be
set up for filling from a service vehicle.
(e) A thermometer, in plain view, protected from damage, as near the intake line as possible, at the add point fluid
level.
(f) A static fluid level gage to show full and add points protected from damage.
(g) When immersion heaters are provided, it is preferable to utilize a type incorporating NPT threads so removal
is possible without draining the reservoir.
(h) A non-integral reservoir (not part of the frame) is preferred.
(i) Both the intake and return tubes shall be located below the minimum working fluid level so as not to cause
cavitation or aeration.
e. Fluid temperature in the reservoirs shall not exceed 180 degrees F at the reservoir outlet(s) while operating in a 110
degrees F ambient. The minimum fluid temperature after 15 minutes warmup or operation shall be at least 60 degrees F
with a 20 degrees F ambient.
f. Accessible full-flow testing tee(s) shall be provided adjacent to the pressure side of pump(s). A return line full-flow tee
shall be placed ahead of any return line filter. Tees shall be plugged with bushings to accommodate 1/2 inch and 1 inch
fittings.
g. Pressure testing tee(s) shall be provided at locations to provide easy access for checking hydraulic pressures on all
circuits. The tee(s) shall include a 1/4 inch NPT fitting with a male quick-disconnect fluid coupling.

Roadway Machines
h. Where failure of power plant or pump can immobilize components in a position which would prevent moving the
machine, an emergency hand pump shall be provided in the circuit. Where more than five minutes are required to move
all components to proper clearance with a hand pump, a battery-operated emergency pump shall be provided.
i. Fluid Filtration:
(1) The total pressure line and/or return line flow shall be filtered, including case drain. The filtration system shall be
designed to provide, as a minimum, fluid cleanliness levels in accordance with the following guidelines:
Table 27-2-1. Recommended Cleanliness Level of System Components
RECOMMENDED ISO RECOMMENDED ISO

SYSTEM COMPONENT CLEANLINESS LEVEL (0- CLEANLINESS LEVEL
3,000 PSI) (3,000 PSI & UP)
Servo Valves 15/12 14/11
Proportional Valves 16/13 15/12
Hydrostatic Transmissions 17/14 16/13
Swash Plate Design Motors 17/14 16/13
Axial Piston Motors 17/14 16/13
Radial Piston Motors 17/14 16/13
Non-manual Directional Control Valves 17/14 16/13
(Air, electric, hydraulic or load-sensing)
1
Vane Pumps & Motors (Fixed & Variable) 17/14 ---
Gear Pumps & Motors 17/14 ---
Piston Pumps (Fixed & Variable) 17/14 16/13
Manual Type Valves 18/15 17/14
Cylinders 18/15 17/14
3
To determine system cleanliness level:
(a) Start at the top of the system component list. Find the first item used in your hydraulic system. All
components that draw fluid from a common reservoir should be considered to be a part of the same system
even if their operations are independent or sequential (i.e., a central power unit running several different
machines). 4
(b) Locate the operating pressure for your equipment. The pressure rating for the system is the maximum
pressure achieved by the machine during a complete cycle of operation.
(c) Locate the cleanliness level for that component. This becomes the recommended cleanliness level for the
hydraulic system.
NOTE: (1) These system cleanliness guidelines have been established based upon typical railway maintenance of
way equipment applications which include equipment exposed to high vibration/high shock, periods of high
cycle/severe duty cycle, environmental factors and also giving consideration for component longevity and
equipment uptime.
NOTE: (2) These recommendations apply to the following fluids:
•Mineral-based fluids

•Phosphate ester fluids
•Water glycol fluids
•Water-in-oil emulsion
(2) Magnetic particle attraction shall be provided in the pump intake line suction strainer/filter and/or filters and/or in
the reservoir.
(3) Filtration of the return flow from the pilot section of pilot-operated valves is not required.
j. Fluid Conductors:
(1) Fluid conductors utilized in circuits operating under 3,000 psi must use high pressure hose; SAE 100 R2 Type A,
Hi-Impulse type with the following qualification requirements:
(a) Constructed with 2-wire braid reinforcement.
(b) Have a bursting pressure safety factor of 4:1.
(c) Tested to 300,000 impulse cycles at 250 degrees F.
(d) Have an operating temperature range of –50 degrees F to +250 degrees F.
(2) All fluid conductors utilized in circuits operating over 3,000 psi or in hydrostatic drive systems should use extra
high pressure hose; SAE 100 R12 type when utilizing hose sizes through 1 inch, which have the following
qualification requirements.
(a) Constructed with 4-spiral piles of steel reinforcement.
(c) Tested to 1,000,000 impulse cycles at 250 degrees F.
(e) Use with permanent crimp type fitting for added reliability.
(f) All fluid conductors utilized in circuits operating over 3,000 psi or in hydrostatic drive systems should use
ultra-high pressure, heavy duty, hi-impulse hose; SAE 100 R13 type when utilizing sizes above 1 inch, which
have the following qualification requirements.
(g) Constructed with 6 spiral plies of steel reinforcement.
(h) Have a bursting pressure safety factor of 4:1.
(i) Tested to 500,000 impulse cycles at 250 degrees F.
(j) Have an operating temperature range of –40 degrees F to +250 degrees F.
(k) Use with permanent, crimp type fittings for added reliability.
(3) Pump supply hoses must meet the requirement of SAE 100R4.
(4) Hoses shall not be:

Roadway Machines
(a) Flexed to less than their rated minimum bend radius.
(b) Installed or routed to expose them to temperatures above or below their rated operating temperature ranges.
(c) Subjected to any twisting, pulling, kinking, crushing or abrasion.
(5) Hoses shall be installed, routed and isolated where possible for proper support through clamping and/or brackets to
avoid all of the above conditions, especially abrasion. If necessary, hoses subjected to excessive abrasion should
be wrapped with an abrasion resistant wrapping or sleeve.
(6) Hose is preferred. Where tubing is used, SAE 37 degrees flared ends are required.
(7) Tubing and piping shall be mounted to minimize vibration. Tubing shall have only gentle bends to change
direction or compensate for thermal expansion. Bend radii shall not be less than three times ID.
(8) Pipe threads are not recommended. Where they are used, they must be NPTF dry seal type.
(9) Whenever practicable, valves shall be manifold mounted.
(10) Galvanized or brass tube, pipe or fittings shall not be used.
(11) Complete circuit diagram(s) showing the exact circuit(s) in use on the machine and large enough to be easily
followed for troubleshooting must be furnished. Additional pictorial or cutaway diagrams may be shown.
(12) Vacuum at pump inlet(s) shall not exceed 60% of pump manufacturer’s recommendation or four inches of 1
mercury, whichever is less, under standard conditions. Test opening shall be provided, utilizing 1/4 inch NPT port,
sealed with a pipe plug.
2.3.10 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM (2000)

3
a. Electrical systems shall conform to recommendations of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the
b. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation shall begin, all parts shall be clean and free from scale, rust,
water or any contaminants. All material and workmanship must be of good quality for the intended use. 4
c. Sequence of operation and electrical, physical and schematic drawings showing the exact circuit(s) in use on the
machine and large enough to be easily followed during troubleshooting shall be furnished. Subsequent changes shall be
covered by new drawings furnished to the customer.
d. Whenever practical, components shall be interchangeable.
e. Cable shall be routed to prevent exposure to damage. Thin wall conduit shall not be used except in a protected area.
f. DC Systems, when grounded, must have negative ground.
g. Battery charging generators/alternators must have a rated capacity to handle simultaneous operation of all electrical
equipment with a minimum 10% reserve at normal engine operating RPM.
h. If the battery system is 24 volts, using two 12-volt batteries, manufacturer shall not connect a 12-volt load to one
battery.

i. Battery box shall have a drain hole in diagonal corners and be lockable with a standard padlock. Battery box must be
vented when lead/acid battery is used.
j. Standard, industrial grade, readily available components shall be used.
k. Electrical apparatus cabinets:
(1) Cabinets shall be of steel construction. Clearance between walls and bare, “live” parts shall not be less than 1-1/2
inches, unless affected interior surfaces utilize insulative plastic or fiber sheeting, where a potential in excess of 50
volts exists. Cabinets must be weatherproof.
(2) Panels must be readily removable and parts easily accessible.
(3) Adequate lighting shall be provided in cabinets.
(4) Only pipes as electrical conduit or pneumatic tubing as used exclusively for control circuitry shall enter cabinet.
(5) Interior metal surface walls must be painted with electrical insulating paint or covered with other approved
electrical insulating material.
(6) Nominal voltages used must be plainly shown on outside of cabinet.
(7) All parts and groups of parts shall be identified by function and clear, simple, exact reference to service diagram
and parts list. Integral units such as circuit boards, should be considered as one part, if intended to be replaced as a
unit. Complete parts identification shall be shown when practical, in order to minimize errors and time consuming
reference to drawings or lists.
(8) Wires must be equipped with good quality terminals and identified with permanent numbered markers, color
coded when practical. Terminal posts must be plainly marked. Once used, a number or color code must not be
reused for a different circuit. All wires must be neatly dressed and clamped.
(9) Housings containing heat producing elements must be properly ventilated.
l. Motor control apparatus overload relays:
(1) All fractional horsepower motors shall have fuse protection.
(2) All 1/4 to 1 horsepower motors shall have automatic reset thermal protection within the motor itself, rather than in
the starter, and fuse protection in the line.
(3) Motors in excess of one horsepower shall have starter relays with built in thermal protection.
(4) Overload relays shall be in each line of a 3-phase starter in ungrounded systems.
m. Electrical system shall be equipped with battery disconnect switch located as close to the battery as practical. The
battery disconnect switch will be contained in lockable enclosure.

(Except for air brake and horn systems)

Roadway Machines
a. Quotation will give: make, type and output rating of compressor, size of reservoir; type and purpose of pressure
regulation; normal operating pressure.
b. System must contain an air pressure gage in easy view of operator.
c. Standard air brake hose SAE-J1402 Table A1 or hydraulic hose and fittings with a bursting pressure safety factor of 4:1
not to exceed bending radius of hydraulic hose will be the only hose used anywhere in the system. Use of push-on barb
type fittings are banned except for control circuits where space is critical and working pressures and abrasion is not
severe and braking is not involved.
d. Systems shall have:
(1) Air compressor discharge line constructed of heat resistant, Teflon, flexible tubing utilizing an outer layer of
stainless steel wire braid.
(2) Air compressor air intake supply commonly connected to the engine air inlet system.
(3) Manual drain type valve which can be easily accessed and actuated by a cable from outside the machine to provide
positive draining of the reservoir(s).
(4) Electric air dryers.
(5) Inlet filtration to 25 microns.

1
2.3.12 BODY OR CAB TOP (2000)
a. Where cab is furnished, it shall be weathertight and impose a minimum of obstruction to operator’s vision. Transparent
material shall be mar resistant Lexan or acrylic, or double plate safety glass.
3
b. When rechargeable wet type batteries are located inside the body or cab, the top of battery shall be vented to outside
air.
c. Cab doors must be equipped with lock hasps with locking ring, and to be in addition to any other type door locks.
Comply: Yes __________ No __________ Remarks: ________________________________________________________ 4
2.3.13 TRAVEL SPEED (2000)
Equipment intended to travel to work sites under its own power, shall be able to attain a speed of ______ miles per hour on
straight and level track. It must also be capable of starting from a dead stop on a 2% adverse grade and attaining a terminal
speed of ______ miles per hour. Maximum altitude ______ feet.

2.3.14 CONTROLS (2000)
All switches, valves, levers, controls and adjustments used to start, stop or operate the machine shall be clearly labeled with
weather and wear resistant plates permanently affixed to the machine or component. Controls used in continuous operation of
the machine shall be within easy reach of the operator and shall not interfere with his view of the work. Instruments and gages
not inside a closed, lockable cab shall be protected from vandalism.
a. Engine must not start with controls in travel position.
b. A red emergency shutdown control shall be quickly accessible to operator.
2.3.15 CLEARANCE AND SAFETY (2000)
a. Components which may foul track, signal, crossing or other structures on or along a railway must have a positive
mechanical lock in safe position for travel.
b. No component shall be less than three inches above top of rail between the rails or for 30 inches outside each rail, when
in travel position.
c. All components which can be a hazard to operator, assistant or bystanders shall be protected with a shield or safety
device.
d. Machines shall be equipped with a travel warning alarm which will energize for a period of 3 seconds when motion is
initiated in either direction.
e. Handrails or grab irons will always be provided wherever it is intended that personnel mount equipment. Lowest step
used for mounting the machine shall not be more than 12 inches above bottom of wheel elevation. Any area more than
three feet above bottom of wheel elevation, where persons are expected to walk or pass, shall be protected by rigidly
fastened handrails 42 inches high, with secondary rail at 24 inches height, and non-skid walking surface. A 3 inch kick
board shall also be provided to avoid accidental entry into potentially hazardous areas.
2.3.16 INITIAL PREPARATION AND SERVICING (2000)
Machine shall be delivered completely lubricated and serviced with all equipment needed for immediate operation, except for
fuel. Water cooled engines are to be protected from freeze-up by a 50/50 solution of ethylene glycol base anti-freeze (rust
inhibitive type) unless otherwise specified, and radiator marked or tagged to show make of coolant used and actual protection
afforded.

Roadway Machines
2.3.17 PAINT (2000)
a. Manufacturer shall use paints which do not require periodic medical examinations or special equipment, other than
passive respirators. It is assumed that no-lead paint with a lower percentage of solvent may be required and that exact
colors formerly furnished may not be available. Manufacturer shall provide the colors listed under the “Standard
Specification Number” which are consistent with those indicated in the “Federal Standard 595-B, Colors Used in
Government Procurement.”
b. Manufacturer shall also utilize proper surface preparation, including primer, to provide a high quality, durable finish
coat. General exposed parts of the machine shall be painted AREMA Yellow, Spec. No., 13538, unless otherwise
specified by a Railroad, EXCEPT AS SHOWN IN TABLE 27-2-2.
Table 27-2-2. Paint Specifications for Specific Equipment and Component Areas
Equipment and Component Standard

Color
Area Spec. No.
Gasoline tank (Note 1) Red 11086
Diesel fuel tank (Note 1) Green 14110
Hydraulic reservoir (Note 1) Blue 15180
Coolant tank (Note 1) Gray 16251 1

Wheels and handrails Black 17038
Lifting lugs Black 17038
Jacking points or pads Black 17038
Safety locks Red 11086 3

Engine and other Misc. parts Manufacturer’s option
Note 1: Where side or top of tank containing filler opening has an area greater than 144
square inches, manufacturer may elect to paint only 144 or more square inches
at the filler opening with the required tank color. Name of fluid and the words
“CHECK DAILY” shall be stenciled on each tank in 1 inch letters. Total
machine weight with all tanks filled shall be plainly marked on both sides of the 4
machine in 1-1/2 inch letters: Weight ________ lb.

2.3.18 SHIPPING (2000)
Equipment shall be constructed, prepared and loaded so that it will withstand without damage, handling likely to be
encountered during delivery. Valuable and easily pilfered parts such as batteries, tools and loose small items shall be shipped in
such a manner as to resist pilferage.
2.3.19 PARTS AND INSTRUCTION BOOKS (2000)
a. Complete parts and instruction books shall accompany the machine in a waterproof container permanently affixed to
the body of the machine. Additional sets of books shall be forwarded as follows:
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Books shall contain complete and easily read diagrams of all systems on the machine and shall employ American
Standard symbols and notations. Listings of commonly available parts shall include general descriptions as well as part
numbers.
c. Machine shall incorporate, in operators cab where possible, a metal, etched pictorial placard designating lubrication
points indicating, types of lubricant, location on machine, and frequency of checking or changing lubricants. These
placards must be designated by a part number for the appropriate machines. Parts book must also contain the
comprehensive lubrication chart for the appropriate type machines.
2.3.20 REPAIR PARTS AND SERVICE (2000)
Continuous operation of this equipment is of utmost importance. Successful bidder must be able and willing to furnish service
and repair parts promptly.

Roadway Machines
2.3.21 ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS (2000)

(To be completed by vendor or manufacturer.)
Insulated: Yes No
Self Propelled: Yes No
Engine: Gasoline Diesel Make: Model:
Start: Electric Air Manual
Hourmeter: Yes No
Engine Alarm:
Engine Alarm Shutdown:
Turntable: Yes No
Turntable Warning Light: Yes No
Transverse Set-off Wheels: Yes No Powered
Enclosed Cab: Yes No
Heater: Yes No
Windshield Wipers: Yes No Front Rear
Defroster: Yes No
Horn: Yes No
Roof (if no cab): Yes No
Vacuum gauge for main track drive Yes No
pump
Clutch disconnect on pump drive Yes No 1
Air inlet restriction gauge for engine air Yes No
filter
Lights:
Revolving Roof: Yes No Color: _________ Brand: _________
Instrument Lights: Yes No
Sealed Beam Tractor Lights: 3
Front: Yes No Number: _______ Color: _________
Rear: Yes No Number: _______ Color: _________
Sides: Yes No Number: _______ Color: _________
Other: Yes No Number: _______ Color: _________
Red Marker Lights: Front Rear
Mirrors: 4
Operator’s Instruments:
Ammeter Voltmeter Water Tachometer Other:
Temperature _______________
This purchase has the following special requirements for filters, strainers and cleaners:
Engine Lubrication:
Engine Fuel:
Engine Air:
Hydraulic System:
Air System:
Other:
NOTE: Options and accessories not covered on these specifications and which are available at extra cost shall be quoted
separately in the bid proposal.

2.3.22 NOISE EXPOSURE (2000)
Shall not exceed permissible exposure for operators, assistants and workmen for a continuous eight hour work day. Noise
sources and machine cab shall be treated to bring about total compliance.
2.3.23 DELIVERY (2000)
A manufacturer’s representative shall place equipment in service and instruct purchaser’s operators, mechanics and
2.3.24 NON-COMPLIANCE (2000)
DATE: ______________________ 20 ________
SIGNATURE: ____________________________________________________
TITLE: __________________________________________________________
COMPANY: ______________________________________________________

Roadway Machines
SECTION 2.4 AXLE, WHEEL AND HUB SPECIFICATIONS1

— 1972 —
Refer to Figure 27-2-3 for the specifications for axles, wheels, and hubs.
Figure 27-2-3. Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications for Work Equipment
SECTION 2.5 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

— 1980 —
The following material is information for guidance of equipment manufacturers and railway maintenance personnel in the
design, construction and evaluation of hydraulic systems.
1 References, Vol. 73, 1972, p. 181. Adopted 1972.

2.5.2 GENERAL (1980)
Hydraulic systems shall conform to the recommendations of the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA), American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) and International Standards Organization (ISO) except where a conflict occurs, then the
following will apply:
a. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation shall begin, all parts of the hydraulic system shall be clean
and free from scale, rust, dirt and any other contaminant. Threads, flares, holes, cuts and machining must be deburred
and cleaned.
b. Hydraulic reservoirs of ten (10) gallon capacity or larger shall be designed with the following considerations:
(1) Place the baffle(s) in the reservoir so as to separate the pump inlet part from the settling part of the reservoir. The
baffle(s) should direct the flow toward the reservoir walls for maximum cooling capacity and maximum lay-over
time.
(2) Provide sufficiently large access panels for complete periodic cleaning maintenance and inspection.
(3) Provide an air inlet large enough to maintain conditions of paragraph l. The air inlet shall be equipped with a 25
micron or less filter. A cartridge type is preferred.
(4) Provide a filler with at least a 100 mesh screen protected from external damage with a minimum capacity of five
gallons per minute with five thousand (5000) SSU fluid viscosity and with a filler cap that can be locked with a
large railroad padlock.
(5) Provide thermometer to indicate reservoir operating temperature protected from damage.
(6) Provide a status fluid level gage to show full-point and add-point protected from damage.
(7) When immersion heaters are provided to control fluid viscosity during cold weather start up. Place the heater(s) so
removal is possible without draining reservoir.
(8) A non-integral reservoir is preferred.
c. Fluid temperature shall not exceed 180 degrees F maximum in the reservoir outlets while operating in a 110 degrees F
ambient. The minimum fluid temperature after 45 minutes operation shall be 85 degrees F with ambient temperature of
20 degrees F.
d. A full flow testing tee(s) shall be provided adjacent to the pressure side of hydraulic pumps(s). A return line full flow
tee shall be placed ahead of return line filter.
e. Where failure of power plant or pump cam immobilize components in a position which could prevent moving the
machine, an emergency hand pump shall be provided in the circuit. Large machines shall be equipped with battery
operated emergency pump where more than five minutes are required to move all components within the clearance
diagram of the track occupied by means of a hand pump.
f. The total return and/or pressure line flow shall pass through filters rated at 25 microns or finer equipped with a
condition indicator. Filtration shall not be less than recommended by manufacturers of components.
(1) In closed loop system, filtration as recommended by pump manufacturer will apply.
(2) Magnetic particle attraction shall be provided in the filters or reservoir.
(3) Filtration of the return flow from the pilot section of pilot-operated valves is not required.

Roadway Machines
g. All hydraulic hose assemblies must have reusable screw-together hose fittings, if available, at the required pressure
specifications.
(1) “Rubber” cover hydraulic hose should NOT be type-T (thin cover) as specified in the SAE specifications, because
the heavier cover protection is required to resist abrasion on railroad maintenance equipment.
(2) Hydraulic hose must meet (or exceed) SAE specifications SAE J-517c 1978 standards and all future changes to be
made to these standards.
(3) Hydraulic pump supply hoses shall meet the requirements SAE 100R4.
(4) Field attachable reusable hose fittings must be capable of installation without the use of special machinery.
(5) Hoses shall not be flexed to less than the specified minimum bend radius.
(6) Hoses shall not be exposed to twisting, pulling, kinking, crushing, or abrasion.
(7) Hoses shall not be exposed to operating and/or ambient temperatures above or below the manufacturer’s specified
temperature range.
(8) All hydraulic hoses shall be replaced at the first sign of environmental damage or rubber degradation.
(9) The SAE 37 degrees flare shall be standard for all flared tubes.
(10) For tube wall thicknesses that are too heavy for flaring, as per SAE J-1065, silver brazing or butt welding the
1
connector is recommended.
(11) The SAE J-518c 4-bolt split flange connection is recommended for all connections over one inch.
(12) Pipe threads are not recommended, but where they are used, they must be NPTF (dry seal type).
h. Tubing and piping shall be mounted to minimize vibration and tubing shall have only gentle bends to change direction
3
or compensate for thermal expansion. Tube bend radii shall not be less than three times inside diameter.
i. Wherever practicable, valves shall be manifold mounted.
j. Complete circuit diagram shall be provided. Only NFPA, ANSI and ISO symbols shall be used in geographical
diagrams. Pictorial and cutaway diagrams are also permissible where they add to the case of understanding the circuit. 4
Diagrams shall be large enough to be easily followed for troubleshooting.
k. Galvanized pipe and fittings shall not be used.
l. The vacuum at the pump inlet(s) shall not be more than 60% of pump manufacturer’s recommendations or four inches
mercury whichever is less at 500 feet altitude fluid at 100 degrees F or standard conditions. Test opening shall be
provided.

SECTION 2.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

— 1980 —
The following material is information for guidance of equipment manufacturers and railway maintenance personnel in the
design, construction and evaluation of electrical systems.
2.6.2 GENERAL (1980)
Electrical systems shall conform to American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and International Standards Organization
(ISO) except where a conflict occurs, then the following will apply:
a. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation shall begin, all parts of the electrical system shall be clean
and free from scale, rust, dirt and any other contaminant. All material and workmanship must be of satisfactory quality
for the intended use.
b. A sequence of operation, along with a correct electrical physical and schematic drawing large enough to be easily
followed for troubleshooting shall be provided. Subsequent changes shall be described in new drawings provided to all
customers.
c. Whenever practical, various components shall be interchangeable.
d. Cable shall be routed to prevent exposure to physical damage. Thin wall conduit should not be used except in a
protected area.
e. All machines must have negative ground.
f. Battery charging generators and alternators must have rated capacity to handle all operating equipment and accessories
with a 50% reserve.
g. If the battery system is 24V, using two standard 12V batteries, the manufacturer shall not connect any 12V load to one
battery.
h. Battery box shall contain a battery disconnect switch and shall have a cover that can be locked with a large railroad
padlock.
i. Standard, readily available components shall be used in construction of electrical system.
2.6.3 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS CABINETS (1980)
a. Cabinets for electrical apparatus shall be of steel interior. Clearances between walls of cabinet and bare live parts of all
apparatus or apparatus or switchboard shall be not less than 1-1/2 inches, where a potential in excess of 50 volts exists.
b. All cabinets must be arranged so that panels can be readily removed and all parts requiring adjustment are easily
accessible.
c. Adequate lighting shall be provided in electrical cabinets.
d. Metal surfaced interior walls of electrical cabinets must be painted with approved electrical insulating paint, or coated
with other approved insulating material. The floors of lockers must be covered with an approved electrical insulating
material.

Roadway Machines
e. Nominal voltages used must be plainly indicated outside the electrical apparatus locker.
f. All components and/or integral units, such as circuit boards, must be plainly identified showing capacity, use and exact
reference to electrical drawings and parts list. Complete parts information shall be shown, where practical, to minimize
errors and time referring to drawings and lists.
g. Wires shall be equipped with good quality terminals and identified with markers. Terminal posts must be plainly
marked. All wires in cabinets shall be neatly dressed and clamped.
h. Electrical and electronic equipment cabinets must be weatherproof and equipped to be locked by a large railroad
padlock.
i. Electrical apparatus lockers, boxes, and housing which contain heat producing elements, must be properly ventilated to
maintain a temperature of less than 140 degrees F.
2.6.4 MOTOR CONTROL APPARATUS OVERLOAD RELAYS (1980)
a. All fractional horsepower motors shall have fuse protection.
b. All motors 1/4 horsepower to one horsepower shall have automatic reset thermal protection within the motor itself
rather than in the starter and fuse protection in the line.
c. Motors in excess of one horsepower shall have starter relays with built in thermal protection.
1
d. Overload relays shall be in each line of a three phase starter in ungrounded systems.
SECTION 2.7 SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAIL GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT1

3
— 1996 —
Specifications must be reviewed by the manufacturer and returned to purchaser with bid. Compliance with each section must
be acknowledged by checking “yes” or “no” at the close of each section; remarks may be made there or on a separate
attachment.
4
2.7.1 GENERAL (1996)
2.7.1.1 Scope
These specifications cover rail guide wheel equipment.
2.7.1.2 Model
Equipment shall be of the latest type in production at the time of delivery. Components which are obsolete, nearing the end of
production, or out of production shall not be used.
1 References, Vol. 97, p. 220.

2.7.1.3 Reliability
Design, construction, and materials used in the equipment shall assure that it will function reliably and efficiently in sustained
operation under hard usage in an adverse railway environment, including but not limited to severe grades and superelevation.
2.7.1.4 Workmanship
Equipment shall be free from defects such as incomplete welds, welds that cross welds, corrosion, loose or improper
fastenings, leaks or contamination, and any other defects that could impair its operation or serviceability.
2.7.1.5 Maintenance
Design shall provide for ease of service, replacement, and adjustment of components, including filters and fluids (if
applicable), with minimum disturbance of other elements.
2.7.1.6 Legal
Machines shall comply with Federal and State environmental, safety, and health regulations in force at the time of delivery. In
the event of conflict or variation between regulations and these specifications, the most restrictive requirement will apply.
2.7.2 MATERIAL (1996)
a. All steel plates, shapes, bars, and sheets shall be of a quality that has good weldability, high impact resistance and high
notch toughness at low temperatures (0 degrees F to –40 degrees F). Steel items shall be of alloy and grades normally
used for maintenance-of-way equipment and railway rolling stock. Design of structural members subject to normal
guideline and increased design factors may be required as necessary.
b. All fasteners shall meet strength requirements of ASTM A449 or stronger. All bolted applications shall have at least
two full threads protruding beyond the nut after the fastener has been properly torqued.
c. All non-ferrous metals shall be of alloys having strength and corrosion resistance suitable for the service intended.
2.7.3 BRAKES (1996)
a. Self-propelled machines capable of speed in excess of 10 mph on straight and level track shall be equipped with spring
applied, power released brakes on all wheels. Service brakes shall be progressive in force application and capable of
sliding all wheels on dry, sanded rail when fully applied at maximum travel speed.
b. Brake shoes shall not be applied so as to cause a bending force in an axle. A single shoe at the top of a wheel may apply
downward pressure along a line passing through the wheel center within 15 degrees of vertical. Double shoes applying
equal opposing forces may be used in any position.
c. In emergency situations a system must be provided for releasing each brake in not more than 2-1/2 minutes per wheel.

Roadway Machines
d. Air brake systems must utilize SAE J1402 Table A (formerly Type E), DOT #FMV-SS 106-74 Type A1 air brake hose
with reusable fittings. Brake system must have pressure regulator, pressure gage and standard truck type reservoir.
e. Reservoir must conform with SAE J10-B specifications. Manufacturers shall also be able to provide these types of
reservoirs which meet ASME specifications for certification when requested as an option. System must be activated by
standard truck type, foot or hand operated, control valve and one truck type, quick release valve.
f. Air brake system must maintain operating pressure, above 70 psi but not more than 105 psi. An audible low pressure
alarm or warning light shall be furnished which will activate whenever the pressure is 70 psi or less.
EXCEPTION: Machines designed to handle railway cars must utilize train type brakes.
2.7.4 WHEELS, AXLES AND BEARINGS (1996)
a. Wheels and axles shall be in alignment and gage. No excessive vibration, wobble or eccentric action shall occur at any
speed for which the machine is intended. Suspension shall provide for damage-free operation under maximum
foreseeable operating stresses. Derail guards shall be incorporated near each wheel so that in the event of derailment
the machine will not leave the rail.
b. Bearings:
1
(1) Axles shall utilize double row, tapered roller type axle bearings. Where pillow block bearings are used, they shall
be self-aligning, double row, non-expansion, roller type axle bearings, and shall have cast steel or ductile iron
housings and their location is to be fixed to avoid movement.
(2) Bearings selected for use shall have a radial load capacity of 20,000 hours B-10 life at 50 RPM and to exceed
static-wheel load of the machine.
3
c. Equipment suspension must be sufficiently flexible so that any wheel can drop below the plane established by the other
three wheels irrespective of any movement of the other three wheels. The amount of drop in inches shall be equal to, or
more than the wheelbase of the machine in feet divided by eight.

4
2.7.5 INSULATION (1996)
a. Equipment specified as “insulated” shall be so constructed that no track circuit shunt can occur during work or travel.
b. Equipment specified as “non-insulated” shall not be converted from insulated design by bonding around insulating
parts.

a. Systems shall conform to the recommendation of the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA), American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), and International Standards Organization (ISO).
b. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation, all parts of the system shall be clean and free from
contaminants. Threads, holes, cuts, flares, and machining must be deburred and cleaned.
c. Manufacturers must pre-filter all oil through a 10 micron absolute or finer filtering system on initial filling of hydraulic
system.
d. Reservoirs:
(1) All reservoirs shall be designed and constructed to prevent entry of foreign matter, including water.
(2) Reservoirs of 10 gallons or larger shall include:
(a) Baffles to separate intake and return lines to facilitate the separation of air and foreign matter from the
hydraulic fluid, separate pump inlet from the settling portion of the tank and shall direct flow toward tank
walls for maximum heat dissipation.
(b) Access panels large enough for complete cleaning, inspection, maintenance and servicing of sump filters with
an accessible means to employ the reservoir in the event the fluid is to be retained.
(c) An air inlet breather which is of sufficient capacity to maintain approximate atmospheric pressure at
maximum demands on the hydraulic system and to assure vacuum at pump inlet(s) shall not exceed 60% of
pump manufacturer’s recommendations. Air breather system shall be equipped with a 10 micron (B10 = 10)
or finer filter, either cartridge or spin-on type.
EXCEPTION: Sealed and pressurized system.
(d) A filler with at least a 100 mesh screen, protected from external damage. Filler shall have a minimum capacity
of 5 gallons per minute with 5,000 ssu viscosity fluid. Filler cap shall have a retainer that can be locked with a
large padlock, similar to the type stated in Article 2.3.7b.
(e) A thermometer, in plain view, protected from damage, as near the intake line as possible, at the add point fluid
level.
(f) A static fluid level gage to show full and add points protected from damage.
(g) When immersion heaters are provided, it is preferable to utilize a type incorporating NPT threads so removal
is possible without draining the reservoir.
(h) Both the intake and return tubes shall be located below the minimum working fluid level so as not to cause
cavitation or aeration.
e. Fluid temperature in the reservoirs shall not exceed 180 degrees F at the reservoir outlet(s) while operating in a 110
degrees F ambient. The minimum fluid temperature after fifteen (15) minutes warm-up or operation shall be at least 60
degrees with a 20 degrees F ambient.
f. Pressure testing tee(s) shall be provided at locations to provide easy access for checking hydraulic pressures on all
circuits. The tee(s) shall include a 1/4 inch NPT fitting with a male quick-disconnect fluid coupling.

Roadway Machines
g. Where failure of power plant or pump can immobilize components in a position which would prevent moving the
machine, an emergency hand pump shall be optional in the circuit.
h. Fluid Filtration:
(1) Filtration shall not be less than recommended by manufacturers of the hydraulic system components.
(2) In closed loop systems, filtration as recommended by the pump manufacturer will apply.
i. Fluid Conductors:
(1) Fluid conductors utilized in circuits operating under 3,000 psi must use high pressure hose; SAE 100 R2 Type A,
Hi-Impulse type with the following qualification requirements:
(a) Constructed with 2-wire braid reinforcement.
(e) Used with skive type reusable fittings.
(2) All fluid conductors utilized in circuits operating over 3,000 psi or in hydrostatic drive systems should use extra
1
high pressure hose: SAE R12 type when utilizing hose sizes through 1 inch, which have the following
qualification requirements.
(a) Constructed with 4-spiral plies of steel reinforcement.
(b) Have a bursting pressure safety factor of 4:1. 3

(c) Tested to 1,000,000 impulse cycles at 250 degrees F.
(e) Use with permanent, crimp type fitting for added reliability.
4
(3) All fluid conductors utilized in circuits operating over 3,000 psi or in hydrostatic drive systems should use ultra-
high pressure, heavy duty, hi-impulse hose: SAE 100 R13 type when utilizing sizes above 1 inch, which have the
following qualification requirements.
(a) Constructed with 6-spiral plies of steel reinforcement.
(e) Use with permanent, crimp type fittings for added reliability.
(4) Pump supply hoses must meet the requirement of SAE 100R4, with reusable fittings.

(5) Hoses shall not be:
(a) Flexed to less than their rated minimum bend radius.
(b) Installed or routed to expose them to temperatures above or below their rated operating temperature ranges.
(c) Subjected to any twisting, pulling kinking, crushing or abrasion.
(6) Hoses shall be installed, routed and isolated where possible for proper support through clamping and/or brackets to
avoid all of the above conditions, especially abrasion. If necessary, hoses subjected to excessive abrasion should
be wrapped with an abrasion resistant wrapping or sleeve.
(7) Hose is preferred. Where tubing is used, SAE 37 degree flared ends are required.
(8) Tubing and piping shall be mounted to minimize vibration. Tubing shall have only gentle bends to change
direction or compensate for thermal expansion. Bend radii shall not be less than three times ID.
(9) Pipe threads are not recommended. Where they are used, they must be NPTF dry seal type.
(10) Whenever practicable, valves shall be manifold mounted.
(11) Galvanized or brass tube, pipe or fittings shall not be used.
(12) Fittings shall be machined type.
(13) Complete circuit diagram(s) showing the exact circuit(s) in use on the machine and large enough to be easily
followed for troubleshooting must be furnished. Additional pictorial or cutaway diagrams may be shown.
(14) Vacuum at pump inlet(s) shall not exceed 60% of pump manufacturer’s recommendation or 4 inches of mercury,
whichever is less, under standard conditions. Test opening shall be provided, utilizing 1/4 inch NPT port, sealed
with a pipe plug.
2.7.7 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM (1996)
a. Electrical system shall conform to recommendations of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the
b. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation shall begin, all parts shall be clean and free from scale, rust,
water or any contaminants. All material and workmanship must be of good quality for the intended use.
c. Sequence of operation and electrical, physical, and schematic drawings showing the exact circuit(s) in use on the
machine and large enough to be easily followed during troubleshooting shall be furnished. Subsequent changes shall be
covered by new drawings furnished to the customer.
d. Whenever practical, components shall be interchangeable.
e. Cable shall be routed to prevent exposure to damage. Thin wall conduit shall not be used except in a protected area.
f. DC Systems, when grounded, must have negative ground.

Roadway Machines
g. Standard, industrial grade, readily available components shall be used.
h. Electrical apparatus cabinets:
(1) Cabinets shall be of steel construction. Clearance between walls and bare, “live” parts shall not be less than 1-1/2
inches, unless affected interior surfaces utilize insulative plastic or fiber sheeting, where a potential in excess of 50
volts exists. Cabinets must be weatherproof.
(2) Panels must be readily removable and parts easily accessible.
(3) Adequate lighting shall be provided in cabinets.
(4) Only pipes as electrical conduit or pneumatic tubing as used exclusively for control circuitry shall enter cabinet.
(5) Interior metal surface walls must be painted with electrical insulating paint or covered with other approved
electrical insulating material.
(6) Nominal voltages used must be plainly shown on outside of cabinet.
(7) All parts and groups of parts shall be identified by functions and clear, simple, exact reference to service diagram
and parts list. Integral units such as circuit boards, should be considered as one part, if intended to be replaced as a
unit. Complete parts identification shall be shown when practical, in order to minimize errors and time consuming
reference to drawings or lists.
(8) Wires must be equipped with good quality terminals and identified with permanent numbered markers, color
coded when practical. Terminal posts must be plainly marked. Once used, a number or color code must not be 1
reused for a different circuit. All wires must be neatly dressed and clamped.
(9) Housings containing heat producing elements must be properly ventilated.
i. Motor control apparatus overload relays:
(1) All fractional horsepower motors shall have fuse protection. 3

(2) All 1/4 to 1 horsepower motors shall have automatic reset thermal protection within the motor itself, rather than in
the starter, and fuse protection in the line.
(3) Motors in excess of one horsepower shall have starter relays with built in thermal protection.
(4) Overload relays shall be in each line of a 3-phase starter in ungrounded systems. 4

a. Quotation will give: make, type, and output rating of compressor, size of reservoir; type and purpose of pressure
regulation; and normal operating pressure.
b. System must contain air pressure gage in easy view of operator and/or low air pressure warning indicator.
c. Standard air brakes hose SAE-J1402 Table A1 will be the only hose used anywhere in the system. Use of push-on barb
type fittings are banned except for control circuits where space is critical and working pressures and abrasion is not
severe and braking is not involved.

2.7.9 CONTROLS (1996)
a. All switches, valves, levers, controls, and adjustments used to start, stop or operate the machine shall be clearly labeled
with weather and wear resistant plates permanently affixed to the machine or component. Controls used in continuous
operation of the machine shall be within easy reach of the operator and shall not interfere with his view of the work.
Instruments and gages not inside a closed, lockable cab shall be protected from vandalism.
b. Engine must not start with controls in travel position.
c. A red emergency shutdown control shall be quickly accessible to operator.
2.7.10 CLEARANCE AND SAFETY (1996)
a. Components which may foul track, signal, crossing or other structures on or along a railway must have a positive
mechanical lock in safe position for travel.
b. No component shall be less than 3 inches above top of rail.
c. All components which can be a hazard to operator, assistant or bystanders shall be protected with a shield or safety
device.
d. Machines shall be equipped with a travel warning alarm which is energized by operation of the travel control for
movement in reverse of the normal working direction. This shall be accomplished by use of a two-way selector switch
(manually operated) which will establish the direction of travel that the alarm will be activated.
e. Handrails or grab irons will always be provided wherever it is intended that personnel mount equipment. Lowest step
used for mounting the machine shall not be more than 12 inches above bottom of wheel elevation. Any area more than
3 feet above bottom of wheel elevation, where persons are expected to walk or pass, shall be protected by rigidly
fastened handrails 42 inches high, with secondary rail at 24 inches height, and non-skid walking surface. A 3 inch
kickboard shall also be provided to avoid accidental entry into potentially hazardous areas.
2.7.11 INITIAL PREPARATION AND SERVICING (1996)
Machine shall be delivered completely lubricated and serviced with all equipment needed for immediate operation, except for
fuel. Water cooled engines are to be protected from freeze-up by a 50/50 solution of ethylene glycol base antifreeze (rust
inhibitive type) unless otherwise specified, and radiator marked or tagged to show make of coolant used and actual protection
afforded.
2.7.12 PAINT (1996)

a. Manufacturer shall use paints which do not require periodic medical examinations or special equipment, other than
passive respirators. It is assumed that no-lead paint with a lower percentage of solvent may be required and that exact

Roadway Machines
colors formerly furnished may not be available. Manufacturer shall provide the colors listed under the “Standard
Specification Number” which are consistent with those identified in the “Federal Standard 595-B, Colors Used in
Government Procurement.”
b. Manufacturer shall also utilize proper surface preparation, including primer, to provide a high quality, durable finish
coat. General exposed parts of the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment shall be painted AREMA Black, Spec. No. 17038,
unless otherwise specified by a Railroad, EXCEPT AS IN TABLE 27-2-3:
Table 27-2-3. Paint Specifications for Rail Guide Wheel Equipment and Component Area
Standard
Equipment and Component Area Color
Spec. No.
Gasoline Tank (Note 1) Red 11086
Diesel Fuel Tank (Note 1) Green 14110
Hydraulic Reservoir (Note 1) Blue 15180
Coolant Tank (Note 1) Gray 16251
Wheels and Handrails Black 17038
Lifting Lugs Black 17038
Jacking Points or Pads Black 17038
Safety Locks Red 11086 1
Engine and Other Misc. Parts Manufacturer’s Option
Note 1: Where side or top of tank containing filler opening has an area greater than 144
square inches, manufacturer may elect to paint only 144 or more square inches at
the filler opening with the required tank color. Name of fluid and words “CHECK
DAILY” shall be stenciled on each tank in 1 inch letters. Total machine weight with
all tanks filled shall be plainly marked on both sides of the machine in 1-1/2 inch 3
letters:
Weight ______ lb
4
2.7.13 SHIPPING (1996)
Equipment shall be constructed, prepared, and loaded so that it will withstand without damage, handling likely to be
encountered during delivery. Valuable and easily pilfered parts such as batteries, tools, and loose small items shall be shipped
in such manner as to resist pilferage.
2.7.14 PARTS AND INSTRUCTION BOOKS (1996)
a. Complete parts and instructions books shall accompany the machine. Additional sets of books shall be forwarded as
follows:
______________________________________________________________________________________________

b. Books shall contain complete and easily read diagrams of all systems on the machine and shall employ American
Standard symbols and notations. Listings of commonly available parts shall include general descriptions as well as part
numbers.
c. Parts book must also contain the comprehensive lubrication chart for the appropriate type machines.
2.7.15 REPAIR PARTS AND SERVICE (1996)
Continuous operation of this equipment is of utmost importance. Successful bidder must be able and willing to furnish service
and repair parts promptly.
2.7.16 ADDITIONAL OPTIONS (TO BE COMPLETED BY VENDOR OR MANUFACTURER.)

(1996)
Insulated: Yes____ No____
Self Propelled: Yes____ No____
Shutdown: Yes____ No____
Turntable: Yes____ No____
Turntable Warning Light: Yes____ No____
NOTE: Options and accessories not covered on these specifications and which are available at extra cost shall
be quoted separately in the bid proposal.
2.7.17 DELIVERY (2009) R(2011)
A manufacturer’s representative shall place equipment in service and instruct purchaser’s operators, mechanics, and
2.7.18 MOUNTING OF RAIL GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT TO VEHICLE (2011)
2.7.18.1 Scope
Section covers installation, construction and construction materials for mounting Highway/Rail equipment on any and all
highway vehicles, cranes, car movers, excavators, pile drivers with manual, hydraulic, electric over hydraulic, friction drive,
hydra static drive, fixed guide wheel assemblies attached to machinery allowing for both highway and rail use.

Roadway Machines
a. Mounting brackets shall be of high quality and designed to support the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment. In applications
requiring the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment to support the vehicle, the mounting brackets must be of adequate strength.
b. Mounting brackets must bolt to frame of vehicle. Welding is not acceptable (per vehicle manufacturer standards).
Stitch or segment welding will be allowed to secure bolted brackets in place per Guide Wheel OEM instructions.
Exception: Friction and Hydra static drive units requiring additional reinforcement or sufficient weldment attachment,
extensive welding is permissible with the written consent of chassis or highway equipment manufacturer.
c. Front tire of vehicle must have a 1-1/2 inch minimum clearance above rail when front of vehicle is supported by the
Rail Guide Wheel Equipment.
d. The vehicle frame must be of adequate strength for the intended application. Frame reinforcements may be required
where the vehicle frame does not have the adequate strength. For these special applications, the Rail Guide Wheel
Equipment Supplier must provide reinforcement to meet or exceed the original vehicle specification. Chassis selection
process should include front and after frame extensions from the chassis manufacturer of adequate length and
construction to support medium and heavy high rail assemblies.
e. Brake brackets and brake shoe (Cobra) or Disc & Caliper configuration will be installed if guide wheel design requires
front axle to be lifted while on rail. Rail wheel brakes will be regulated and applied by air or hydraulic controls
synchronized to apply when chassis brake system is applied. Adjustments should be sufficient to compensate for brake
capacity of lifted axle. Care should be taken during adjustments to prevent wheel lock or slide causing flat facets on
rail wheel running surface. Guide wheel equipment manufacturer must clearly address correct brake adjustments in
OEM operator’s manual. Exception: Friction and Hydrostatic Rail Guide Wheel assemblies do not require brake
shoes attached to the rail gear.
1
2.7.19 SETUP AND ALIGNMENT (2011)
a. During setup the vehicle shall be at curb weight with permanent attachments (spare tires, tool boxes less tools, utility
box cranes, etc.).
b. Maximum tire inflation must be maintained at the lowest pressure rating of the tire or wheel manufacturer and clearly 3
labeled with correct tire pressure at time of completed rail gear installation.
c. The frame of the vehicle must be square.
(1) Diagonal measurement of the frame must be equal within 1/8 inch.
(2) Wheelbase on both sides of vehicle must be equal within 1/16 inch. 4
(3) Axles will be square with the frame within 1/64 inch per foot.
d. Vehicle wheels which require front tire contact with the rail must be checked for caster, camber, and toe in as
recommended by the vehicle manufacturer after the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment has been installed.
e. Setup of Rail Guide Wheel Equipment shall be in accordance to the manufacture of the equipment.
(1) Track gage on the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment shall be set within 1/8 inch.
(2) Guide wheel loads shall be set within the tolerance limits of manufacturer’s recommended weight setting.
f. Vehicle and Rail Guide Wheel Equipment shall be aligned in accordance to the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment
manufacturer’s specifications. Install must comply with FRA 214.523-214.235 High rail equipment guidelines

including all required safety components, inspection certifications and product specific operation and parts manuals.
Manuals must be kept in vehicle.
g. Vehicle shall be track tested on rail according to the Rail Guide Wheel Equipment manufacturer’s specification as a
final check to insure proper operation.
2.7.20 NON-COMPLIANCE (1996) R(2011)
Purchaser reserves the right to reject any bids and the right to accept bids deviating from the specifications.
DATE: ______________________________, 20_______.
SIGNATURE: ___________________________________________________________________
TITLE: _________________________________________________________________________
COMPANY: _____________________________________________________________________
TO COVER: MACHINE: _______________________________ MODEL: __________________
SECTION 2.8 LOCKOUT/TAGOUT (LOTO) DURING MAINTENANCE OF ROADWAY

MACHINES
2.8.1 GENERAL (2012)
Lockout/Tagout (energy isolating) devices shall be used to ensure that the machine or equipment is shutdown and isolated
from all potential hazardous energy sources and locked out before employees perform any servicing or maintenance where the
“unexpected” activation or start-up of the machine or equipment or release of stored energy may cause injury.
2.8.2 DEFINITIONS (2012)
a. Affected employee. An employee whose job requires him/her to operate or use a machine or equipment on which
servicing or maintenance is being performed under Lockout/Tagout, or whose job requires him/her to work in an area
in which servicing is being performed.
b. Authorized employee. A person trained in performing Lockout/Tagout on machines or equipment in order to perform
servicing or maintenance on that machine or equipment.
c. Capable of being locked out. An energy isolating device is capable of being locked out if it has a hasp or other means
of attachment to which, or through which, a lock can be affixed, or it has a locking mechanism built into it.
d. Energized. Connected to an energy source or containing residual or stored energy.

Roadway Machines
e. Energy isolating device. A mechanical device that physically prevents the transmission or release of energy. These
include disconnect switches, ignition switches, circuit breakers, valves, and block outs. Push buttons, selector switches
and other control circuit type devices are not energy isolating devices.
f. Energy source. Any source of electrical, mechanical, chemical, hydraulic (pressurized liquid), pneumatic (pressurized
gas or air), gravity, thermal (heat and cold), and radiation energy; and others such as gas, steam, and water.
g. Lockout. The placement of a lockout device on an energy isolating device, in accordance with an established
procedure, ensuring that the energy isolating device and the equipment being controlled cannot be operated until the
lockout device is removed.
h. Lockout device. A device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, either key or combination type, to hold an
energy isolating device in a safe position and prevent the energizing of a machine or equipment.
i. Normal procedure operations. The utilization of a machine or equipment to perform its intended production function.
j. Servicing and/or maintenance. Workplace activities such as constructing, installing, setting up, adjusting, inspecting,
modifying, and maintaining and/or servicing machines or equipment. These activities include lubricating, cleaning or
un-jamming of machines or equipment and making adjustments or tool changes, where the employee may be exposed
to the unexpected activation or startup of the equipment or release of hazardous energy.
k. Setting up. Any work performed to make a machine or equipment to perform its normal production operation.
l. Tagout. The placement of a tagout device on an energy isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure,
to indicate that the energy isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tagout
1
device is removed by the Authorized Employee.
m. Tagout device. A prominent warning device, such as a tag and a means of attachment, which can be securely fastened
to an energy isolating device in accordance with established procedure, to indicate that the energy isolating device and
the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tagout device is removed.
3
2.8.3 REQUIREMENTS (2012)
a. Employer/Employee requirements:
(1) The employer should establish a program consisting of energy control procedures, employee training, periodic
inspections, and to determine if the Lockout/Tagout policy applies for the machine to be worked on.
4
(2) All employees are required to comply with the restrictions and limitations imposed upon them during the use of
lockout/tagout. The authorized employees are required to perform the lockout/tagout in accordance with
established procedures. All employees, upon observing a machine or piece of equipment that is locked out or
tagged out for the purpose of servicing or maintenance should not attempt to start, energize, or use that machine or
equipment.
b. Manufacturer’s requirements:
(1) All machines will be equipped with the means to lockout/tagout energy isolating devices.
(2) Manufacturers will be responsible for pointing out energy sources, energy isolating devices, and any other locking
mechanisms on the equipment and provide sequence for putting these in a non-energy state. This will be used by
the individual railroads in establishing their own lockout/tagout procedures.

2.8.4 PROCEDURES (2012)
The following simple Lockout/Tagout procedure is provided as a guideline for procedure development.
a. Lockout/Tagout Sequence
(1) Notify all affected employees that servicing or maintenance is required on a machine or equipment and that the
machine or equipment must be shutdown and locked out and tagged out to perform servicing or maintenance.
(2) Identify the type and magnitude of energy the machine or equipment utilizes, should understand the hazards of the
energy, and should know the methods to control the energy.
(3) Properly secure all working componenets by either locking them in their stored/travel positions, or by lowering to
the ground, repositioning or blocking the component so it will not move during the planned service or
maintenance procedure.
(4) If the machine or equipment is operating shut it down by the normal stopping procedure.
(5) Position the energy isolating device(s) so that the machine or equipment is isolated from the energy source(s). In
multiple unit consists, deactivate or remove connections to isolate the unit. Apply appropriate working
mechanism locks and blocks plus secure machine so that movement is NOT possible (i.e., parking brake, wheel
chocks, etc.).
(6) Lockout/Tagout the energy isolating device(s) with assigned individual lock(s)/tag(s).
(7) Stored or residual energy (such as that in capacitors, springs, elevated machine members, rotating flywheels,
hydraulic systems, air systems/reservoirs, gas, steam or water pressure, etc.) must be dissipated or restrained by
methods such as grounding, repositioning, blocking, bleeding down, etc.
(8) Ensure that the equipment is disconnected from the energy source(s) by first checking that personnel are not
exposed, then verify the isolation of the equipment by operating the push button or other normal operating
control(s) or by testing to make certain the equipment will not operate. Verify that all locks, hooks, pins, etc., are
properly in place and energy sources (i.e., Hyd., Air, Electrical that control workheads, rail clamps, etc.) are
resting on locks, blocked or grounded. CAUTION! Return operating control(s) to the neutral or “OFF” position
after verifying the isolation of the equipment.
(9) The machine or equipment is now locked out and tagged out.
NOTE: Minor tool changes and adjustments, and other minor servicing activities, which take place during normal
production operations, are not covered if they are routine, repetitive, and integral to the use of the equipment
for normal production.
b. Restoring Equipment to Service
When the service or maintenance is completed and the machine or equipment is ready to return to normal operating
condition, the following steps should be taken by the Authorized Personnel:
(1) Check the machine or equipment and the immediate area around the machine to ensure that nonessential items (i.e.
tools, parts, etc.) have been removed and that the machine or equipment components are operationally intact,
including safety devices and machinery guards.
(2) Check the work area to ensure that all affected employees have been safely positioned or removed from the area.
Notify of pending removal of isolating devices.

Roadway Machines
(3) Verify that the controls are in neutral or in the “OFF” position.
(4) Remove the lockout device(s) and re-energize the machine or equipment. Note: The removal of some forms of
blocking may require reactivation of the machine before safe removal.
(5) Verify through tests that the machine or equipment functions properly.
(6) Notify affected employees that the servicing or maintenance is completed and the machine or equipment is ready
for service.
SECTION 2.9 RAILWAY TRACK EQUIPMENT OPERATOR SIGHTLINES AND VISIBILITY

GUILDELINE FOR NEW ON-TRACK MACHINERY
2.9.1 GENERAL (2011)
AREMA presents this design guideline on railway track equipment operator sightlines and visibility for manufacturers to
consider in their production of equipment. This guideline presents one direction for the design of sightlines and visibility for
new on-track machinery with the knowledge that there are many acceptable design recommendations for sightlines and
visibility. This guideline is a starting point for designing machinery and may be altered as necessary.
The operator’s sightlines and visibility are the operator’s fields of view to the surrounding area from their position of control 1
for both forward and reverse travel. The operator’s position of control of railway track equipment may be when controlling in
“Travel” mode or “Work” mode. The operator’s sightlines and visibility in this design guideline are only a function of the
equipment under the operator’s control.
2.9.2 DEFINITIONS (2011)

3
Obstruction - A partial or complete obscuring of the operator’s sightlines and visibility of the surrounding area. Only those
obstructions caused by the railway track equipment that is under the operator’s control apply in this design guideline.
Acceptable Obstruction - An obstruction that does not prevent clear sightlines and visibility in the presence of minor
movements of the head, neck, and/or upper body of the operator or use of real-time video imaging.
Acceptable Sightlines and Visibility - The field of view presented to an operator when controlling equipment that allows for 4
viewing of the surrounding area with or without Acceptable Obstructions.
“Travel” Mode - Operation of railway track equipment for the purpose of moving the equipment along the track and with the
operator situated in the operator position designated for this type of control of the equipment.
“Work” Mode - Operation of railway track equipment for the purpose of using the equipment to work on the maintenance of
the railroad right of way and with the operator situated in the operator position designated for this type of equipment. “Work”
Mode sightlines and visibility guidelines include the guidelines of “Travel” Mode to accommodate movement of equipment.
2.9.3 RAILWAY TRACK EQUIPMENT OPERATOR SIGHTLINES AND VISIBILITY FOR

“TRAVEL” MODE (2011)
Figures 27-2-4 and 27-2-5 show graphic representations and dimensions related to Acceptable Sightline and Visibility. An
acceptable sightline and visibility area is drawn between 15 feet (4.6 Meters) forward of the leading surface of track equipment
in a line forward of the operator and 36 inches (0.9 Meters) above the top of the tie and the horizontal sightline parallel to the

rail. At the same point forward of the machinery, an acceptable sightline and visibility width is drawn across the track for a
measurement of 10’8” (3.2 Meters) (AAR Plate C).
Sightline and visibility from the operator to the sides of the vehicle should have as few obstructions as possible for visibility of
the right-of-way.
Sightline and visibility from operator for rearward visibility shall be possible considering acceptable obstructions and the use
of mirrors. The use of cameras may be an optional requirement based on sightline obstructions.
Figure 27-2-4. Direction of Travel Sightlines and Visibility, Top View

Roadway Machines
Figure 27-2-5. Direction of Travel Sightlines and Visibility

1
2.9.4 MIRRORS AND CAMERAS (2011)
a. Mirrors on machines must be mounted to provide rearward visibility with consideration to Acceptable Obstructions.
Outside mirrors should be a ‘west coast’ style, shall be a 7” x 16” size with the lower section including a self contained
parabolic/convex mirror to expand the area of visibility around the machine.
3
b. Machine configuration may need to be supplemented with a camera system to accommodate forward and/or rear
visibility.
SECTION 2.10 ACCESS SYSTEMS FOR MAINTENANCE OF WAY MACHINES

4
2.10.1 PURPOSE (2009)
This section provides recommended criteria for access systems to aid in minimizing injury to operating and maintenance
personnel.
2.10.2 SCOPE (2009)
Recommended criteria is provided for steps, stairways, ladders, walkways, platforms, handrails, handholds, guardrails, and
cab heights which permits ingress and egress from operator, inspection, maintenance or service platforms for Maintenance-of-
Way machines. See Figures 27-2-6 through 27-2-10 and Table 27-2-4.

2.10.3 GENERAL (2009)
a. Designs should use “Preferred” dimensions whenever possible.
b. Handrails, handholds, and guardrails shall have an applied rough coating for all hand grasp surfaces.
c. Rung, step, and walkway material to be perforated, non-slip material (without additional coatings or adhesives) and
continuing around the top radius.
d. Flexibly mounted series of steps should be avoided. If used, the steps shall not move more than 3” elastically in the
direction of approach when a horizontal force of 225 lb. is applied at the step center. The flexible step(s) shall deflect
when encountering obstructions in the machine direction of travel to reduce the potential for damage. The preferred
flexible step can be mounted with a 3/4” x 5” piece of conveyor belting, 4-ply and 3/8” minimum carcass.
Figure 27-2-6. Ladders Figure 27-2-7. Steps

Roadway Machines
1
Figure 27-2-8. Handrails and Handholds
Figure 27-2-9. Platforms, Walkways and Guardrails

Figure 27-2-10. Stairways
Table 27-2-4. Recommended Dimensions for Steps, Stairs, Platforms, Guardrails, Handholds and Ladders

27
References
The following list of references used in Chapter 27, Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment is placed here in alphabetical order
for your convenience.
1. ANSI – (American National Standards Institute)/ASME–(American Society of Mechanical Engineers); Reference B30.5-
1985, Mobile and Locomotive Cranes.
2. ANSI – (American National Standards Institute)/ASME–(American Society of Mechanical Engineers); Reference B30.2-
1983, Overhead and Gantry Cranes.
3. INTERNATIONAL FILM BUREAU, INC.; Wire Rope General Application and Training, Chicago, IL–Telephone:
(312) 427-4545.
4. ISO – (International Organization for Standards); Reference No. ISO 4308/1-1986(E), Cranes and Lifting Appliances–
Selection of Wire Ropes, Second Edition 1986-05-15.
5. ISO – (International Organization for Standards); Reference No. ISO 4309-1981(E), Wire Rope for Lifting Appliances– 1
Code of Practices for Examination and Discard, First Edition 1981-12-01.
6. NACB – (North American Crane Bureau); Rigging Safety/Including Wire Rope, Chain and Synthetic Slings). Longwood,
Florida–Telephone: (407) 260-1255.
7. SAE – (Society of Automotive Engineers); Specification #J959. 3


0
CHAPTER 33
ELECTRICAL ENERGY UTILIZATION1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Factors to Consider in Making Electrification Economic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-1

1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2
1.2 Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.3 Capital Equipment Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4
1.4 Annual Operating Expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.5 Maintenance-of-Way Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8 1
1.6 Intangible Benefits and Liabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8
2 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-1
2.0 Changes From 1995 & 2005 Editions (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-2
2.1 Third-Rail Arrangements (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-3
2.2 Recommended Clearance Specifications to Provide for Overhead Electrification (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-6
2.3 Calculation of Vertical and Lateral Structure Openings (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-19 3
3 Recommended Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-1
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-1
3.2 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2
3.3 Design Criteria (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-3
3.4 Recommended Voltages for New Construction (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-3
4 Railroad Electrification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-1

4.1 Catenary Definitions, Standards and Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-3
4.2 Catenary System Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-7
4.3 Electrification Feeding and Sectionalizing Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-19
4.4 Contact Wire Ampacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-23
5 Railway Electrification Compatibility with Signal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-1

5.0 Changes from 1981 & 1982 Editions (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-2
5.1 Scope (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-2
1
concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signal and communications), and allied services and facilities.
of individual railways, but in either event, with a view to promoting efficiency and economy in the location, construction, operation or maintenance or

5.2 Discussion (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-3

5.3 Requirements of the Signal and Electrification Systems (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-4
5.4 Electrical Effects (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-5
5.5 Use of Impedance Bonds in Railway Electrification (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-5
5.6 Impedance Bond Installation Requirements (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-7
6 Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC Electrification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-1

6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
6.2 Electrification System Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
6.3 AC Electrification System Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-5
6.4 Electrification System Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-14
6.5 System Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17
6.6 System Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-20
6.7 Utility Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-27
6.8 Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
7 Rail Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-1

7.1 Method of Determining Rail Bond Sizes – Electric Traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-3
7.2 Specification for Stud Terminal Copper Rail Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-6
7.3 Specification for Welded Type Rail Head U-bonds and Extended Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
7.4 Specification for Rail-head Pin-type Bonds and Track Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-15
7.5 Specification for Thermite Type Welded Rail-head Bonds and Track Connectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.6 Specification for Copper Thermite Welded Electrical Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
8 Catenary and Locomotive Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-1

8.1 Locomotive Electric Interaction with the Catenary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-2
8.2 Locomotive Mechanical Interaction with the Catenary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-8
9 Ancillary Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-1

9.1 Wayside/Standby Power Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-1
10 Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-1
10.1 Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2
10.2 Lighting of Fixed Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2
10.3 Factors Affecting Efficient Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-9
10.4 Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11
10.5 Evaluation Measurements and Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11
12 Traction Power Supply and Distribution Requirements for DC Rail Transportation Systems . . . . . . . . 33-12-1
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-2
12.2 DC Traction Power System Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-3
12.3 DC Traction Power Substations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-5
12.4 DC Traction Power Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-14
12.5 DC Traction Power System Planning and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-20
12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-22
Chapter 33 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-G-1

INTRODUCTION
1


33w
Part 1
Factors to Consider in Making
Electrification Economic Studies1
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2 1

1.1.1 Objective (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2
1.1.2 Basic Procedure (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2
1.1.3 System Operation (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2
1.1.4 Electrical Distribution Systems (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-2
1.1.5 Data (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.2 Traffic ................................................................................ 33-1-3 3

1.2.1 Freight Traffic (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.2.2 Passenger Trains (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.2.3 Train Size and Speed (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.2.4 Traffic Projection (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.2.5 Train Schedules (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-3
1.3 Capital Equipment Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4

1.3.1 Motive Power Units (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4
1.3.2 Motive Power Maintenance Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4
1.3.3 Power Generating Facilities (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4
1.3.4 Power Distribution Systems (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-4
1.3.5 Substations (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-5
1.3.6 Power Transfer (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-5
1.3.7 Clearance Modification (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-5
1.3.8 Signal Modification (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.3.9 Communications (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.3.10 Miscellaneous Power (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1

Electrical Energy Utilization
1.4 Annual Operating Expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6

1.4.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.4.2 Fuel and Energy (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.4.3 Train Crew Wages (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-6
1.4.4 Vehicle Maintenance (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-7
1.4.5 OCS/Third Rail Maintenance (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-7
1.4.6 Substation and Transmission Line Maintenance (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-7
1.4.7 Signal and Communications Maintenance (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-7
1.4.8 Taxes (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-7
1.5 Maintenance-of-Way Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8

1.5.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8
1.6 Intangible Benefits and Liabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8

1.6.1 General (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1-8
SECTION 1.1 GENERAL
1.1.1 OBJECTIVE (2007)
The prime objective of an electrification economic study is to determine if electric operation of a particular railroad or transit
system is more advantageous than operation with another form of power, which may or may not be in actual use.
1.1.2 BASIC PROCEDURE (2007)
Each identifiable cost associated with the different types of power must be quantified for economic comparison. Since most
electrification studies will cover a period of between 20 and 50 years into the future, costs should be separated into two basic
categories: initial one-time expenses, and repeating annual costs which will be subject to continuing inflation and/or
escalation. Separate inflation/escalation rates should be specified for each annual cost to properly compare types of power over
a long period of time. Extra care should be taken in determining inflation/escalation rates since they will be compounded over
the life of the study. Intangible costs and benefits or liabilities should be listed for review at the end of the study, unless they
are directly associated with a tangible cost.
1.1.3 SYSTEM OPERATION (2007)
Prior to any detailed analysis, the segment(s) of the railroad or transit system to be studied must be precisely defined, as well
as the basic parameters of operation. Train size, speed, frequency, etc., should be made constant for all types of power studied
to permit a valid initial comparison. The detailed study should include the economic effects of changing the operating
parameters to that most favorable to each type of power being compared.
1.1.4 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS (2007)
A cursory review of the various types of electrical distribution systems: third rail or overhead contact system (OCS) using
either direct current or alternating current, should be made to determine which system or combination of systems is most
applicable for the specific case under study. Detailed analyses can start after this preliminary determination is made.

Factors to Consider in Making Electrification Economic Studies
1.1.5 DATA (2007)
A base year should be chosen from which all data can be projected. The data for this base year must be as reliable as possible,
thus considerable effort should be spent in reviewing all sources of information for their accuracy and completeness.
SECTION 1.2 TRAFFIC
1.2.1 FREIGHT TRAFFIC (2007)
The most common unit for computing energy and maintenance costs for Freight Traffic is the gross-ton-mile. The number of
gross-ton-miles operated over the railroad under study should be thoroughly reviewed to ascertain what percentage of the total
could be hauled electrically. Locals or trains that would travel only a short distance over electrified territory may be moved
more economically using non-electric locomotives. Total annual gross-ton-miles can then serve as a base for computing
energy and maintenance cost for both electric and non-electric systems.
1.2.2 PASSENGER TRAINS (2007)
Due to the greater acceleration rates and higher operating speeds common for mainline passenger trains and transit vehicles,
they are usually treated separately from the freight services. If both types of service are present, they should be dealt with
independently, and the gross-ton-miles generated by the passenger trains or transit vehicles calculated for both electric and
non-electric systems.
1
1.2.3 TRAIN SIZE AND SPEED (2007)
For proper comparison of energy demands, the size and speed of typical trains should be specified for operation electrically or
with other forms of power. Initially, this parameter should be the same for any type of power; however, as the study becomes
more detailed, it may become obvious that one type of power is more economical using a different train size and speed. For
evaluation purposes, any changes in train size and speed should be a separate portion of the study.
3
1.2.4 TRAFFIC PROJECTION (2007)
The facts reviewed in the study for traffic projection are very critical. A large growth rate when compounded over many years
can saturate the existing track and signal system creating a requirement for high capacity signal system and/or additional
mainline track. Similiarly, a large growth rate compounded over many years can impact substation and utility feeder capacity.
This fact should be considered in the initial planning and design of the traction system. Negative growth rate can impact the 4
study outcome by causing savings to diminish in the future.
1.2.5 TRAIN SCHEDULES (2007)
The average daily traffic must be specified by number of trains, type of trains, size of trains, and the timetable schedule of
trains. The maximum daily traffic must be specified in the same manner. The minimum acceptable train performance (train
speed, size and frequency) under emergency conditions (substation outage, excessive train density, etc.) should be specified.
Future train schedule enhancements should also be addressed in reviewing initial traction power system capacities to establish
the ultimate design capacity.

SECTION 1.3 CAPITAL EQUIPMENT COSTS
1.3.1 MOTIVE POWER UNITS (2007)
a. Based on the traffic, terrain, train size and schedules, the electric locomotives’ or electric multiple unit (EMUs) cars’
weight, wheel configuration, power and speed capabilities can be selected. This selection should be carefully
coordinated with the builders of electric locomotives/EMUs to ensure their commercial availability and the validity of
the cost estimate. Non-electric locomotives with prime movers other than standard diesel engines should likewise be
selected with care.
b. If the electrified system is to be compared against diesel locomotive operations, it should be determined whether the
existing types of diesel-electrics are used for comparisons, or whether a new model not yet manufactured is to form the
basis. As with electrics, the various manufacturers should be consulted to ensure reliable cost data are obtained.
c. Extreme care should be taken to ensure that enough locomotives/EMUs of each type have been assumed to cover peak
traffic periods, allow downtime for scheduled and unscheduled maintenance, and provide for possible future schedule
changes which would require more locomotives with the same traffic. Past experience has shown the electric
locomotives/EMUs have a higher availability and utilization than other types of motive power. Computer generated
speed and time/distance calculations can be of great assistance. Energy, power, time, and distance calculations made at
the same time are invaluable in computing electric power consumption and cost for comparison against diesel fuel
consumption and cost.
1.3.2 MOTIVE POWER MAINTENANCE FACILITIES (2007)
a. The existing mechanical facilities should be thoroughly reviewed to determine what changes will be necessary to
maintain electric locomotives/EMUs. Some of the more modern diesel facilities can be used for electric
locomotive/EMU maintenance with virtually no changes, while old roundhouse operations may be totally unfit for any
maintenance work.
b. Main-line electrification may segment the remaining diesel service to such a great extent that new diesel maintenance
shops must be built to care for the diesels running branch lines and locals. Maintenance facilities for both diesels and
electrics should be an important factor in determining the end-points for an initial electrification project.
1.3.3 POWER GENERATING FACILITIES (2007)
Railroads and, to a lesser extent, transit systems may face some locations where it may be more economical to build an electric
generating station than it would be to buy power from the local utility company. Locations may exist where local power is
unavailable. If railroad or transit agency owned power generation is to be considered, studies by specialized electric utility
engineers will be required to determine capital, operating and maintenance costs.
1.3.4 POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS (2007)
A study should be made to determine the electrical power demand of each portion of the railroad or transit system to be
electrified. The utility companies should be consulted to locate transmission lines in the area suitable for use by the new
system. In designing traction power systems, it is advisable to try and arrange for adjacent substations to be served by different
transmission lines or utility distribution busbars in order to minimize the possibility of power failure, which could affect more
than one substation. If a new transmission or distribution line is required, sizing should be based on the ultimate design
capacity with appropriate assessment of maximum present load. It is generally more economical to put up heavier wire or
larger insulators to provide a higher voltage line during initial construction than it is to retrofit after the load demand has
increased, subject to specific requirements of the utility rate structure. For systems using single-phase, unbalance problems
may be encountered and could require special substation connections.

1.3.5 SUBSTATIONS (2007)
a. Substations are used to step the high transmission line voltage down to the voltage used on the OCS or third rail. The
alternating current is also converted to direct current at a substation when required for third rail or dc OCS.
b. Equipment used in a substation should be capable of handling high overloads for relatively short periods of time
without failure. Substation transformers can be sized to permit initial loads with no forced cooling; later, forced cooling
can be added to support the increased traffic at minimal cost. It is common practice to assume that a substation will be
called upon to supply half of an adjacent substation’s load during an emergency. Rail system substation transformers
should be equipped with extra bracing to prevent damage during a short circuit. Local and/or remote control should be
provided for each substation. For low voltage dc systems, provisions should be made to have a spare, mobile substation
which will serve in an active capacity when not being used as a replacement. For substations located at the end of an
electrified system, consideration should be given to the installation of two transformers connected to two different
transmission lines to minimize the possibility of power failure.
c. For facilities that are to be remote controlled, the cost of the remote equipment, communications circuits, central
station control equipment and facility should be included.
1.3.6 POWER TRANSFER (2007)
a. Two primary methods are used to transfer electrical power to the railway vehicles, third rail and overhead contact
systems.
b. The cost of third rail includes the special contact rail, insulators, long ties or special brackets to mount on the short ties, 1
third-rail covers, right-of-way fencing, miscellaneous hardware and installation labor costs.
c. Overhead contact systems come in several different configurations with vehicle operating speed usually being the
determining factor. OCS construction and maintenance costs vary dependent upon the selection of either constant-
tension (auto-tensioned) or variable-tension (fixed termination) OCS designs. At certain locations, where power
demand is extremely heavy, auxiliary parallel feeders hung from the supports may be more economical than increasing
the size of the OCS wires or adding more substations. OCS construction costs are generally more dependent on terrain 3
than third-rail costs due to the variation in support distance. Costs for overhead catenary should include wire,
insulators, supports, support foundations, tensioning devices, miscellaneous hardware, and all the labor to install the
system.
d. Construction of both third-rail and overhead systems require special material trains and, on existing properties, may
disrupt railroad or transit traffic operations. Expenses for special train crews, extra train crews and other items, such as
flagman protection, should be added to the cost of the electrification construction. 4
e. Along the catenary distribution system, phase breaks, section breaks or air gaps at or between substations should be
equipped with manual or remote controlled switchgear to permit isolating or energizing adjacent catenary sections.
Similar applications are commonly installed on third rail systems for the same purpose.
1.3.7 CLEARANCE MODIFICATION (2007)
Situations will arise with both third-rail and overhead systems where the electrical clearance requirements will necessitate the
modification of nearby structures such as platforms, bridges and tunnels. Extremely high modification costs may dictate a
lower voltage or, in some cases, a short segment of electrically dead OCS or third-rail (or elimination of these conductors), but
these options should be avoided wherever practicable, since they break up the continuity of the current collection system and
may create issues for vehicle design.

1.3.8 SIGNAL MODIFICATION (2007)
Because of electrical interference from the traction power systems, electrification is not compatible with many types of signals
used in the United States. A detailed analysis should be made by the signal department to determine the best type of
modification to make signals compatible with the particular form of electrification being considered. Trackside signal lines
must be shielded from alternating current power systems. The cost to upgrade a signal system, such as installing cab signals,
should not be charged to electrification.
Most open-wire communications circuits near an alternating-current power source are recommended to be either shielded,
converted to microwave, fiber optic cable, or other communication based systems. Electronically controlled
locomotives/EMUs and transit vehicles have been known to generate various forms of signals which radiate beyond the
railway property line. Special shielding of power circuits may be required in urban areas to prevent interference with public
communications systems.
1.3.10 MISCELLANEOUS POWER (2007)
Power requirements for signals, switch heaters, lighting, etc., may be provided by tapping into the electrification conductor
systems, and account should be taken of these benefits.
SECTION 1.4 ANNUAL OPERATING EXPENSES
1.4.1 GENERAL (2007)
The annual operating expenses are critical in any electrification study and should be very carefully derived. The electrification
of a railroad or transit system has the potential to affect virtually every cost encountered in daily operations. The difference in
operating expenses between two or more propulsion systems is what creates a return on investment and determines which
system is the most economical when compared to the initial capital costs.
1.4.2 FUEL AND ENERGY (2007)
The cost of energy or fuel delivered to the motive power vehicles must be ascertained for each system being studied. Fuel costs
should include all transportation, pumping, environmental systems and labor costs. Electric energy bills usually include a
demand charge, energy charge, fuel adjustment and possibly a rental on some fixed equipment. If the cost of fuel and energy
are changing at different rates, separate inflation/escalation factors should be developed for each. Attempts to increase the
electrical load factor frequently result in train rescheduling and a separate option in the final analysis of electrification.
Consideration should be given to evaluating the sensitivity of economic viability due to ranges of inflation/escalation factors.
1.4.3 TRAIN CREW WAGES (2007)
Train crews may be paid on a basis that will change after electrification. Fewer locomotives with less weight on drivers could
reduce the wages earned by the engine crew. For long haul systems, higher acceleration and top speed could reduce trip times
and eliminate or reduce overtime payments or possibly the number of crews required to operate a particular section of railroad.

1.4.4 VEHICLE MAINTENANCE (2007)
a. The cost of maintaining motive power units using different sources of power is usually one of the most important
aspects of any electrification study and frequently requires the most time and effort to determine precisely.
b. All costs associated with maintaining each type of vehicle should be carefully derived to ensure that a true comparison
is given. If possible, each cost should be broken down into labor and material for application of the appropriate
inflation/escalation factor. It is essential that all subdivisions of vehicle maintenance cost be included in the total. Some
of the more frequent subdivisions include: locomotive repairs, supervisory staff, shop machinery, power plant
machinery, locomotive or transit vehicle servicing, maintaining power plants, maintaining fueling facilities,
maintaining maintenance shops, insurance, unemployment insurance, hospital insurance, personal injuries, health and
welfare benefits, old age retirement, and supplemental annuities. Recently, it has become a relatively common practice
to capitalize the very heavy repairs or rebuilding of locomotives and EMUs; and these costs should be taken into
account. The total maintenance cost is most easily used when apportioned on a gross ton mile basis.
c. However, greater accuracy can be achieved if the total cost can be divided into portions which are predominantly a
function of unit miles operated, horsepower-hours generated, or chronological age.
d. The cost of maintaining diesel electric locomotives, electric locomotives and electric multiple unit (EMU) cars can be
easily obtained from existing records of many North American railroads that utilize such fleets. Cost projections from
the builders or suppliers of electrically powered vehicles can form the basis for the total cost, but extensive research
should be done to determine the cost being experienced by users of electric locomotives and EMUs. Electrification
studies frequently refer to electric locomotive maintenance cost as a per cent of the diesel locomotive maintenance cost
on a gross ton mile basis. 1
1.4.5 OCS/THIRD RAIL MAINTENANCE (2007)
a. While constant-tension simple catenary systems are more economical to maintain than variable-tension systems, a
certain amount of adjustment, wire replacement, and repair after derailments will be required. OCS maintenance costs
are influenced by terrain, trackwork complexity, climate and rail traffic. Existing electrified systems should be
reviewed to evaluate the OCS maintenance experience, requirements and costs prior to making projections for a new 3
system.
b. Third-rail maintenance should be treated in the same manner as OCS maintenance.
1.4.6 SUBSTATION AND TRANSMISSION LINE MAINTENANCE (2007)

The cost of periodically inspecting and testing transformer oil, switchgear operation, rectifiers, substation facilities, control
4
batteries, supervisory control systems, and clearing trees from the vicinity of transmission and distribution lines should be
estimated. This is frequently done by taking a percentage of the initial installation cost as being the annual maintenance cost.
1.4.7 SIGNAL AND COMMUNICATIONS MAINTENANCE (2007)
If cab signals or other signal improvements are separately justified, no effect will be felt on the electrification economics.
However, eliminating the open line wire on poles associated with some existing signal systems usually means less
maintenance of the system.
1.4.8 TAXES (2007)

a. The large expenses required for electrification should be thoroughly reviewed by tax specialists to determine the
effects on taxes paid by the company. The increased valuation frequently increases property taxes while the savings
when translated to increased income can cause greater income taxes.

b. The effect on taxes made by various investment tax credits, depreciation reserves, and possibly existing unused tax
credits should be thoroughly reviewed. This is especially true for government supported, operated, and/or owned
facilities, equipment and systems.
SECTION 1.5 MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY CHANGES
1.5.1 GENERAL (2007)
a. Installation of an OCS or third rail will cause some changes in maintenance-of-way techniques. Third-rail operation
may require up to 20% of wood ties, where used, to be longer than standard, so any renewal program costs should
address this aspect. In addition to the increased material cost of the long tie, labor to unfasten and re-attach the third-
rail insulator and support assembly must be included. Additional care must be exercised by tampers around impedance
bonds, ground wires, and third rails, and the size of maintenance equipment is frequently restricted by a third-rail
system, both of which can affect productivity and add to the cost of maintenance.
b. Cranes and wrecking derrick booms should be equipped with insulated shields when working under an OCS to avoid a
grounding contact with the wire. Snow plows or spreaders operating with wings may be restricted by OCS supports.
All equipment should be grounded to provide a positive electrical path for accidental contact with energized circuits.
Additional vegetation trimming may be required to maintain adequate clearances to the OCS conductors. Again, these
factors may add some measure of cost to maintenance and should be considered.
SECTION 1.6 INTANGIBLE BENEFITS AND LIABILITIES
1.6.1 GENERAL (2007)
a. During an electrification study, many items will appear which have little monetary impact, but which offer distinct
benefits or liabilities for electric operation. Electrification has a positive impact on line-of-road failures, pollution
control, noise and exhaust emissions, performance with overload capability, performance with superior wheel-slip
systems, and the option to use different types of fuel. The OCS can be tapped at remote locations to provide power for
power switches, switch heaters, lights, and wayside buildings.
Negative aspects of electrification involve additional work when clearing wrecks, partial or total system shutdown for
large power failures, safety problems with the exposed electrical system, and possible under-utilization of locomotives.
Extra training will be required for those responsible for maintaining both electric and diesel motive power units.
b. With increasing local, state and federal government oversight, regarding electrical safety procedures on traction power
systems, transit systems must provide the financial resources to support annual safety training for all personnel and
specifically for electric traction employees, and for maintaining suitable follow-up documentation.

33
Part 2
Clearances
— 2010 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.0 Changes From 1995 & 2005 Editions (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-2

2.0.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-2
2.1 Third-Rail Arrangements (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-3

2.1.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-3 1
2.1.2 Design, Construction and Maintenance Issues (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-4
2.2 Recommended Clearance Specifications to Provide for Overhead Electrification (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-6
2.2.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-6
2.2.2 Design and Construction Clearance (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-7
2.2.3 Vertical Clearance (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-7 3
2.2.4 Tolerances in the OCS System and Position of Track (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-8
2.2.5 Electrical Clearances From Energized Parts to Grounded Parts (Air Clearances) (2010). . . . . . . . . . 33-2-9
2.2.6 Clearances From Energized Ancillary Conductors (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-12
2.2.7 Altitude Compensation (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-12
2.2.8 Depth of Construction of the OCS at Supports (D) (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-14
2.2.9 OCS Clearances Requirement at Overhead Structures (H) (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-14
2.2.10 Vertical Clearance Requirements at Overhead Structures (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-15
2.2.11 Lateral Displacements and Super-Elevation (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-15
2.3 Calculation of Vertical and Lateral Structure Openings (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-19

2.3.1 Formulae (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-19
2.3.2 Sample Calculations (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-20
LIST OF FIGURES
33-2-1 Typical Over-Running Third Rail Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-4

33-2-2 Typical Under-Running Third Rail Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-5
33-2-3 Vertical Clearance Allowances at Overbridges and Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-10
33-2-4 Vertical and Lateral Clearances at Overbridges (Tunnels require detailed analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-11

33-2-5 Clearance Requirements for Energized Ancillary Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-13
LIST OF TABLES
33-2-1 Track Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-9

33-2-2 Electrical (Air) Clearances from Energized Parts of the OCS or Vehicle to Grounded Structures or Grounded Parts of
the Vehicle and from Ancillary Conductors to Grounded Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-12
33-2-3 Altitude Compensation - Adjustment of Electrical Clearances in Table 33-2-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-13
33-2-4 OCS Construction Depth (D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-14
33-2-5 Clearance Requirements at Overhead Structures (HO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-14
33-2-6 Super-elevation Allowance (E) - Allowance at Pantograph/Contact Wire Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-16
33-2-7 Examples of Lateral Displacements of Pantographs (S) - English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-17
33-2-8 Examples of Lateral Displacements of Pantographs (S) - Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-18
33-2-9 Total Clearance (H) Above Static Vehicle Height Using Typical Dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2-20
NOTE: In general, converted Metric values in the Tables and throughout this Part have been rounded
up to the next higher increment of 5 mm, except for instances where specific mathematical
calculations have been performed.
SECTION 2.0 CHANGES FROM 1995 & 2005 EDITIONS (2010)
2.0.1 GENERAL (2010)
a. The two diagrams; Typical Over-Running Third Rail Arrangement (Figure 33-2-1) and Typical Under-Running Third
Rail Arrangement (Figure 33-2-2); were previously presented as Figure 33-2-2A after that diagram was moved into
Chapter 33 from Chapter 12, where clearance outlines were depicted in Figure 33-12-1 Third-rail Territory. As
discussed below, it is not practical to present a single clearance diagram that would be applicable to either existing or
new properties, since there are too many variable dimensions. Therefore, the diagrams have been redrawn and updated
to present typical modern installations.
b. Part 2 has been generally updated, including most of the tables and Figures 33-2-1 and 33-2-2 (which are now
numbered 33-2-3 and 33-2-4), to more comprehensively reflect conditions and clearances that are appropriate for mass
transit and light rail systems, as well as for railroad applications. Figure 33-2-5 Clearance Requirements for Energized
Ancillary Conductors has been added.
c. The original clearance drawings, along with the Report of the Engineering Division on Electrical Facilities (AREA
Committee on Electrical Energy Utilization) for clearances under structures on lines that are or may be electrified was
declared adopted by the AAR Engineering Division on December 12, 1975. With the exception of altitude
compensation, the proposed clearance diagram was written into the Federal-Aid Highway Program Manual on May 10,
1976 for planned construction or reconstruction of railroad overpass structures. Using a simplified approach for
railroads contemplating electrification, 23 CFR Chapter 1, Part 646, Subpart B, Appendix to Subpart B, which
implements the provisions of 23 CFR 646.212(a)(3), states: “For 25 kV lines, a vertical clearance of 7.4 meters (24’-
3”) may be approved. For 50 kV lines, a vertical clearance of 8.0 meters (26’- 3”) may be approved.”

Clearances
d. Updated clearance values, figures and tables for inclusion in Chapter 33 were declared adopted by AREA in March
1995. However, consequent upon recent operating experience on the New Haven – Boston segment of the Amtrak
Northeast Corridor, which was energized at 25 kV based on the 1995 values, the recommended electrical clearances
given in Table 33-2-2 for 25 kV and 50 kV systems have been increased to match the values that were originally
adopted in 1975. The clearances shown in Table 33-2-2 of this section, as modified by Table 33-2-3, should be
achieved under calculated worst case environmental conditions.
e. The additional materials, contained in Section 2.2.12 Technical Notes (1995), have been incorporated into the relevant
sections.
f. Part 2 of Chapter 33 deals primarily with the additional clearances required to accommodate electrification. For
general clearance requirements, refer to Chapter 28, Clearances.
NOTE: It must be recognized that the requirements for total vertical clearance and total lateral clearance to
accommodate electrification will vary dependent upon the selected operating voltage, vehicle and
pantograph size, and track conditions, including track curvature and super-elevation, and that these
clearance requirements differ for dynamic passing situations and stationary static situations. The
guidelines contained in Part 2 provide the means to identify all of the relevant allowances, which must
be considered in determining the required clearances, but do not direct the user to a particular
conclusion, since design decisions can only be made with a full understanding of the actual
circumstances involved. The calculated values, shown in this Part, are provided as Examples of how
Clearances should be determined, but should not be assumed to represent engineered
recommendations.
SECTION 2.1 THIRD-RAIL ARRANGEMENTS (2010)
2.1.1 GENERAL (2010)

3
a. Many of the existing railroad and transit properties use different approaches to positioning the third rail which, in many
instances, have been dictated by historical issues, such as car width, track gauge, tunnel clearances, truck design
(particularly for mounting of the collector shoes), and over-running or under-running current collection, so it is
difficult, if not impossible, to establish a recommended standard clearance arrangement. These issues may also
influence design decisions for new systems.
b. In addition, different properties have adopted varying approaches to the measurement of “gauge” to the third rail from 4
the running rail. Some measure from running edge to the inside edge of the third rail, which is a logical and easy
measurement to take in the field, whereas others measure from running edge to the center line of the third rail, which is
much more difficult to establish accurately and is not recommended.
c. Once installed, the third rail is essentially in a fixed position and is not subject to the same degree of wear as the
running rail, which suffers from both gauge or head wear, and the vehicle, since truck wheels experience both flange
and tread wear. These wear characteristics effectively mean that the truck and the collector shoe can move closer to or
further away from the third rail, particularly on curves. Similar issues also occur with track gauge widening. Third rail
“gauge” is, therefore, an issue for both track maintenance and vehicle maintenance.
d. Wheel tread wear should be addressed during vehicle maintenance by adjusting the shoe pivot point as the tread wears.
e. Lack of attention to these maintenance issues can lead to such problems as parts of the truck or collector shoe hitting
the cover board, resulting in damage to both the shoe and the cover board.

f. The Third Rail Diagrams depict two typical installations: Figure 33-2-1 shows a Typical Over-Running Shoe
arrangement and Figure 33-2-2 a Typical Under-Running Shoe arrangement.
g. Specific recommendations are not made for clearance dimensions. However, where the third rail is to be constructed in
polluted areas, such as in close proximity to the sea or heavy industrial plants, electrical clearance allowances and other
relevant factors should be investigated. In addition, for Third Rail systems installed above an elevation of 3,000-feet
(914 m), the altitude compensation factors shown in Table 33-2-3 should be considered.
2.1.2 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES (2010)
a. Designs for Third Rail systems must recognize that various transit agency or railroad departments will be responsible
for different aspects of the long term maintenance and operation of the system and the interface issues associated with
third rail clearances must be addressed and clearly understood by all parties.
Figure 33-2-1. Typical Over-Running Third Rail Arrangement
Figure 33-2-1. Typical Over-Running Third Rail Arrangement

Clearances
Figure 33-2-2. Typical Under-Running Third Rail Arrangement
b. Design criteria should address the differences between construction and maintenance tolerances.
Installation tolerances for new or replacement work should have smaller values than those to be permitted 4
for maintenance, but both sets of tolerances relate to the initial Design Location. The “as-built” position can
lie anywhere within the Construction Tolerance limits of the Design Location. However, it should be noted
that Construction Tolerances should NOT be based on the “as-built” position, but must be related to the
original intended Design Location.
c. Design criteria should identify the lateral and vertical offsets of the third rail from the adjacent running rail, together
with both construction and maintenance tolerances.
d. Design criteria should define the minimum track radius below which pre-curved rail must be installed to permit
satisfactory current collection in curved track areas.
e. Design criteria should address the spacing of expansion gaps in both tangent and curved track.
f. Design criteria should address the spacing on the vehicles between the third rail collector shoes in relation to the length
of sectionalizing gaps in the contact rail, and the length of other construction gaps that are required at track turnouts,
interlockings, stations, yards and terminals, and, on systems where grade crossings are permitted, the maximum width

of the required grade crossing gap to ensure that vehicles cannot become stranded due to lack of a power source. This
may require the early establishment of the minimum permissible number of cars in a train consist, since it is often
difficult to eliminate all long third rail gaps in special track work areas, particularly in yards, due to the lack of space.
g. Design criteria should identify the anchoring intervals for the third rail to prevent movement of the center of the third
rails section that could be induced by the passage of the collector shoe. The effects of thermal expansion of the third
rail must also be accounted for, particularly on tight curves or on steep gradients, where the third rail may not slide
easily through the insulated support brackets.
h. Design criteria should address material make-up of both the collector shoe and the third rail, and associated
compatibility issues.
i. Clearance values to the Third Rail are affected by:
• Track Maintenance.
• Rolling Stock Maintenance.
• Third Rail Wear.
j. In automated systems, the antennae for train control in automatic train operation (ATO) and station stopping are often
truck-mounted. If these antennae are positioned such that they are in close proximity to the Third Rail, the antennae
may need to be adjusted periodically to accommodate both wheel tread and wheel flange wear.
k. The clearance offset to fixed permanent way structures will generally be dictated by vehicle clearance requirements
but, in third rail territory, the minimum clearance envelope must include additional clearance allowances in the vicinity
of the third rail to ensure permanent way structures cannot intrude.
l. The clearances must also include the distance from the edge of the shoe on the non-third rail side to any obstruction,
particularly in round tunnels where this shoe will be lower than the one on the third rail side and thus much closer to
the tunnel wall.
SECTION 2.2 RECOMMENDED CLEARANCE SPECIFICATIONS TO PROVIDE FOR

OVERHEAD ELECTRIFICATION (2010)
2.2.1 GENERAL (2010)
a. In general, all of the equations and sample calculations contained in Part 2 assume vehicle operations over tangent
track, and have excluded the effects of side winds, ice loading and OCS vibrations caused by vehicle operations. These
items and allowances for operations over curved track, where applicable, should be taken into account on a site specific
basis during the detailed engineering analyses and design of a project.
b. The figures and tables in this Part include the electrical clearances recommended for direct-current (dc) system
voltages of 750 V, 1500 V and 3000 V, and alternating-current (ac) system voltages of 12.5 kV, 25 kV and 50 kV for
pantograph heights above top of rail between 12 feet (3.65m) and 25 feet (7.62m).
c. The electrical clearances for dc voltages of 750 V, 1500 V and 3000 V are based upon existing good practice and
construction limits.
d. The electrical clearances for high-voltage ac overhead contact systems are based primarily on those railroads already
electrified at 12.5 kV and 25 kV. The clearances for 50 kV are approximately twice the proven and accepted clearance
requirements for 25 kV.

Clearances
e. The standard power supply for high-voltage ac overhead electrification in North America is single phase at a frequency
of 60 Hz.
f. Voltages given are nominal system operating voltages; calculated clearances contain allowances for + 20% variation of
the nominal voltage. It is assumed that suitable lightning protection apparatus is made an integral part of the installed
system.
g. The figures, tables and basic formulae are included to facilitate calculation of vertical and lateral openings
for the various dc and ac voltages. The engineer should consider site specific conditions that may result in
deviations from the values quoted in this Part.
h. For calculation purposes, electrical clearances should be based on the selected system voltage, as specified. In new
construction, these clearances should be based on the “normal minimum” values as shown in Table 33-2-2. For
existing overhead structures, where physical constraints exist and normal clearances are not achievable, even with
considerable expense, the recommended absolute minimum clearances, shown in Table 33-2-2, may be considered.
i. Adoption of the absolute minimum clearances may require the use of protective shields, insulated messenger
wires/insulated feeders, or other special measures in order to assure system reliability and maintainability under
potentially adverse conditions. These requirements should be assessed on a site specific basis.
j. Minimum vertical clearances generally assume the use of contact-wire-only construction with closely spaced supports.
If messenger-contact wire catenary construction is used, the vertical opening must be increased by the messenger to
contact wire spacing, plus an additional uplift allowance where extended length OCS spans are used.
k. No recommendations are made as to standard or normal contact wire heights or clearances, since these will be 1
governed by operating conditions and requirements. Where personnel are permitted or required to go on top of rolling
stock, appropriate safety clearances should be established and contact wire height requirements must be greater than
where such practice is prohibited. Where sufficient additional clearance cannot be provided, safety equipment should
be incorporated that will prevent personnel access when the OCS is energized.
2.2.2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION CLEARANCE (2010)

3
A design and construction clearance, as opposed to an electrical clearance, must include provision for a number of factors, the
most important of which are:
• The electrical clearance between the structure and live parts of the OCS.
• System height of the OCS including contact wire, messenger wire and hardware.
4
• The dynamic movement or displacement of the pantograph in the vertical and horizontal directions, and the uplift of
the OCS when the contact wire is swept by the pantograph.
• The electrical clearances between the contact wire and vehicle load gauge.
• The dynamic movement or displacement of the rolling stock in the vertical and horizontal directions.
• The vehicle load gauge.

• Civil and mechanical engineering tolerances in construction and for maintenance of the track and OCS.
• Required safety clearances for access to areas in proximity to energized parts.
2.2.3 VERTICAL CLEARANCE (2010)
The vertical clearance required to accommodate OCS at overpasses and through-truss bridges or in tunnels can be broken
down into three specific components:

• electrical clearances and OCS requirements (H dimension in the figures).
• load gauge (Y dimension in the figures).
• track construction requirements, including future track maintenance allowances (T3 dimension in the
figures).
2.2.3.1 Clearance Requirements for the OCS (H)
Clearance requirements for the OCS comprise the depth of the OCS equipment at the supports and/or in-span between
supports, plus electrical clearances from the energized components to the grounded structure or the grounded vehicle body
under both static and dynamic conditions. These dimensions and clearances are discussed in the following sections.
2.2.3.2 Load Gauge (Y)
a. The load gauge or vehicle height is shown as the “Y” dimension on the clearance diagrams.
b. For LRT systems, vehicle equipment heights typically range from 10'-0" to 12'-0" (3.05 to 3.65 m). For LRT systems,
the designer should reference the designated vehicle clearance diagrams.
c. The normal load gauge height for most major railroads will vary between 15'-6" (4.72 m) Plate “C” and 20'-3" (6.17 m)
Plate “H”. Additional information is included in Chapter 28, Clearances for railroad systems.
d. For railroads, oversize loads may be as great as 25 feet (7.62 m) but these will be the exception rather than the rule.
Abnormal load heights, which do not allow for the minimum electrical clearance to contact wires, may be
accommodated by de-energizing the OCS providing sufficient mechanical clearance exists.
2.2.3.3 Track Construction and Maintenance Requirements (T3)
Traditionally, a 12-inch (305 mm) allowance has been included in main line railroad OCS design to allow for future lifting or
ballasting of track, installing rail with a higher cross section and/or for construction/maintenance tolerances for the civil
works, except where use of a smaller allowance is required by local circumstances, such as at passenger stations, overpasses,
tunnels, and grade crossings. A similar allowance should also be considered for commuter rail, rapid transit and LRT systems,
although the total amount may be smaller, due to the typically greater frequency of passenger stations and grade crossings.
2.2.4 TOLERANCES IN THE OCS SYSTEM AND POSITION OF TRACK (2010)
a. Allowances should be made for civil engineering and wire installation and maintenance irregularities in determining
the vertical and lateral structure openings.
b. Under absolute minimum clearance conditions, the OCS should be maintained to ±0.5 inch (13 mm) of the design level
at the supports. Under normal minimum clearance conditions, the OCS should be maintained to ±1 inch (25 mm) of
the design level at supports.
c. For railroads, the position of the track is assumed to be maintained, as a minimum, within the tolerances mandated by
the FRA Track Safety Standards. However, where those requirements or the railroad maintenance of way standards are
not more restrictive, the track should be maintained within the following tolerances of the design position, particularly
at structures with limited lateral or vertical clearances, as shown by the T3 dimension in Figure 33-2-3 and by the L
dimension in Figure 33-2-4.

Clearances
Table 33-2-1. Track Tolerances
Clearance Condition Dimension

Track vertical alignment at normal minimum clearance locations + 1.0 inch / - 0.5 inch
(+ 25 mm / - 13 mm)
Track vertical alignment at absolute minimum clearance locations, ± 0.5 inch (± 13 mm)
such as tunnels, bridges and overpasses
Track lateral alignment at normal minimum clearance locations ± 1.0 inch (± 25 mm)
Track lateral alignment at absolute minimum clearance locations, such ± 0.5 inch (± 13 mm)
as tunnels, bridges and overpasses
2.2.5 ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES FROM ENERGIZED PARTS TO GROUNDED PARTS

(AIR CLEARANCES) (2010)
a. The Clearance diagrams, Figure 33-2-3and Figure 33-2-4, recognize two types of electrical or air clearances, “Static”
and “Passing”, designated as CA and PA in Table 33-2-2. These clearances are used in the two basic formulae to
calculate vertical and horizontal structure openings in conjunction with Table 33-2-7 and Table 33-2-8. Typical
electrical clearances are given in Table 33-2-2 and typical vertical clearances above static load height are given in
Table 33-2-9. For an OCS installed above an elevation of 3,000-feet (914 m), the altitude compensation factors shown
in Table 33-2-3 must be used.
b. The Passing Electrical Clearance, designated PA, is the distance between the OCS messenger wire, contact wires, 1
pantograph, or other live parts of either the vehicle or OCS and the grounded vehicle load gauge, overhead structure or
other adjacent fixed structure under dynamic operating conditions, such as during the short time it takes a train to pass
or in adverse climatic conditions when the conductors are not stationary.
c. The Static Electrical Clearance, designated CA, refers to the distance between the live parts of a vehicle or the OCS,
whether or not it is subjected to pantograph pressure, and the grounded parts of a vehicle or adjacent fixed structure
while the vehicle is stationary. 3
d. In some instances the sum of the dynamic allowances and the passing electrical clearance may be greater than the static
electrical clearance. For these cases, the larger value should be used. This approach should be applied to the design of
the OCS and maximum car profile (including any load) in stations, terminals and yards, or wherever vehicles may
remain stationary for extended periods.
e. Where the OCS is to be constructed in polluted areas, such as in close proximity to the sea or heavy industrial plants,
4
an additional clearance allowance, as shown in Table 33-2-2, should be added to both the Static and Passing Clearance
OCS values and to the Ancillary Conductor Clearance values.
f. For Clearances from Energized Ancillary Conductors refer to Article 2.2.6 and Figure 33-2-5 of this Part.

Figure 33-2-3. Vertical Clearance Allowances at Overbridges and Tunnels

Clearances
Figure 33-2-4. Vertical and Lateral Clearances at Overbridges (Tunnels require detailed analysis)

Table 33-2-2. Electrical (Air) Clearances from Energized Parts of the OCS or Vehicle to Grounded
Structures or Grounded Parts of the Vehicle and from Ancillary Conductors to Grounded Structures
Energized OCS Components Additional Ancillary
Nominal Normal Minimum Absolute Minimum Clearance in Conductors
System CA PA CA PA
Polluted Absolute
Voltage Areas Minimum
inches (mm) inches (mm) inches (mm) inches (mm) inches (mm) inches (mm)
750 V dc 4 (105) 3 (80) 3 (80) 3 (80) 0 (0) 4 (105)
1500 V dc 5 (130) 3.5 (90) 4 (105) 3 (80) 0.5 (10) 5 (130)
3000 V dc 6 (155) 5 (130) 5 (130) 3 (80) 0.5 (10) 6 (155)
12.5 kV ac 7 (180) 6 (155) 6 (155) 4 (105) 0.75 (20) 7 (180)
25.0 kV ac 10.5 (270) 8 (205) 8 (205) 6 (155) 2 (50) 10.5 (270)
50.0 kV ac 21 (535) 16 (410) 16 (410) 12 (305) 4 (100) 21 (535)
CA = Static Electrical Clearance for OCS Components
PA = Passing Electrical Clearance for OCS Components
Note: Minimum Passing Mechanical Clearance = 3 (80)
2.2.6 CLEARANCES FROM ENERGIZED ANCILLARY CONDUCTORS (2010)
a. Typically, ancillary conductors, such as auxiliary feeders that electrically reinforce the OCS or parallel feeders used in
auto-transformer systems, are tensioned in fixed termination mode so tensions and sags will vary with temperature and
span length and, where appropriate, ice loading. Similarly, lateral offsets due to wind induced blow-off will vary
dependent upon tension and span length. The clearance envelope shown in Figure 33-2-5 depicts these variations.
b. For general application throughout a system, it is recommended that mid-span clearance envelopes should be
developed for each type of ancillary conductor, based on the anticipated range of ancillary conductor span lengths
under all climatic and dynamic conditions. Table 33-2-2 provides absolute minimum clearances from ancillary
conductors to grounded structures, which should be modified as indicated in Table 33-2-3 for systems installed above
3,000 ft (914 m).
c. At restricted clearance locations, such as overhead bridges, additional factors, such as localized wind gusting, animal
intrusions or the formation of icicles, should be taken into consideration.
d. These clearance values are to be used only at locations that are protected from public access.
2.2.7 ALTITUDE COMPENSATION (2010)
a. Air dielectric strength reduces with increased elevation. The design of the OCS for railroads and LRT systems
operating above the 3,000-foot (914 m) level must apply the altitude compensation factors shown in Table 33-2-3 or in
accordance with the latest edition of the National Electrical Safety Code. Similar correction factors will apply to the
design of any associated high-voltage transmission lines, or for parallel feeders in autotransformer systems, and for
substation equipment, and should be considered in the design of third rail systems.

Clearances
Figure 33-2-5. Clearance Requirements for Energized Ancillary Conductors

4
Table 33-2-3. Altitude Compensation - Adjustment of Electrical Clearances in Table 33-2-2
Altitude: feet (m) Multiply by

0 – 3,000 (0-914) 1.00
3,000 – 4,000 (914-1219) 1.02
4,000 – 5,000 (1219-1524) 1.05
5,000 – 6,000 (1524-1829) 1.08
6,000 – 7,000 (1829-2134) 1.11
7,000 – 8,000 (2134-2438) 1.14
8,000 – 9,000 (2438-2743) 1.17
9,000 – 10,000 (2743-3048) 1.20

2.2.8 DEPTH OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE OCS AT SUPPORTS (D) (2010)
a. The four minimum depths (D) of OCS construction normally used where supports are required below
overpasses and through-truss bridges or in tunnels are shown in Table 33-2-4.
Table 33-2-4. OCS Construction Depth (D)
Construction Type inches mm

Messenger-contact wire construction 6.0 155
Contact-wire-only construction (at supports) 4.5 115
Multiple contact-wire-only construction (between supports) 1.5 40
Single contact-wire-only construction (between supports) 0.75 20
b. Where supports are required under a bridge or in a tunnel and suitable pockets to install the support hardware cannot be
provided, the depth for contact-wire-only construction should be calculated on the basis of the depth at supports unless
completely insulated support material can be used.
c. Support arms holding single or multiple contact wires in contact-wire-only construction shall restrict vertical
movement - both up and down.
d. Additional clearance may be required to accommodate required electrical or mechanical clearances to the support arm
insulator, as shown in Figure 33-2-4.
2.2.9 OCS CLEARANCES REQUIREMENT AT OVERHEAD STRUCTURES (H) (2010)
a. The clearance requirement (H) above the static vehicle height is depicted in Figure 33-2-3. Typical values for 750 V dc
and 25 kV ac applications, using normal electrical clearances and other allowances, are shown in Table 33-2-5.
b. The following clearance requirement examples were computed for systems designed to operate below the 3,000-foot
(914 m) level. Clearances must be increased in accordance with Table 33-2-3 for elevations above 3,000 feet (914 m).
Table 33-2-5. Clearance Requirements at Overhead Structures (HO)
Clearance Requirement 750 V dc 25 kV ac

inches mm inches mm
OCS to underside of overpass bridge or tunnel deck
6 155 11.5 295
= C or (P + U) + T1
Depth of OCS including wire thickness, assuming
500/350 kcmil for LRT and 300-300 for 25 kV, plus 6.5 170 6.25 160
a system height of 6 in (155 mm) = D
Contact wire to top of load gauge or vehicle
6.5 170 11.5 295
= C or (P + B) + T2
Total OCS Clearance Requirement = H 19 495 29.25 750

Clearances
2.2.10 VERTICAL CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS AT OVERHEAD STRUCTURES (2010)
a. Figure 33-2-3 shows the recommended basis for establishing the minimum required vertical clearance (V) beneath a
fixed structure to accommodate construction of the OCS conductors between support positions. Where contact-wire-
only construction is employed, versus messenger-contact catenary construction, the OCS depth (D) will be reduced,
but may have to take into consideration the depth of parallel groove clamps or other clip devices that are used to secure
the lateral position of the wires.
b. Figure 33-2-4 provides a pictorial representation of how the track and vehicle lateral tolerances should be combined
with the vehicle and pantograph dynamic characteristics to establish the lowest practical operating position of the
pantograph, from which the minimum value of V for the vertical structure opening can be determined.
c. The method by which super-elevation is achieved may vary among railroads and transit systems. In most systems, the
low rail is considered to be the control rail and the high rail is lifted to achieve the required super-elevation, which must
be taken into consideration when evaluating both vertical and lateral OCS and pantograph clearances.
d. Figure 33-2-4 shows the dimensional requirements needed to satisfy the minimum clearances for contact-wire-only
construction mid-span between supports. As noted, additional clearance may be required at support points to
accommodate the depth of the energized components of the support assembly. Electrical and/or mechanical clearances
at support points may dictate the lowering of OCS wire heights. Alternatively, by making use of the space between
deck support girders or by constructing pockets, it may be possible to provide the required additional clearance at the
support so that the minimum mid-span clearances detailed in the diagram can be adopted.
e. In many cases, it is likely that the available clearance will be greater than Vmin. The designer has three options for
allocating the additional clearance. It is recommended that, wherever possible, the improvements should be made in 1
the following order: (i) increase the clearance above the OCS, (ii) increase the clearance above the vehicle, and (iii)
increase the system height at the supports. Increasing the clearance ABOVE the OCS should be the first priority, since
this is the fixed situation, whereas clearance to the vehicle is normally of a temporary nature.
f. For railroad operations, allowances should be based on the designated FRA class of track and dynamic vehicle and
pantograph deflections. For LRT operations, proposed track maintenance values should be used, together with
dynamic vehicle and pantograph movements. Detailed engineering investigations may result in deviations - see
3
Table 33-2-7 and Table 33-2-8.
2.2.11 LATERAL DISPLACEMENTS AND SUPER-ELEVATION (2010)
a. Figure 33-2-4 provides a pictorial representation of how the track and vehicle lateral tolerances should be combined
with the vehicle and pantograph dynamic characteristics to establish the maximum lateral excursions of both the 4
vehicle and the pantograph, thereby defining the Dynamic Vehicle Clearance Outline and the Dynamic Pantograph
Clearance Outline, which should be used to establish the minimum lateral structure opening.
b. The assumption is made that the contact point of the pantograph is centered longitudinally over the truck pivot point of
the locomotive, EMU or LRT car. Where this is not the case, additional lateral clearance on curved track sections must
be determined from the exact geometry of the pantograph passage through curves and turnouts. In these
circumstances, the projected pantograph centerline is separated from the elevated truck centerline and all OCS supports
on curved sections should be aligned to relate to the pantograph centerline. Where the contact wire is off-center in
relation to the pantograph, account must be taken of additional side-tilting of the pantograph and clearances adjusted
accordingly.
c. The limits of dynamic movement of rolling stock will vary considerably according to type of equipment and track
conditions. The lateral displacement values shown in Table 33-2-7 and Table 33-2-8 for LRT and EMU cars, and for
Locomotives, have been developed by manufacturers of these types of equipment, or verified by operating experience.

d. The English values for maximum super-elevation in Table 33-2-6 has been based on 6 inches which results in a lateral
displacement of 26.6 inches at a height of 22 feet above top of rail. By comparison, the Metric values are based on a
maximum super-elevation of 150 mm which results in a lateral displacement of 666 mm at a height of 6.70 m above
top of rail. The method by which super-elevation is achieved may vary among railroads and transit systems. In most
systems, the low rail is considered to be the control rail and the high rail is lifted to achieve the required super-
elevation, which must be taken into consideration when evaluating both lateral and vertical OCS and pantograph
clearances.
e. The Cross-Level Allowance (E) provides for the super-elevation deficiency maintenance allowance (positive or
negative on either rail). It does not allow for curved track super-elevation effects. On this basis, the sway of the
vehicle and pantograph, due to super-elevation deficiency, becomes symmetrical about the track centerline from a
design perspective.
f. The largest element of the dynamic movement of the pantograph is due to the vehicle roll (R) on its suspension. To
compute these effects at the uplifted contact wire level, the height of the Vehicle Roll Point above rail level must be
known, together with the Roll Angle of the vehicle under both normal and emergency operating conditions. For
normal operational analyses of the pantograph-contact wire interface, the roll allowance should be based purely on the
dynamic characteristics of the vehicle and pantograph. However, for emergency operating conditions, the effects
resulting from a failed vehicle suspension, such as broken springs or damaged air bags, should be considered in
evaluating the clearance from the pantograph to fixed wayside structures. It is recommended that vehicles with
damaged or failed suspensions be removed from the system as quickly as possible, but at very restricted speeds.
g. The lateral displacements shown in the clearance diagram Figure 33-2-4, and detailed in the examples in Table 33-2-7
and Table 33-2-8, are based on the specified types of FRA Class of Track, which may or may not be applicable to LRT
systems. (For FRA requirements, refer to 49 CFR, Chapter 2, Para. 213.63 for Class 1-5, and 49 CFR, Chapter 2, Para.
213.331 for Class 6-9). For other classes of track or other levels of guaranteed minimum maintenance tolerances, the
dimension (S) must be adjusted in accordance with appropriate detailed engineering investigations.
Table 33-2-6. Super-elevation Allowance (E) - Allowance at Pantograph/Contact Wire Level

Super-elevation Effect (E) – inches Super-elevation Effect (E) – mm
for Pantograph Height above Rail – feet for Pantograph Height above Rail – meters
Super-elevation Super-elevation
16 19 22 4.85 5.80 6.70
inches mm
1 3.2 3.8 4.4 25 80 96 111
2 6.5 7.7 8.9 50 161 192 222
3 9.7 11.5 13.3 75 241 288 333
4 12.9 15.3 17.8 100 321 384 444
5 16.1 19.2 22.2 125 401 480 555
6 19.4 23.0 26.6 150 482 576 666
NOTE: In calculations and clearance evaluations, the Cross-Level or Super-elevation Effect should be
assessed at the uplifted contact wire height and should be based on Rail Head Centers, the points
where the vehicle wheels sit on the rail heads and which, for a nominal track gauge of 4’- 8½” (1435
mm), is 59.5 inches (1510 mm).

Clearances
Table 33-2-7. Examples of Lateral Displacements of Pantographs (S) - English
Table 33-2-8. Examples of Lateral Displacements of Pantographs (S) - Metric
Clearances
SECTION 2.3 CALCULATION OF VERTICAL AND LATERAL STRUCTURE OPENINGS

(2010)
2.3.1 FORMULAE (2010)
a. Two basic formulae have been developed to determine the vertical and horizontal structure opening for various
voltages as shown on Figure 33-2-3 and Figure 33-2-4 and Table 33-2-9:
2.3.1.1 Vertical Structure Opening (V) – refer to Figure 33-2-3
V = PA + U + T1 + D + T2 + PA + B + Y + T3
if PA + U or PA + B are less than CA, then CA should be used
where:
CA = Static Electrical Clearance – refer to Table 33-2-2
PA = Passing Electrical Clearance – refer to Table 33-2-2
U = OCS Uplift due to pantograph pressure and operating conditions = 0.5 inch (13mm) minimum, 2 inch (50mm)
normal for overpasses. Allowances for tunnels require detailed analysis.
T1 = Tolerance for OCS construction and maintenance 1

D = Depth of OCS, varies based upon design parameters and available headroom (see Article 2.2.8)
T2 = Tolerance for OCS construction and maintenance
PA = Passing Electrical Clearance – refer to Table 33-2-2

3
B = Dynamic vehicle bounce allowance
Y = Static Vehicle Load Height – refer to AAR Plate Diagrams and Chapter 28 for Railroad Clearances, or to the
Vehicle Design Criteria for LRT Systems
T3 = Tolerance for track construction and maintenance

4
A subscript = Altitude compensation factor for OCS constructed above 3,000 feet (914 m) – Table 33-2-3
2.3.1.2 Lateral Structure Opening for the Pantograph (W)
W = X + 2L + 2S + 2PA + 2E
where:
X = Pantograph, width of live portion of head
L = Lateral shift of track within civil engineer’s tolerance – 1.0 inch maximum, or in accordance with FRA Track
Standards
S = LRT car, EMU car or Locomotive sway (roll effect) – Table 33-2-7 or Table 33-2-8

PA = Lateral electrical clearance of pantograph to side of tunnel, bridge arch or abutment under passing
conditions - Table 33-2-2 and Table 33-2-3
E = Lateral allowance for super-elevation deficiency where applicable
A subscript = Altitude compensation factor for OCS constructed above 3,000 feet (914 m) – Table 33-2-3
Table 33-2-9. Total Clearance (H) Above Static Vehicle Height Using Typical Dimensions
H = PA + U + T1 + D + T2 + PA + B(formula and elements are based on Figure 33-2-3)
Total OCS Clearance (H): inches (mm)

Nominal
(for Altitudes below 3000 feet / 914 m)
System
Voltage
Normal Minimum
750 V dc 18.5 (480) 14 (367)

1500 V dc 19.5 (500) 14 (367)
3000 V dc 22.5 (580) 14 (367)
12.5 kV ac 24.5 (630) 16 (417)
25 kV ac 28.5 (730) 20 (517)
50 kV ac 44.5 (1140) 32 (817)
Note 1. Actual total clearances measured above static vehicle height may vary due to local site
specific parameters.
Note 2. Minimum clearances should only be used in extreme cases. The engineering
responsibility should include a full understanding of local circumstances, including the
possible consequences of using absolute minimum electrical clearances.
Note 3. Adjustment of component items is needed for OCS installations at elevations above 3,000
feet (914 m); see Table 33-2-3.
Note 4. The values quoted above assume an OCS system depth (D) of 6 inches (155 mm) for both
dc and ac systems, including energized support hardware).
2.3.2 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS (2010)
2.3.2.1 Vertical Structure Opening
Two sample calculations are provided, which demonstrate the effect that differences in system voltage and size of rolling stock
(that is to be accommodated) have on the determination of the required vertical structure opening.
a. To accommodate a 750 V dc Catenary System with a system height of 6" (155 mm), operating at an elevation below
3,000-feet (914 m) above a Plate ‘H’ load gauge of 20'- 3" (6.07 m), which assumes joint-use operations with freight,
the vertical height requirement above top of rail to a bridge structure over railroad tracks that are electrified (or are
proposed for electrification) may be calculated as follows:
H = PA + U + T1 + D + T2 + PA + B + Y + T3

Clearances
English: H = 3"+2"+1"+6"+1"+3"+2.5"+20'- 3"+1.5" = 21'-11" + 6” track raise = 22'- 5"
Metric: H = 80+50+25+155+25+80+65+6175+40 = 6.695 m + 155 mm track raise = 6.85 m
b. To accommodate a 25 kV ac Catenary System with a system height of 6" (155 mm), operating at an elevation below
3,000-feet (914 m) above a Plate ‘F’ load gauge of 17'- 0" (5.18 m), the vertical height requirement above top of rail to
a bridge structure over railroad tracks that are electrified (or are proposed for electrification) may be calculated as
follows:
H = (PA + U) + T1 + D + T2 + (PA + B) + Y + T3
English: H = (10.5")+1"+6"+1"+(8"+2.5")+17'- 0"+1.5" = 19'- 6.5" + 6” track raise = 20'- 0.5"
Metric: H = (270)+25+155+25+(205+65)+5180+40 = 5.965 m + 155 mm track raise = 6.12 m
c. Under static conditions, (PA + U) becomes C for the 25 kV system, and (PA + B) = C. Other tolerances and allowances
may also need to be replaced by the normal amounts for the static conditions.
d. Electrical clearance calculations are based on a highway structure or bridge crossing at right angles to the track and
centered at the mid-span point in the OCS. At other angles, catenary system heights will vary and at the points of
support may have to be 5'-0" (1.52 m) or more where attachment to the overhead structure has to be avoided.
Adjustments for the OCS depth at the actual point of crossing must therefore be made accordingly, or contact-wire-
only construction considered.
2.3.2.2 Lateral Structure Opening 1
Two sample calculations are provided. These demonstrate the effect that differences in system voltage, size of pantograph
(that is to be used) and operating contact wire height have on the determination of the required lateral structure opening, since
the lateral structure opening depends on the sway of the vehicle, the LRT, EMU, or locomotive pantograph width and sway,
electrical clearance to the side of the structure, permissible track super-elevation deficiency and track maintenance tolerances.
3
a. To accommodate a 750 V dc Catenary System, the lateral displacement of the pantograph under normal operating
conditions may be calculated as detailed below, assuming 3 degrees of LRT vehicle roll over track that is maintained to
standards equivalent to FRA Class 3 at an elevation below 3,000-feet (914 m).
b. The English unit calculation assumes LRT vehicles equipped with a 6'- 0¾" pantograph, running under a contact wire
at 22 feet above top of rail with 6 inches of uplift, and with 1¾ inches of permissible super-elevation deficiency.
4
c. By comparison, the Metric calculation assumes LRT vehicles equipped with an 1850 mm pantograph, running under a
contact wire at 6.70 m above top of rail with 150 mm of uplift, and with 45 mm of permissible super-elevation
deficiency.
W = X + 2(L) + 2(S) + 2(PA) + 2(E)
English: W = 72.75 + 2(4.41) + 2(17.92) + 2(3) + 2(5.96) = 125.33 inches or 10.27 ft; Say = 10.5 ft
Metric: W = 1850 + 2(113) + 2(454) + 2(76) + 2(153) = 3442 mm or 3.44 m; Say = 3.5 m
d. To accommodate a 25 kV ac Catenary System, the lateral displacement of the pantograph under normal operating
conditions may be calculated as detailed below, assuming 3 degrees of EMU vehicle roll over track that is maintained
to standards equivalent to FRA Class 5 at an elevation below 3,000-feet (914 m).
e. The English unit calculation assumes EMU vehicles equipped with a 6'- 6" pantograph, running under a contact wire at
19 feet above top of rail with 6 inches of uplift, and with 1 inch of permissible super-elevation deficiency.

f. By comparison, the Metric calculation assumes EMU vehicles equipped with an 1980 mm pantograph, running under a
contact wire at 5.80 m above top of rail with 150 mm of uplift, and with 25 mm of permissible super-elevation
deficiency.
W = X + 2(L) + 2(S) + 2(PA) + 2(E)
English: W = 78.0 + 2(2.52) + 2(12.0) + 2(8) + 2(2.56) = 128.16 inches or 10.68 ft; Say = 11 ft
Metric: W = 1980 + 2(68) + 2(306) + 2(205) + 2(64) = 3266 mm or 3.27 m; Say = 3.4 m
g. Caution must be exercised in relating electrical clearances from insulators, since apparent creepage dimensions may
vary due to the numerous designs available and the wide variety of insulator configurations in use.
NOTE: It must be recognized that the requirements for total vertical clearance and total lateral clearance will
vary dependent upon the selected operating voltage, vehicle and pantograph size, and track conditions,
including track curvature and super-elevation, and that these clearance requirements differ for
dynamic passing situations and stationary static situations. These guidelines provide the means to
identify all of the relevant allowances, which must be considered in determining the required
clearances, but do not direct the user to a particular conclusion, since design decisions can only be
made with a full understanding of the actual circumstances involved.

33
Part 3
Recommended Voltages1
— 2008 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-1

3.1.1 General (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-1
3.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2

3.2.1 Nominal Operating Voltage (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2 1
3.2.2 Maximum No-Load Substation Voltage (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2
3.2.3 Maximum Vehicle Operating Voltage (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2
3.2.4 Minimum Vehicle Operating Voltage (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2
3.2.5 Contingency Minimum Vehicle Operating Voltage (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-2
3.3 Design Criteria (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-3 3

3.4 Recommended Voltages for New Construction (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-3
LIST OF TABLES
33-3-1 Recommended Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3-3
3.1.1 GENERAL (2008)
a. Existing electrified railway systems throughout the world employ a multiplicity of nominal operating voltages
depending on their age and design purpose. The recent introduction of a wide variety of electronics in power supply
systems and motor control, some incorporating regeneration, in both direct-current (dc) and alternating-current (ac)
traction motors in electrically powered railway locomotives and multiple-unit and light-rail cars has virtually
1

eliminated any need for special frequencies and voltages. The high power requirements of modern electrified railway
systems often leads to the use of higher voltages in order to minimize the number of substations and size of distribution
conductors.
b. Although it is fully recognized that each traction power installation will be subject to certain local design criteria, it is
highly desirable to use common voltage levels throughout North America to facilitate standardized equipment
manufacture and possible future run-through operations. More importantly, voltage levels used should ensure the
proper and safe application of the various elements of the fixed plant, such as insulators, transformers, rectifiers, circuit
breakers, cables, lightning and surge arresters. By clearly defining the operating voltage levels and voltage level limits
for various electric traction systems, the entire industry- consisting of equipment manufacturers, design firms,
contractors and operating and maintenance personnel- will be placed under the same known engineering parameters as
far as the voltage is concerned. The primary benefit is that all electric traction equipment will be manufactured and
tested for the voltage level and voltage limits within which the equipment will be operating. In the age of globalization,
standardization is the only way to produce economical and reliable equipment while ensuring availability.
SECTION 3.2 DEFINITIONS
3.2.1 NOMINAL OPERATING VOLTAGE (2008)
This voltage represents the designated value of the system.
3.2.2 MAXIMUM NO-LOAD SUBSTATION VOLTAGE (2008)
This voltage represents the maximum substation bus voltage at zero traction load.
3.2.3 MAXIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE (2008)
This voltage represents the maximum voltage seen at the vehicle under any operating condition, including any voltage
increases due to regenerative braking.
3.2.4 MINIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE (2008)
This voltage represents the minimum voltage, seen at the vehicle, at which there is no significant degradation in vehicle
performance. This is the voltage measured at the current collection device of a train with the supply system functioning for
normal design conditions assuming no substation outages and rated continuous power being developed by the train.
3.2.5 CONTINGENCY MINIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE (2008)
This represents the voltage that can be seen at the vehicle under contingency conditions, which permits continuing vehicle
operation with some significant degradation. Rated vehicle power and performance is not available but reduced operation is
possible assuming on-board logic will automatically degrade the performance of auxiliaries. Typical contingency conditions
could include: substation outage, loss of one or more transformers at the substation, utility supply problems, etc.

Recommended Voltages
SECTION 3.3 DESIGN CRITERIA (2008)
The electric traction system should be designed to operate within the limits of the vehicle operating voltages while supplying
the required power, taking into consideration utility voltage fluctuation, available voltage regulation and regeneration. It
should be noted that traction substations may be supplied from high-voltage lines which are considered “unregulated” and do
not have any tariff-imposed voltage limits. Consequently, the utility voltage could experience large fluctuations and these
variations should be identified and taken into consideration in the system design. The maximum calculated momentary voltage
should be used to establish the system insulation level and maximum operating voltage levels for electrical equipment.
Contingency vehicle operating voltage and required vehicle performance under this condition should be defined in terms of
systemwide design criteria and operating requirements. The various on-board vehicle devices must also be of a class and type
suitable for the voltages to which they may be subjected.
SECTION 3.4 RECOMMENDED VOLTAGES FOR NEW CONSTRUCTION (2008)
The following table summarizes the recommended voltages for use in the design and operation of traction power on electrified
systems in North America. The range of voltages has been limited in number for standardization purposes.
Table 33-3-1. Recommended Voltages

Nominal Maximum Maximum Minimum Contingency
Operating No-Load Vehicle Vehicle Minimum 1
Voltage Substation Operating Operating Vehicle
Voltage Voltage Voltage Operating
Voltage
Volts dc Volts dc Volts dc Volts dc Volts dc
750 900 975 525 450
3
1500 1800 1950 1050 900
3000 3600 3900 2100 1800
kV ac kV ac kV ac kV ac kV ac
12.5 15.0 15.0 10.0 8.75
25.0 30.0 30.0 20.0 17.5 4
50.0 60.0 60.0 40.0 35.0


33
Part 4
Railroad Electrification Systems1
— 2008 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 Catenary Definitions, Standards and Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-3

4.1.1 Catenary Support Options (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-3
4.1.2 Power Supply Equipment (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-4
4.1.3 Distribution System (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-4
4.1.4 Support Equipment (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-5 1
4.1.5 Sectionalization Equipment (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-6
4.2 Catenary System Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-7

4.2.1 General Introduction (1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-7
4.2.2 Climatic Conditions (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-8
4.2.3 Clearance Criteria (1984). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-9 3
4.2.4 Contact Wire Deflections (1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-10
4.2.5 Construction Tolerances (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-11
4.2.6 Contact Wire Gradients (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-12
4.2.7 Catenary Pole Criteria (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-12
4.2.8 Catenary Pole Footings/Seatings (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-14
4.2.9 Sectionalizing Criteria (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-16
4.3 Electrification Feeding and Sectionalizing Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-19

4.3.1 Scope (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-19
4.3.2 Terms (1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-19
4.3.3 Recommended Arrangements (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-19
4.4 Contact Wire Ampacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-23

4.4.1 Introduction (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-23
4.4.2 Method of Calculating Ampacity (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-24
4.4.3 Uniform Rating Parameters (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-25
4.4.4 Sample Calculation (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-26
4.4.5 Table of Continuous Ampacity Ratings (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-26
4.4.6 Overload or Short Time Ampacity Conditions (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-27
4.4.7 Overload or Short Time Ampacity Ratings (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-27
1 References, Vol. 79, 1978, p. 70; Vol. 85, 1984, p. 61; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 116; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 205; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 123; Vol. 96, p. 110. Revised 1995.

LIST OF FIGURES
33-4-1 Catenary Styles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-4

33-4-2 Typical Feeding and Sectioning Single-Track Mainline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-21
33-4-3 Typical Feeding and Sectioning Two-Track Mainline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-22
33-4-4 Typical Feeding and Sectioning Three-Track Mainline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-23
33-4-5 Typical “Zone” Style Sectioning for Maintenance Yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-24
LIST OF TABLES
33-4-1 Icing Condition Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-8

33-4-2 Wind Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-9
33-4-3 Wind Speed Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-9
33-4-4 Track Centerline Offsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-10
33-4-5 Contact Wire Height. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-10
33-4-6 Construction Tolerances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-11
33-4-7 Contact Wire Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-12
33-4-8 Overload Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-13
33-4-9 Wood Pole Overload Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-14
33-4-10 Design Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-14
33-4-11 Standard Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-26
33-4-12 Operating Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-27
33-4-13 Continuous Current (Steady State) Trolley Wire Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-4-28

Railroad Electrification Systems
SECTION 4.1 CATENARY DEFINITIONS, STANDARDS AND CONCEPTS
4.1.1 CATENARY SUPPORT OPTIONS (2001)
a. A catenary system as utilized for traction power distribution on electric railroads is defined as a messenger wire with a
contact wire suspended beneath it on hangers, mounted on fixed or hinged supports, sometimes with one or more
auxiliary wires. There are numerous styles of existing systems, many of which reflect the historical requirements of
originating organizations.
b. However, the widespread introduction of railroad electrification at 15, 25, or 50 kV with use of the local commercial
frequency has encouraged greater uniformity of catenary styles and conductor choice, particularly since the early
l960’s.
c. A considerable amount of standardization has occurred within national or regional railroad organizations and within
the larger catenary system designer or supplier groups.
d. There are now a number of well-developed catenary styles for particular applications, with supporting concepts and
standards as needed for design, installation and maintenance of catenary systems. Recent experience has shown that
use of catenary styles with mid-span sag of the contact wire, in conjunction with use of a compatible optimized
pantograph design, permits considerable increase of conventional operating speeds. These styles are illustrated in
Figure 33-4-1.
4.1.1.1 Single Contact Wire System

1
This system is applied where maximum train weight, power demand and speed are very low, usually not more than 40 mph (64
km/hr). It consists of a contact wire only, perhaps with a short bridle or stitch to the supports to permit use of longer span
lengths and higher speeds up to 70 mph (112 km/hr). Single contact wire systems are suitable only for yards and terminals on
main line railroads.
4.1.1.2 Simple Catenary System

3
This system is used for passenger and freight service where two wires are ample for the required current capacity. It consists of
a messenger wire with a contact wire suspended beneath it on hangers. Use of mid-span sagged contact wire with a single
compatible pantograph permits operation at speeds up to 225 mph (361 km/hr). Use of level contact wire with a variety of
pantograph styles and pressures normally limits operation to speeds not in excess of 100 mph (160 km/hr).
4.1.1.3 Stitched Catenary System

4
This system is sometimes used as an alternate to simple catenary for speeds up to 186 mph (300 km/hr) with single
pantographs, and for speeds up to 125 mph (200 km/hr) with multiple pantographs, where two wires are ample for the required
current capacity but provision has to be made for a variety of pantograph styles and pressures. It is similar to simple catenary,
but with a stitch or bridle included between the two main wires in the area of the supports.
4.1.1.4 Compound Catenary System
This system is used for all speeds where the current capacity requires inclusion of a third wire and for medium and high speeds
where progressively larger numbers of pantographs are operated on a single train. Consists of a main messenger with an
auxiliary wire suspended beneath it on hangers, which in turn has a contact wire suspended on clamps or hangers beneath it.
4.1.1.5 Double Compound Catenary System
This system is sometimes used for multiple pantograph operation on high speed lines. Consists of compound catenary with a
second intermediate auxiliary wire. The styles are illustrated on Figure 33-4-1 attached.

Figure 33-4-1. Catenary Styles
4.1.2 POWER SUPPLY EQUIPMENT (1995)
Equipment includes substations and switching stations which bring the correct voltage to the distribution system from
available power sources along the proposed route. The power system can be configured in either center or end-fed
arrangements depending on the specific requirements. Most common secondaries used for these systems are 25 and 50 kV ac,
750, 1,500 and 3,000 Volts dc. These substations are spaced throughout the route depending on the load demand and voltage
drop requirements for each system. Refer to other part of this chapter for additional details.
4.1.3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (1988)
This system is made up of all conductors which bring power from the wayside substations to the electric vehicles on the
system. Depending on design requirements, each system can include.

4.1.3.1 Feed Cables
Cables bring power from the substations to the catenary conductors on the rail route.
4.1.3.2 Catenary Conductors
Conductors can include any arrangements of messenger, auxiliary and contact conductors necessary to provide the current-
carrying capacity to operate the vehicles at their required maximum speed and acceleration. In addition to current-carrying
capacity, the make-up of the catenary conductors (size, material type) is determined based on maximum span lengths, tensions
and climatic conditions for each specific application requirement.
4.1.3.3 Along Track Feeders
Feeders can be aerial at pole side or underground in dedicated cable-ways.
4.1.3.4 Equalizing Continuity Jumpers For Spans
Jumpers provide paths either between messenger and contact wire, between parallel catenary equipments or a catenary and its
along track feeder. All power can then be distributed evenly over the complex system of conductors which make up the
catenary system.
4.1.3.5 Earth/Ground Conductor
Conductor maintains support structures at ground potential and provides a supplementary return path for traction current.
1
4.1.4 SUPPORT EQUIPMENT (2001)
This includes all equipment utilized in putting a catenary system in its optimum place for maximum current collection and
efficient mechanical operation.
4.1.4.1 Wayside Poles

3
Poles have been supplied in many shapes and materials depending on route criteria, such as soil composition, climate,
surroundings and load. The most universal has been a H section wayside pole with welded based plate which is bolted to a
cast-in-place concrete footing. Support structures for specialized applications have taken the form of both tapered and fixed
diameter tubular steel, wood and/or concrete poles, steel lattice type structures used alongside tracks or as portal legs, and box-
frame or octagonal steel forms. Support structures can be installed in a myriad of ways, also depending upon on-site criteria. In
addition to bolted base poles mounted on cast footing, tubular poles can be directly embedded with native soil back fill or
inserted into a concrete sleeve placed in a previously augured hole, which can then be sealed, back filled and guyed as 4
situations merit.
4.1.4.2 Portal Structures
Portal structures are used where marignal soil conditions do not permit the use of single wayside poles or head span structures,
where the wire alignment is critical due to heavy wind conditions or compound track curvature, and where complex track
layout areas do not provide sufficient space between tracks for placement of individual poles.
4.1.4.3 Registration Assemblies
a. These assemblies include cantilever brackets, cross-spans/head-spans, pull-off assemblies and bridge/tunnel steady
assemblies.
b. Registration equipment in single or two-track areas is generally composed of single cantilever brackets attached to
support poles positioned along side or between tracks depending upon the available clearance. Cantilevers are best
constructed using standard round galvanized tubing for diagonal and top-tube members (in curve locations), assembled

by means of U bolt-type clamps which allow quick, secure assembly and easy-on site adjustment during registration
and commissioning. Cantilevered tubing can be affixed to the support structure through a series of H beam clamps of
stainless steel strapping, which allows secure attachments which can be readily adjusted if necessary.
c. Electrical insulation, within the cantilever frame itself, can be either porcelain or non-ceramic. Non-ceramic insulators
are a preferable choice if construction equipment has a space premium, track possession time is at a minimum, visual
impact is a priority, or vandal activity is high. Messenger wire can be supported either at or from the diagonal or top
tube, depending on specific load requirements of the project. Contact wire registration is performed by use of steady
arms designed to accept the clearance envelope of the vehicle pantograph. Steady arms can be attached directly to
diagonal cantilever tubing for tangent applications, and to a horizontal registration tube in most curve applications.
Cantilevers designed for auto tensioned catenary are equipped with hinges at the pole face to allow the cantilever
assembly to swing horizontally with temperature change, and with integral swivel fittings at the messenger and contact
wire attachments.
4.1.4.4 Cross-Span/Head-Span Construction
This construction is generally used where more than two tracks are present, usually in maintenance/marshalling yards.
Construction is accomplished through stringing one or more stranded steel cables from one support pole to a companion pole
on the opposite side. A single cable is referred to as a cross-span, while a multiple cable system, generally with the bottom
cable suspended in a horizontal position, is called a head-span. The cable assembly, which is usually made up beforehand is
insulated at each pole and at either side of each catenary with appropriate porcelain or non-ceramic insulation. Messenger
suspension clamps and contact wire registration assemblies are attached to each head-span/cross-span with simple eye
attachments to U-bolted clevis clamps, which can be placed anywhere along the cross-span wire.
4.1.4.5 Pull-off Assemblies
These assemblies provide horizontal registration, but not vertical support, to the catenary where sharply curved track is
encountered. Pull-off assemblies are constructed from one or more stranded cable assemblies (also pre-prepared), one end of
which has a steady arm to register the contact wire and a messenger clamp to position the messenger, with the other end
attached to a pole or other structure. Connecting hardware is similar, if not identical, to that hardware used in cross-span and
cantilever construction.
4.1.4.6 Tunnel/Bridge Registration Assemblies
These assemblies can be as simple as flexible steady assemblies suspended from fabricated steel brackets at the face of bridges
and tunnel/bridge deck, or as complex as support of an entire cantilever-type assembly from a roof-mounted steel bracket,
depending on the clearances and track curvature existing at each tunnel/bridge location.
4.1.4.7 In-Span Catenary Supports
These supports include catenary hangers, used to support auxiliary and/or contact wire from messenger. Crossing assemblies,
used to allow cross over of intersecting catenaries, and spreader/knuckle assemblies, used to keep catenaries which are at close
proximity to one another at their proper spacing and level.
4.1.4.8 Terminating Assemblies
These assemblies which include guy anchors used to support poles, fixed dead end arrangements used where fixed catenary is
applied, counter weight/cylinder arrangements used where auto tensioned catenary is applied, and midpoint arrangements used
to finally locate the center point of a constant tension catenary.
4.1.5 SECTIONALIZATION EQUIPMENT (2001)
This equipment, used for sectionalizing and feeding of the overhead catenary, consists of three equipment types, being:

• Section Breaks - electrical breaks included in the catenary system to separate individual circuits or catenary sections
which are energized at the same voltage, frequency and phase.
• Phase Breaks - electrical breaks included in the catenary system to separate feeding circuits or catenary sections
which are or may be energized at different voltages, frequencies or phases.
• Isolation Switches - sectionalizing switches or disconnects included in the catenary feeding system to facilitate
energization or de-energization of individual or multiple catenary sections for routine operation or maintenance
purposes or for quick response to faults or emergencies.
4.1.5.1 Section Breaks
The electrical separation at section breaks is provided either by use of a bridging section insulator assembly or by a catenary
air gap overlap arrangement.
The catenary hardware allows continuous current collection as pantographs cross from one section to the other to provide
uninterrupted supply of power to the train. These bridging hardware arrangements must never be used to separate circuits fed
with different supply voltages, frequencies or phases.
When required by local circumstances, a non-bridging section insulator may be specified to avoid any risk of an overrunning
pantograph shorting across the section break while one circuit is grounded; for example, at a rail vehicle maintenance facility
or other similar low speed, low power demand situation.
4.1.5.2 Phase Breaks

1
The electrical separation at phase breaks is provided either by use of two non-bridging insulating section assemblies with a
short intervening grounded or non-energized section of catenary system, or by use of a multiple mechanical catenary overlap
arrangement. They are required at substations using the same utility feed, but at different phases to one another, or where
multiple voltage levels or different utility feed sources are present. The phase break assembly uses similar components as
those used in section breaks, and is also equipped with an arc trap arrangement to extinguish any electrical arcs created as the
pantograph head traverses from the live catenary to the non-energized portion. 3
4.1.5.3 Isolation Switches
These switches, sometimes referred to as disconnects, can be used in a variety of configurations, and are used with section
breaks and phase breaks to isolate a section (or sections) of catenary to allow maintenance or inspection.
Switches used for emergency rescue of a stranded train within the de-energized portion of a phase break need to have physical 4
or procedural safeguards to prevent inadvertent bridging of the phase break between sections of different voltage, frequency,
or phase relationship. Special procedures may be necessary for trains with two or more raised pantographs.
SECTION 4.2 CATENARY SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA
4.2.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION (1988)
The specific detailed design of a railway catenary system will be governed by the interaction of a number of conditions
imposed by the climate, vehicle design, desired train operation speeds, electrical loads and conditions, local legal codes,
structural material limitations, etc. While the designer must evaluate conditions unique to each site, there are many parameters
common to different installations for which general recommendations in this section should be viewed as a starting point from
which economic and technical analysis may justify deviations; i.e. ice storm frequency of once a century might justify

reducing or eliminating this criteria. Users of these recommendations should also refer to the American National Standard
NATIONAL ELECTRICAL SAFETY CODE for further guidance.
4.2.2 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS (1988)
4.2.2.1 General
The following climatic conditions can combine in a number of different combinations to produce a worst case design
condition. In the interest of personal and equipment safety most railroad administrations will reduce or suspend operations
under extreme storm conditions such as blizzards, hurricanes or massive ice storms. Catenary systems thus have two basic
design categories; operating and non-operating or design limiting.
4.2.2.2 Operating Temperature Range
Although local ambient temperatures have relatively wide variations, solar and resistive heating result in a relatively typical
range of maximum operating conductor temperatures of 160-200 degrees F (71-94 degrees C). Constant tension catenary will
typically have low temperature mechanical stops placed in the tensioning system to prevent excessive wire movement during
abnormally low temperatures. These stops are normally placed at a point where 5% of the daily low temperatures will cause
engagement.
4.2.2.3 Icing Conditions
A coating of ice on the catenary system will significantly increase the total weight being supported and the area subject to
wind forces. These increases translate into larger supports and foundations. The additional catenary system costs related to
icing conditions should be balanced against the historical frequency of those conditions and the factors of safety used in the
designs. The National Electrical Safety Code contains additional details relative to ice loadings. The criteria found in Table 33-
4-1 is recommended except where frequent train operations would justify reduced radial ice on the contact wire.
Table 33-4-1. Icing Condition Criteria
Description Criteria
Radial Ice 0.5 inch (1.3 cm)
Wind Speed 40 mph (65 km/hr)
Max Contact wire lateral deflection at a support 6 inches (15 cm)
Temperature 10°F (–12°C)
4.2.2.4 Wind Pressure
It is recommended that the equation P = 0.00256CV2 be used to calculate wind pressure on wires and structures. The resulting
pressure is in pounds per square foot for velocities in miles per hour. The shape factor C in Table 33-4-2 is given for typical
applications.

Table 33-4-2. Wind Pressure
Type Factor C
Wires 1.0
Cylindrical Sections 0.8
H Sections 1.2
Lattice Structures 1.8
Flat Surfaces 1.4
4.2.2.5 Wind Speed
The following wind speed criteria are recommended
4.2.2.5.1 Operating Wind Speed
48-60 mph (77-96 km/hr). This value should be used to compute catenary support and wire deflections for the interface with
the vehicle/pantograph system.
4.2.2.5.2 Design Wind Speed
60-80 mph (96-130 km/hr). This value is used to determine the strength requirements of the catenary system without ice
loading. 1
4.2.2.5.3 Exposed Areas
Railroads placed on very high embankments or very flat exposed areas can be subjected to abnormal wind conditions. Wind
speed criteria should be increased by the factors found in Table 33-4-3 for exposed areas and high embankments.
Table 33-4-3. Wind Speed Criteria 3

Type Factor
Operating wind speed 1.25
Design wind speed 1.5
4.2.2.5.4 Sheltered Areas 4

Across track wind speeds in cuts, deep forests or urban areas are less than normal. Wind speeds in sheltered areas can be
reduced to 0.8 times that selected for normal operating and design conditions.
4.2.3 CLEARANCE CRITERIA (1984)
4.2.3.1 Pantograph Size
As with Part 2, Clearances, the pantograph is assumed to measure 6′-6″ (1.98 M) over the tips of the horns with a working
width of at least 4′-4″ (1.32 M) able to effectively contact the wire.
4.2.3.2 Tangent Support Locations
State and sometimes local codes usually specify minimum distances from track centerline to any lateral obstructions; this is
frequently 8′-6″ (2.6 M). Chapter 28, Clearances also provides design guidance with respect to bridges and tunnels for

electrified railroads. It should be noted that increasing the support offset from the track centerline will increase pole and
foundation sizes, cantilever arm size and total system cost. The offsets from track centerlines to face of poles shown in
Table 33-4-4 are recommended.
Table 33-4-4. Track Centerline Offsets
Offset Distance
Normal 9′-6″ (2.9 M)
Minimum 8′-6″ (2.6 M)
4.2.3.3 Curve Adjustments to Support Locations
Lateral clearances on curves are normally increased by 1 inch (2.5 cm) for each degree of curvature. Superelevation should be
compensated for as shown in Part 2, Clearances, Article 2.2.6. This adjustment is needed only when the minimum offset is
being used or when the adjusted clearance would fall below the
8′-6″ (2.6 M) minimum.
4.2.3.4 Contact Wire Height
a. Contact wire height will vary considerably over an entire route being electrified as overhead obstructions are avoided.
Minimum contact wire height will be determined by the required load clearances, type of obstruction and insulation
techniques employed. Recommended contact wire height (Table 33-4-5) in open territory which allows for a future one
foot (0.3 M) of track raising and surfacing is.
Table 33-4-5. Contact Wire Height
System Height
50 KV system 24 ft (7.3 M)
25 KV system 23 ft (7.0 M)
12.5 KV system 22 ft (6.7 M)
b. It should be noted that the National Electrical Safety Code requires a minimum 22 foot (6.7 M) clearance at highway
grade crossings under the worst conditions. At locations where people may be required to get on top of vehicles (shops
or selected yard conditions) the contact wire should be placed near the maximum reach of the pantograph (frequently
25 feet or 7.6 M) with grounded isolation capabilities required.
4.2.4 CONTACT WIRE DEFLECTIONS (1984)
4.2.4.1 Contact Wire Stagger
In order to distribute wear across the pantograph wear strips the contact wire is usually pulled from one side of the track
centerline to the other alternately from support to support on tangent track. The recommended stagger in both directions from
the track centerline is 6 inches (15 cm) on tangent track.
4.2.4.2 Contact Wire Stagger on Curves
The recommended stagger on curves at the support should be placed towards the outside of the curve and should not exceed 6
inches (15 cm). Care should be taken on sharp curves to insure that the midspan offset towards the inside of the curve does not
exceed 6 inches (15 cm).

4.2.4.3 Ambient Temperature Deflections
The typical cantilever catenary support arms used for constant tension catenary systems rotate through an arc as the wire
temperature changes until the low temperature stops are engaged. This along track rotation results in the wire moving
perpendicular to the track with the maximum deflection occurring at the tensioning devices. The recommended maximum
deflection perpendicular to the track caused by temperature changes is 2.5 inches (6.3 cm).
4.2.4.4 Wind Deflection
High wind conditions will cause both catenary and vehicles to be deflected in the same direction. It is recommended that the
maximum pole deflection under operating conditions without ice at the contact wire height be limited to 4 inches (10 cm).
Wind deflection of the contact wire between supports is a function of wire tensions, catenary, styles, wind angle, span length,
etc. It is recommended that mid-span deflections be limited to 12 inches (30 cm) without ice and 10 inches (25 cm) with ice.
These recommendations are based on the theoretical vehicle sway (Part 2, Clearances, Article 2.2.6) against strong winds
being effectively reduced by 50%.
NOTE: Total contact wire deflection should be adjusted downward if poor track cross-level is present.
4.2.5 CONSTRUCTION TOLERANCES (2001) 1
The construction tolerance values (deviations from specified dimensions) found in Table 33-4-6 are recommended.
Table 33-4-6. Construction Tolerances

3
Type Dimension
Main Line Alignment 1 in. (2.5 cm)
Secondary Track Alignment 2 in. (5 cm)
Main Track Elevation 1 in. (2.5 cm)
Secondary Track Elevation 3 in. (7.5 cm) 4
Pole Location 3 in. (7.5 cm)
Foundation Elevation 1 in. (2.5 cm)
Contact Wire Alignment 2 in. (5 cm)
Contact Wire Elevation
Yard Conditions 6 in. (15 cm)
30 mph (48 km/hr) 4 in. (10 cm)
45 mph (73 km/hr) 3 in. (7.5 cm)
60 mph (96 km/hr) 2 in. (5 cm)
80 mph (130 km/hr) 1.5 in. (3.2 cm)
100 mph (160 km/hr) 1.25 in. (3.2 cm)
Over 100 mph (160 km/hr) 1.0 in. (2.5 cm)

4.2.6 CONTACT WIRE GRADIENTS (2001)
a. The rate at which the contact wire changes its elevation relative to the track elevation is very important if pantograph
bounce and the resulting arcing are to be avoided. The recommended maximum gradients found in Table 33-4-7 will
permit the use of multiple locomotives with operating pantographs.
b. Except for yard conditions, the change of grade from one span to the next should not exceed one half the values shown.
Table 33-4-7. Contact Wire Gradients
Description Percent
Yard Conditions 2.3%
30 mph (48 km/hr) 1.3%
45 mph (73 km/hr) 0.8%
60 mph (96 km/hr 0.6%
80 mph (130 km/hr) 0.5%
100 mph (160 km/hr) 0.4%
125 mph (200 km/hr) 0.3%
150 mph (240 km/hr) 0.2%
Over 150 mph (240 km/hr) 0.1%
4.2.7 CATENARY POLE CRITERIA (1991)
Catenary systems are typically supported from poles made of steel, concrete, or wood. The design limit is usually found to be
the stress due to bending or the deflection due to wind loads, not buckling caused by vertical loads as is frequently the case in
buildings and other structures addressed in local codes or AISC recommendations. Overload and safety factors have a way of
being multiplied together in the design process until the overall factor of safety is significantly greater than desired or required.
In a similar manner the guaranteed strength of commercially available structural steel and prestressed concrete can be
significantly below test results. These two items can combine to produce a catenary pole which is much stronger than
necessary, and which will cost more than anticipated. It is, therefore, recommended that some sample poles be tested to failure
to ensure that the overall design is reasonable and economical. Mass purchases of poles should be in accordance with a final
specification and design, prepared following analysis of test results.
4.2.7.1 Design Loads
a. It is recommended that the horizontal load be the worst case computed from Article 4.2.2 (including ice loading, as
appropriate) acting on the catenary system and any ancillary wires, plus any additional horizontal loading (without ice)
imposed either by the pole or by the support hardware. Poles placed on curves should include the additional horizontal
load imposed by the various wire tensions acting on the curve.

b. It is recommended that the vertical load be the worst case computed from Article 4.2.2 (including ice loading, as
appropriate) acting on the catenary system and any ancillary wires, plus the additional vertical loading (without ice)
imposed by the pole and by the support hardware.
c. It is recommended that the occasional imposition of additional vertical and horizontal loading, when ice is present on
the pole itself or on support hardware, shall be considered as one of the imponderable conditions provided for by the
use of safety factors. However, it is also recommended that design checks of worst case scenarios be undertaken to
verify the adequacy of selected poles to withstand local icing criteria.
4.2.7.2 Overload Capacity
a. It is recommended that the overload factors shown in Table 33-4-8 be applied to the calculated design loads derived
from Article 4.2.2.4 and Article 4.2.2.5.2, for use in calculation of stresses when using steel or prestressed concrete
poles.
b. It is recommended that the overload capacity factors found in Table 33-4-8 be increased, when wood poles are used, to
the factors shown in Table 33-4-9.
Table 33-4-8. Overload Factors 1
Load Factor
Transverse Loads
Wind 2.5
Wire Tension 1.65 3
Longitudinal Loads
General 1.1
Dead–Ends 1.65
Vertical Loads
4
1.5

Table 33-4-9. Wood Pole Overload Factors
Load Factor
Transverse Loads
Wind 4.0
Wire Tension 2.0
Longitudinal Loads
General 1.3
Dead–Ends 2.0
Vertical Loads 4.0
4.2.7.3 Design Margin
Recognizing that variations occur in the strength of commercially produced steel and other poles, it is recommended that a
design margin be used in selecting pole sizes as shown in Table 33-4-10.
Table 33-4-10. Design Margin
Type Margin
Steel Poles 1.05
Prestressed Concrete 1.1
Wood 1.25
4.2.7.4 Electrical Bonding
It is recommended that all poles and catenary support hardware be bonded to assure that insulation faults will be properly
detected and circuit breakers operated. This may be achieved by running a return conductor along the top of the poles with
intermittent connections to rails (see Part 5, Railway Electrification Compatibility with Signal Systems, Section 5.6, Use of
Impedance Bonds with Alternating Current Railway Electrification). The use of concrete or wood poles may require additional
consideration regarding the means of bonding to be adopted.
4.2.7.5 Pole Coatings
The environmental conditions which surround a catenary pole frequently dictate the use of a coating or preservative in order to
obtain the desired economic life. Wood poles are normally pressure treated with various chemicals to retard decay and repel
insects and bacteria. Concrete poles need to be treated to reduce absorption of water, which can be very detrimental during
freeze/thaw cycles and causes corrosion of reinforcing steel. Weathering steel poles can be used without coatings unless they
are subjected to a high salt atmosphere, such as near the ocean or near some types of chemical manufacturing plants, and
provided that associated concrete footings extend sufficiently above natural ground level to inhibit rain-splash of harmful
ground-based salts. Plain carbon steel poles are usually hot-dip galvanized, plated or given a multiple coat of paint
preservative. Poles should be cleaned of any scale, oil, rust, etc., before coatings are applied.
4.2.8 CATENARY POLE FOOTINGS/SEATINGS (2008)
Catenary pole footings are provided to transfer the loads imposed on the pole to the supporting ground. Since the predominant
forces in the catenary pole are bending, the pole footings are usually designed to maximize side bearing capacity. Catenary
poles can be installed in a number of different ways as follows:

• Direct implantation into native ground (wood or concrete poles).
• Direct implantation into cored concrete footings cast in prepared holes.
• Attached to concrete footings cast in prepared holes.
• Attached to steel or precast tapered concrete footings driven directly into the ground.
4.2.8.1 Design Loads and Design Methods
It is recommended that catenary pole footings be designed for the loads derived from Article 4.2.7.2 without inclusion of the
pole safety factor covered in Article 4.2.7.3. Foundation designs may be checked in accordance with the method outlined in
the Uniform Building Code.
4.2.8.2 Ground Conditions
4.2.8.2.1 Slopes
Catenary pole footings must frequently be placed on embankments or in cuts where the side bearing strength is not equal to
flat terrain. It is recommended that the pole footing depth be increased by the following factors for embankment conditions:
a. 30 degrees embankment–1.25.
b. 45 degrees embankment–1.43.
1
4.2.8.2.2 Surface Conditions
The surface of relatively level ground near railroad tracks is frequently composed of loose ballast, cinders, sand and other
material with poor side bearing characteristics. It is, therefore, recommended that at least the first one foot of footing depth be
excluded when calculating footing depths in flat terrain.
3
4.2.8.2.3 Frost Effects
In order to avoid the detrimental effects of frost heave on catenary poles, it is recommended that the bottom of poles or pole
footings be located at least 2 feet below the frost line in all cases.
4.2.8.3 Ground Bearing Strength

4
The vertical and horizontal bearing strength of native and built-up ground varies widely and should be confirmed on a site-
specific basis. Typical values of horizontal bearing strength in normal ground vary from 1,000 to 500 pounds per square foot or
less, while a typical vertical bearing strength may be in-the range of 8,000 pounds per square foot. These values are given as
examples; actual values may be dependent upon the specification adopted.
4.2.8.4 Gravity Footings
Gravity footings are used where the horizontal bearing strength of local ground is so low that it cannot be relied upon to
restrain the pole footing horizontally. It is recommended that gravity type footings be designed with a safety factor of 1.5
against overturning forces.
4.2.8.5 Tapered Footings
Precast concrete tapered footings, which are driven into suitable ground without any excavation, compact the earth and
significantly increase the horizontal bearing strength of the earth by a factor of 1.3 to 1.5.

4.2.8.6 Rock Footings
Catenary poles may sometimes be placed in rock whose consistency may vary from soft crumbling sandstone to solid granite
bedrock. Care must be taken in selecting the proper grout or epoxy agent used to fix the pole or anchor bolts in holes drilled or
blasted in the rock to maximize shear strength and long-term stability.
4.2.8.7 Surface Drainage
Except for directly implanted poles, an interface will exist between the pole and its footing. This interface should be sloped
away from the pole to assist in drainage and to minimize the corrosive effects of water and dissolved salts at the point where
maximum stress is usually found. It is also recommended that additional preservative treatments, in the form of special paints
or caulking, should be applied in order to extend the service life of this interface.
4.2.8.8 Anchor Bolts
Anchor bolts, when employed, form the critical interface between the catenary pole and its footing. It is recommended that
anchor bolts conform to the requirements of ASTM F 1554, which provides for three grades of steel having yield strengths of
36-ksi, 55-ksi and 105-ksi. Designers should select the grade most appropriate to the design of the foundations and the loads
that must be carried.
Being a very critical link in the catenary support system and located near the surface of the ground where they can be struck by
various objects, particularly during construction, anchor bolts must be strong and tough throughout all anticipated temperature
ranges. Low temperatures, normally found in the Northern part of the United States and all of Canada, may be sufficient to
cause some steel alloys to become brittle and fracture unexpectedly under shock loading conditions. Therefore, it is
recommended that, in addition to the normal yield and ultimate stress tests, anchor bolts to be used in cold climates be required
to pass the Charpy Impact Requirements specified under Supplementary Conditions S4 and S5 in ASTM F 1554, and shall
meet the requirements listed in Tables S1.1 and S1.2 as appropriate. The Charpy V-Notch test shall be conducted in
accordance with ASTM A 370.
In addition, to minimize the possibility of damage in cold weather, anchor bolts should be protected during construction to the
greatest extent possible.
4.2.9 SECTIONALIZING CRITERIA (2001)
There are a number of key criteria applicable to section breaks, phase breaks and isolation switches, and one or more
individual criteria may influence the choice of hardware arrangement adopted for a specific railroad electrification system.
A section break is a location in the catenary system where an electrical separation between circuits or sections of the same
voltage, frequency and phase relationship is provided, with a smooth pantograph transition and uninterrupted collection of
electrical current.
A phase break is a location in the catenary system where an electrical separation between circuits or sections at different
voltages, frequencies or phase relationships is provided, with a smooth pantograph transition, but with effective interruption of
current collection as pantographs pass through the transition zone.
The criteria to be considered are summarized in the following subsections, and recommended sectionalizing practices are
contained in Section 4.3.
4.2.9.1 Section Breaks
There are two types of section breaks, consisting either of a section insulator assembly incorporating overlapping skids or
runners; or of an air gap overlap in the catenary system.

Both types provide continuous current collection with short sections where the pantograph head is in simultaneous contact
with both electrical sections. Under certain train location scenarios, the pantograph head will conduct power between the
adjacent electrical sections while traversing this bridging area, which can have fault or safety implications under certain
circumstances.
a. Section insulators are assemblies of special insulators and catenary hardware which have to comply with the
pantograph transition requirements outlined above. Low speed assemblies can generally be specified for speeds up to
40 mph (64 km/hr), and high speed assemblies are usually suitable for speeds up to 100 mph (160 km/hr) or more.
These speed limitations may have to be modified by use of special catenary support features and by the degree of
pantograph compatibility achieved.
Section insulators should be installed on straight track wherever possible, should be located at or close to the elevated
pantograph centerline position and just beyond a catenary support in the normal direction of travel.
b. Air gap overlaps are the arrangements used at each transition from one catenary tension length to the next one along
the route. They generally occur at about a one mile spacing and are normally fitted with cross feeding jumpers to
provide electrical continuity. An overlap can be used for sectionalizing by adding a disconnect isolation switch to the
cross feeding arrangement and inserting cut-in insulators into both overlapping catenary sections at the out-of-running
ends of the overlap span. These insulated overlaps are strategically placed to provide sectionalizing at the desired
locations in accordance with operational and signaling requirements.
Air gap overlaps are the preferred means of sectionalizing wherever train speeds are significantly higher than 60 mph
(97 km/hr), where space permits and additional cost is justified.
c. Air gap electrical clearances should conform with both the static and passing guidelines in Part 2 of this Chapter,
1
together with calculated additional allowances using passing clearance criteria for differential movement of live
conductors and supports. These additional allowances should provide passing clearances for unsynchronized wind
movements when two parallel, overlapping conductors momentarily approach each other under the design conditions
derived from the guidelines in Article 4.2.2 of this Chapter. Long span air gaps may require additional horizontal
constraints at mid-span to minimize movement in high wind conditions.
3
If non-bridging section insulators are used in certain low speed, low current flow situations, the air gap chosen should
be sufficient to extinguish any arc drawn before it or the train pantograph makes contact with the continuing energized
catenary system. The increased air gap may be 2 or 3 times the normal static clearance, depending to some extent upon
the speed involved.
4.2.9.2 Phase Breaks

4
There are three types of phase breaks, one of which consists of two consecutive insulating sections similar to non-bridging
section insulators. The other two consist of a sequence of air gap overlaps in the catenary system, in one case with an
automatic switching procedure for slow moving trains.
a. Insulating section phase breaks consist of two consecutive insulating sections installed in the catenary system at a
spacing which prevents any combination of electrically connected pantographs from bridging across from one
electrical section to the other. Dependant upon local operating practices and vehicle electrical systems, the intervening
section of catenary system can either be grounded or can be electrically floating. Some local utility companies may
require the center section to be grounded to prevent phase to phase faults.
If an electrified railroad is operated without any electric traction power connections between adjacent pantographs, the
overall length of the phase break can be less than the minimum pantograph spacing, thus permitting each motive power
unit to transit individually through the phase break, always with only one raised pantograph in service. A second,
electrically disconnected, raised pantograph may be used for ice and sleet removal purposes in storm conditions.

The differential weight and stiffness of the insulating section assemblies requires that careful adjustment and regular
preventative maintenance be provided to prevent increased wear and pantograph tracking problems at high speeds.
b. Air gap overlap phase breaks have a second standard catenary system running parallel to the normal catenary, arranged
to provide several successive overlap transitions between the two catenaries. A typical length of transition is 15 to 50
feet (4.5 to 15.1 meters), during which the second catenary is energized by the pantograph bridging the two contact
wires. The two wires may be in close electrical proximity, including the zone of dual contact, for 100 feet (30.5 meters)
or more, depending upon the wire tensions used.
The location and spacing of insulators and successive overlaps has to be carefully designed to prevent a train with two
or more pantographs from simultaneously bridging across all the overlaps. This would cause a major fault on one or
both sides of the phase break by direct connection of the dissimilar voltages, frequencies or phases.
A phase break on a passenger railroad operated with multiple unit cars may need an air gap overlap phase break at least
250 feet (76 meters) longer than the longest train; use of an insulating section phase break may be preferred in many
instances.
On a freight railroad the maximum consist length and the minimum distance between head end and helper consists
would be the significant criteria.
One or more short sections of the second catenary system can be provided with a feeder and normally open disconnect
isolation switch to provide a means of rescuing any train which becomes stranded in the phase break. A stranded train
with multiple pantographs may need special instructions in connection with this procedure.
c. Switched overlap phase breaks are somewhat similar to the air gap overlap phase breaks described above. However,
circumstances may require that the traction power to the train be maintained at normal levels for train handling or on-
board system purposes, for example, when a phase break is located on a steep gradient. In this instance, a complete
electrical section between two overlap phase breaks is instantaneously switched from one frequency or phase to the
other when the train reaches the appropriate location. Switched overlap phase breaks can be used only where the utility
grid is very strong and/or where the train power demand is relatively low. They are not likely to be suitable for heavy
tonnage freight trains on severe grades.
The circuit breaker logic must include prior detection of the direction of travel, and detection of exit of the last motive
power unit out of the switchable location.
This type of phase break arrangement cannot be used for a change in the supply voltage to the train.
d. Air gap electrical clearances should conform with the guidelines in Part 2 of this Chapter suitably adjusted in
accordance with the voltage, frequency or phase relationship. For example, a phase change requires increase of normal
phase to ground clearances by a factor of 1.73 to comply with the phase to phase relationship, before adjustments are
made for wire movement in an air gap overlap phase break. Air gap overlap phase breaks may not be suitable for 50
KV operation when pantograph width, vehicle sway, and catenary movements caused by wind are taken into full
account.
4.2.9.3 Isolation Switches
Isolation switches can be noload-type or can be load-break type which are capable of opening under electrical load conditions.
Depending on their application, isolation switches can either be an open air-type mounted on wayside poles, or can be an
enclosed type in metallic or nonmetallic enclosures attached to wayside poles, maintenance shop walls or in entirely free-
standing enclosures. Enclosed switches can be supplied with either internal or external operating handles and other features
such as electrical and/or mechanical interlocks, padlocking features, switch mode viewing windows, weatherproof gasketing
and louvering for venting purposes.

SECTION 4.3 ELECTRIFICATION FEEDING AND SECTIONALIZING ARRANGEMENTS
4.3.1 SCOPE (1991)
a. A coordinated arrangement for feeding and sectionalizing an overhead catenary electrification system is essential in
order to:
• Facilitate the effective detection of faults.
• Limit the extent of track affected when a fault occurs and establish alternate energized routes so that operations can
continue.
• Permit isolation of sections of the electrification system for safe maintenance of catenary and track systems and
faulted sections.
b. This section outlines the principles involved and presents typical arrangements. These arrangements are shown for
simplicity on an AC center feed system, but the principles can be applied to any feeding system.
4.3.2 TERMS (1991)
The following terms are for general use in this Section. Specialized terms appear in individual Articles. Refer to the Glossary
located at the end of the chapter for definitions.
Section Break 1
Phase Break
Disconnect Switch
Power Circuit Breaker
Substation 3
Switching Station
Paralleling Station
4.3.3 RECOMMENDED ARRANGEMENTS (2001)

4
a. The catenary system for each track or operationally integrated set of tracks should be sectioned so that disconnect
switches may be opened to isolate and de-energize the associated section of the catenary system, either in the event of
a fault or to facilitate routine pre-scheduled catenary, power supply, or other work which may be close to or touch the
catenary. All sections of the catenary should normally be capable of being energized from two sources.
b. At interlockings, care should be taken to ensure that an outage of any one catenary section does not preclude electrical
operational running over the remaining routes through the interlocking. All sectioning points at interlockings should be
located within the interlocking signaling limits.
c. All circuit breakers should have a disconnect switch between them and the catenary system and bus section to facilitate
circuit breaker maintenance and provide visual assurance that the catenary section is not connected to that circuit
breaker.
d. In order to limit the unbalance on the utility transmission system, each traction substation is normally connected to
different phases of the utility transmission network. It is therefore necessary to separate catenary sections at different

phases with phase breaks at an approximate midpoint between substations. This is conveniently achieved at switching
stations, which are provided with circuit breakers to facilitate catenary paralleling. This in turn improves the system
current sharing, gives a better voltage profile, and extends the substation feeding distance. Another function of the
switching stations is to provide a power feed-through during a substation outage. As this feed-through is required at
both switching stations adjacent to the deenergized substation, each substation needs to be equipped with a phase break
to separate the different phases where they meet at the catenary feeding location.
e. Each phase break should be located where there is a minimum probability of the locomotive consist being stranded
within the short dead section. This means that phase breaks should be located where trains are normally proceeding at
a minimum speed of 10 to 15 mph with no signals, yards, or overpasses nearby, on level or easily graded tangent track
or light curves. This is not always possible and the criteria may be reviewed in ascending order of importance. Phase
breaks and section breaks on parallel tracks should be located adjacent to one another, not staggered along the track, in
order to eliminate any confusion or unsafe management practices by operational or technical personnel. Electrical
traction power at the locomotive is normally shut off while traversing insulating section and unswitched air gap overlap
phases breaks separating supply substations or utility power networks, in order to minimize arcing damage to catenary
components and to avoid sudden power demand changes on the utility power networks. Passenger and freight train
auxiliary power may remain connected to avoid shutdown of lighting and other auxiliary systems, unless a voltage
change is being made. Phase breaks on steep uphill gradients may require the use of switched overlap phase breaks in
order to maintain sufficient traction power availability for train opertional purposes. This arrangement may be
desirable to avoid excessive in-train buff and draft forces where grades exceed 0.5%, but is not recommended for
heavy tonnage freight trains on severe grades. See also the discussion in Article 4.2.9.2c.
f. An approved safety procedure should be adopted for application on all tracks and other areas with electrically live
catenary systems, overhead feeders and power cables, and be strictly enforced. An essential part of the procedure is the
assumption that all parts of the system are energized and dangerous, and that close approach to any component or piece
of equipment should only be permitted by qualified personnel with necessary permission from the power dispatcher,
and only after safety grounding connections have been put in place.
4.3.3.1 Single-track Mainline
a. The feeding and sectioning arrangements as can be seen from Figure 33-4-2 are very simple.
b. The passing siding can be fed from either end although normally it would be fed from the end nearest the supplying
substation. This means that if the section is fed from the next substation via the switching station under emergency
feeding arrangements, then the preferred feeding is the reverse of that shown. This minimizes the voltage drop from the
substation to the train.
c. Where there are junctions with other electrified routes, a substation or switching station should ideally be located to
permit sectioning as shown, if this is not possible emergency feeding can be a problem for the route with the phase
break in it.
d. Yards and shops should each be fed by a dedicated circuit breaker as shown. This insures that a fault on the main line or
the yard or shop does not adversely affect train operation elsewhere. For example, if a fault occurs on a main line track
and it is known that personnel are not working in the section, it may be considered safe to reclose the breaker.
However, in a yard or shop there are always people working and thus reclosing a breaker without a complete ground
level inspection should be prohibited for safety reasons. If the mainline and yards or shops are supplied by the same
breaker, the opening of a breaker by a fault should be followed by an inspection of the yard or shop before the circuit
breaker is reclosed and the mainline section is reenergized. Yard tracks need not be electrically separate but may be
grouped together as shown in the diagram. The sectioning should be carefully designed to prevent any chance opening
of a disconnect switch from carrying more than the circuit capacitive charging current. If this occurred the switch may
be destroyed and any persons near it injured. It is not recommended to use yard trucks as a through feed. If this is not
economically feasible then the disconnect switch should be fitted with a load interrupting device such as a vacuum
interrupter.

Figure 33-4-2. Typical Feeding and Sectioning Single-Track Mainline
e. A Bus Tie Breaker should be used when two transformers are used at one substation. Without a tie breaker only one
3
transformer at a time can supply traction load, unless the transformers are on the same phase and the traction switch
gear has a sufficient fault interrupting rating.
4.3.3.2 Two-track Mainline
a. The philosophy for the arrangement is essentially the same as for a Single-track Mainline, except that at substations 4
and switching stations, adjacent trucks are normally paralleled even under transformer outage situations. Thus Bus Tie
Breakers should be provided as shown in Figure 33-4-3.
b. One or more paralleling stations may also be used between a substation and a switching station if the distance between
them is very long. This minimizes the voltage drop at the train, particularly if a section of the circuit closer to the
substation is out of service.
c. At interlockings the sectioning arrangements should permit continued operation under truck outage conditions. If two
or more interlockings are located between a substation and a paralleling or switching station, an additional cross track
connection and disconnect switch may be required to provide power to a parallel catenary system.
4.3.3.3 Three-track Mainline
The philosophy for this arrangement is the same as for the two-track mainline. The arrangement at interlockings are more
complex as shown in Figure 33-4-4 and will probably be subject to greater variability to suit individual railway operating
practices and local track configurations.

Figure 33-4-3. Typical Feeding and Sectioning Two-Track Mainline
4.3.3.4 Maintenance Facilities
a. The philosophy for the arrangement of tracks is essentially the same as that for yard tracks. As indicated in Figure 33-
4-5, power to the maintenance yard facilities is usually supplied from an independent feeder directly from the
substation, with the mainline catenaries serving as back-up. Maintenance yard tracks need not be electrically separated,
but may be grouped together. Both situations are indicated in Figure 33-4-5 which illustrates that economies in
sectioning and switching arrangements can be achieved by the grouping or nesting together of tracks. Yard
sectionalizing is divided into different zones. Each zone is capable of being isolated or fed from adjacent zones,
thereby allowing flexibility in the programming of outages for maintenance and repairs.
b. Inspection and maintenance shop buildings can either have the catenary terminated at the face of the building or run
straight through, depending on the activities to be performed in each particular bay. Examples of both are shown on the
diagram. When the catenary system is required to run straight through the building, sectioning should be provided at
the building faces on all wired tracks to facilitate de-energization of the catenary system on each track during vehicle
maintenance to provide for the safety of personnel working within the building area. Various types of protection
systems should be incorporated into the catenary system to prevent the catenary from being accidentally energized
after power has been cut-off through the building. These safety systems and procedures should eliminate the possibility
of the wire being reenergized while personnel are working in the section.

Figure 33-4-4. Typical Feeding and Sectioning Three-Track Mainline

3
SECTION 4.4 CONTACT WIRE AMPACITY
4.4.1 INTRODUCTION (1995) 4
a. The contact wire of a catenary system must perform its function of transferring power from the fixed distribution
system to the moving vehicle under some harsh physical and electrical conditions without exceeding any limitations
which would reduce its life or effectiveness as a critical part of a railway electrification installation. In most catenary
system designs the contact wire must be maintained at a relatively high tension in order to insure smooth tracking of
the vehicle-mounted pantograph for the collection of power. The copper or copper alloys generally used for contact
wires suffer irreversible reduction in their strength when heated above their annealing point and are thus subject to
breaking below their designed tensions.
b. Temperature rises in a contact wire are usually produced through the cyclic interactions of many different parameters
and must be thoroughly investigated for each circumstance. This document gives the preferred method for calculating
contact wire ampacity as well as a table of calculated continuous contact wire currents for various wire sizes and alloys
under a set of typical assumed conditions.

Figure 33-4-5. Typical “Zone” Style Sectioning for Maintenance Yard
4.4.2 METHOD OF CALCULATING AMPACITY (1992)
a. The recommended technique for calculating the ampacity of contact wires was developed by Messrs. H. E. House and
P. D. Tuttle and published in the AIEE Transactions Paper No. 58-41 dated February 1958. This technique essentially
balances the heat gained and lost by the wire through current heating, solar heating, convection and radiation. The
referenced AIEE paper contains tables and charts of different variables which are subject to temperature, altitude, and
solar angle and should be consulted for any detailed engineering investigations. The basic equation follows:
I2r = qe + qr – qs
where:
qe = convected heat loss

qr = radiated heat loss
qs = heat gained from solar and sky radiation
b. The right hand terms are then expanded to yield the following detailed equation:
⎧ D V 0.52
⎛ pf ⎞
Kc 4 Ka 4 ⎫ l
I = ⎨ 1.01 + 0.371 ⎝ -------------⎠ k t ( t c – t a ) + 0.138D∈ ⎛ ---------⎞ – ⎛ ----------⎞ – a ( Q D sin θ + Q d ) A′ ⎬ × -
μf ⎝ 100⎠ ⎝ 100′⎠
⎩ ⎭ r
where:
D = Conductor diameter in inches

pf = Density, pounds of air per cubic foot

V = Velocity of air in feet per hour
µf = Absolute viscosity of air in pounds per hour per foot
kf = Thermal conductivity of air in watts per square foot per degree Celsius
tc = Conductor temperature in degrees Celsius
ta = Ambient temperature in degrees Celsius
Tc + Ta
Tf = -----------------
- air film temperature in degrees Celsius
2
∈= Thermal emissivity constant for the conductor surface
Kc = Conductor temperature in degrees Kelvin
Ka = Ambient air temperature in degrees Kelvin
a = Solar absorption coefficient
QD = Direct solar radiation in watts per square foot
Qd = Sky radiation in watts per square foot
D
A´ = Projected area of the wire in square feet per lineal foot = ------
12
∅ = cos –1 [cosH cos(Z – Z )]
c c 1 1
Hc = altitude of the sum above the horizon, degrees
Zc = azimuth of the sun, degrees
Z1 = azimuth of the wire, degrees
r = Effective a-c resistance in ohms per foot
I = Continuous current in amperes 3
4.4.3 UNIFORM RATING PARAMETERS (2001)
Any meaningful ampacity comparison between wires of different sizes and different compositions should be based upon a
uniform set of conditions. The conditions outlined below represent typical conditions encountered in many inland regions of
North America and permit a realistic comparison of wire sizes and compositions as they affect the continuous ampacity rating. 4
These are referred to as typical conditions, and are subject to change with respect to actual conditions relating to a specific
project when supported by engineering analysis.

Table 33-4-11. Standard Conditions
Description Condition
Ambient Air 25°C
Conductor operating temperature, hard-drawn copper 75°C
Conductor operating temperature, alloys 100°C
Emissivity 0.5
Frequency of power system 60 Hz
Wind velocity 2 ft/sec
Resistance, ohms per circular Mil/foot at 20°C
Hard-drawn copper 10.674 ohms
ASTM alloy 80 12.964 ohms
ASTM alloy 55 18.857 ohms
Worn wire 70% of original section
Other factors taken from tables in AIEE paper 58-41
4.4.4 SAMPLE CALCULATION (1995)
The following example of a typical calculation is shown for illustrative purposes. The wire used in the calculations is a 4/0
grooved hard-drawn copper contact wire worn to the 70% point.
⎧ ⎛ 0.442 × 0.068 × 7200⎞

0.52 348 4 298 4 ⎫
× 0.00852 ( 75 – 25 ) + 0.138 × 0.442 × 0.5 × ⎛ ---------⎞ – ⎛ ---------⎞ – 0.5 ( 95.3 )0.036 ⎬ × -------------------------
I = 1
⎨ 1.01 + 0.371 ⎝ ---------------------------------------------------⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎩ 0.0473 100 100 ⎭ 0.0000872
I = 13.08 + 2.07 – 1.72

----------------------------------------------
0.0000872
I = 392 amperes
NOTE: The 3-amp difference between the sample calculation result and the computer derived results in the
following table is due to rounding of numbers and using tabulated values of qs found in the House and
Tuttle paper.
4.4.5 TABLE OF CONTINUOUS AMPACITY RATINGS (1988)
a. Table 33-4-13 is a table of continuous (steady state) current ratings of various sizes of trolley (contact) wire and is
given for comparative purposes and should be used with appropriate engineering discretion. Detailed designs of a
catenary system should take into full account the short-time ampacity ratings (one to three minutes) and the loading
cycles expected to be generated by the operation of trains. Overall electrification system designs may cause some
sections of catenary to endure abnormal loading cycles and consequently require increased wire size or the use of a
parallel feeder. Care should be taken to determine the current sharing between the wires making up the catenary system
caused by mutual impedance and possible composition differences of the wires, Operating temperatures of the alloys
used in the tables are found in Table 33-4-12.
b. A precautionary prediction of loss in wire tensile strength due to annealing at elevated temperatures should be made for
the design by a proper evaluation of the expected wire temperature-time experience under system overload conditions
since the effects are cumulative and permanent.

Table 33-4-12. Operating Temperatures
Type Temperature
Hard-drawn copper 75°C
ASTM alloy 80 100°C
ASTM alloy 55 100°C
4.4.6 OVERLOAD OR SHORT TIME AMPACITY CONDITIONS (1988)
a. Electric locomotives and substation transformers normally are given a short time overload rating. This rating may vary
from 10% for an hour to 200% for a few minutes. These overload ratings are possible because locomotives and
substation transformers are forced cooled and/or equipped with a large oil bath heat sink. These conditions do not exist
with catenary wires.
b. Catenary wires in calm air will reach their equilibrium temperature from resistance heating in a very short period of
time; typically measured in terms of seconds up to perhaps a minute. These time frames are only a small fraction of the
time most railroaders associate with the term “overload rating.” These short time frames are, however, sufficient to
handle short circuits when the circuit breakers are properly set. Short circuit currents of 10 to 30 times normal are
typical and will quickly anneal wires if the circuit breakers do not open. It is thus critical to ensure that appropriate
maintenance and calibration procedures are followed.
4.4.7 OVERLOAD OR SHORT TIME AMPACITY RATINGS (1988) 1
a. Due to the relatively short time it takes catenary wires to heat up, it is recommended that no overload or short time
ratings be used for catenary wire systems except those associated with the clearing of all circuits.
b. All non-short circuit related currents should be treated as continuous (steady state) conditions covered in Article 4.4.2,
Article 4.4.3, Article 4.4.4 and Article 4.4.5. 3

Table 33-4-13. Continuous Current (Steady State) Trolley Wire Ratings
Current Rating – Amperes

75 Degrees C Operating Temperature 100 Degrees C Operating Temperature
AWG New Wire Worn Wire New Wire Worn Wire
Type or Material
MCM No No No No
Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind
Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun
No No No No No No No No
No Wind No Wind No Wind No Wind
Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun Wind Sun
Sun Sun Sun Sun
Round 1/0 H.D. Copper 190 215 305 320 150 170 250 265
2/0 220 250 350 375 175 202 290 305
3/0 260 295 410 435 210 240 335 355
4/0 305 350 470 505 245 280 385 410
300 385 445 590 630 310 360 480 515
Round 1/0 ASTM Alloy 80 175 195 280 295 140 160 230 240 230 245 345 355 185 200 280 290
2/0 205 230 325 345 165 185 265 280 270 290 395 410 215 235 325 335
3/0 240 275 375 400 190 220 305 325 315 345 460 480 255 275 375 390
4/0 280 320 435 465 225 260 355 375 370 405 535 555 300 325 435 450
300 355 410 540 580 285 330 445 475 475 515 665 695 385 415 540 565
Round 1/0 ASTM Alloy 55 145 170 240 250 120 135 195 205 195 210 295 305 160 170 240 250
2/0 170 195 275 295 140 160 225 240 230 250 340 355 185 200 275 285
3/0 200 230 320 340 165 185 260 275 270 295 395 410 220 235 320 335
4/0 240 275 370 395 190 220 300 320 320 345 455 475 255 275 370 385
300 300 350 460 495 245 280 375 400 405 440 570 595 330 355 465 485
Grooved 2/0 H.D. Copper 230 265 365 390 185 215 300 315
3/0 265 300 415 440 215 245 340 360
4/0 310 355 480 51 250 290 390 415
300 395 455 595 640 320 370 485 520
350 435 510 655 705 355 410 535 575
Grooved 2/0 ASTM Alloy 80 215 245 340 360 170 195 275 295 280 305 410 430 230 245 335 350
3/0 245 280 380 405 195 225 310 330 320 350 465 485 260 280 380 395
4/0 285 330 440 470 230 265 360 385 380 410 540 565 305 330 440 460
300 360 420 550 590 295 340 450 480 485 525 675 705 390 425 550 575
350 405 470 605 650 325 380 495 530 540 585 745 780 435 475 640 635
Grooved 2/0 ASTM Alloy 55 180 205 285 305 145 165 235 250 240 260 355 365 195 210 290 300
3/0 205 325 325 345 165 190 265 280 275 300 400 415 225 240 325 340
4/0 240 280 375 400 195 225 305 325 325 350 465 480 265 285 380 395
300 310 355 405 500 250 290 380 410 415 450 575 605 335 365 470 490
350 345 400 575 555 275 320 420 450 460 505 640 670 375 405 520 545
1/0 H.D. Copper 205 235 325 345 170 190 265 285
2/0 240 280 375 400 200 225 310 330
3/0 280 325 430 460 230 265 355 380
4/0 330 385 500 535 270 315 415 440
350 460 540 680 735 380 440 560 605
Deep 350 H.D. Copper 450 520 665 715 355 415 540 580
Section 400 490 570 720 780 395 455 585 630
Deep 335 ASTM Alloy 80 405 470 600 645 320 375 485 520 540 585 740 775 430 465 600 625
Section
Deep 335 ASTM Alloy 55 340 400 510 550 275 320 415 445 460 505 635 665 370 400 516 535
Section

33
Part 5
Railway Electrification Compatibility with
Signal Systems
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.0 Changes from 1981 & 1982 Editions (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-2 1

5.1 Scope (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-2
5.2 Discussion (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-3
5.3 Requirements of the Signal and Electrification Systems (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-4

5.3.1 Signals (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-4 3
5.3.2 Electric Traction (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-4
5.3.3 Electrification and Signal System Interface Issues (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-4
5.4 Electrical Effects (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-5
5.5 Use of Impedance Bonds in Railway Electrification (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-5

5.5.1 Impedance Bond Description (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-5
5.5.2 Impedance Bond Functions (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-6
5.5.3 Signal Track Circuit Assumptions (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-7
5.6 Impedance Bond Installation Requirements (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-7

5.6.1 Impedance Bond Locations (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-7
5.6.2 Impedance Bond Connections (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-7
5.6.3 Impedance Bond Windings (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-8
5.6.4 Typical Impedance Bond Configurations (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-9
5.6.5 Non-Typical Impedance Bond Circumstances (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-14

LIST OF FIGURES
33-5-1 Current Flows at an Impedance Bond (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-6

33-5-2 Traction Power Return Current Flow through ‘C’ Bonds and to the Substation Return Busbar at an ‘A’ Bond (2012) 33-5-7
33-5-3 Typical Signal Current Flow with Impedance Bonds and Properly Energized Track Circuit Relay (2011) . . 33-5-8
33-5-4 Unsafe Signal Current Flow through Grounded Impedance Bond Center Taps Around a Broken Rail - Falsely Energizing
the Track Circuit Relay (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-8
33-5-5 Single Track Signaled Railway (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-9
33-5-6 Double Track Signaled Railway (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-10
33-5-7 Multi-Track Signaled Railway; Typical 4-Track Railway Shown (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-11
33-5-8 Single Track Signaled Railway with 2 Mile Signaled Passing Track (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-12
33-5-9 Rail Connections to Traction Power Return System for Non-Signaled Track (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-12
33-5-10 Impedance Bond Connections at Interface between Signaled and Non-Signaled Track (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-13
33-5-11 Substation Drain Bond on Signaled Single Track Railway (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-13
33-5-12 Double Rail Track Circuit Meeting Single Rail Track Circuit (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5-14
SECTION 5.0 CHANGES FROM 1981 & 1982 EDITIONS (2012)
Part 5 has been generally updated, including a change in the title and the order of the paragraphs revised to provide a more
logical progression. In addition, two Figures have been added and the existing Figures have been redrawn and re-organized to
more comprehensively reflect the required coordination between the electrification system design and signal system design,
which is vital if both systems are to function correctly. The requirements applicable to dc traction power systems, which are
appropriate for mass transit and light rail systems as well as for some railroad applications, have been incorporated and the
Figures revised to suit.
SECTION 5.1 SCOPE (2012)
Both ac and dc electric traction systems operating over a rail system interact directly with the track circuits used by the signal
system, since both electrification systems and signal systems utilize the rails as part of their electrical circuits. Care must be
taken in the design of any electric traction system to ensure that the signal system can continue to function safely as intended
to control the operation of trains. The great majority of non-electrified railroads utilize dc track circuits to control the signal
system. These dc circuits must be replaced with some form of alternating current circuits when the system is electrified. This
section outlines the major compatibility concerns between signal systems (track circuits) and traction power return system.
Design of the traction power supply and distribution system MUST be coordinated with the signal system design.
Note that the term “railway” as used herein includes both railroad and rail transit systems.

Railway Electrification Compatibility with Signal Systems
SECTION 5.2 DISCUSSION (2012)
a. It is obvious from the characteristics noted below that the design of an electric traction system must be fully
coordinated with the design of the signal system. The first conflict between the design of the signal system and the
electrification system occurs because the signal circuits must be broken into relatively short blocks, while the traction
return current flowing in the rails wants to flow unimpeded back to the substation. Since insulated joints are used in
the rails to separate signal blocks from each other, these insulated joints would block the flow of the traction return
current through the rails. To resolve this conflict, the usual approach is to use a frequency for the signal circuits which
is different from that being used for the electric traction power with the introduction of an impedance bond across the
insulated joints in the track. The impedance bond offers a very high impedance to the signal circuit while permitting
the traction return current to pass through a lower impedance on its way back to the substation. The impedance bond is
often designed so that it can be grounded and/or connected to a return conductor to supplement the running rails in the
traction power return circuit.
b. Caution must be exercised in multiple track territory when grounding or cross bonding impedance bonds on adjacent
tracks, to ensure that there is no way the signal current can leak into the wrong track if one of the leads connecting to
the rails becomes broken or if a rail itself breaks. The impedance bond must be sized to carry the worst case return
current in each rail without overheating. The impedance bond is usually recessed between the ties at the insulated
joints and between the running rails. The impedance bond should be provided with mechanical protection from
equipment dragging from a train and be securely anchored to prevent theft.
c. The designers of electrification and rolling stock propulsion systems should advise the signal designer of the expected
current in the traction power distribution system and the rails, as well as the level of harmonic frequencies expected to
be generated by the electric motive power. This information will be used to determine the shielding required in any 1
lineside cables and to ensure that the signal detection circuits are immune to a false response caused by the primary
current or its harmonics.
d. The use of a non-60 Hz frequency for the alternating current track circuits may require the installation of relatively
small generators spaced along the railway, which may be installed at the electric traction substations and utilize local
utility power distribution for their primary supply. Where the traction power distribution is an overhead catenary
system, a single phase transmission line attached to the OCS support poles may be used to distribute this special signal 3
power along the right of way to each of the signal sites. Alternatively, local solid state converters can be used in the
relay houses to generate the track circuit frequencies without requiring space in traction power facilities for signal
generators or the installation of signal power transmission lines.
e. Due to the frequent significant variations in voltage (>20 %) based on train load fluctuations, as well as frequent short
circuits and outages, it was in the past typically recommended that signal and/or track circuit locations should not use
traction power lines or catenary and traction power feeders for primary power to feed these locations. It was further 4
recommended that the power supply for the signal system should be independent of the traction power system and,
wherever possible, should be a dedicated supply without non-signal system loads. However, modern control
technology can now handle significantly worse cases for voltage range, input harmonic distortion filtering, and surge
and transit protection. If the option to provide signal power supply from the traction power system is adopted, the
engineer needs to make certain all equipment specified is sufficiently robust and suitably for the harsh traction
environment. In remote locations, the use of solar-powered batteries may be another alternative that could be
considered.

SECTION 5.3 REQUIREMENTS OF THE SIGNAL AND ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS

(2012)
5.3.1 SIGNALS (2012)
a. When track circuits are used for train detection, the signal system operates by dividing the track into many electrical
blocks, which are separated from each other by insulated joints or by distinct frequency or digital coding. The
presence of a train in a block is detected when the wheels and axles electrically connect the two rails, causing loss of
track signal at the receiver. Wayside logic then sets the signals to the appropriate indication. Where insulated joints are
used to separate the signal blocks, impedance bonds are used to allow the traction return current to bypass the insulated
joints while preventing the track circuit current from bypassing the insulated joints.
b. Where U.S. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) regulations apply, the signal system must be able to detect broken
rails on sections of track. Circuitry to detect broken rails on tracks where FRA regulations do not apply is at the option
of the authority having jurisdiction.
c. In the event of a broken rail, other devices connected to the signal system must remain operational. These may include:
highway-rail warning systems, hot box detectors, dragging equipment detectors, high/wide load detectors, loose wheel
detectors, etc.
d. The electrical balance of the track circuit, where used, must be maintained.
5.3.2 ELECTRIC T RACTION (2012)
a. The total loop impedance from the substation to the train must be kept as low as feasible.
b. The running rails must be used as part of the return path for the electric traction current. Any Rail-to-Rail Bonds must
have a rating compatible with the traction power return current that can flow through the bond. This means that they
must be able to operate without damage when the current is double that which is normally carried. This will prevent
damage to other bonds so that if there is a bond failure, it will not cascade into the bonds on the other rail or to the
impedance bond.
c. Grounding and bonding of all metallic structures must be compatible with the signal system, without compromising in
any way the safety of Railroad Workers or the public who might be touching the metallic structures.
5.3.3 ELECTRIFICATION AND SIGNAL SYSTEM INTERFACE ISSUES (2012)
The following is not an all-inclusive list of coordination issues which must be resolved by the signal and traction power system
designers, but identifies some aspects that may need to be addressed.
a. The types and locations of traction power sectionalizing and section gaps must be coordinated with the locations of
signals and fixed facilities, such as passenger stations, grade crossings, bridges, crossovers, etc.
b. The permissible along track distance from a traction power facility to a connected impedance bond must be identified.
c. The maximum distance between grounded or return cable connected impedance bonds should be such as to limit the
rail potential within a safe value under the most adverse conditions.
d. The phase relationship between the signal power supply and an ac traction power supply needs to be locked together in
order to eliminate the possibility of having two different frequencies starting to "beat" between each other. Since the
signal frequency is typically "pulsed", this "beating" between two different frequencies may cause problems in the
signal system.

e. Electronic "noise" is typically emitted by ac-powered electrically propelled trains (locomotives and multiple unit cars).
This noise is carried in the return current via the rails and can cause interference with the audio frequency (AF) circuits.
AF circuits are typically used for highway grade crossing activation on ac traction power systems. On dc traction
powered systems, they are used for all track circuits except for those in interlockings where the AF signal does not
attenuate sufficiently to eliminate false signals. Electronic noise interference with AF grade crossing circuits can either
cause False Clears or False Occupancies in the grade crossing track circuits, depending on the robustness of the coding
or modulation used by the track circuit. A False Clear would result in grade crossing gates remaining up when a train
approaches or passes the grade crossing, while a False Occupancy would result in the gates coming down even when a
train is not near the crossing.
f. Special concerns concerning electric traction interference with overlay track circuits and communication-based train
control systems should be carefully reviewed for compatibility.
g. The latest systems for dc propulsion use Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) Technology which are producing
much lower Total Harmonic Distortion than earlier systems and thus are NOT creating as many problems. Individual
traction drive systems up to 400 kW per axle are currently in service. This technology will eventually be available for
larger traction systems.
SECTION 5.4 ELECTRICAL EFFECTS (2012)
Operation of electric traction rolling stock subjects the signal system to a completely different environment from that present 1
under non-electric operation. Some of the more important items are listed below.
a. Traction return current in the rails is significantly higher than the current used for the signal circuits, and the currents in
the two rails may not be balanced at all times.
b. With ac electrification systems, large electromagnetic fields can be set up by the current flowing in the traction power
distribution system and the return current flowing in the running rails which can induce currents in parallel conductors. 3
c. AC-powered, solid state equipped vehicles using thyristor technology produce a distorted sine wave in the currents
flowing in the traction power distribution system and returning in the running rails, resulting in the traction return
current having a number of harmonics of the fundamental frequency, some at relatively high currents levels with the
frequency range and amplitude varying dependent on the type of converter. AC-powered, solid state equipped vehicles
using IGBT technology in a unity power factor converter-inverter, produce less low frequency distortion in the traction
power current than thyristor converters, but have higher levels of audio frequency harmonic current in clusters at even 4
multiples of the converter pulse width modulation frequency.
d. Most older dc-powered vehicles use Chopper Drives which also produce significant distortion, whereas even older dc-
powered vehicles use cam controllers which cause very little ripple on the dc power. The latest propulsion systems,
using IGBT or similar technologies for dc-powered vehicles, produce almost no harmonics.
SECTION 5.5 USE OF IMPEDANCE BONDS IN RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION (2012)
5.5.1 IMPEDANCE BOND DESCRIPTION (2012)
The typical impedance bond used for railway electrification systems is essentially a center tapped auto transformer arranged to
provide a low impedance path for the relatively high levels of traction return current, but a high impedance for the significantly

lower signal system current. The transformer winding is comprised of heavy gauge copper, fitted with a center tap and wound
on an insulated iron core. When each of the rails carries equal amounts of traction current, the current from each rail passes in
opposite directions through the coil from the rails to the center tap. The net flux in the iron core will, therefore, be zero and the
impedance to the traction current (ac or dc) will be very low - Figure 33-5-1. Since the traction return current is relatively
balanced in the two rails, a high enough impedance exists for the track circuit so that operation of the signal circuit is not
impaired. The ac track circuit current, attempting to flow in through the two coils of the bond from rail to rail in the same
direction, will see a higher impedance than the traction current. An important point to remember is that an auto transformer
transfers most of its energy by conduction and not through a magnetic circuit. An impedance bond will thus behave in an
entirely different manner if the current flows become unbalanced or part of its circuit opens up through various failure modes -
see Section 5.6.2.
Figure 33-5-1. Current Flows at an Impedance Bond (2012)
5.5.2 IMPEDANCE BOND FUNCTIONS (2012)
Impedance bonds are normally used in pairs to permit the electric traction return current to pass the insulated joints which
serve to sectionalize the signal system into signal blocks. The center taps or neutrals of the two impedance bonds are
connected together to form a path for the electric traction return current around the insulated rail joints - see Figure 33-5-2. As
discussed below, the center taps can be connected at selected points to either an electrical ground for ac systems or an insulated
return conductor for dc systems, dependent upon the type of traction power electrification, to improve the electrical
characteristics of the traction power system. Single impedance bonds are frequently used near a substation to directly drain the
returning current to the substation return busbar without having to go through the nearest connected signal block point. Single
impedance bonds can also be used to enhance safety at wayside facilities, such as passenger station platforms or parallel non-
electrified tracks, to minimize step and touch potentials.

Figure 33-5-2. Traction Power Return Current Flow through ‘C’ Bonds and to the Substation Return
Busbar at an ‘A’ Bond (2012)
5.5.3 SIGNAL T RACK CIRCUIT ASSUMPTIONS (2012)
It is vital that the traction power system designer fully coordinate with the signal system designer. The proposed locations and
grounding and interconnections of impedance bonds must be checked and approved by qualified signal circuit designers.
SECTION 5.6 IMPEDANCE BOND INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS (2012)
5.6.1 IMPEDANCE BOND LOCATIONS (2012)

3
Impedance bonds are normally placed between the running rails and depressed between two ties with the connections to the
rails arranged so that the insulated cables do not cross under another rail producing the possibility of shorting out the signal
system. If unusual circumstances require placing the impedance bond outside the running rails, special precautions should be
taken to ensure that the track connecting cables are insulated and placed in non-conducting conduit so that they cannot come in
contact with any running rails. Side lead lengths should be coordinated with the signal system design.
5.6.2 IMPEDANCE BOND CONNECTIONS (2012) 4

The grounding or interconnecting of impedance bonds indiscriminately can produce undesirable paths through which the
signal current could flow. Figure 33-5-3 shows the normal and desired path for the signal current to flow from a signal power
input transformer through the rails to the track relay and back. When a train enters the track circuit boundary at an insulated
joint, the vehicle wheels and axles short circuit the track circuit and the relay is de-energized, giving an indication that the
track circuit is occupied

Figure 33-5-3. Typical Signal Current Flow with Impedance Bonds and Properly Energized Track Circuit
Relay (2011)
By comparison, Figure 33-5-4 shows that the use of grounded “A” bonds at each end of the track circuit would introduce the
non-permissible grounding of the impedance bond center taps at BOTH ends of a signal track circuit. This could produce an
undesired path for the signal circuit current, which would permit the current to bypass the detection of a broken rail and
maintain the energized track circuit. This condition is prohibited by FRA regulations covering signal systems, since it would
lead to dangerous conditions. Similar conditions can easily be produced in multiple track territory,if the interconnection of
impedance bond center taps and/or grounding for ac traction power return currents are not properly designed.
Figure 33-5-4. Unsafe Signal Current Flow through Grounded Impedance Bond Center Taps Around a
Broken Rail - Falsely Energizing the Track Circuit Relay (2012)
5.6.3 IMPEDANCE BOND WINDINGS (2012)
The windings in the impedance bond should be of sufficient size to carry normal and overload currents expected during normal
traction system duty cycles, as well as the total available fault currents. The impedance bond characteristics during fault
conditions must be known in order to properly set the fault clearing relays at the substation circuit breakers. Improper relay
settings can result in damage if the circuit breakers are not promptly activated.

5.6.4 T YPICAL IMPEDANCE BOND CONFIGURATIONS (2012)
Where appropriate, the diagrams in this section indicate the arrangement of the impedance bond connections for ac electrified
railways at the left-hand side of the diagram and for dc electrified railways at the right-hand side of the diagram.
NOTE: Diagrams for impedance bond connections on railways supporting combined operations of both ac-
and dc-powered electric vehicles will developed under the next revision.
5.6.4.1 Typical Single Track Signaled Railway (2012)
Figure 33-5-5 shows the typical sequence for connecting the center taps of a set of impedance bonds on a single track signaled
railway with either ac or dc electrification. To preserve the fail-safe design of the signal system, at least one set of impedance
bonds shall not be connected to the electric traction return system between sets of impedance bonds that are connected to the
traction return system. For convenience, the impedance bonds connected to the traction return system are designated “A”
points to indicate that All bonds are connected to the return conductor. The impedance bonds which do not have their center
taps connected to the return conductor are designated as “C” points to indicate that they merely provide a Continuous path for
the electric traction return current.
Figure 33-5-5. Single Track Signaled Railway (2012)
4
5.6.4.2 Typical Double Track Signaled Railway (2012)
Figure 33-5-6 shows the typical sequence of connecting the center taps of a set of impedance bonds on a double track signaled
railway. The same basic technique of using “A” points and “C” points outlined above for a single track railway is used with
the addition of a “B” point to indicate that the center taps of the impedance bonds for both tracks are connected together, but
not connected to the return conductor. This “B” point preserves the integrity of the signal system while improving the path for
the electric traction return current by connecting the four rails of the two tracks together.

Figure 33-5-6. Double Track Signaled Railway (2012)
5.6.4.3 Typical Multi-Track Signaled Railway (2012)
Figure 33-5-7 shows the typical sequence of connecting the center taps of a set of impedance bonds on a four-track signaled
railway. The four-track railway is essentially handled as two parallel double track railways. Note that the “B” points between
the two double track segments are not normally interconnected.

1
Figure 33-5-7. Multi-Track Signaled Railway; Typical 4-Track Railway Shown (2012)
5.6.4.4 Typical Passing Siding (2012)
Figure 33-5-8 shows the typical sequence of connecting the center taps of the impedance bonds associated with a simple two
mile long passing track in single track territory where the passing track is fully track circuited. This example shows the 3
multiple use of “C” points where the signal circuits are relatively short, as occurs in the signal circuits associated with the two
turnouts.

Figure 33-5-8. Single Track Signaled Railway with 2 Mile Signaled Passing Track (2011)
5.6.4.5 Electrified Tracks Without Track Circuits (2012)
Electrified tracks without track circuits are normally connected to the traction power return system at selected intervals as
shown in Figure 33-5-9. The rails are bonded together and then each rail is individually connected to the return conductor. All
rails of stub ended tracks must be bonded together to ensure that a broken rail condition cannot cause an unsafe voltage rise on
the vehicles or running rails relative to ground. Jointed rail in non-track circuit territory must be properly bonded in order to
provide the proper electrical path for the return current flow. The return conductor may or may not be grounded dependent
upon the type of traction power system – ac or dc.
Figure 33-5-9. Rail Connections to Traction Power Return System for Non-Signaled Track (2012)

5.6.4.6 Separation of Tracks With Track Circuits and Those Without Track Circuits (2012)
A single impedance bond should be used at the insulated joints separating portions of track with track circuits from those
without track circuits, as shown in Figure 33-5-10, in order to permit the electric traction return current to flow around the
insulated joints. The center tap on the impedance bond and the two rails should be independently bonded to each other.
Figure 33-5-10. Impedance Bond Connections at Interface between Signaled and Non-Signaled Track
(2012)
5.6.4.7 Drain Bonds (2012)
Electric traction substations may be located at some distance from a signal or from a track circuit boundary location. Where 1
that is the case, a single impedance bond shall be located at the substation, as shown in Figure 33-5-11, with its center tap
connected to the substation return system. This single impedance bond is normally referred to as a “drain bond,” because its
function is to drain the electric traction return current into the substation return current busbar. A drain bond may also be used
to reduce touch and step potentials at wayside facilities and passenger stations, but the introduction of any such bond must be
carefully coordinated with the signal system design.
3
Figure 33-5-11. Substation Drain Bond on Signaled Single Track Railway (2011)
NOTE: The drain bond may be used to reduce touch and step potentials at wayside facilities and
passenger stations.

5.6.4.8 Single Rail Track Circuits (2011)
Figure 33-5-12 shows the typical connection of impedance bonds where a full double rail signal system meets a single rail
signal system. The impedance bond center tap is connected to the common electric traction return rail, while the signal control
rail is left fully insulated and unconnected to the electric traction return system.
Figure 33-5-12. Double Rail Track Circuit Meeting Single Rail Track Circuit (2012)
5.6.5 NON-T YPICAL IMPEDANCE BOND CIRCUMSTANCES (2012)
It must be emphasized that track configurations and associated signal circuits are unique for each railway that is electrified.
The typical configurations shown in this section are for general guidance only. It is emphasized that the proposed grounding
and/or interconnection of impedance bonds must be checked and approved by qualified signal circuit designers.

33
Part 6
Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC
Electrification Systems
— 2009 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3 1

6.1.1 Purpose (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
6.1.2 Scope (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
6.2 Electrification System Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3

6.2.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
6.2.2 Traction Power Demand (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-3
3
6.3 AC Electrification System Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-5
6.3.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-5
6.3.2 Traction Power Supply System (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-6
6.3.3 Traction Power Distribution System (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-7
6.3.4 Traction Power Return System (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-13
6.3.5 Normal and Contingency Operation (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-13
6.4 Electrification System Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-14

6.4.1 System Configuration (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-14
6.4.2 Substation Spacing (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-15
6.4.3 Electrification Voltage (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-15
6.4.4 Utility Power Availability (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-15
6.4.5 Electromagnetic Interference (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-16
6.4.6 Voltage Rise Along the Return System (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-16
6.4.7 Achieving Cost Effective Electrification System Design (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-16
6.5 System Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17

6.5.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17
6.5.2 Train Operation Simulation and Load-Flow Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17
6.5.3 Distribution System Conductor Temperature Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17
6.5.4 Power and Electronic Circuit Compatibility Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-17
6.5.5 Voltage Flicker Study (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-18

6.5.6 Phase Unbalance Study (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-18

6.5.7 Harmonic Distortion and System Resonance Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-18
6.5.8 Short Circuit Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.5.9 Arc-Flash Hazard Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.5.10 Insulation Coordination Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.5.11 Protective Device Coordination Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.5.12 Atmospheric Corrosion Control Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.5.13 Geotechnical Study (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-19
6.6 System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-20

6.6.1 Functional Requirements (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-20
6.6.2 Standards, Codes, and Regulations (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-20
6.6.3 Environmental Considerations (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-21
6.6.4 Service Conditions (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-22
6.6.5 Equipment Design (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-22
6.6.6 High (Primary) Voltage Circuit Breakers and Disconnect Switches (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-23
6.6.7 Traction Power Transformers (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-23
6.6.8 Medium (Secondary) Voltage Switchgear (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-24
6.6.9 System Protection (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-25
6.6.10 Special Equipment (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-26
6.6.11 Signal Power Generating System (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-26
6.6.12 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-26
6.7 Utility Metering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-27

6.7.1 Typical Rate Structure (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-27
6.7.2 Location of Metering Equipment (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
6.7.3 Billing Concepts (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
6.7.4 Rate Structure Negotiation (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
6.8 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28

6.8.1 Quality Assurance/Quality Control (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
6.8.2 Installation Verification Testing (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-28
6.8.3 System-Wide Integration Testing (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-29
6.8.4 Pre-Revenue Operation Testing (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-29
LIST OF FIGURES
33-6-1 Traction Power System Study - Typical Direct-Fed System Simplified One-Line Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-8
33-6-2 AC Traction Power System - Typical Direct-Fed System with Booster Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6-10
33-6-3 AC Traction Power System - Typical Autotransformer-Fed System Simplified One-Line Diagram . . . . . 33-6-11

Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC Electrification Systems
SECTION 6.1 GENERAL
6.1.1 PURPOSE (2009)
The purpose of Part 6 of Chapter 33 is to provide guidelines and recommendations for study, design, and construction methods
for implementation of modern alternating current (ac) Traction Power Supply (TPS) systems for proposed railroad
electrification projects.
Further, the purpose of these guidelines and recommendations is to ensure that the traction power supply systems are designed,
manufactured, installed, and tested to deliver sufficient power to rolling stock and to provide safe, efficient, and continuous
operation of the systems under normal and contingency conditions, taking into account the environmental conditions prevalent
in the project locale.
6.1.2 SCOPE (2009)
The scope of the Part 6 includes new electrification systems for regional commuter rail, intercity rail, intercity high-speed rail,
and freight railroad systems considered for operation at electrification voltages recommended in Part 3, Chapter 33; that is, at
12.5 kV ac, 25 kV ac, or 50 kV ac nominal electrification voltage, obtained through transformation of utility ac power at
commercial frequency of 60 Hz.
Some existing ac electrification systems operate at 12 kV ac nominal electrification voltage and 25 Hz frequency. Systems
and equipment operating at this voltage and frequency are not standard, and therefore, are not covered by the Part 6. The
system can be used for extension of existing systems, but are not recommended for construction of new systems, as the cost of
wayside frequency conversion equipment is usually much higher than the cost of 60 Hz step-down transformers. 1
Other electrification systems and subsystems, such as the traction power distribution system, the traction power return system,
signal system, communications system and rolling stock are discussed only when essential to operation of the traction power
supply system.
SECTION 6.2 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM LOAD
6.2.1 GENERAL (2009)
Railroad traffic can be broadly divided into two major types, passenger and freight. Passenger rolling stock typically operates 4
with higher acceleration rates than freight rolling stock, and therefore, their power demand is relatively high during
acceleration and decreases considerably once the train has attained its normal cruising speed. Freight trains operate at
relatively low acceleration rates and their power demand during acceleration and cruising can be of the same order of
magnitude.
The train power demand is influenced by factors including train consist size, weight, maximum acceleration, maximum train
operation speed, alignment gradients, density of traffic, operating practices and rolling stock propulsion equipment design.
6.2.2 TRACTION POWER DEMAND (2009)
6.2.2.1 Power Demand Characteristics
Power demand of traction power supply systems is significantly different from power demand produced by the usual utility
loads. Although there are exceptions, most of the utility loads are relatively slowly changing, well distributed amongst the

three phases of transmission and distribution circuits, nearly sinusoidal, and typically with high power factor. Occurrence of
short circuits is moderate especially on transmission circuits.
The same cannot be said about the traction loads, as they are highly fluctuating and single-phase. Older rolling stock contains
significant harmonics and operates at comparatively lower power factor. Short circuits occur frequently on electrification
systems.
6.2.2.1.1 Fluctuation
Traction power demand is of a highly fluctuating nature. This is a result of abrupt, impulse-like changes in power
requirements of trains as they accelerate and decelerate, as they encounter or leave track grades, and as they enter and leave
distribution system feeding sections. The magnitude and frequency of the impulses increase during peak time (rush-hour)
periods of operation as longer trains operate at shorter headways.
6.2.2.1.2 Phase-to-Phase Connection
AC electrification system traction loads are single-phase and are connected to a utility three-phase system phase-to-phase.
The unequal phase loadings of the three phases cause the utility system currents to be unbalanced. The different currents in
each phase cause unequal voltage drops in the three-phase utility network and this causes the utility voltages and currents to be
unbalanced.
6.2.2.1.3 Harmonic Content
The train load on the electrification system substations consists of number of single-car and/or multi-car trains operating
simultaneously on the system. The power electronics of the rolling stock propulsion and auxiliary systems generate harmonic
currents.
Harmonics generated by older thyristor controlled propulsion systems are significant and need to be taken into account in any
evaluation of harmonic characteristics of the system. The harmonics of rolling stock equipped with modern propulsion
systems using integrated gate bipolar thyristor (IGBT) converters are usually negligible and in many cases can be ignored.
The harmonic currents generated by the rolling stock produce harmonic voltages along the traction power distribution system
and inject harmonics into the utility power supply system. If it is found necessary to lower the harmonic content, it is
recommended to install filtering equipment on-board the rolling stock.
6.2.2.1.4 Power Factor
Power factor of older thyristor-controlled propulsion systems is relatively low, especially during acceleration at low speeds,
and needs to be taken into account in any load flow evaluations. Modern rolling stock utilizing propulsion systems with IGBT
converters can be designed with power factor approaching unity.
6.2.2.1.5 System Faults
Traction power distribution systems are subjected to faults and short circuits in a greater degree than utility power systems.
This is mainly due to relatively low overhead system clearances, which are often further reduced under bridges and in tunnels,
and due to a relatively large number of support insulators used per mile of the system.
6.2.2.2 Power Demand Impact
The traction load is likely to have some effect on the utility power supply system and, possibly, on other adjacent systems and
subsystems.
The power demand fluctuation may cause a voltage flicker at utility busbars. This flicker may cause customer light flickering
and may affect the operation of some electronic equipment. Also, the fluctuating currents flowing in the traction power supply

equipment can cause pulsating forces which can be of significant magnitude, and therefore, can be potentially harmful to
substation equipment.
The voltage and current phase unbalance may increase heating of utility generators and utility customer motors.
The rolling stock injects harmonic currents into the traction power distribution and return systems where they are combined
with any existing harmonics of the power utility system. The harmonic currents produce voltage drops at harmonic
frequencies at the utility busbars, and in turn, the distorted busbar voltages produce harmonic currents in the bus-connected
equipment. The harmonics may cause malfunction of some electronic equipment, electromagnetic interference (EMI) into
wayside equipment, increased equipment heating and, in severe cases, resonance of the utility system. As already mentioned,
modern propulsion systems equipped with integrated gate bi-polar thyristor converters exhibit very low harmonics and, in
many instances, can be neglected.
Due to overhead contact system (OCS) impedance, rolling stock operating with low power factor causes voltage drop in the
OCS resistance and reactance. By comparison, modern rolling stock with power factor close to unity causes voltage drop
mainly in the OCS resistance and the reactive voltage drop is significantly reduced. Since the OCS reactance is typically 3 to
4 times larger than the resistance, a significant reduction in voltage drop can be achieved and the traction power substations
can be located further apart.
The short circuit current may cause electromagnetic interference (EMI) into wayside equipment, voltage dip at utility busbars,
and pulsating forces in substation equipment.
1
SECTION 6.3 AC ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
6.3.1 GENERAL (2009)
The major components of any traction electrification system are the traction power supply, the traction power distribution, and
the traction power return systems, as briefly described below: 3
• Traction Power Supply System. The traction power supply system consists of all equipment between the interface
point with the local electric power utility company and the interface points with traction power distribution and
return systems. The supply system includes traction power substations located at predetermined spacing along the
system right-of-way. The substations receive power from the power utility system and supply power to the traction
power distribution system.
4
• Traction Power Distribution System. The traction power distribution system consists of all equipment between the
interface with the traction power supply system and the vehicle pantographs. The distribution system consists of an
overhead contact system (OCS) which includes the overhead catenary system, feeders, supporting structures, and
pole footings. Also included in the distribution system are any necessary paralleling stations, autotransformer
stations and switching stations. The system receives power from the substations via overhead feeders or
underground cables and supplies the power to the rolling stock.
• Traction Power Return System. The traction power return system consists of all equipment between the interface
with the traction power supply system and the vehicle wheels. The return system includes running rails, impedance
bonds, cross-bonds, static wire, and ground. The rolling stock on-board propulsion system conditions the power
received from the distribution system for use by traction motors. After the power is exerted in the traction motors,
the traction current is returned to the substations via the traction power return system and overhead feeders or
underground cables.
Each of the electrification system components is described in more detail in the following sections.

6.3.2 TRACTION POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM (2009)
6.3.2.1 Utility Power Supply
The traction power substations receive power directly from the local high voltage electrical power utility substations located in
the proximity of the route or from transmission lines crossing or running along the alignment. Preferable utility system
voltage levels are in the range of 115 kV to 230 kV. In areas where the utility system does not operate in this range of voltage,
consideration can be given to supplying the traction substation at 69 kV or 345 kV.
Connections to the utility high voltage lines are required to ensure high supply reliability. The systems below 115 kV are not
usually the first choice as the system fault level may be too low causing excessive voltage flicker, phase unbalance, and
harmonic distortion that may result from the addition of the highly fluctuating, single-phase, and non-sinusoidal traction load.
Using supply at voltages above 230 kV is generally not cost effective due to the considerable additional cost required for
traction substation input equipment insulation.
The traction power substations are normally supplied by two high voltage lines which should be as independent of each other
as possible.
6.3.2.2 Substation Type and Equipment
The ac substations transform the utility power from high voltage to the ac electrification system utilization voltage. The
traction power supply equipment is contained in traction power substations and includes all equipment necessary to transform
and control the utility ac voltage to the traction power system ac utilization voltage used by the rolling stock.
The major items of equipment in each substation include high voltage supply line dead-end structures, high voltage circuit
breakers, high voltage disconnect switches, traction power transformers, medium voltage switchgear assembly, ac feeder and
return cables, raceways, ductbanks and conduits, auxiliary, signal, and communications power supply systems, protective
devices, programmable logic controllers, supervisory control and data acquisition systems, instrumentation, indication,
annunciation, lighting, temperature control system, busbars and bus connections, control and low voltage wiring, equipment
enclosures, insulation and grounding systems, foundations, substation control building housing, and other miscellaneous
equipment. In special circumstances, the traction power substations may also contain phase balancing equipment, harmonic
distortion filters, and power factor correction equipment.
Due to the high electrical clearances required in substations for high voltage equipment the traction power substations are
outdoor with each component delivered to site separately and installed on previously prepared foundations or footings.
Medium voltage switchgear and controls may be installed in prefabricated or field constructed buildings.
6.3.2.3 High Voltage Circuit Breakers and Disconnect Switches
The function of the high voltage circuit breaker, together with main ac circuit breaker, is to disconnect the traction power
transformer from the system following a fault, severe overload condition, or for maintenance. Each circuit breaker should be
equipped with disconnect switches to provide a visible isolation of the circuit breaker during maintenance.
6.3.2.4 Traction Power Transformers
The high voltage utility power is transformed to the distribution voltage by traction power transformers. Normally, each
substation is equipped with two equally-sized transformers to allow continuous system feeding in the event of a power outage
of one of the utility feeder, or of a transformer, or other item of high voltage equipment.
The single-phase traction power transformer primary windings are connected to two phases of the utility power system.
Because power is being drawn from only two phases of a three-phase system, a certain amount of current and voltage
unbalance will occur. In order to mitigate the effects of the unbalanced currents and voltages, the single-phase connections
should be alternated at successive transformers. Therefore, in an interconnected power network, the unbalanced currents and
voltages will tend to balance out by the time they reach utility generators or consumer motors.

6.3.2.5 Medium Voltage Switchgear
Each traction power substation includes a lineup of ac switchgear to distribute power to the OCS, auxiliary power supply
transformers, and substation special equipment, if installed. The switchgear should be configured to include a main incoming
circuit breaker, a busbar with a bus tie circuit breaker, and feeder circuit breakers. The function of the main breaker, together
with the high voltage circuit breaker, is to disconnect the traction power transformer from the system following a fault, severe
overload condition, or for maintenance.
Power to the OCS is supplied via feeder and catenary circuit breakers. The function of the circuit breakers is to protect the
overhead distribution system against short-circuit and to enable system outages for maintenance purposes. It is recommended
to equip each track and each feeding direction with its own dedicated circuit breakers. Thus, for a two-track system operating
in the east-west direction, the following feeder and catenary circuit breakers would be required:
• Track 1 east
• Track 1 west
• Track 2 east
• Track 2 west
Additionally, use of a dedicated circuit breaker to the rolling stock maintenance facility should be considered, if the facility is
large and/or located nearby.
The substation auxiliary system can be protected by fuses or circuit breakers. Substation special equipment, such as phase
1
balancing equipment, harmonic filters, or power factor correction equipment is recommended to be connected to the substation
busbar via circuit breakers or circuit switchers.
The busbar needs to be equipped with a bus tie circuit breaker. The bus tie circuit breaker is normally open and is closed only
when two adjacent sections of the distribution system need to be connected in the event of a traction power transformer outage.
3
6.3.2.6 Special Equipment
Depending on the system and rolling stock circumstances, the substations may need to be equipped by additional, special,
equipment including the following:
• Balancing Equipment – to limit the traction power substation unbalance caused to the power utility system
4
• Harmonic Filters – to limit the harmonic effect by the rolling stock to the power utility system and other systems
such as signaling and communications systems
• Power Factor Control Equipment – to control the power factor at the traction power substation input
6.3.3 TRACTION POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (2009)
6.3.3.1 Distribution System Configuration
Modern ac railroad electrification systems are recommended to use the following configurations of the distribution systems:
• Direct-Fed System (DF) operating at 12.5 kV, 25 kV or 50 kV electrification voltages, single-phase, ac, at the
commercial frequency of 60 Hz, as shown in Figure 33-6-1.

Figure 33-6-1. Traction Power System Study - Typical Direct-Fed System Simplified One-Line Diagram
• Feeder Booster Transformer System (BT) operating at 12.5 kV, 25 kV or 50 kV electrification voltages, single-
phase, ac, at the commercial frequency of 60 Hz, as shown in Figure 33-6-2.
• Autotransformer-Fed System (ATF) operating at 2 x 12.5 kV or 2 x 25 kV electrification voltages, single-phase, ac,

at the commercial frequency of 60 Hz, as shown in Figure 33-6-3.
6.3.3.2 Direct-Fed System
System Connection. In the direct-fed system, traction power from substations is distributed to trains by the catenary system.
The catenary system is connected through medium voltage switchgear to one end of the substation transformer secondary
winding. The other end of the winding is solidly connected to the rail/static wire/ground return system.
Phase Breaks. Since each traction power transformer primary winding is connected to different phases, the secondary
windings of adjacent transformers are out-of-phase. In order to electrically separate the sections of distribution system
operating at different phases, phase breaks are installed in the catenary system at the substations and at approximately the
midpoint between substations.
Switching Stations. In order to provide for the catenary system switching in the event of substation outages, switching stations
are provided at the substation midpoint phase break locations. To facilitate the overhead system switching operations, each
switching station is equipped with medium voltage switchgear. The switchgear is configured to include catenary circuit feeder
circuit breakers on each side of the phase break and a bus tie circuit breaker. The catenary feeder circuit breakers are normally
closed and the bus tie circuit breaker is normally open. The purpose of the bus tie breaker is to connect the adjacent sections of
the distribution system in the event of a substation outage.
Paralleling Stations. Where substation to switching station spacing is large, and at the end of an electrified line, the
1
distribution system may be equipped with paralleling stations. Each paralleling station is equipped with medium voltage
switchgear in similar configuration as in switching stations. However, since the catenary voltage on either side of the
paralleling stations is of the same phase and magnitude, bus tie circuit breakers and phase breaks are not required.
Benefits of Paralleling Stations and Switching Stations. The switchgear in switching and paralleling stations enables sections
of the distribution system to be disconnected following a fault and for maintenance. The switchgear is configured to permit 3
paralleling of the overhead distribution system conductors in multiple track areas. The conductor paralleling decreases the
effective system impedance between substations and trains and improves voltage profile along the system. The paralleling
also provides for better current sharing between conductors of adjacent tracks and improves system fault detection.
6.3.3.3 Booster Transformer System
Booster transformers can be used in the direct-fed system to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI). The system, however, 4
has not been used in recent years, as more and more communications circuits are replaced by systems immune to EMI.
Booster transformers are 1:1 current transformers installed between the catenary system and the booster feeder at insulated
overlaps along the distribution system, usually at 1.5-2 mile spacing.
The purpose of the booster transformers is to cause the catenary and return currents flow as closely as possible to each other to
cancel their external effects and reduce the EMI with wayside equipment. The higher number of booster transformers yields
higher level of mitigation, but impedance of the distribution system correspondingly increases. The position of the return
feeder can be selected for greatest mitigation effects.
6.3.3.4 Autotransformer-Fed System
System Connection. In the autotransformer-fed system, traction power from substations is distributed to trains by overhead
autotransformer feeder and catenary systems. The autotransformer feeder system is connected to one end of the substation
transformer secondary winding and the catenary system is connected to the other end of the winding through medium voltage
switchgear. The secondary winding of the transformers is provided with a center tap, which is tied to the rail/static
wire/ground return system.

Figure 33-6-2. AC Traction Power System - Typical Direct-Fed System with Booster Transformers
Figure 33-6-3. AC Traction Power System - Typical Autotransformer-Fed System Simplified One-Line Diagram
For a multi-track high-density operation, two or more feeders are recommended to provide for redundancy in the system.
Phase Breaks. Since each traction power transformer primary winding is connected to different phases, the secondary
windings of adjacent transformers are out-of-phase. In order to electrically separate the sections of distribution system
operating at different phases, phase breaks are installed in the overhead catenary system at the substations and at
approximately the midpoint between substations. The autotransformer feeder is sectioned at the same location using
insulators.
Switching Stations. In order to provide for the autotransformer feeder and catenary system switching in the event of substation
outages, switching stations are provided at the substation midpoint phase break locations. To facilitate the overhead system
switching operations, each switching station is equipped with medium voltage switchgear. The switchgear is configured in
two sections. The autotransformer feeder section includes circuit breakers on each side of the sectionalizing point and a bus tie
circuit breaker. Similarly, the catenary section includes circuit breakers on each side of the phase break and a bus tie circuit
breaker. The autotransformer feeder and catenary circuit breakers are normally closed and the bus tie circuit breakers are
normally open. The feeder and catenary circuit breakers are recommended to be arranged to operate mechanically and
electrically together. The purpose of the bus-tie breakers is to connect the adjacent sections of the distribution system in the
event of a substation outage.
Paralleling Stations. In the autotransformer system substation to switching station spacing is often large, and therefore, the
distribution system may be equipped with a number of paralleling stations installed between the substation and the switching
station. At the end of an electrified line, the distribution system may be equipped with paralleling stations to improve voltage
profile along the system. Each paralleling station is equipped with medium voltage switchgear in similar configuration as in
the switching stations. However, since the autotransformer feeder and the catenary voltages on either side of the paralleling
stations are of the same phase and magnitude, there is no need for a bus tie circuit breakers or phase breaks.
Benefits of Paralleling Stations and Switching Stations. The switchgear in the switching and the paralleling stations enables
sections of the distribution system to be disconnected following a fault and for maintenance. The switchgear is configured to
permit paralleling of the overhead distribution system conductors in multiple track areas. The conductor paralleling decreases
the effective system impedance between substations and trains and improves voltage profile along the system. The paralleling
also provides for better current sharing between conductors of adjacent tracks and improves system fault detection.
Autotransformers. In the autotransformer system, traction power to the catenary-rail system is delivered from the feeder-
catenary system distribution via autotransformers, and therefore, autotransformers are required to be installed at each
paralleling and switching station. The autotransformer winding ratio must correspond to the distribution voltage (feeder-to-
catenary) and the traction voltage (catenary-to-rail) ratio.
For example, using autotransformer ratio of 2:1, two system alternatives are possible:
• 2 x 12.5 kV resulting in the following system voltages:
– 25 kV between the autotransformer feeder and the catenary systems
– 12.5 kV between the autotransformer feeder system and the rail/static wire/ground return system
– 12.5 kV between the catenary and the rail/static wire/ground return system
• 2 x 25 kV resulting in the following system voltages:
– 50 kV between the autotransformer feeder and the catenary systems
– 25 kV between the autotransformer feeder system and the rail/static wire/ground return system
– 25 kV between the catenary and the rail/static wire/ground return system

The autotransformer-fed system enables power to be distributed along the system at higher than the train utilization voltage.
For example, in the 2 x 25 kV autotransformer system power is distributed at 50 kV while the trains operate at 25 kV. This
arrangement results in lower voltage drop along the system than would be possible with the 25 kV direct-fed system. This
lower voltage drop improves the voltage profile along the line and permits greater substation spacing, and consequently, a
lower number of substations than would be possible with the direct-fed system.
As the current in the feeder flows in the opposite direction as the current in the catenary it mitigates the effects of
electromagnetic interference with other wayside equipment or circuits, as discussed in the Booster Transformer system below.
6.3.4 TRACTION POWER RETURN SYSTEM (2009)
6.3.4.1 Return System Conductors
The trains collect propulsion power from the OCS using pantographs and return the current back to the substations via a
traction power return system. The traction power return system for railroad electrification consists of the running rails,
impedance bonds, cross-bonds, overhead static wires, return conductors, autotransformer feeders, and the ground itself.
Normally, both running rails of each track serve as return conductors, except at special trackwork locations, and around
expansion or sectionalizing joints, where electrical continuity should be provided by jumper cables connected to the rails. The
running rails should be welded in continuous lengths and any bolted joints must be electrically bonded.
In order to enable both rails to carry the return current and to maintain the double rail signaling track circuits commonly used
by North American railroads, any existing dc track circuits must be changed to ac track circuits, and impedance bonds must be
installed at signal section block points.
1
6.3.4.2 Return System Continuity and Grounding
At locations requiring insulated joints, the electrical continuity of the return system should be maintained by use of impedance
bonds. The running rails should be cross-bonded for traction power equalization through impedance bonds at every traction
power substation and as required by the design of the signal or train control systems. The cross-bonds are periodically
connected to the static wire which connects OCS supporting structures. The static wire is grounded at frequent intervals. The
result is that a portion of the return current flows in the rails, the static wire, and the ground. 3
The purpose of this design is to reduce the effective return system resistance, provide as low an impedance return system as
possible to limit voltage rise along the rails (rail-to-ground potentials), and to improve catenary fault detection by creating
sufficiently high short-circuit currents.
Particular attention should be paid to return system grounding arrangements at, and in the vicinity of, passenger stations to
avoid undesirable voltage rise between the station metallic structures and trains. 4
The cross bond grounding must be coordinated with the signaling system design, refer to Part 5 of this Chapter.
6.3.5 NORMAL AND CONTINGENCY OPERATION (2009)
6.3.5.1 Continuity of Supply
The power supply, distribution, and return systems should be designed so that adequate propulsion power continues to be
supplied to the system under normal and contingency operation. Therefore, electrical continuity must be provided in the
distribution system from substation-to-switching station under normal operating conditions and under single traction power
transformer outage. Electrical continuity must be provided from substation-to-substation under full substation outage
conditions.

At the substations, paralleling stations, and switching stations, the distribution system continuity is provided by the normally
closed feeder and catenary circuit breakers. In the event that a feeder circuit breaker needs to be opened for repair or
maintenance, two approaches are possible:
• Provision of hand-operated or motor-operated outdoor or indoor type bypass disconnect switch
• Provision of a transfer bus and an additional circuit breaker which can substitute for any circuit breaker via the
transfer bus
The distribution system is sectionalized into electrical sections to limit the length of the track to be de-energized following a
fault or for system maintenance. The sectioning can be performed at substations, paralleling stations, and switching stations,
as well as at interlockings where crossovers and turnouts are installed.
6.3.5.2 Normal Operation
During normal operation of the power system, i.e., when all major components of the system, such as substation transformers,
feeders, and autotransformers, are in service, rated train operating performance during peak-hour traffic conditions should be
maintained. This includes providing full performance train voltage levels to allow simultaneous starting of trains.
6.3.5.3 Contingency Operation
Normally, each traction power transformer is feeding its own section of system. During a substation transformer outage,
continuity of supply to that section is achieved by immediate closing of the substation bus tie circuit breaker. The remaining
substation transformer then feeds both sections of the system.
Each traction power transformer in a substation is recommended to be supplied by an independent transmission line. In this
event, an entire substation failure is unlikely. Nevertheless, provision for such a contingency should be made in the system
design. Following an outage of an entire substation, the two neighboring substations should maintain continuity of supply.
These substations must be capable of supplying their own sections of the system as well as the adjacent sections previously
supplied with the now outaged substation. This is facilitated at switching stations situated on either side of the outaged
substation. During the substation outage, the normally open switching station bus-tie breakers are closed, thus extending the
supply area of the two neighboring substations in operation. The bus-tie breaker in the out-of-service substation remains open
to separate the two supplies at different phases
When a substation at the end of the system is out-of-service, the end-of-the-line is supplied from the closest operating
substation by closing bus tie circuit breakers in the switching station and the outaged substation.
In the event of one traction power transformer, feeder, or autotransformer outage, the system should operate at near-full
performance. For multiple contingencies, system performance restriction of the rolling stock can be expected. This can result
in lower acceleration rate of trains, possible lower maximum speed of operation, and longer trip time.
SECTION 6.4 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM SELECTION
6.4.1 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION (2009)
The main advantage of the direct-fed system is its simplicity in comparison with the autotransformer-fed system and the
booster transformer system. The substations, paralleling stations, and switching stations require switchgear for the catenary
system only.

The booster transformers can be utilized to mitigate electromagnetic interference. However, the booster transformers and
along-track feeders increase the system complexity and cost. Further, the impedance of the distribution system is higher, often
resulting in more substations. The booster transformer system has not been used in recent years.
The autotransformer-fed system requires overhead, along-track, autotransformer feeders and switchgear for the catenary
system and the feeders in all substations, paralleling stations, and switching stations. Additionally, all switching stations and
paralleling stations are equipped with autotransformers.
6.4.2 SUBSTATION SPACING (2009)
Substation spacing depends on the train headways, train consist sizes, alignment characteristics, operation practices, and the
traction power supply, distribution and return system configurations. To determine the substation spacing, a computer-aided
load-flow simulation of the traction electrification system should be performed. Normally, number of computer studies are
performed to simulate the electrification system under various operating scenarios and to optimize the system design
parameters.
Typical substation spacing for 25 kV ac direct-fed system is approximately 15 to 20 miles, and typical substation spacing for
50 kV ac direct-fed system is approximately 30 to 40 miles.
The booster transformers introduce impedance into the distribution system, and therefore, the substations need to be spaced at
shorter intervals than possible with the direct-fed system, typically 10 to 15 miles apart for 25 kV system.
The autotransformer system arrangement permits longer substation intervals than possible with the direct-fed system which is
advantageous in areas where sufficiently frequent and adequate sources of utility power input are not available. Typical 1
substation spacing for 2 x 25 kV ac autotransformer system is 30 to 40 miles.
6.4.3 ELECTRIFICATION VOLTAGE (2009)
The 25 kV ac and 50 kV ac electrification voltages should be considered first. In alignment with numerous low overhead
clearance obstructions, 12.5 kV ac voltage can be evaluated. However, 12.5 kV voltage is usually only selected when
expanding an existing system electrified at this voltage. 3
Generally, electrification at the higher voltages is more cost effective then at the lower voltages. The higher electrification
voltage results in lower distribution system currents and lower voltage drops along the system. Substations can be spaced
further apart, distribution system conductors of lower cross-sectional area can be selected, or both.
The higher electrification voltages, however, require higher clearances between conductors and grounded structures. This is
an important consideration in areas of low clearance bridges and in tunnels. Cost of any required civil modifications needs to
4
be always compared to the savings obtained in the traction power supply and distribution systems.
6.4.4 UTILITY POWER AVAILABILITY (2009)
Availability of utility power connections to substations needs to be considered when selecting the system type and
electrification voltage.
For ac electrification system, high voltage substations or transmission lines are required to supply power to the traction power
substations. Since transmission systems are not always available, the substation locations are often governed by the locations
of power utility high voltage substations, transmission lines, or high voltage cables.
During the preliminary design of any electrification project the power utility should be contacted at an early stage of the
substation location effort. The input required from the utility company includes substation supply availability, transmission
feeder availability, spare capacity, and short circuit fault levels for the potential supplies in areas considered for traction power
substations locations.

6.4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (2009)
The electrification systems currents can cause an electromagnetic interference (EMI) with other subsystems and equipment
along the wayside. This is due to the currents in the traction power substations, the distribution system conductors, and the
vehicles which are rapidly fluctuating and contain harmonic frequencies. The overall electrification system EMI levels need
to be limited to protect the system itself and the wayside facilities, including signaling circuits, communications circuits, and
equipment adjacent to the system right-of way from potentially harmful effect of the EMI.
The EMI from traction power substation is localized and usually does not present a significant problem. The EMI from the
distribution system is usually more significant. Since the distribution system extends for many miles, the electromagnetic
induction and its possible adverse effects are a function of the disturbing current magnitude and the length of exposure. The
EMI from rolling stock may affect the signaling, communications and other wayside equipment it transverses.
In the direct-fed system, all traction power supply and return currents are flowing from the substations along the entire
substation-to-switching station length. In the autotransformer-fed system, the traction power supply and return currents tend
to be confined between the much closer-spaced paralleling stations and switching stations.
The substation-to-switching station length in the direct-fed system is usually significantly longer than the spacing between
paralleling stations and switching stations in the autotransformer-fed system. Therefore, since the traction current flows over
greater distances in the direct center fed system than is the case in the autotransformer-fed system, there is a likelihood of
higher electromagnetic induction and possible interference into wayside facilities with the direct center fed system than is the
case with the autotransformer-fed system.
Additionally, the electromagnetic interference in the autotransformer-fed system is reduced by the presence of the
autotransformer feeder. As the currents in the feeder and catenary systems are 180° out-of-phase, the currents in the two
conductors travel in opposite directions, and the electromagnetic fields of the conductors cancel each other out and contribute
to lower levels of EMI.
In the direct-fed system the booster transformers can be used to mitigate the EMI in circumstances where other EMI reduction
is not effective due to special local conditions.
6.4.6 VOLTAGE RISE ALONG THE RETURN SYSTEM (2009)
Voltage rise along the return rails is a function of the return current magnitude, the rail resistance, and the length of the return
circuit. Increased potentials along the rails cause increased voltages between rolling stock and platform, and possible
discomfort for passengers boarding the trains.
In the direct-fed system all traction return currents from trains flows back to the substations along the entire substation-to-
switching station length. In the autotransformer-fed system, the return current from trains flows between the much closer-
spaced paralleling stations and switching stations.
Leakage of part of the current from the rails to ground can be often ignored for the purpose of rail potential rise calculation to
err on the safe side. Since the voltage rise along the rails is a function of the return current magnitude and the length of current
flow, the potential rise along the rails is higher in the direct-fed system than in the autotransformer-fed system. The rail
potential rise can be minimized by periodical grounding of rails at cross-bond locations, with due consideration to broken rail
protection, and by provision of parallel feeders.
6.4.7 ACHIEVING COST EFFECTIVE ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM DESIGN (2009)
During a typical preliminary design effort, the substation, paralleling station, and switching station locations are adjusted, the
traction power transformer and autotransformer ratings modified, and the size of the distribution conductors changed to obtain
optimum performance of the overall system.

For example, longer substation spacing will result in lower train voltages along the distribution system, higher currents in the
distribution system, and higher substation power demands. Alternatively, shorter substation spacing will result in higher train
voltages along the distribution system, lower currents in the distribution system, and lower substation power demands.
Locations of suitable utility feed points and available real estate are factors that also must be considered.
The most satisfactory and suitable combination of the technical parameters and the most economic design is achieved by
conducting system studies. The studies should evaluate the traction power system performance, its impact on the serving
utility, and its impact on the wayside facilities that may or may not belong to the railroad.
Often, an iterative process needs to be employed. In this process, an initial system design is studied first, and if system
performance objectives are not met, adjustments to the system parameters are made, and the system performance is examined
again with the new parameters. Frequently, several repeats of the system studies are required to obtain the most desirable
combination of technical parameters at the lowest overall system cost.
SECTION 6.5 SYSTEM STUDIES
6.5.1 GENERAL (2009)
The system studies described in this section are recommended to be performed for each new electrification system design and
for extensions and modifications of existing systems. The studies should be performed at various stages of design as
discussed. 1
6.5.2 TRAIN OPERATION SIMULATION AND LOAD-FLOW STUDY (2009)
The purpose of train operation simulation and load-flow study is to develop an overall traction electrification design. The
design should define spacing of traction electrification system facilities and develop rating of major items of equipment, such
as circuit breakers, transformers, underground cables, and distribution system conductors. As a minimum, the output of the
study should include voltage profile along the alignment, currents in the distribution system conductors, and substation
3
transformer power demands. The study is recommended to be performed during preliminary design.
6.5.3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE STUDY (2009)
The distribution system conductors of appropriate sizes and materials need to be selected to deliver sufficient power to the
rolling stock without causing excessive voltage drop along the electrification system and without conductor overheating. 4
Based on the distribution conductor currents developed in the Traction Power System Load-Flow Study, the conductor
temperature profile versus time should be developed and the maximum temperature achieved compared with the conductor
manufacturer’s recommendation. Comparison of the conductor ampacity to the current RMS value is not considered
sufficiently accurate. The study is recommended to be performed during preliminary design.
6.5.4 POWER AND ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT COMPATIBILITY STUDY (2009)
Each electrification project is likely to require some investigation into the impact of electromagnetic interference. Rolling
stock, the systems components, and equipment along the electrified railroad right-of-way can be subjected to potentially
harmful inductive and conductive interference. A comprehensive system-wide compatibility study should be performed on
every new electrification project. The study should take into account the rolling stock and the systems equipment, including
the traction electrification system, the signal system, the communications system, and the fare collection system.
Concerns have also been raised regarding harmful effects of electromagnetic fields. No conclusive research has proved this to
be an issue and at the present time, the United States has no national standards which establish acceptable limits of

electromagnetic field strengths. Several states have adopted guidelines and regulations and these should be followed in states
where electrification is planned. Also, it is recommended that the designer follows guidelines established by other
professional or regulatory organizations, such as the World Health Organization (Environmental Health Criteria), the
International Non-Ionizing Radiation Committee (INIRC) of the International Radiation Protection Association (IRPA), and
the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
The study is recommended to be initiated during the preliminary engineering effort and should be periodically updated
throughout the project duration. A study following introduction of revenue service is recommended using the same
procedures as the baseline study. Comparison of the studies may be used for evaluation of need for any additional possible
EMI mitigation measures.
6.5.5 VOLTAGE FLICKER STUDY (2009)
When traction power substation connection points to the power utility system are evaluated, utility voltage flicker study should
be performed. The study should determine the response of the utility system to the fluctuating traction loads and verify the
utility system capability to satisfactorily supply the electrification system. The study should be performed during preliminary
design stage of the project.
6.5.6 PHASE UNBALANCE STUDY (2009)
A single-phase traction load unbalances the three-phase utility system and causes negative sequence current flows in power
generators and three phase motors. These currents produce additional heating in the machine rotors.
ANSI C50.13 and NEMA MG-1 standards cover continuous and short time negative sequence current capability for
cylindrical rotor synchronous generators. Rotating machines should withstand the effects of continuous negative sequence
current of 5-10 % of rated stator current without injury. On a short time basis, the magnitude of product I22 t should not exceed
40 for motors, hydraulic turbine or engine driven generators, 30 for indirectly cooled turbine generators, 10 for directly cooled
generators up to 800 MVA and 5 for some very large machines, e.g. 1,600 MVA. I2 is the negative sequence current in per unit
of machine rated current and t is time in seconds.
The unbalance limits should always be agreed with the power utilities. For example, in a recent railroad electrification study
in the USA, the following limits were used:
• Voltage unbalance at the point of substation connection to power utility: 3%
• Negative sequence current in generators: 5%
Comparisons of the study results with the accepted limits will reveal whether the system phase unbalance is acceptable. In the
event that the voltage and current unbalance does exceed the accepted limits, the unbalance can be reduced by allocating
power feeding to alternate phases of the supply system at successive substations and by the use of phase balancers. The study
should be performed during preliminary design stage of the project.
6.5.7 HARMONIC DISTORTION AND SYSTEM RESONANCE STUDY (2009)
Thyristor control equipment on board of rolling stock causes harmonic current flows which cause additional voltage drops in
the system, distortion of utility system voltages, and increase in heating of rotating plant and capacitors. Harmonic currents in
the OCS may also induce noise in control, telecommunication, and signal circuits. In systems with appreciable susceptance, a
particular harmonic may coincide with the natural frequency of the system and cause system resonance which will in turn
produce additional distorted currents and voltages.
IEEE Standard 519 recommends the maximum permissible limits for individual single harmonic distortion and total harmonic
distortion (THD). It is recommended that the IEEE Std. 519 distortion limits recommendations are followed with the power
utility agreement.

Comparisons of the study results with the accepted limits will reveal whether the system current and voltage harmonic
distortion are acceptable. In the event that the harmonics exceed the accepted limits, the distortion can be improved by the
application of on-board or wayside filter circuits. When modern rolling stock with IGBT drives is used, the harmonics are
likely to be low and the actual necessity for such measures is regarded as rare. The study should be performed during
preliminary design stage of the project.
6.5.8 SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY (2009)
Short circuit study should be performed during preliminary design to select appropriate impedance of traction power
transformers and short circuit current interrupting capability of wayside circuit breakers and switchgear. Further, results of the
study are used for ground grid design, arc-flash hazard study, and protective device coordination study.
6.5.9 ARC-FLASH HAZARD STUDY (2009)
Arc-flash hazard study on substation switchgear should be based on the short circuit study. The study should determine
calculated incident energy at various distances from the equipment and identify the calculated flash protection boundaries.
The study should include requirements of OSHA 29 9CFR, NFPA 70E, NEC and IEEE Std. 1584 and should provide
recommendation on personnel protection equipment (PPE) and appropriate labeling of equipment. The study should be
performed during final design stage of the project.
6.5.10 INSULATION COORDINATION STUDY (2009)
An overall system insulation coordination study is recommended to be performed for each new electrification system design.
The study should be performed to protect the rolling stock, the traction electrification system, the signal system, the
1
communications system, and the fare collection system from excessive overvoltages primarily caused by lightning strikes and
switching surges. The study is recommended to be performed during the final engineering phase of a project.
6.5.11 PROTECTIVE DEVICE COORDINATION STUDY (2009)
The protective device coordination study should ensure that all protective relays are selected, applied, and set to disconnect 3
faulted equipment out of the circuit following a short circuit without affecting any healthy equipment. The study is
recommended to be performed during the final engineering phase of a project.
6.5.12 ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION CONTROL STUDY (2009)
The purpose of the atmospheric corrosion control study is to protect the railroad systems and their surroundings from
atmospheric corrosion impact which can cause failure, increased maintenance costs, and reduced aesthetics. The study is
4
recommended to be performed during the final engineering phase of a project.
6.5.13 GEOTECHNICAL STUDY (2009)
Soil conditions along the right-of-way should be determined by using existing known data. The purpose of the study is to
determine the locations and number of soil borings required for design of foundations and footings for the system facilities.

SECTION 6.6 SYSTEM DESIGN
The traction electrification system equipment should be designed for a minimum functional life expectancy of thirty (30)
years. For that purpose a Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) plan in compliance with ISO-9001 should be
established and followed in all phases of system design. During design stage, the quality of work should be monitored by
performing reviews of submittals and conducting design review meetings.
All traction electrification system equipment should be designed to maintain sufficient voltage levels at the rolling stock
current collection devices without overloading and overheating of any of the system equipment.
The design must take into account the effects of the highly fluctuating pattern of traction current, the phase-to-phase utility
connections, the frequent distribution system faults, and the harmonic content and power factor of the traction loads to ensure
minimal impact on the power supply utility system and wayside equipment.
The overall system insulation needs to be coordinated to ensure that the voltage surges caused by lightning strikes to the
system and circuit breaker switching operations do not damage the system equipment.
The systems must not cause electromagnetic interference affecting wayside signal and communications circuits. The traction
electrification system design must be compatible with the other systems, including the signal, communication, and fare
collection systems.
6.6.2 STANDARDS, CODES, AND REGULATIONS (2009)
All design work, material selection, installation, testing, and construction should conform to, or exceed, the requirements of
the latest editions of standards and codes issued by the following organizations:
Aluminum Association of America AAA

American Hot Dip Galvanizers Association AHDGA
American Institute of Steel Construction AISC
American Iron & Steel Institute AISI
American National Standards Institute ANSI
American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME
American Society for Testing & Materials ASTM
American Welding Society AWS
Association of American Railroads AAR
Building Officials Conference of America BOCA
Construction Specifications Institute CSI
Illuminating Engineering Society IES
Industrial Fasteners Institute IFI
Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers IEEE
Instrument Society of America ISA
Insulated Cable Engineers Association ICEA
National Association of Corrosion Engineers NACE
National Board of Fire Underwriters NBFU
National Electrical Code NEC

National Electrical Contractor's Association NECA

National Electrical Manufacturers Association NEMA
National Electrical Testing Association NETA
National Electrical Safety Code NESC
National Fire Protection Association NFPA
Occupational Safety and Health Administration OSHA
Steel Structures Painting Council SSPC
Underwriters Laboratories UL
Additionally, the system must also meet the applicable state, county, and city codes and regulations.
6.6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS (2009)
Environmental considerations include the impact of environment onto the electrification system and the impact of the
electrification system on the environment. The adverse impacts of both factors should be limited as much as economically
possible.
6.6.3.1 Climatic Conditions
The traction electrification system should be designed taking into account the climatic conditions in the project locale. The
climatic conditions should include the maximum and minimum values for the following parameters:
1
• Maximum and minimum ambient temperature (°F)
• Maximum ice thickness (inches)
• 24-hour rainfall (inches)

3
• Maximum and minimum relative humidity (%)
• Maximum wind speed (mph)
• Altitude above sea level (feet)
• Existence of any corrosive atmosphere, such as salt spray 4

The climatic factors at the project altitude should be used as the design guidelines. The climatic factors should be given for the
system operating conditions and structural design, and should be derived from publicly-available data recorded in the project
locale.
6.6.3.2 Environmental Impact Statement
If federally funded, the electrification project is likely to require an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). The factors which
will have to be addressed include protection of natural resources during construction and operation, soil erosion and
sedimentation, air quality improvement, wetlands, wildlife, noise and vibration, and aesthetic impact. Adverse effects on the
environment should be limited as much as is economically possible. In order to avoid regulatory delays, it is recommended
that the EIS be prepared as soon as possible after the project commencement. All possible candidate sites for substations,
paralleling stations, and switching stations should be included in the environmental impact study of the project.

6.6.4 SERVICE CONDITIONS (2009)
It is recommended that the following service conditions be identified in the equipment specifications:
• Indoor or outdoor installation requirement
• Seismic levels or vibrations from passing trains
• Short circuit duty at utility substations and line tapping points
• Short circuit duty at the traction transformer secondary windings
• Rolling stock harmonic frequency spectrum magnitude and power factor
6.6.5 EQUIPMENT DESIGN (2009)
Traction power equipment is generally located in unmanned substations, paralleling stations, and switching stations, and
therefore, the equipment should be simple and reliable. The equipment should be designed considering ease of access for
testing and maintenance.
6.6.5.1 Basic Impulse Insulation Level
An insulation coordination study is recommended to be performed for all voltage levels in the traction power substations, so
that suitable Basic Insulation Level (BIL) and appropriate surge arresters can be selected. The primary voltage equipment
BIL, applicable to HV circuit breakers, HV disconnect switches and transformer primary windings, must be fully coordinated
with the utility system BIL. The low (secondary) voltage system BIL, applicable to transformer secondary windings and
switchgear, is recommended to be as shown below:
Electrification Voltage (kV) Minimum Equipment BIL (kV)

12.5 150
25 200
50 450
The surge arresters and surge protecting devices should be applied in accordance with IEEE C62 series of standards.
6.6.5.2 Tests
Comprehensive tests should be specified for all substation equipment including design, production and installation verification
tests in accordance with the relevant IEEE, ANSI and NEMA standards. When large numbers of equipment are being
purchased under the same contract, the buyer should reserve the right to repeat the basic acceptance tests on a random sample
of the batch in order to maintain quality control.
6.6.5.3 Spare Parts, Special Tools and Test Equipment
All traction power supply equipment is recommended to be ordered with a full complement of spare parts, special tools and
test equipment in sufficient quantity to last two years after equipment acceptance. The procurement documents should request
guaranteed cost of additional equipment for an order executed within the two years.
6.6.5.4 Documentation
Each manufacturer should be required by specification to furnish a comprehensive set of documentation with the delivered
equipment. This documentation is recommended to include product data, fully dimensioned drawings including weights and
erection details, preventive maintenance, corrective maintenance and heavy repair manuals, test procedures, and test results.

6.6.6 HIGH (PRIMARY) VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND DISCONNECT SWITCHES

(2009)
Selection of high (primary) voltage circuit breakers, disconnect switches and protective equipment is governed by the circuit
voltage level and short circuit fault level existing at the particular electrical power utility supply. The high voltage supply
arrangement and protection should be designed in accordance with the power utility practices and should be reviewed by the
power utility. The high voltage circuit breakers and disconnect switches should be installed in accordance with IEEE C37
series of standards.
6.6.7 TRACTION POWER TRANSFORMERS (2009)
Consideration should be given to specifying traction power transformers for a particular project with the same characteristics
to standardize design and maintenance, and permit equipment interchangeability. The traction power transformers should be
installed in accordance with IEEE C57 series of standards.
6.6.7.1 Continuous and Overload Current Ratings
Substation transformers should be rated on the basis of the Load Flow Study results. Each transformer must be rated to supply
continuously its own load under normal operating conditions, together with the additional load of the adjacent electrical
section under a transformer or substation outage. Because of the traction load fluctuation, it is recommended that the
transformers should be specified to supply the rated power continuously with superimposed overload cycle equal to 150% of
continuous rating for 2 hours and 300% of continuous rating for 5 minutes without significant reduction of service life
expectancy.
1
It is recommended that transformer rating includes spare capacity for future increases in train sizes or number of trains in
operation.
6.6.7.2 Temperature Rise
The IEEE standard recommends that the transformer winding temperature rise above ambient temperature, based on its
continuous rating, should not be permitted to exceed 65°C using resistance measurements. However, due to the fluctuating 3
nature of the traction current and the presence of harmonics, the designer may use a lower value. The winding hottest-spot
temperature rise should not be permitted to exceed 80°C.
6.6.7.3 Harmonics
Rolling stock with thyristor-controlled propulsion equipment can generate significant levels of frequency harmonics.
Harmonic currents increase the total RMS current loading of the traction power substation and power utility equipment, and
4
therefore, produce additional heating. Coordination with the vehicle design team is recommended especially if on-board
filtering equipment is being considered. It is recommended that the transformer specifications include the projected RMS
current values of all harmonics expressed as a percentage of fundamental frequency. As a minimum, harmonics from the third
through the twenty-first harmonic should be included.
6.6.7.4 Impedance
The selected value of transformer impedance must be low enough to avoid excessive voltage drop in order to obtain long
substation feeding distances. The impedance should not be too low, however, as this would affect the economy of transformer
and low voltage switchgear design. Judgment based on engineering and economic factors is required to obtain the optimum
value.

6.6.7.5 Core and Windings
The fluctuating load currents and relatively high incidence of heavy fault currents produce pulsating forces and mechanical
stresses in the transformer windings. These forces and stresses may cause axial and radial movement of the coils and eventual
transformer failure. It is recommended that the specifications include the requirement for augmented mechanical strength of
the transformer core and include an internal bracing system for windings. Winding and tap connections should be located to
minimize their movement and damage.
6.6.7.6 Voltage Ratios and Tap Changers
It is recommended that the transformer no-load voltage ratio at a normal tap position be for "nominal voltage plus 5%." For
example, for 25 kV system the transformer secondary voltage is recommended to be set at 26.25 kV. This allows for utility
voltage variation of +5% without exceeding the normal upper voltage of 27.5 kV. It is recommended that four (4) no-load taps
in 2.5% increments, two (2) below and two (2) above the normal tap be provided to permit such adjustments.
In locations where the utility voltage varies in wide ranges, application of transformer load tap changer may be considered.
However, since load changers increase the transformer maintenance, their operation should be limited only to adjust for utility
voltage variation and their operation should be precluded due to voltage drop caused by passing trains.
6.6.7.7 Oil Preservation and Pressurization System
It is recommended that each transformer be equipped with oil expansion tanks and an inert gas pressure system along with
appropriate gauges, alarms and safety valves. Removable radiators are recommended to facilitate maintenance. The large
volume (several hundred gallons) of cooling oil in the transformer tank and radiators creates a large heat sink that can absorb
significant overloads under cyclic loading without any adverse effects on the transformer. The transformers should be
installed with appropriate oil containment provisions to minimize environmental damage in the event of a leak in the tank or
radiators.
6.6.7.8 Noise Level
The specifications should include maximum exterior noise levels, in accordance with IEEE/ANSI Standards, if the transformer
is to be located in a populated area.
6.6.7.9 Acceptance Tests
Short circuit tests should be considered an essential part of the acceptance procedure, due to the operating environment of the
transformer. Tests should be run for each primary voltage type and each rating of the transformers.
6.6.8 MEDIUM (SECONDARY) VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR (2009)
The OCS is susceptible to frequent short circuit faults and, therefore, switchgear with vacuum or sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
circuit breakers is recommended. The circuit breakers should be capable of several hundred operations at short circuit current
levels and several thousand operations at rated current levels. The medium voltage switchgear should be applied in
accordance with IEEE C37 series of standards.
6.6.8.1 Switchgear Type
Whenever voltage rating permits, metal-clad switchgear assemblies with horizontal draw-out circuit breakers are
recommended. The switchgear should be located in metal or brick housings and installed in dead-front, floor-mounted, free-
standing cubicles. Indoor, fixed, metal-enclosed switchgear or outdoor circuit breakers are recommended alternatives to the
metal-clad, draw-out circuit breaker type switchgear.

6.6.8.2 Ratings
Switchgear and circuit breakers are recommended to be rated on a symmetrical current basis as recommended by the
IEEE/ANSI C37 series of standards. The continuous and overload ratings of feeder switchgear should be compatible with the
overhead conductor ampacity and the traction transformer rating. The incoming and bus-tie switchgear are recommended to
be rated at a higher continuous current rating than the feeder switchgear.
The switchgear must be able to carry the short circuit current for sufficient time to enable the protective relaying to operate.
Once the switchgear is required to open, current interruption should be fast without restrike due to transient voltage recovery.
6.6.9 SYSTEM PROTECTION (2009)
6.6.9.1 Transformer Protection
Each traction power transformer is recommended to be equipped with phase and ground fault overcurrent relays and
differential relays. Two stage winding temperature relay alarms should be provided, which should be designed to provide an
alarm at lower excess temperature level and to open the low voltage circuit breaker at higher excess temperature. A two-stage
sudden pressure relay for internal transformer faults should initiate an alarm for gas accumulation and trip out the transformer
with an oil surge.
6.6.9.2 Catenary Protection
The catenary system can experience high peak load currents and low fault currents which can be comparable in magnitude.
This precludes the use of overcurrent type protection, as overcurrent relaying cannot distinguish between the high load and 1
low fault currents.
The most feasible solution for catenary protection is the use of distance relaying. This form of protection is comparatively
simple to apply, is of high speed class, and provides primary and back up facilities inherent in a single scheme. The distance
relay measures impedance along the protected line and is arranged to operate for faults between the relay location and a
selected point. The relay reach is usually divided into three protection zones, thus enabling time discrimination for faults in
different line sections. 3
Faults occurring in the Zone 1 are recommended to be cleared with no intentional time delay. Zones 2 and 3 should have
adjustable time delays and train start detection feature using di/dt, dv/dt, and dφ/dt trigger conditions to prevent the distance
relay operation under train accelerating current. Further, it is recommended that the relay be equipped with circular and
polygonal tripping characteristic with independently adjustable line resistance, line reactance, and “load blinding” settings to
prevent the relay operation on train load.
4
A high proportion of catenary faults will clear once the circuit breaker is opened and the air in the fault location is de-ionized.
Depending on the railroad operating practices, use of an auto-reclosing operating device can be considered. Such a relay will
reclose the circuit breaker after an interval of 3 to 15 seconds, if not manually overridden. In the case of persistent faults, the
circuit breaker will latch out on the second or third opening.
In addition to distance relaying, consideration should also be given to thermal overload protection which prevents the system
conductors from overheating and possible annealing. In order to accelerate the fault clearance, and in special circumstances,
where sufficiently high short circuit currents are not available to clear remote faults, transfer trip of remote circuit breakers
using pilot wire or fiber optic communication can be considered.
Catenary system protection must be immune to system harmonics and must ensure full discrimination of protective devices.
The protection must also provide a complete back up in the case of breaker or relay failure and be inoperative under inrush of
magnetizing current to autotransformers and rolling stock on-board transformers.

6.6.9.3 Overvoltage Protection
It is recommended to provide comprehensive overvoltage to protect the traction power supply system and its components from
overvoltages caused by lightning strikes or switching surges. The protective equipment should include appropriately rated
surge arresters and transient voltage surge suppressors. The grounding connection should be as short as possible and without
unnecessary bends in the grounding wire. Recommended standards for application of surge protection include Underwriters
Laboratories, UL 96A, National Fire Protection Agency’s NFPA 780, and Lightning Protection Institute’s LPI 175.
6.6.10 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT (2009)
6.6.10.1 Load Balancing Equipment
In the event that at a particular location the power utility short circuit level is low and the traction load is high, utility system
voltage and current unbalance may exceed the unbalance limit. Although this is a relatively rare phenomenon, the high
unbalance can be corrected by using static or dynamic load balancing equipment.
6.6.10.2 Power Factor Correction and Harmonic Frequency Filtering
Design of equipment such as power factor correction capacitors and harmonic frequency filters should take into consideration
the presence of voltages and currents at harmonic frequencies. It is recommended that the traction power design should take
into account harmonics caused by traction loads as well as harmonics that may be already present on the utility system. With
increased frequency of harmonics the capacitor impedance decreases and the capacitors may become overloaded and
overheated.
6.6.11 SIGNAL POWER GENERATING SYSTEM (2009)
The signal power supply system can be supplied by the local power utility or from the traction power system substations and
switching stations. Trackside signal power supply points usually include a motor/generator set or a solid state converter and
associated transformers, control and protective equipment.
The system specifications should include limits on frequency and voltage variations. In order to maintain continuous power
supply, back-up generators or converters should be provided for a trackside system with automatic power transfer equipment
enabling transfer from main to back up supply during emergencies. For direct utility supply, it is recommended that dual
supply lines should be installed with automatic transfer equipment. Depending on the signaling system, the restoration of
signal power is required to be achieved in a specified time to avoid interfering with normal train operation.
6.6.12 SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM (SCADA) (2009)
The use of a computer-based SCADA system is recommended for monitoring and control of the unmanned traction power
supply, signaling power supply and system sectioning facilities. As a minimum the system should incorporate the following
features:
• Remote control of all circuit breakers, motor-operated disconnect switches and electrical lockout relays
• Status indication of all circuit breakers, disconnect switches and grounding switches
• Status indication of protective relaying, ac auxiliary power equipment and dc auxiliary power equipment including
the station battery and battery charger
• Status of communication system
• Enable/disable automatic reclosing of circuit breakers

• Metering of ac and dc voltages, currents, real power (kWs), reactive power (kVArs), and energy consumption
(kWhs)
• Maximum demand prediction
• Recording of maintenance clearance permits and maintenance status
• Work permit, power removal and out of service equipment tagging
• Catenary power removal coordination with railroad operations and track blocking
• Annunciation of circuit breaker tripping and low substation voltages
• Annunciation of facility intrusion and smoke/fire alarms
• Sequence of events recording
• Voice communication
Depending on the system size, it is recommended that the SCADA system be equipped with one or more color visual display
units which may be supplemented with modular or rear projection screens for large systems. It is also recommended that the
selection and de-selection of equipment and control command transmittal be performed from the computer keyboards. In
order to facilitate SCADA system maintenance, software changes, and to avoid disruption of service due to failures,
duplication of the SCADA system is recommended at each railroad control center.
1
SECTION 6.7 UTILITY METERING
6.7.1 TYPICAL RATE STRUCTURE (2009) 3

Every power utility company has a different rate structure with the same or similar components. A typical rate structure for
provision of electrical power to the railroad may consist of the following:
• Energy charge - includes charge for energy consumed over a billing period of time. The energy charge may or may
not use ratchets.
4
• Fuel cost adjustment - includes adjustment for fuel cost variation.
• Demand charge - covers the utility generation and transmission costs. The demand charge may or may not use
ratchets.
• Dedicated utility facility cost - covers major connection costs.
• Miscellaneous charges - may include connection charges, and penalties for low power factor and excessive phase
unbalance.
• Discounts - may include high voltage service and off-peak usage discounts.

6.7.2 LOCATION OF METERING EQUIPMENT (2009)
The metering equipment can be located on the substation high (primary) voltage side or at the traction power transformer
secondary. The primary voltage metering requires more expensive HV potential and current transformers, while the low
(secondary) voltage metering is more complex as it must compensate for transformer losses. Overall, the secondary voltage
metering system is less expensive and therefore is recommended whenever permitted by the utilities.
6.7.3 BILLING CONCEPTS (2009)
Each power utility may have a different rate structure and the tariff applied to a railroad electrification supply has to be
negotiated. It is recommended that the billing concepts presented in this section be included in such negotiations.
6.7.3.1 Conjunctive Billing
Coincidental or conjunctive billing is applicable when several substations are supplied by the same utility. Due to the fact that
the train load moves along the alignment, peak demands on individual substations are unlikely to occur simultaneously.
Therefore, coincident power demand measured at several substations during the maximum demand period is likely to be lower
than the sum of maximum demands as measured individually at each substation. Considerable billing savings can be realized
by totaling the power demands of several substations at coincidental time interval.
6.7.3.2 Time-of-Day and Time-of-Year Pricing
These pricing concepts are designed to charge a higher rate during peak-load periods and lower rates at other times.
6.7.4 RATE STRUCTURE NEGOTIATION (2009)
It is recommended that the electrification system owner begin early discussions with the power utilities to negotiate the most
advantageous electrical rate structure and identify any possible connection costs. It is recommended that during the
negotiations the system owner is supported by technical staff as well as by an experienced rate structure attorney to achieve
most advantageous tariff for the expected load.
SECTION 6.8 CONSTRUCTION
6.8.1 QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY CONTROL (2009)
The Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) program established at the commencement of the design stage should be
maintained. During manufacturing and construction stages of the project it is recommended to monitor the quality of work by
observing manufacture, inspecting construction, and witnessing factory and field tests.
6.8.2 INSTALLATION VERIFICATION TESTING (2009)
Field tests should be performed to verify that the system has been correctly installed and that there are no equipment
incompatibilities. Verification that all equipment is installed according to the design and is in operable condition should be
performed prior to conducting the field tests, including:
• Visual inspection of equipment.
• Calibration and adjustments of protective relays and instruments.

• Connection check of feeders and disconnect switches.
• High potential feeder insulation check.
The following tests are recommended:
• Substation grounding resistance test
• Substation equipment, power cables, and control wiring dielectric tests
• Substation equipment functional and operational tests
• Substation Infrared temperature measurement of all busbar connections, cable splices
• Substation relay coordination and calibration tests including short circuit tests:
– Line-to-rail short circuit, local and remote, bolted and high-resistance
– Line-to-ground short circuit, local and remote, bolted and high-resistance
• Substation audible sound-level test while two trains are starting at full acceleration
6.8.3 SYSTEM-WIDE INTEGRATION TESTING (2009)

1
System-wide integration tests should be performed to verify that the traction power supply, the traction power distribution, and
the traction power return systems have been correctly integrated with the rolling stock, signal system, and communications
system, and that there are no system incompatibilities.
The following tests are recommended:
• Train Operation Tests. The test should be performed with all substations in service and with one substation out-of- 3
service. As a minimum, following data should be measured and recorded the during the tests:
– Train voltage
– Train current
– All feeder circuit breaker currents at three adjacent substations 4

• Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System. Following installation of the SCADA system and
communications system, interface tests should be conducted to verify the following:
– Proper operation of all SCADA equipment.
– Proper data communications to and from each PLC.
6.8.4 PRE-REVENUE OPERATION TESTING (2009)
Following satisfactory completion of all individual equipment tests, system installation verification testing, and system-wide
integration testing, a system pre-revenue operation test should be conducted.
During the test, rolling stock consists should be operated at minimum headways and the following functions monitored and
recorded:

• All substation equipment parameters at three adjacent substations
• All SCADA functions for satisfactory operation, including:
– All control functions from the Control Console and remotely located PC
– All monitoring functions
– All measuring functions

33
Part 7
Rail Bonding1
— 1994 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 Method of Determining Rail Bond Sizes – Electric Traction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-3

7.1.1 General (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-3
7.2 Specification for Stud Terminal Copper Rail Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-6

7.2.1 General (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-6 1
7.2.2 Terms (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-6
7.2.3 Manufacture (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-8
7.2.4 Physical Properties and Tests (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-9
7.2.5 Standard Dimensions (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-9
7.2.6 Packing (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-10
7.2.7 Inspection and Rejection (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-10 3
7.2.8 Guarantee (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-10
7.3 Specification for Welded Type Rail Head U-bonds and Extended Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
7.3.1 Purpose (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
7.3.2 Drawings (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
7.3.3 Tender (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
7.3.4 Alternates (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
7.3.5 Material and Workmanship (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
7.3.6 Design (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
7.3.7 Conductors (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
7.3.8 Terminals (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-13
7.3.9 Identification (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-13
7.3.10 Resistance of Installed Bonds (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-13
7.3.11 Purchaser’s Order Requirements (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-14
7.3.12 Inspection (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-14
7.3.13 Tests (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-14
7.3.14 Marking (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-15
7.3.15 Warranty (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-15
7.4 Specification for Rail-head Pin-type Bonds and Track Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-15

7.5 Specification for Thermite Type Welded Rail-head Bonds and Track Connectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.5.1 Purpose (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.5.2 Drawings (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.5.3 Tender (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.5.4 Material and Workmanship (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
7.5.5 Design (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-18
7.5.6 Conductors (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-18
7.5.7 Terminals (Sleeve or Other Device Supplied by Manufacturer) (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-19
7.5.8 Attaching Metal (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-19
7.5.9 Identification (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-19
7.5.10 Resistance of Installed Bonds (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-19
7.5.11 Purchaser’s Order Requirements (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-20
7.5.12 Inspection (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-20
7.5.13 Tests (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-20
7.5.14 Packing (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-20
7.5.15 Marking (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
7.5.16 Warranty (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
7.6 Specification for Copper Thermite Welded Electrical Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21

7.6.1 Purpose (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
7.6.2 Drawings (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
7.6.3 Tender (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-21
7.6.4 Material and Workmanship (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-24
7.6.5 Design (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-24
7.6.6 Conductors (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-24
7.6.7 At taching Metal (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-26
7.6.8 Resistance of Installed Connections (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-26
7.6.9 Purchaser’s Order Requirements (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-26
7.6.10 Inspection (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-26
7.6.11 Tests (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-27
7.6.12 Packing (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-27
7.6.13 Marking (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-27
7.6.14 Warranty (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-27
LIST OF FIGURES
33-7-1 Sample Bonded System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-5

33-7-2 Ohms Resistance of Splice Bars per Joint in Parallel with Bonds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-7
33-7-3 Extended Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
33-7-4 U-bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-11
33-7-5 Showing Points of Measurement for Determining Installed Bond Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-12
33-7-6 Replacement Drawing 1048. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-16
33-7-7 Concentric Construction – Stranded Conductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-17
33-7-8 Rope Lay Construction – Stranded Conductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-18
33-7-9 Copper Cable Weld to Horizontal Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22

Rail Bonding
33-7-10 Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22

33-7-11 Cable Weld to Vertical Ground Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22
33-7-12 Splice of Vertical Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22
33-7-13 Splice Weld of Copper Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22
33-7-14 “T” Weld of Copper Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-22
33-7-15 Splice Weld of Flexible or Extra-Flexible Insulated Copper Cables – Copper Ferrules used
for Added Mechanical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-23
33-7-16 Lug Weld of Flexible or Extra-Flexible Insulated Copper Cables to Copper Bus Lug –
Copper Ferrule used for Add Mechanical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-23
33-7-17 Splice Welds of Catenary Feeder Cables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-23
33-7-18 Lugs Welds of Catenary Switch Terminal Lugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-23
33-7-19 Multiple Cable Lug Weld to Impedance Bond Terminal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-24
33-7-20 Typical Grounding System for Oil Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-25
LIST OF TABLES
33-7-1 Specification for Stud Terminal Rail Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-9

33-7-2 Dimensions of Drift Pins and Taper Punches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-10 1
33-7-3 Conductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-13
33-7-4 Electrical Resistance – Microhms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-14
33-7-5 Amp Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-19
33-7-6 Cable Stranding Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7-24
SECTION 7.1 METHOD OF DETERMINING RAIL BOND SIZES – ELECTRIC TRACTION
7.1.1 GENERAL (1994)

a. When discussing the bonding of running rails for an electrified system certain contributing factors must be assumed to 4
have already been studied and decided upon. These factors would involve a study of the overall system from an
economic and performance standpoint and would include:
(1) Spacing and location of substations.
(2) Maximum allowable voltage drop for operation of motors.
(a) Desired drop in overload feeders involving study of cost of copper.
(b) Desired drop in return system involving study of electrolysis and stray currents.
(3) Weight of rail.
(4) Single rail propulsion system or double rail propulsion system with impedance bonds.
(5) Multiple track cross bonded or single track operation.

b. The size and type of rail bonds would now be a matter of keeping allowable voltage drop in the return system at its
proper limit, using bonds which are heavy and strong enough to carry the full load current and withstand normal
vibration fatigue and mechanical damage.
c. The voltage drop in the system would equal the voltage at the substation minus the voltage at the load. The maximum
allowable voltage drop would occur at a point maximum distance from the substation while maximum current was
being drawn or:
VMD = VOR + VRSD

= IMAX ZOF + IMAX ZRS
where:
VMD = Maximum voltage drop

VOFD = Voltage drop in overhead and feeders at maximum current
VRSD = Voltage drop in return system
IMAX = Maximum current
ZOF = Impedance of overhead and feeders
ZRS = Impedance of return system
Also:
ZRS = ZT + ZB
where:
ZT = Impedance of track
ZB = Impedance of bonds
NOTE: This assumes that there is no auxiliary return in parallel with the track. Auxiliary returns are rarely
used and should be unnecessary with proper design.
d. For example, assume a system to be bonded as follows (see Figure 33-7-1).
Maximum distance between substations 15 miles. Three thousand-volt d-c system. Maximum allowance voltage drop
500 volts. Maximum starting load current 1,500 amperes. One hundred and thirty-pound rail. Double rail propulsion
with impedance bonds. Double track operation cross bonded at every other impedance bond location. Maximum
unbalance in rails 10% for proper operation of signal system. Signals to operate at 60-cycle a-c. After a study of local
terrain and cost of copper, ratio of voltage drop desirable in return circuit to overhead feeder circuit approximately 1 to
4. All calculations made are assuming no help from paralleling splice bars. This will in all cases give results which will
over bond because the splice bars are always in place and giving help in actual operation, allowing a large margin of
safety.
Therefore:
VMD = 500 V
IMAX = 1,500 A

Rail Bonding
Figure 33-7-1. Sample Bonded System

1
e. Since it is a d-c system the only impedance would be the d-c resistance of the component parts.
ZOF = ROF
ZRS = RRS
3
ZT = RT
ZB = R B
f. At the 1 to 4 ratio, voltage drop in overhead and feeders:
500 × 3 4
V OFD = ------------------ = 375V = I MAX R OF
4
V RSD = 500 – 375 = 125V = I MAX R RS
V RSD 125
R RS = -------------- = ------------ = 0.0834 Ohms
I MAX 1500
g. With four rails in parallel, resistance per rail = 0.0834 × 4 = 0.3336 Ohms. Since maximum voltage drop must occur at
a point farthest from the substation. 0.3336 Ohms represents the rail + bond resistance in 7.5 miles.
h. From a rail resistance chart 100 lb rail = 0.0399 Ohms per mile.
R Rail = 0.0399 × 7.5 = 0.2998 Ohms

R Bonds = 0.336 – 0.2998 = 0.0338 Ohms

i. In 7.5 miles these are:
7.5 × 135 = 1015 bonds
NOTE: The graph (Figure 33-7-2) shows the effect upon track circuit resistance, using various types and
lengths of signal bonds, when the parallel resistance of the splice bar is taken into effect. It will be seen
that the various curves (A′, B′, C′ and D′) are asymptotic to the straight line values (A, B, C and D)
figures neglecting spice bar resistance. The actual resistance, as represented by the curves, will
approach the values of the bond plus rail resistance but will be equal to it only if the resistance of the
splice bar path is infinity. This condition is never reached in normal practice thus giving track circuit
resistance of a lower value than that arrived at by ignoring the splice bar path. The effect of splice bar
resistance on power bonds is not as great due to the lower installed resistance of these bonds, but the
same principle holds.
″0.338
″Resistance per bond″ = ---------------- = 0.000,0335″
1015
= 33.5 microhms per bond
j. From a rail bond resistance chart it is found that a 4/0 × 7″ U shaped copper bond has a resistance of 40 microhms and
would be close enough to be acceptable. If a longer bond spanning the splice bar is desirable, two 400,000 CM bonds.
36 feet long, could be used giving the same installed resistance. Since bare exposed conductors will carry one ampere
per 500 CM without undue heating, the 4/0 bond would easily carry the rail current.
k. At a 1 to 4 ratio the voltage drop in the overhead feeder circuit would be 500 minus 125 or 375 volts. Resistance would
be 375 divided by 1,500 or 0.25 ohms. Since 7-1/2 miles would be 39,500 feet, the resistance per 1,000 feet of copper
conduct would be 0.25 divided by 39.5 or 0.00634 ohms. This would mean an equivalent copper area in the conductor
of approximately 1,750,000 CM to give the desired resistance.
l. The economics of using a 1 to 4 or higher ratio is now easily seen when it is realized that 39,600 feet of 1,750,000 CM
copper conductor would equal 215,000 pounds of copper, using a figure of 5,405 pounds per 1,000 feet. At
approximately 38 cents per pound, this cost would be $81,500 for the copper alone at the producing mill. The
equivalent copper area of the return circuit is approximately 5,300,000 CM.
SECTION 7.2 SPECIFICATION FOR STUD TERMINAL COPPER RAIL BONDS
7.2.1 GENERAL (1978)
The Intention of this specification is to provide for the manufacture and delivery of rail bonds of the stud terminal type for the
bonding of track rails forming the rail return circuits in electrically operated systems.
7.2.2 TERMS (1978)
The following terms are for general use in this Section. Refer to the Glossary located at the end of the chapter for definitions.
Compressed Terminal Bonds
Conductor
Conductor Cross-sectional Area

Rail Bonding
Figure 33-7-2. Ohms Resistance of Splice Bars per Joint in Parallel with Bonds
Drift Pin
Duplex Conductor
Pin Terminal Bonds

Single Conductor
Stud of Bond Terminal
Taper Punch
7.2.3 MANUFACTURE (1978)
7.2.3.1 General
The terminals and conductors shall be made to conform in quality and purity to the requirements of the ASTM specifications
for either electrolytic copper, designation B–5, or lake copper, designation B–4. A copper sleeve approximately 0.031 inch
thick shall be inserted between the terminal proper and the conductor where it enters the terminal. The strands at the point of
egress from the terminals shall not be injured in manufacture. The terminals shall be welded to the conductors by the best
commercial practice such as drop forging.
7.2.3.2 Terminal Studs
All terminal studs shall be milled to nominal diameter. The copper shall be thoroughly annealed, flow freely when compressed
or expanded and shall show no indications of checks, cracks or other defects.
7.2.3.3 Conductor
Each conductor shall be composed of the number of strands specified in Table 33-7-1 for the length of bond required. The area
shall not be less than the nominal size measured by adding together the areas of all strands of the bond, taken at right angles to
their axes.

Rail Bonding
Table 33-7-1. Specification for Stud Terminal Rail Bonds
Terminal Stud
Conductor Construction
Length, Inches
Stud
Bond
Size of Terminal Bond Size of Individual
Length Maximum
Bond Diameter, Length 20″ Length Wire, Inches
Pin Compressed and Under Over
Inches of Lay, (Note 1)
20″
Inches
Number of Strands 61 91 127
1-0 and smaller 3/4 3/4 7/8 61 61 2.82 0.0418 – –
2-0 3/4 3/4 7/8 61 61 3.17 0.0469 – –
3-0 3/4 3/4 7/8 91 61 3.56 0.0527 0.432 –
4-0 3/4 3/4 7/8 127 61 4.00 0.0592 – 0.041
250,000 cm 7/8 3/4 7/8 127 61 4.34 0.0644 – 0.0446
300,000 cm 7/8 3/4 7/8 127 61 4.76 0.0705 – 0.0489
350,000 cm 7/8 3/4 7/8 127 61 5.15 0.0761 – 0.0528
400,000 cm 1 3/4 7/8 127 91 5.50 – 0.667 0.0564
450,000 cm 1 3/4 7/8 127 91 5.84 – 0.707 0.0598
500,000 cm 1 3/4 7/8 127 91 6.15 – 0.745 0.0631 1
Duplex Conductor
400,000 cm 1 3/4 7/8 Note Note Note Each conductor in a
450,000 cm 1 3/4 7/8 Note Note Note duplex bond shall
conform with stranding
for nearest size single
500,000 cm 1 3/4 7/8 Note Note Note conductor in the above 3
table.
Note 1: Allowable variation plus 0.002.
7.2.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS (1978)
The completed bonds shall be annealed after manufacture by the manufacturer’s best practice. The strands, at the point where 4
they leave the terminal, shall be soft enough to permit of being bent to an angle of 90 degrees with the axis of the bond and
back to their normal position without breaking. The ohmic resistance measured between points on the two terminals of an
extended bond shall not exceed the resistance of a length of the conductor equal to the distance between the two points.
7.2.5 STANDARD DIMENSIONS (1978)
7.2.5.1 Terminal Studs
The diameter of terminal studs shall not vary more than 0 mils over or 5 mils under the nominal diameter in Table 33-7-1.
7.2.5.2 Pin Terminal Holes
The diameter of the holes in the pin terminal shall not vary more than 5 mils ± from the nominal diameter in Table 33-7-1.

7.2.5.3 Drift Pins and Taper Punches
The diameter of drift pins and taper punches shall not vary more than two mils ± from the nominal diameter in Table 33-7-2.
Table 33-7-2. Dimensions of Drift Pins and Taper Punches
Terminals Diameter Drift Pins

Taper Punches
in Inches Diameter in Inches
Greatest Diameter of Standard

Outside Hole Through Greatest Diameter of Oversize
Standard Oversize Taper Punches
Stud Terminal Taper Punches in Inches
in Inches
7/8 12/32 1/2 9/16 15/32 17/32
3/4 11/32 7/16 1/2 13/32 15/32
1 17/32 43/64 3/4 7/8 23/32
7.2.5.4 General
Bonds shall be of the form, makeup and length specified on customer’s drawing.
7.2.6 PACKING (1978)
All bonds shall be packed securely so as to insure arrival at destination without distortion of form specified on customer’s
drawing, or injury to the bonds in transit.
7.2.7 INSPECTION AND REJECTION (1978)
a. The purchaser may inspect the material at all stages of manufacture and proper facilities shall be provided for making
tests at the manufacturer’s plant.
b. If the material has not been accepted at point of production and if it does not meet with the requirements of this
specification, upon receipt at destination, it may be rejected.
7.2.8 GUARANTEE (1978)
The contractor guarantees the material to be in accordance with the requirements of this specification and agrees, upon written
notice to supply promptly and without charge, to the satisfaction of the railroad company, all necessary material to make good
all defects in design, material or workmanship developing in the material supplied under this specification under ordinary use
within 12 months after being placed in the service of the railroad.

Rail Bonding
SECTION 7.3 SPECIFICATION FOR WELDED TYPE RAIL HEAD U-BONDS AND
EXTENDED BONDS
7.3.1 PURPOSE (1978)
The purpose of this specification is to provide welded type stranded rail head bonds and track connectors in No. 4/0 AWG and
250,000 cir rail sizes for the bonding of track rails forming the rail return circuits in electrically operated systems.
7.3.2 DRAWINGS (1978)
Figure 33-7-3, Figure 33-7-4 and Figure 33-7-5 form an essential part of this specification.
Figure 33-7-3. Extended Bond
Figure 33-7-4. U-bond

Figure 33-7-5. Showing Points of Measurement for Determining Installed Bond Resistance
7.3.3 TENDER (1978)
The tender shall be for material meeting the requirements of this specification. If the contractor wishes to vary from the
specification, a tender may be submitted covering the material he desires to furnish. The tender shall be accompanied by full
information showing wherein the requirements of this specification are not met.
7.3.4 ALTERNATES (1978)
The provisions contained in the alternate requisites section of these specifications form a part hereof only when substituted for
the provisions contained in this specification.
7.3.5 MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP (1978)
Material and workmanship shall be first class in every respect.
7.3.6 DESIGN (1978)
The general construction and dimensions of bonds and connectors shall conform to Figure 33-7-3 or Figure 33-7-4.
7.3.7 CONDUCTORS (1978)
a. The flexible stranded copper conductors shall be made of concentric one-direction lay construction.
b. The capacity and number of wires shall be as provided for in Table 33-7-3 for a given type of bond.
c. Copper wire shall meet the requirements of current ASTM Specification, serial designation B1.

Rail Bonding
Table 33-7-3. Conductors
Diameter Each Wire Lay

Size of Bond No. of Wires
Inches Inches
Single Strand
No. 4/0 61 0.0589 4.5
No. 4/0 91 0.0482 4.5
No. 4/0 127 0.0408 3.5
250,000 cm 91 0.0524 5.5
250,000 cm 127 0.0444 4.5
250,000 cm 147 0.0412 5.0
Double Strand
No. 4/0 61 0.0416 2.8
7.3.8 TERMINALS (1978)

a. Terminals shall be made of copper or steel and attached to the copper conductors in accordance with the
Manufacturer’s standard practice, approved by the Purchaser. A sleeve of soft annealed copper, approximately 0.03
inch thick, may be inserted between the terminal proper and the conductor where it enters the terminal (see Figure 33-
7-3 and Figure 33-7-4). 1
b. Bonds and connectors which may be assembled by a welding process shall be welded with a device capable of
producing uniformly good results.
c. When welded, welds shall be so made that the ends of all the wires are united with the terminals to insure a dense and
homogeneous metal.
3
d. Terminals shall be so designed that, when placed in position on the rail head, a welding scarf (welding surface) shall be
formed with the side of the rail head which is in accord with good welding practice for the process or method used.
7.3.9 IDENTIFICATION (1978)

Each terminal shall be so marked or of such individual design that the manufacturer of such bond or connector can be readily
identified. The mark shall be plainly stamped on the terminal and located on the outside adjacent to the strand, where it will 4
not be damaged by welding; thus making the mark readily visible after the bond has been applied.
7.3.10 RESISTANCE OF INSTALLED BONDS (1978)

a. When installed by the Manufacturer’s recommended and approved welding materials on low carbon rolled steel 1/2
inch thick by 2 inches wide, electrical resistance at 60 degrees F shall be of a value not exceeding that indicated in
Table 33-7-4 for the several lengths of bonds.
b. Tests shall be made by the ammeter, milli-voltmeter or Kelvin bridge method, with current taps at the edge of the plate
outside of the span of the bond on a line through the terminal centers. Potential contacts shall be made on clean steel at
points exactly 1 inch from the outer ends of terminals and exactly on a line through the center of the terminals.
Figure 33-7-5 illustrates the method of testing. Plates shall be effectively insulated. Tests shall be made at a
temperature of 68 degrees F. Direct current shall be used at a value not in excess of 100 amp.

Table 33-7-4. Electrical Resistance – Microhms
Size of Straight Extended Length

Type
Bond 7″ 10″ 14″
No. 4/0 Gas weld 56 65 80
No. 4/0 Steel arc weld 63 70 85
No. 4/0 Copper arc weld 56 65 80
250,000 cm Gas weld 52 61 73
250,000 cm Steel arc weld 59 66 78
250,000 cm Copper arc weld 52 61 73
7.3.11 PURCHASER’S ORDER REQUIREMENTS (1978)
The Purchaser’s order shall specify the following requirements which shall be met:
a. Type, capacity and length of bond.
b. Type, capacity and length of connector.
7.3.12 INSPECTION (1978)
a. The Purchaser may inspect material at all stages of manufacture.
b. The Purchaser may inspect the completed product to determine that the requirements of this specification have been
met.
c. If material has not been accepted at the point of production and if, upon arrival at destination, it does not meet the
requirements of the specification, it may be rejected, and the Contractor, upon request, shall advise the Purchaser what
disposition is to be made of the rejected material. The Contractor shall pay all freight charges.
d. If the Purchaser is to make the inspection at the point of production, it shall be so stated.
7.3.13 TESTS (1978)
a. Tests may be made at the point of production, or on samples submitted, and may also be made at destination. The
method is illustrated by Figure 33-7-5.
b. The Contractor shall give the Purchaser sufficient notice of the time when the material will be ready for testing.
c. The Contractor shall provide, at the point of production, apparatus and labor for making required tests under the
supervision of the Purchaser.
d. If tests are to be made at the point of production, the Purchaser shall so state and also indicate which of the tests herein
specified are to be made and what portion of the material shall be tested.
e. Two samples of welded test specimens for electrical test shall be supplied by the Contractor at the request of the
Purchaser, samples to be prepared under the supervision of the Purchaser. Test values shall not exceed values specified
in Article 7.3.10a.

Rail Bonding
f. If electrical test values fail to come within the requirements specified in Article 7.3.10a, the Contractor may be
permitted to prepare two additional specimens, under the supervision of the Purchaser. If one additional test sample
fails, the entire lot may be rejected.
g. If two or more of the 10 samples selected for visual examination fail to meet the requirements of the specifications as
to finish or conformity to dimensions, the Purchaser at his discretion may call for 10 additional samples for
examination. If additional samples fail to meet the requirements, the entire lot may be rejected; or the Purchaser may
examine each item, rejecting such as fail to conform.
7.3.14 MARKING (1978)
The Purchaser’s order, requisition and package number, name of the Consignor, and name and address of the Consignee, shall
be plainly marked on the outside of the package.
7.3.15 WARRANTY (1978)
The Contractor shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and workmanship
under ordinary use and service, his obligation under this warranty being limited to manufacturing, at the point of production,
any part or parts to replace those which shall be found defective within one year alter shipment to the Purchaser. This warranty
shall not apply to any material which has been subjected to misuse, negligence or accident.
1
SECTION 7.4 SPECIFICATION FOR RAIL-HEAD PIN-TYPE BONDS AND TRACK
CONNECTORS
For the purpose of providing rail-head pin-type bonds and track connectors for the bonding of track rails (where applicable) in
electrically operated systems, the mechanically applied rail-head type bond covered by AREMA C&S Section Specification 3
179–48, is adopted, by reference, except that Paragraph 1, Purpose, thereof shall read:
This specification is for the purpose of providing mechanically applied rail-head pin-type bonds and track connectors
for track circuits carrying return propulsion current.
and that Figure 33-7-6 shall be used in lieu of drawing 1048 referred to in Paragraphs 2 and 5 of C & S Section Specification
179–48. 4

Figure 33-7-6. Replacement Drawing 1048

Rail Bonding
SECTION 7.5 SPECIFICATION FOR THERMITE TYPE WELDED RAIL-HEAD BONDS AND
TRACK CONNECTORS
7.5.1 PURPOSE (1978)
This specification is for the purpose of providing thermite type welded rail-head propulsion bonds and track connectors. It sets
forth specific detail requirements representing modern electric propulsion practice for new installations and for the
replacement of existing material when general renewal or replacement becomes desirable.
7.5.2 DRAWINGS (1978)
Figure 33-7-7 and Figure 33-7-8 form an essential part hereof.
7.5.3 TENDER (1978)
The tender shall be for material, design and assembly meeting the requirements of this specification in its entirety.
Material and workmanship shall be first-class in every respect.
Figure 33-7-7. Concentric Construction – Stranded Conductors

7.5.5 DESIGN (1978)

General construction and dimensions of bonds and track connectors shall conform to Figure 33-7-7 and Figure 33-7-8.

a. The stranded conductors of Figure 33-7-7 shall be made of concentric construction as follows:
(1) 4/0 cable shall be 127 strands of 0.0408 inch diameter dead soft copper wires. All wires to be twisted in the same
direction with 33 inches lay of the outer strands (weight per foot–0.68 lb).
(2) 250,000 CM cable shall be 156 strands of 0.040 inch diameter dead soft copper wires. All wires to be twisted in
the same direction with 3 inches lay of the outer wires (weight per foot– 0.82 lb).
b. Copper wires shall meet the requirements of ASTM specification B-3.
c. The stranded conductors of Figure 33-7-8 shall be made in rope lay construction, center strand of 12 to 19 wires,
surrounded by 6 strands of 12 to 19 wires, each. Make-up of finished cable shall have a maximum nominal diameter of
7/32 inch, and shall have a breaking load of not less than 1,100 pounds.
d. Hard-drawn copper wire shall meet the requirements of ASTM current Specification B-1.
e. Copper Alloy wire shall meet the requirements of ASTM current Specification B-105.
Figure 33-7-8. Rope Lay Construction – Stranded Conductors

Rail Bonding
7.5.7 TERMINALS (SLEEVE OR OTHER DEVICE SUPPLIED BY MANUFACTURER) (1978)
Terminals where used shall be made of approved material and construction and attached to the conductors in accordance with
Manufacturer’s standard design.
7.5.8 ATTACHING METAL (1978)
Attaching metal shall be the Manufacturer’s design and specification.
7.5.9 IDENTIFICATION (1978)
a. Each terminal of the bond shall be so marked that the manufacturer of the bond or connector can be readily identified.
b. Each box of bonds shall be stamped with the nominal bond size, i.e.
c. Attaching metal cartridges shall be identified by numbers or letters on the loose cap of the cartridges.
d. Attaching metal carton shall have cartridge number printed on the carton top.
e. Track circuit connectors in coiled bundles shall be tagged with manufacturers catalog number.
7.5.10 RESISTANCE OF INSTALLED BONDS (1978)

1
a. When installed on steel plates 2 inches wide and 1/2 inch thick, electrical resistance shall be of a value not exceeding
the following:
b. Tests shall be made by the ammeter, milli-voltmeter or Kelvin bridge method, with current taps at the edge of the plate
outside of the span of the bond on a line through the terminal centers. Potential contacts shall be made on clean steel at
points exactly 1 inch from the outer ends of terminals and exactly on a line through the center of the terminals. Plates
shall be effectively insulated. Tests shall be made at a temperature of 68 degrees F. Direct current shall be used at a 3
value not in excess of amps shown in Table 33-7-5.
Table 33-7-5. Amp Test
Bond Maximum Resistance

Ohm
Size Length 4
100 Amp
4/0 9 inches 0.000080
4/0 13 inches 0.000095
250 MCM 13 inches 0.000085
10 Amp
3/16 5 inches 0.00050
3/16 6-1/2 inches 0.00060
3/16 7-1/2 inches 0.00070
3/16 9-3/4 inches 0.00085

Purchaser’s order shall specify the following:
a. Bonds under track connectors shall conform to specification.
b. Nominal length of bond and cable size (see Figure 33-7-7 and Figure 33-7-8).
c. Length of track circuit connector and terminal forms by catalog number.
d. Attaching metal, molds and welding apparatus where required shall be specified by Manufacturer’s catalog number or
by indicating for what bond size and nominal length, attaching metal, and/or welding apparatus is desired.
e. Whether inspection and/or tests will be made at point of production.
Purchaser may inspect material at all stages of manufacture to determine that the requirements of this specification have been
met.
7.5.13 TESTS (1978)
a. Manufacturer shall give the Purchaser sufficient notice when material will be ready for testing.
b. Manufacturer shall provide, at point of production, apparatus and labor for making required tests under supervision of
the Purchaser when called for on order.
c. A quantity of 10 bonds, and/or connectors taken at random from each 3,000 or less, may be selected by Purchaser for
examination as to detail finish, general quality of manufacture, and conformity to dimension requirements of
Figure 33-7-7 and Figure 33-7-8 or Purchaser may, at his discretion, inspect entire lot.
d. Two samples of welded test specimens for electrical test shall be supplied by manufacturer. Samples shall be prepared
under supervision of Purchaser. Test values shall not exceed values specified in Article 7.5.10a.
e. If electrical test values fail to come within the requirements specified in Article 7.5.10a, manufacturer may be
permitted to prepare two additional specimens, under supervision of the Purchaser. If one additional test sample fails,
the entire lot may be rejected.
f. If two or more of the 10 samples selected for visual examination fail to meet the requirements of the specification as to
finish or conformity to dimensions, Purchaser, at his discretion, may call for 10 additional samples for examination. If
additional samples fail to meet requirements, the entire lot may be rejected, or Purchaser may examine each item,
rejecting such as fail to conform.
7.5.14 PACKING (1978)
Bonds and/or connectors shall be packaged in suitable containers. Attaching metal, attaching molds, and accessories may be
packed separately at the discretion of the manufacturer.

Rail Bonding
7.5.15 MARKING (1978)
a. Containers shall be imprinted as follows:
• Bond and/or track connectors nominal wire size and nominal length – i.e. 4/0-9 inches.
b. Shipping label shall show the following:
(1) Purchaser.
(2) Destination as specified by Purchaser.
(3) Purchaser’s order number.
(4) Manufacturer’s name and address.
7.5.16 WARRANTY (1978)

Manufacturer shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and workmanship
under ordinary use and service, his obligation under this warranty being limited to manufacturing, at point of production, any
part or parts to replace those which shall be found defective within one year after shipment to the Purchaser. This warranty
shall not apply to any material which has been subject to misuse, negligence or accident.
1
SECTION 7.6 SPECIFICATION FOR COPPER THERMITE WELDED ELECTRICAL
CONNECTIONS
7.6.1 PURPOSE (1978)
This specification is for the purpose of providing copper thermite type welded electrical connections. It sets forth general and 3
specific requirements representing modern power and grounding practice for new installations when general renewal or
replacement becomes desirable.
7.6.2 DRAWINGS (1978)
Figure 33-7-9, Figure 33-7-10, Figure 33-7-11, Figure 33-7-12, Figure 33-7-13, Figure 33-7-14, Figure 33-7-15, Figure 33-7- 4
16, Figure 33-7-17, Figure 33-7-18, Figure 33-7-19 and Figure 33-7-20 form an essential part hereof.
7.6.3 TENDER (1978)
a. The tender shall be for material, design, and assembly meeting the requirements of this specification.
b. Figure 33-7-9, Figure 33-7-10, Figure 33-7-11, Figure 33-7-12, Figure 33-7-13, and Figure 33-7-14 show typical
connections for use in protective grounding of buildings and apparatus.
c. Figure 33-7-15 and Figure 33-7-16 show typical power connections for locomotives and other equipment using extra
flexible cable.
d. Figure 33-7-17 and Figure 33-7-18 show typical connections for use in power feeders and switches in an electrified
system utilizing a catenary.

Figure 33-7-9. Copper Cable Weld to Horizontal Figure 33-7-10. Copper

Surface
Figure 33-7-11. Cable Weld to Vertical Ground Rod Figure 33-7-12. Splice of Vertical Ground
Figure 33-7-13. Splice Weld of Copper Cables Figure 33-7-14. “T” Weld of Copper Cables
e. Figure 33-7-19 shows a typical lug connection for connecting to an impedance bond on an electrified system. Note that
the weld type shown has two cables welded to one lug.

Rail Bonding
Figure 33-7-15. Splice Weld of Flexible or Extra-Flexible Insulated Copper Cables –

Copper Ferrules used for Added Mechanical Support
1
Figure 33-7-16. Lug Weld of Flexible or Extra-Flexible Insulated Copper Cables to Copper Bus Lug –
Copper Ferrule used for Add Mechanical Support
4
Figure 33-7-17. Splice Welds of Catenary Feeder Cables
Figure 33-7-18. Lugs Welds of Catenary Switch Terminal Lugs

f. Figure 33-7-20 (including details 1 and 2) shows a grounding system for a hazardous location, in this case a railroad
fuel or oil siding. The main purpose of this grounding system is to protect against static electric build-up and
discharges.
Figure 33-7-19. Multiple Cable Lug Weld to Impedance Bond Terminal

Material and workmanship shall be first-class in every respect.
7.6.5 DESIGN (1978)

a. The design of copper thermite welded type electrical connections shall be by the manufacturer based on his experience
in providing the most serviceable and economical connections and accessories.
b. Figure 33-7-9, Figure 33-7-10, Figure 33-7-11, Figure 33-7-12, Figure 33-7-13, Figure 33-7-14, Figure 33-7-15,
Figure 33-7-16, Figure 33-7-17, Figure 33-7-18, Figure 33-7-19 and Figure 33-7-20 show connections of various types
and gram weights of copper thermite charge for various cable sizes.
c. Where special type connections are desired, the manufacturer shall work in cooperation with the purchaser to promote
a satisfactory design.

a. The copper cable conductors considered as standard for grounding shall be concentric lay stranded ASTM classes A,
B, C and D. The listing of cables in Figure 33-7-9, Figure 33-7-10, Figure 33-7-11, Figure 33-7-12, Figure 33-7-13 and
Figure 33-7-14 and Figure 33-7-17, Figure 33-7-18 and Figure 33-7-19 are for the stranding classes shown in
Table 33-7-6.
Table 33-7-6. Cable Stranding Classes
Cable ASTM Stranding

Size Class A B C D
1/0 7 19 37 61
4/0 7 19 37 61
4/0 7 19 37 61
400 MCM 19 37 61 91
500 MCM 37 37 61 91
750 MCM 61 61 91 127
b. Copper cable conductors for power connections are generally flexible or extra-flexible. Cables shall be specified by
any or all of the following:

Rail Bonding
Figure 33-7-20. Typical Grounding System for Oil Siding
(1) Circular rail size and number of strands (i.e. 500 MCM, 427 strands or 500 MCM, 61 × 7 strands.).
(2) Number of strands and individual wire size (i.e. 1100/0.0201 or 1100/No. 24.).
c. Rectangular copper bus for lug connections shall be given in actual fractional sizes (i.e. 1/4 × 1-1/2).
d. Ground rods are designated by nominal fractional sizes.
e. Copper cable sizes other than described in paragraph a and paragraph b shall be considered “special” and be specified
by AWC number of circular rail size, number of strands and ASTM stranding classification, if known. Where possible,
a sample of the “special” cable should be submitted to the manufacturer.

f. For conductors other than copper, specify by accepted terminology (i.e. 5/16, 7-strand galvanized steel).
7.6.7 ATTACHING METAL (1978)
a. Attaching metal cartridges shall be identified by numerals or letters on the loose cap of the cartridges.
b. Attaching metal carton shall have cartridge number printed on the carton top.
c. Welding accessories shall be marked with a metal tag showing:
(1) Manufacturer’s catalog number.
(2) Conductor size to be used with welding accessories.
(3) Cram weight of copper thermite charge or cartridge to be used.
(4) Copper ferrule catalog number, if required.
7.6.8 RESISTANCE OF INSTALLED CONNECTIONS (1978)
a. Resistance of 24 inches of conductor containing a connection shall not exceed the resistance of 30 inches of plain
conductor.
b. Tests shall be made by the ammeter, milli-voltmeter or Kelvin Bridge method or low-resistance ohmmeter. Tests shall
be made with direct current at a value not exceeding 100 amperes. All tests values shall be corrected to 68 degrees F for
comparative purposes with tables of cable resistance.
a. Purchaser’s order shall specify the following:
(1) Type of connection (using manufacturer’s designation if possible).
(2) Exact material required (i.e. complete welder, replacement mold only, etc.)
(3) Conductor size to be used.
(4) If a special connection is required, the above information along with any descriptive information and/or sketch or
drawing of the connection should accompany the request.
b. Purchaser’s order shall specify the following for welding charges:
(1) Grand weight or catalog number of charges.
(2) Number of charges, keeping in mind the manufacturer’s standard packaging.
c. Purchaser’s order shall specify wither inspection and/or tests will be made at point of production.
Purchaser may inspect material at all stages of manufacture to determine that the requirements of this specification have been
met.

Rail Bonding
7.6.11 TESTS (1978)
a. Manufacturer shall give the purchaser sufficient notice when material will be ready for testing.
b. Manufacturer shall provide at point of production, apparatus and labor for making required tests under supervision of
the purchaser when called for an order.
c. If electrical test values fail to come within the requirements specified in Article 7.6.8a, manufacturer may be permitted
to provide two additional specimens, under supervision of the purchaser. If one additional test sample fails, the entire
lot may be rejected.
7.6.12 PACKING (1978)
Welding accessories and attaching metal shall be packed in suitable containers. Attaching metal, molds and accessories may be
packed separately at the discretion of the manufacturer.
7.6.13 MARKING (1978)
Shipping label shall show the following:
a. Purchaser.
b. Destination as specified by purchaser.

1
c. Purchaser’s order number.
d. Manufacturer’s name and address.
7.6.14 WARRANTY (1978)

3
Manufacturer shall warrant the material covered by this specification to be free from defects in material and workmanship
under ordinary use and service, his obligation under this warranty being limited to manufacturing, at point of production, any
part or parts to replace those which shall be found defective within one year after shipment to the purchaser. This warranty
shall not apply to any material which has been subjected to misuse, negligence or accident.


33
Part 8
Catenary and Locomotive Interaction1
— 1986 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 Locomotive Electric Interaction with the Catenary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-2

8.1.1 Introduction (1986) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-2
8.1.2 Electrical Characteristics (1986) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-2
8.1.3 Types of Traction Motor Control Circuits (1986) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-2
1
8.2 Locomotive Mechanical Interaction with t he Catenary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-8
8.2.1 Pantograph Basics (1986) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Description Page 3

33-8-1 Basic Bridge Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-3
33-8-2 Bridge Output Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-5
33-8-3 D.C. Chopper System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-5
33-8-4 Locomotive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-5
33-8-5 PWM Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-7
33-8-6 Greatly Simplified Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-7
33-8-7 Idealized Speed-Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-8
33-8-8 Thyristor Forced Commutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8-8

SECTION 8.1 LOCOMOTIVE ELECTRIC INTERACTION WITH THE CATENARY
The catenary and power supply system interact with the locomotive and its power control system. The modern series of
thyristor controlled locomotives provides various forms of distortion to the current draw from the power supply. There is also
a mechanical interaction between the catenary and pantograph power collection systems. This part of the manual is intended to
promote a more complete understanding of these interactions.
8.1.2 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (1986)
a. In A.C. input locomotives, a transformer is used to convert high voltage (12.5, 25 or 50 KV) to levels more compatible
with the control equipment and the traction drive motors.
b. The transformer output voltage must be varied to provide for speed and power changes in the traction motors. Modern
systems use various combinations of semiconductors such as diodes, thyristors (SCRs) and transistors for power
control. All of these devices generate harmonics on the secondary side of the transformer which may be coupled back
through the primary to the catenary where it can radiate and cause interference with communication wires. The
harmonics are also directly coupled into the rails and can cause signal interference. Particular care must be taken to
avoid even order harmonics due to the tendency for translation into a D.C. component.
c. The magnitude of harmonics generated is a function of the type of power control circuit used. One of the most
influential factors affecting the harmonics present on the catenary is the transformer impedance or degree of coupling
between primary and secondary. High impedance tends to minimize harmonic generation and also limit fault current on
the system; however, this also raises the size and weight of the transformer and adversely affects power factor. The
system designer has the problem of achieving the best compromise between conflicting requirements.
d. Care must also be taken, in the transformer design, to ensure that the initial inrush current when first energizing a
transformer or when reenergizing after a momentary interruption, is coordinated with the catenary system.
e. Secondary filters are frequently used to control harmonics, and also to improve power factor. Care must be taken,
however, to avoid resonances with the power distribution system either on a power system frequency basis or from the
impulse type excitation which the semiconductor voltage control system generates.
f. In addition to the conventional lightning arresters on the roof of the locomotive, protection is required on the secondary
windings, against transients generated by substation switching, pantograph bounce, and operation through dead
sections.
8.1.3 TYPES OF TRACTION MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUITS (1986)
Refer to Figure 33-8-1 for simplified circuits.
8.1.3.1 Diode Bridge Rectifier
a. The single bridge connection may be used to provide a DC source for a non-line synchronized motor controller such as
a DC chopper or variable frequency AC invertor or to supply power for the traction motors without intermediate
controls.
b. The output of such a bridge must be filtered to reduce the ripple voltage fed to the traction motors directly or to the
variable voltage/frequency device such as a chopper or invertor. If fed directly to the motors, some kind of tap
changing at the transformer is necessary since the diodes by themselves are not capable of varying voltage. The filter is
normally a simple inductance/capacitance type.

Catenary and Locomotive Interaction
Figure 33-8-1. Basic Bridge Rectifiers 4
c. The capacitor acts also as a source for high peak currents required by the forced-commutation circuits of an invertor or
chopper. The effect of the high frequency commutations on the catenary system are reduced by the filter effect of the
capacitor bank, transformer reactance and other inductances in the system. Small high frequency current spikes
generated when the diodes block at the end of their conduction period have to be minimized by L-R-C snubber circuits
mounted on each diode.
d. Power factor of a diode bridge is high, roughly in the 90% area. Correction above this limit by means of capacitors
must be done with great care so as to avoid system resonance problems which can vary with the distance between
locomotive and substation.
8.1.3.2 Thyristor Controlled Bridge
a. A thyristor can be turned “ON” by its control electrode called a “gate” but will not turn “OFF” unless the voltage
across the anode/cathode connections is reversed. In a line powered rectifier, the voltage is automatically reversed at

the end of each half-cycle and the thyristor turns off naturally. In an invertor or DC chopper application, with a DC
supply link, no reversal of voltage occurs and the thyristor has to be “force commutated” by an external commutating
circuit. Typically, the current has to be reversed for 25 to 50 microseconds to turn off a thyristor. The rates of change in
current, at commutation, may be of the order of 100 Amps/microsecond at levels up to triple the peak load current.
Considerable electrical noise is radiated by this type of switching activity; furthermore, it is at a repetition rate that can
vary as the load changes. A thyristor controller is a diode/thyristor combination where the output power is controlled
by adjusting the time during the line cycle at which thyristor conduction occurs. This type of controller can be used to
drive the traction motors directly and the minimum current requirement of the components is the maximum required
for the motors. A basic thyristor controller has inherently poor power factor which can be improved by use of several
bridges added in series. There are various combinations, of three bridges shown in Figure 33-8-1 (a) (b) with
alternative arrangements shown in Figure 33-8-1 (c) (d), where all bridges are under thyristor control and addition or
subtraction of voltage is sequentially controlled. Idealized waveforms of the voltage increase mode obtained by
phasing on, or adding rectifiers, in sequence are shown, for one half cycle, in Figure 33-8-2.
b. At the time in each cycle when the thyristors start conduction, fast switching transients are developed. The rate of
change in current is controlled by inductances of transformer windings and by bus bar reactances. Filtering is fitted
across the transformer windings to reduce telephone interference (TIF) caused by higher order harmonics, and also
absorb high frequency transients. Consequently, fast rates of change which occur at the thyristor should not feed back
to the line current. The distribution of the various harmonic components will vary with the point of conduction in the
cycle. At low speeds the power factor will be poor due to basic action of the phase control function. In addition, due to
high motor current at low speed, reactive current overlap into the next half-cycle can be quite extensive which also
degrades the power factor. Overlap is also a function of the coupling between transformer windings. A thyristor bridge
may also be used as a DC supply to a chopper or invertor at fixed voltage in cases where variations in catenary voltage
are encountered.
8.1.3.3 Chopper
a. A chopper supplies pulsed DC to a load, such as a traction motor, by turning on and off a DC supply voltage. This DC
supply rust be capable of supplying pulses of current with a very low voltage drop; this is the function of the line filter
(see Figure 33-8-3) capacitor C. The inductor, L, supplies a constant current 1 the load and capacitor. Since 1 is a DC
current proportional to the average of the pulses 3 supplied to the motor, the chopper has the unique characteristic of
having the transformer secondary current proportional to the KW of the load which is not directly related to motor
current, in effect, a DC transformer.
b. This, plus the effective isolation of the chopper harmonics by the line filter, allows inherent power factors in the 90%
range and very low harmonics.
c. There are many locomotives which could benefit from power factor and performance improvement. For retrofit
purposes, a DC chopper can offer a good economic alternative to the thyristor controller or AC invertor. Most
applications so far have been addressed to the use of chopper controls from a DC catenary or third rail where the
chopper can be used as a direct link with the motor (see Figure 33-8-4). Major difference between an AC invertor and
a DC chopper lies in the filtering permitted in the connection to the motor. In a three-phase drive, the motor feed can be
filtered and wiring to the motor does not become part of the active commutation process. In a chopper configuration,
the motor is more closely tied in to the commutation circuitry.
d. In addition, for transit applications, the equipment is mounted under the main body of the transit car with less
enveloping metal work to provide a shield. Careful attention to vehicle construction details should minimize potential
problems.
e. Variable speed industrial drives using asynchronous motors have been in use for almost 20 years with designs
specifically dedicated to high power traction applications for locomotives. The most popular technique is Pulse-Width
Modulation (PWM). In PWM, a carrier frequency of approximately 500 Hz is time modulated to provide a variable
frequency source varying typically from one to 70 Hz. Individual thyristors switch at the 500 Hz rate (Figure 33-8-5).
A PWM design requires thyristors with a fast turn-off characteristic for an efficient range of modulation.

Figure 33-8-2. Bridge Output Voltage
Figure 33-8-3. D.C. Chopper System

3
Figure 33-8-4. Locomotive System

f. An alternate system uses one or more three phase invertors (Figure 33-8-6) operating at the output frequency of the
system. For comparison with the PWM system, basic switching repetition for individual thyristors would be 0 to 70
Hz. Switching periods at the lower rate allow more latitude on turn-off time so that a softer commutation can be used
with less sophisticated thyristors. An inductor is normally in series with the DC capacitor bank and tends to keep
current levels relatively constant. This leads to the label “Constant Current” Invertor (CCI) as compared with the
constant voltage concept of a PWM system. From an EMI point of view, the PWM system with high circulating current
and fast rates of change is potentially a more active source of EMI than a CCI system.
8.1.3.4 Auxiliary A.C. and Head End Power For Passenger Equipment
a. On electric locomotives up to 800 KVA of three phase power may be generated by thyristor invertors for use in the
locomotive and to provide power to passenger cars (when required). Power from the catenary passes through the
transformer to a thyristor controlled bridge arrangement for voltage control. The invertors consist of three-phase
bridges for optimum reduction of harmonics. Output from the invertors is typically 175 KVA auxiliary power for the
locomotive and 625 KVA for the passenger cars. Power to the passenger cars may have additional L-C filters for
harmonic reduction.
b. Any fast transients generated are reduced by the AC filter on the locomotive and are not transmitted to the passenger
cars.
c. Although experience is limited, no serious interaction with cab signalling or railroad communications has been
experienced.
d. Invertor components are contained in robust compartments inside the body of the locomotive, wiring runs and power
connections are minimized to reduce stray emissions. Wiring is segregated to avoid stray pickup and is within the main
body of the locomotive. The external skin of the locomotive itself acts as a totally enclosed ground shield to further
attenuate commutation current radiation or similar interferences escaping to the external environment.
8.1.3.5 General Requirements
a. There are many thyristor based circuits which provide similar results. Choice of type for a particular application will be
made based upon economics and individual manufacturers preference. The power factor (PF) characteristic will be of
the form shown in Figure 33-8-7 for a series motor connection. When, however, field weakening is allowed, it permits
a more optimum PF performance over a wider speed range of the curve. The number of bridges used to make up the
converter is a function of the type of duty for which the locomotive is intended. For high speed passenger service, a
lower power factor may be accepted at low speed as the operating time under that condition will be mostly transitory in
nature. Satisfactory operation with a two-bridge converter may be obtained when used in conjunction with field
weakening.
b. Freight operation, however, requires a locomotive to haul at low speeds for most of its service life. For satisfactory PF
performance with a thyristor converter more bridges would be required than for the passenger unit assuming no other
means to improve power factor have been employed. Most passenger trains accelerate out of the poor power factor
range in a very short time compared with a freight train.
c. As more semiconductor bridges are used, the amount of transient disturbance at thyristor conduction reduces and eases
the requirement for EMI filtering. Cost will tend to be higher as the converter and control electronics increase with a
reduction in overall reliability. In turn, however, an extra degree of redundancy could be built into the design as
compensation, so that a failure on one winding can be bypassed.
d. Variations in the basic thyristor phase control circuit are possible to improve power factor. One such is a “forced
commutation” arrangement shown in Figure 33-8-8.

Figure 33-8-5. PWM Waveform
Figure 33-8-6. Greatly Simplified Inverter
e. Centering the applied voltage pulse as described moves the current into phase with the voltage, resulting in a
considerable improvement in power factor. Power factors of 94% are possible without the dangers of resonance
problems inherent in large blocks of capacitors.
f. Power factor has to be considered very carefully in each application. The effect on long term power costs and the utility
company are easily understood. A more serious situation occurs, however, when considering voltage at the locomotive
pantograph. The combination of low power factor and long catenary sections may result in a very low voltage applied
to the locomotive. This has to be take into account when coordinating the locomotive characteristics with the catenary
system and substation locations.

Figure 33-8-7. Idealized Speed-Power Factor
Figure 33-8-8. Thyristor Forced Commutation
SECTION 8.2 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANICAL INTERACTION WITH THE CATENARY
8.2.1 PANTOGRAPH BASICS (1986)
a. The requirement for reliable electric train operation has led to much study of the interaction of pantograph and
overhead catenary equipment, throughout the world. The following guidelines present a basic design philosophy which
allows for both locomotive and wayside requirements.

b. A pantograph is required to collect current from an overhead wire which has low mass, and may have substantial
variations in wire height and gradient at tunnels, bridges, and road crossings. For good current collection, the contact
between pantograph and overhead wire should remain relatively stable with less than 1% loss of mechanical contact up
to maximum operating speed.
c. Climatic conditions should be taken into account and if severe icing will be encountered, then provision should be
made for compensation in uplift. Care should also be taken to minimize collection of ice and snow to prevent locking
up joints and bearings.
d. The pantograph should be designed to be sacrificial in the event of an entanglement with the catenary wire. Remaining
parts of the pantograph attached to the locomotive should have an extended maximum height below the catenary
support arms to reduce the potential for damage to the permanent structures.
e. In addition, the pantograph must be electrically satisfactory for the specified current and voltage, and operate in all
weather conditions in an exposed and sometimes severe environment. The design must be as simple and robust as
possible.
f. The pantograph should be bi-directional and aerodynamically neutral since the overhead line is designed for a specific
mean uplift pressure. Current collection can be significantly degraded if the pressure is changed by airflow at speed.
Poorly compensated pantographs running at 125 mph can show uplift variations of + 50%.
g. Moving structural members should preferably be of rounded cross section for aerodynamic efficiency to minimize the
effects of both locomotive speed and side winds.
h. The main-frame structural frequencies should be suitably damped to avoid excitation resonances from overhead line
1
stagger and from the locomotive or power car suspension frequencies.
i. Suitable collector head suspension must be provided to reduce further the effective dynamic mass at hanger-passing
frequency and at discrete features such as registration arms, overlaps, and neutral sections (phase breaks). The
suspension response rust be faster than the main-frame response to provide initial reaction to these low amplitude
discontinuities. 3
j. Care must be taken, during the design, to ensure that the pivot points for the collector head provide positive contact on
front and rear carbon strips over the operating speed range and in both directions.
k. Mass of the collector head must be minimized to allow the best possible tracking of contact wire irregularities at
splices or points of localized wear. Since minimal weight is beneficial carbon carriers may use hollow section
aluminum alloy extrusions with appropriate cross-sectional shape for good aerodynamics. Horns can be light tubular 4
steel or aluminum alloy castings.


33
Part 9
Ancillary Power Systems
— 2007 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.1 Wayside/Standby Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-1

9.1.1 Background (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-1
9.1.2 Current Practice (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-1
9.1.3 Design Factors To Be Considered (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-9-2
1
SECTION 9.1 WAYSIDE/STANDBY POWER SYSTEMS
9.1.1 BACKGROUND (2007) 3

Locomotive hauled coaches have been the staple of railroad passenger service for many years, with the locomotive serving as
the primary source for powering lights, HVAC, and heating typically through train line utilities. In the past, steam was often
used for heating, and wheel coupled generators charged batteries that were a common source for lighting and ventilation.
When these coaches were parked at stations or yards and the locomotives were removed, a network of steam pipes supplied
from a central boiler plant provided trackside connections to heat the coaches. In addition, each car was equipped with an
electrical connector to which local 220 V ac (delta) electrical power could be attached to keep batteries charged on a per car
basis.
9.1.2 CURRENT PRACTICE (2007)
Modern passenger coaches for the most part use a distributed three phase 480 volt three wire system, which originates at the
locomotive and is trainlined to the coaches in the consist. Each coach has a distribution system, consisting of appropriate
protection, controls, transformers, motors, lighting, compressors, etc., that are configured to supply the designed “hotel” loads
of the coach. When these coaches are parked, an electrical connection is made to only one point in the consist of cars. This
connection allows ALL of the cars to be powered from a single wayside supply, so that the locomotive can be shut down or
removed for service. Appropriate controls must be furnished and operated to isolate the on board source, the locomotive Head
End Power (HEP), from the ground/ wayside source. This power source can be provided by the local utility as a stand alone
service, or can be incorporated in the yard distribution system. The need for isolating the sources is obvious and typical of any
standby / emergency generator system, albeit one that is reversed in this instance in that the locomotive generator is the normal
supply.

9.1.3 DESIGN FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED (2007)
9.1.3.1 Load
The most significant factor is the anticipated load. Most coaches are equipped with on board selectors to reduce load when in
standby mode. Some have multiple steps, i.e., normal / standby / layover, with each step presenting a different load profile. In
designing a system, it is important to understand the practices of the operating railroad to determine if coaches will be kept on
wayside power at full or partial load.
Under the ideal scenario requiring the smallest local service, the coaches will be stored on layover (lowest) load and will be
transferred to locomotive HEP before being switched to full power. However in certain climatic conditions, it may not be
possible to fully heat (or cool) the cars in time for revenue service, depending on the HVAC recovery rates and the duration of
time the locomotive is powered up prior to departure. This situation may necessitate a higher level of wayside power that is
sufficient to supply full load to the consist. As an example, if the load is 25 kW per car in layover mode and 60 kW at full
load, the size of the service equipment and associated feeders, cables, protection, connectors and controls more than doubles
for the higher load. The higher load requirement may also have adverse effects on the cost of electricity, since the demand
charges will ratchet up.
9.1.3.2 Location
The proposed layover site should be reviewed to determine the optimum location for locating service, supply, control and
connectors. This review should consider the direction in which the train consists will be facing (locomotive end) and the
points where the wayside cable connections will be made to the consists. In most installations, the connection is plugged into
the rear end of a consist, as opposed to the locomotive end, so that switching of the locomotive off the consist will not affect
the standby power connection. Generally, connections can be made at either end of the consist. However, a mid-consist feed
is also possible, although this is generally less desirable.
9.1.3.3 Connections
The current approaches all seem to follow or be minor variations of systems developed in the 1970s. Every coach has (four)
three-wire 480 V busses running the length of the car. These four sets of cables are paralleled by phase, and serve as a
distribution bus for all electrical loads on the car. At each end of the car, there are four pin & sleeve female connectors, two on
each side of the coupler. Each connector has three large (400 amp) pins and three small (30 amp) control pins. When
trainlined, four sets of double ended male connector jumper cables bridge between the four plug sockets on one coach and the
four plug sockets on the adjacent car, thus creating a 1600 amp “feeder”. These interconnections continue for the length of the
train and into the locomotive where the “bus” on the locomotive is supplied by a generator.
At the rear end of the train consist, the last car has a short jumper placed between the two plugs on each side of the coupler,
thus creating two “short loops”. These jumpers serve two purposes. First to safely cover the exposed pins that will be
energized by the onboard connectors, and second to complete two independent control circuit loops, one on each side of the
consist. These two circuits must be complete before the locomotive generator can supply power to the consist. Since two
series circuits have been created, the loss of a car-to-car jumper anywhere in the consist will open the circuit and drop out the
generator main contactor or breaker. The design of the connectors is such that the small control pins break before the large
power pins when the connection is broken. This design ensures that an employee removing an energized jumper will not
interrupt power circuits at the connector.
9.1.3.4 Locomotive
Locomotives are usually equipped with four connectors at each end, the same as a coach. This arrangement allows multiple
locomotives in a consist to be train-lined. When this is done, one locomotive is designated to supply the HEP while the others
operate in a “by-pass” mode similar to a coach. Depending on the control configuration, a set of “short loops” may also be
required at the head end of the locomotive.

Ancillary Power Systems
Various control voltages and schemes are in use but the most common is a 74 volt dc control circuit with separate monitoring
for left and right side “train line complete” indication and interlocking. This information is usually presented on the main HEP
power control panel in the locomotive.
When a locomotive is in “by-pass” mode, it should not be possible for its generator to feed the bus and the “trainline complete”
circuits should be disconnected. Only the SOURCE locomotive should provide the power to the “trainline complete” circuits.
This requirement is significant when designing a wayside power supply system.
9.1.3.5 Wayside Power Circuits
Once the anticipated load per car has been identified by consideration of coach mode (layover / standby / full load), the
number of cars to be stored at each location must be determined. Finally the locomotive layover load must be considered,
recognizing that a “shut down” locomotive has many heaters, chargers, pumps and blowers that may need power, to the extent
that the “shut down” load may be as much as 100-150 kW. Application of demand factors must be carefully evaluated, since
all cars in a cold train will be powered up simultaneously to prepare for a run.
If multiple trainsets are to be stored at the same site, a single common service with distribution feeders usually makes sense.
Protection, usually in the form of a molded case circuit breaker, should be applied. Since the train consist presents a 3-wire
load, some form of ground fault detection and interruption will be necessary, especially when feeding the load from a
grounded 480/277 V wye service. The load point should be switched by an appropriately sized 3-pole contactor downstream
from the molded case breaker. Vacuum contactors are frequently used, with the output from the contactor being cabled to the
trackside connectors. Typically, two cast boxes each containing two pin and sleeve connectors (identical to those used on the
coaches) are installed on concrete pads located trackside. Four sets of jumper cables, similar to those used car-to car but
longer, provide the connection between the trackside boxes and the four connectors on the coach.
1
9.1.3.6 Control Circuits
While there are many ways of designing control circuits they all must include the following:
a. A documented procedure to insure that the locomotive HEP has been shut down and isolated from both the control and
power trainlines before wayside power connections are made. 3
b. A monitor circuit to insure both control trainline complete loops (right & left) are continuous as a prerequisite to
energizing wayside power.
c. A trip circuit to de-energize the wayside power should either loop be detected open (usually the result of a car to car or
car to ground box jumper being removed).
4
d. A trackside control stand that provides indication to the operator of system condition (right / left loop complete,
wayside power energized / de-energized) and provisions for Lock out / Tag out to afford employee safety during
maintenance operations.
Many properties find that Modular Motor Control center architecture lends itself to the design of a facility with multiple
standby services. This system allows the feeders, transformers, and switchgear to be centralized away from the roadbed, with
only outlet boxes and remote controls being installed trackside.


33
Part 10
Illumination
— 2005 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.1 Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2

10.1.1 General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2
10.2 Lighting of Fixed Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2

10.2.1 Outdoor Area Lighting – Floodlighting in Railroad Yards (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-2 1
10.3 Factors Affecting Efficient Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-9

10.3.1 Maintenance (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-9
10.4 Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11

10.4.1 Electric Lamp Characteristics (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11 3
10.5 Evaluation Measurements and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11
10.5.1 General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-11
LIST OF FIGURES
33-10-1 Retarder Classification Yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-6

33-10-2 Decline in Light Output Due to Dirt, High-bay Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-10
33-10-3 Decline in Light Output Due to Dirt, Low-bay Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-10
LIST OF TABLES
33-10-1 Levels of Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-10-3

SECTION 10.1 ILLUMINATION
10.1.1 GENERAL (2005)
This section was edited to update recommended practices for the application of lighting and illumination in railway
applications. It should be understood that lighting designs for railway applications should be performed by a qualified lighting
professional.
The majority of the information contained in the earlier versions of SECTION 10 has been expanded, updated or reprinted in
the Illumination Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), “Lighting Handbook” including the engineering and
maintenance recommendations. This section covers items that may be specific to railway applications and generally not cover
under these IESNA guidelines.
SECTION 10.2 LIGHTING OF FIXED PROPERTIES
10.2.1 OUTDOOR AREA LIGHTING – FLOODLIGHTING IN RAILROAD YARDS (2005)

10.2.1.1 General
a. Adequate lighting of railroad yards, work tasks and areas, storage areas and platforms is essential to promote safety to
personnel, expedite operations, and reduce pilferage and damage.
b. The purpose of this section is to present recommended illumination levels applicable to the varied tasks encountered on
railroad properties and to guide the lighting designer in the proper application of the lighting medium to assure
satisfactory visibility to all concerned. Included are descriptions of the visual tasks encountered on railroad properties,
design data, and graphic illustrations or select technical items.
c. Recommended levels of illumination included herein were determined by scientific evaluation of the seeing tasks, and
the Manual material presented is a joint effort of the Illuminating Engineering Society, Outdoor Productive Areas
subcommittee of the Industrial Lighting Committee, together with personnel from the former AAR Lighting
Committee and former AREMA Committee 18.
d. Railroad properties can be divided into general areas which have different seeing tasks within them. By considering
each type of property separately, and further breaking down each type into areas involving specialized seeing tasks,
specific levels of illumination can be recommended that cover most variations among individual railroads. Refer to
Table 33-10-1 for recommended illumination levels. Different levels may be required if closed circuit television is
utilized to aid in operations.
e. Railroad regulations should be observed with respect to the location of any lighting equipment above or adjacent to
tracks.

Illumination
Table 33-10-1. Levels of Illumination

(See Note 1)
Recommended
Illumination Location
Seeing Tasks–
Area to be Lighted Level References
Operation Performed
(Footcandles) (Figure 33-10-1)
(Note 2)
I. Retarder Classification Yard
1. Receiving Yard
a. Switch points – incoming end 2.0 A Walking between cars, bleeding air
b. Body of yard 1.0 B systems, opening journal box covers,
inspecting air hoses and safety
c. Switch points – hump end 2.0 C appliances, etc.
2. Hump Area
a.Entire side of car in view of scale operator 20.0 D Scale operator checks car numbers
and in view of hump conductor. and weights, hump conductor
b.Underneath car and both sides of running 20.0 vertical confirms car number and sends car
gear from a point approximately 10 feet to proper track; inspection of
ahead of inspection pit to a point just past running gear while car is in motion;
inspection pit. coupling must be easily seen so
wedge can be applied with car in 1
c.On side of car as it approaches car 20.0 vertical motion.
uncoupler (pin puller), from a point
approximately 15 feet ahead of its
position to approximately 5 feet past.
d.On front of car as it approaches wedge 20.0 vertical
inserter, from a point approximately 15
feet ahead of his position to
3
approximately 5 feet past.
3. Control Tower and Retarder Area
In a vertical plane parallel to the tracks and at a 10.0 vertical E Check extent of track occupancy,
point 6 feet above the center of hump and gage speed of car coming from hump
retarder tracks; if an illumination meter is used and manually set retardation; check 4
to check an installation it should be aimed in a car number against switching list and
direction perpendicular to the tracks and see that car goes to correct track at
toward the tower side. correct speed.
4. Head End
Top of rails throughout head end on all “lead” 5.0 F Operator must see car actually clear
tracks. switch points so that following cars
will not be impeded and take
corrective action, if necessary.
5. Body
Top of rails throughout body of classification 1.0 G Walking, determine extent of track
yard. occupancy; couple air hoses, place
and remove track skates, etc.
6. Pull-Out End

Table 33-10-1. Levels of Illumination (Continued)

(See Note 1)
Recommended
Seeing Tasks–
Operation Performed
(Note 2)
Top of rails along switch tracks. 2.0 H Walking, determine switch positions
and operate them, if necessary.
7. Dispatch or Forwarding Yard
Top of rails. 1.0 I Walking, couple air hoses, etc.
II. Hump and Car Rider Classification Yard
1. Receiving Yard
a.Switch points 2.0 – Switchmen walk along lead tracks
and throw switches. Car riders on
rolling cars must see cars on tracks
ahead of them so that they can apply
b.Body of yard 1.0 – brakes adequately to reduce impact
and prevent damage. Car rider must
see to get off car and walk back
along yard tracks to hump.
2. Hump Area
a. Side of car 5.0 vertical – Yard clerk reads car numbers,
uncouples cars, car rider must see
b. Entire area 5.0 – grab irons and ladders to safely
climb onto cars.
III. Flat Switching Yards
a.Side of car when viewed by yard 5.0 vertical – Switchmen walking around in head-
supervisor end and pull-out end of yard. Yard
supervisor may also have to read car
b.Switch points 2.0 – numbers at head-end of yard.
IV. Trailer-on-Flatcar Yards

a. Horizontal surface of flat car 5.0 – Tractor operator must accurately
back up or drive along tops of
flatcars, uncouple tractor, pull off;
b. Hold-down points 5.0 vertical – personnel must tie down trailers to
flatcars which requires them to see
beneath the trailers.
V. Container-on-Flatcar Yards

Illumination
Table 33-10-1. Levels of Illumination (Continued)

(See Note 1)
Recommended
Seeing Tasks–
Operation Performed
(Note 2)
5.0 — Crane operators to pick up
containers from:
a. any part of the trailer parking
yard and place them precisely
on flatcars.
b. flatcars to precise locations on
trailers.
Personnel tie down and release
containers from all sides of vehicles.
VI. Mainline Interlockings
a. Home Signal to Home Signal 2.0 — Maintenance Personnel walking on
right-of-way and maintaining
interlocking equipment.
Note 1: All footcandle values are assumed to be in the horizontal plane and measured at rail elevation unless otherwise
specified. 1
Note 2: These are general recommended levels. The direction of lighting or luminaire type may require different levels for
specific installations.
10.2.1.2 Retarder Classification Yards
10.2.1.2.1 General
3
The large and often highly automated retarder classification yard, with its supporting yards and servicing facilities, presents a
number of different seeing tasks that are considered under the following locations (See Figure 33-10-1).
10.2.1.2.2 Receiving Yard
a. Inbound freight trains generally pull into a receiving yard where road locomotives and freight cars are uncoupled and
moved to servicing or storage tracks. Air lines between cars may be disconnected, cars may be inspected, axles tested, 4
etc. A locomotive then pushes the cars to the hump for classification.
b. Seeing tasks throughout the area consist of walking between cars, bleeding air systems, and observing air hoses, safety
appliances, etc.
10.2.1.2.3 Hump Area
a. The hump area includes those facilities between the leaving end of the receiving yard and the entering end of the main
retarder. Located in this area are the hump conductor, scale operator, and the car uncoupler. Special facilities in this
area may include a car inspection pit, broken wheel flange detector, and a facility to insert disposable wedges into
couplers to insure that they are held open for coupling to other cars in the yard. In some yards, a hump conductor
operates remotely controlled power switches to route the car onto the proper track in the classification yard.
b. Seeing tasks in the hump area are diversified. The scale operator is usually required to visually check each car number
to insure that the weight is recorded against the proper car. The hump conductor also should confirm the car number

Figure 33-10-1. Retarder Classification Yard

against his list, to insure that the car is sent to the proper yard track. The car inspectors must have a high level of light
on the underneath surfaces of the car and on the running gear to permit ready and precise inspection of a car that is in
motion. The car uncoupler should be able to see the uncoupling mechanism in order to safely reach it while the car is in
motion. The operator of the wedge inserter, if one is used, must be able to accurately see the coupler in order to apply
the wedge, again with the car in motion.
c. The hump conductor, car inspector, car uncoupler and wedge operator should have supplemental lighting, in addition
to general lighting in the hump area as indicated in Table 33-10-1.
10.2.1.2.4 Control Tower and Retarder Area
a. Many retarder classification yards are equipped with various methods for determining car speed, “rollability,” track
occupancy, etc. These devices automatically set retarders to permit a car to roll from the hump to its proper position in
the yard without action by the control tower operator. Other less automated yards may require the operator to visually
check the extent of track occupancy in the yard, gauge the speed of the car coming from the hump and manually set the
amount of retardation to be applied to the car. Even in the automated yard, the operator may also be required to do this
manually in the event of failure of one or more of the automatic features. In many yards, the control tower operator is
expected to check the car number against a switching list and see that the car goes to the correct track. Accordingly, it
is essential that the operator quickly and accurately identify the moving car.
b. Under clear atmospheric conditions, it is important that there be no direct light projected toward the operator, and this
covers a considerable angle. However, under adverse atmospheric conditions of dense fog, for example, it is general
practice to utilize auxiliary lighting equipment on the far side of the tracks opposite the retarder control tower which
will reveal the outlines of cars in silhouette.
10.2.1.2.5 Head End of Classification Yard
After a car is classified and leaves the retarders, it rolls along one of several “lead” tracks with various switches branching off
each lead track into the classification yard tracks. The operator should be able to see that the car actually clears switch points
and clearance points so that following cars will not be impeded or perhaps damaged. If a car does not clear, a locomotive
enters the yard to move the car, and if for some reason a car is sent down the wrong yard track, the locomotive must pull it
back. Some highly automated yards have indicating systems to show locations of all cars and track occupancy conditions on
the classification tracks. Again, if automated features fail, it is as important for the operator to be able to see yard conditions as
accurately in the automated yard as in the less automated one.

Illumination
10.2.1.2.6 Body of Classification Yard
A relatively large number of parallel tracks form the body of the classification yard. Cars having a common initial destination
are sent from the hump to a given track in the classification yard. In many yards, the operator must be able to see the body of
the yard sufficiently well to determine the extent of track occupancy. On some railroads, personnel are required to move along
cars in the body of the classification yard to couple air hoses, etc. At the leaving end of the body of the classification yard,
skatemen place track skates to stop moving cars at the desired location and remove the skates later for pullout. Some yards use
automatic car stoppers instead of skates.
10.2.1.2.7 Pull-Out End of Classification Yard
a. The pull-out end of the classification yard includes the area where yard tracks converge into one or more ladder tracks
in leaving the yard. In this area, switchmen may walk along the track, ride standing on switcher step, cling to the end
car to observe switch position, or step down while still in motion to throw switches as required.
b. Two or more ladder tracks may converge into two pullout tracks connected crossovers and also connected to the lead
tracks to the departure or local yards. Switches for crossovers and lead tracks are sometimes power-operated from an
adjacent control point by the switchmen with consequent increased switching speeds. Switchmen must be able to see
that the switches take the position directed by the controls.
10.2.1.2.8 Dispatch or Forwarding Yard
Some railroads pull strings of cars from classification tracks into a dispatch yard to make up a train. Here, air hoses are
coupled, and perhaps other inspections are made. As in the receiving yard, the main seeing task in the dispatch yard consists of
walking between tracks. 1
10.2.1.3 Hump and Car Rider Classification Yards
10.2.1.3.1 General
a. In contrast to the often highly automated retarder classification yards, there are many yards that do not use retarders 3
and tower operators for classification of cars. This type of yard, referred to as the “hump and car rider” classification
yard, depends upon manpower for operation. An incoming freight train is pushed to the hump where it is uncoupled
and a car rider climbs aboard each car, or “cut” of a few cars. The cars are allowed to roll from the hump toward the
classification yard tracks, where switchmen, often directed by a loudspeaker from the hump, manually operate
switches to permit the car to roll onto the proper track. As the car rolls along its classification track, the car rider gages
the distance to other cars on the track and manually applies the car brakes, by turning the brake wheel, to slow the car
so that the impact will not be severe. Upon stopping the car, the rider gets off and walks back to the hump to repeat the 4
riding cycle.
b. This type of classification yard may be supported by a receiving yard and a dispatch yard where the same seeing tasks
are encountered as in their retarder yard counterparts.
c. The seeing tasks in the classification yard, and around the hump, are considerably different in the rider-type yard than
in the retarder yard. Around the hump area, a yard clerk should be able to read car numbers, cars must be uncoupled,
and car riders must be able to see grab irons, ladders, etc., to safely climb onto the cars. Switchmen operating along the
lead track must have safe seeing conditions to enable them to walk along the lead track and operate switches. Car riders
on the cars rolling into the yard should be able to see cars on the track ahead so that they can brake adequately to
reduce impact and prevent consequent damage to lading. The rider must then be able to see to get off the car and walk
back along yard tracks to the hump.

10.2.1.4 Flat Switching Yards
10.2.1.4.1 General
a. Nearly all railroads have many relatively small flat switching yards on their systems. Often a flat switching yard is
located adjacent to an industrial area where cars are received from industries and at some period of the day, or night,
these cars are moved to a larger classification yard for further forwarding. Empty cars may also be returned to the flat
switching yard for distribution locally to industries for loading. Operations at the flat switching yard consist of a
switchman at the head end operating one of perhaps a half dozen or so switches to permit a locomotive to push or pull
cars onto a given track in the yard. The locomotive may then return for more cars and push or pull them onto another
track, etc., until the cars are arranged in the desired order on the yard tracks, from which the cars are pulled out to move
to some other location.
b. The only seeing requirement in most yard areas of this type is for safe walking conditions for switchmen around the
head end and pull-out end switches. A yard supervisor may also be required to read car numbers at the head end of the
yard in order to assign cars to their proper tracks. A locomotive pushes cars into the body of the yard, and in most
cases, the locomotive headlight furnishes sufficient light to provide adequate seeing for the locomotive engineer.
c. General lighting is recommended over the entire yard to permit switchmen to see the location of standing cars.
Additional light should be provided in the area of the switches at the head end and pull-out end of the yard.
d. If a yardmaster or yard clerk must read car numbers, local lighting must be provided at his location.
10.2.1.5 Trailer-on-Flatcar Yards
10.2.1.5.1 General
a. Hauling highway-type trailers loaded on special railroad flatcars has grown rapidly in recent years. There are several
types of flatcars in use, and several methods of placing trailers on them. One of the most prevalent methods in use is to
provide a ramp leading from the ground level up to the floor level of flatcars. The trailer is backed up the ramp by
highway tractor, then backed or pushed from one flatcar to the next until it is on its prescribed car, working from the
back car forward. Certain specialized methods are used in some places to lift and pivot the trailer onto flatcars from the
side. Once the trailers are on the flatcars, most railroads use specialized tie-down equipment and methods to secure the
trailers for shipment by rail.
b. Seeing tasks involved require the tractor operator to be able to back up or drive along the floor of the flatcars, uncouple
the tractor and pull off. Personnel must then tie down the trailers to the flatcars, requiring them to be able to see beneath
the trailers.
10.2.1.6 Container-on-Flatcar Yards
10.2.1.6.1 General
a. In container-on-flatcar yards, demountable load containers are detached from the trailer and loaded onto the railroad
flatcars, or vice versa, by crane. Usually, the trailers are lined up parallel with the flatcars. A crane straddling both the
trailers and flatcars picks up the demountable containers and places them on the cars.
b. The seeking task involves the transfer of the container between the trailer wheel frame and the flat car, also locating,
releasing, and tying down of the container.
c. Other types of container-on-flatcar operations may employ different methods of loading and unloading, but the
illumination required is similar.

Illumination
10.2.1.7 Mainline Interlockings
10.2.1.7.1 General
a. In mainline interlockings maintenance-of-way personnel are required to continuously inspect and maintain the
operation of interlocking equipment including those for track, signals and communications and electric traction. This
requires the movement of personnel in and about the tracks from home signal to home signal. These interlocings are of
vital importance to the safe and effective performance of railroad operations.
b. Specific seeing tasks include the inspection, maintenance and testing of switch points and switch machines,
sectionalizing switches and section breaks, central instrument house and local control cases, snow melter facilities and
miscellaneous conduit and cable installations to support C&S and ET facilities.
c. Lighting for mainline interlockings should be designed with either automatic (photoelectric) controls or local lighting
controls.
SECTION 10.3 FACTORS AFFECTING EFFICIENT LIGHTING
10.3.1 MAINTENANCE (2005)

10.3.1.1 General
a. Proper maintenance will provide these features:

1
(1) Increased production.
(2) Fewer errors.
(3) Fewer accidents.

3
(4) Improved morale.
(5) Improved protection from vandalism.
b. Protecting the return from investment in a lighting system requires a lighting maintenance program that periodically
returns footcandle levels back as nearly as possible to the original design. Lighting levels fall off principally because
dirt accumulates on lamps and reflecting surfaces; there is also the normal loss of light output from lamp aging. 4
c. A good maintenance program, to provide the necessary protection, should include the periodic cleaning of lamps and
fixtures, cleaning or repainting of room surfaces, such as walls and ceilings, replacing burnt-out lamps, and
maintaining proper voltage levels.
d. In many installations it will be found the light output is only 50% as high as it should be. Light output can be increased
by repainting, cleaning fixtures, and by correcting the voltage to designed levels.
e. Figure 33-10-2 and Figure 33-10-3 show how much light output decreases over a two-year period in various types of
high-bay and low-bay areas.

Figure 33-10-2. Decline in Light Output Due to Dirt, High-bay Areas
Figure 33-10-3. Decline in Light Output Due to Dirt, Low-bay Areas
10.3.1.2 Cleaning
10.3.1.2.1 Cleaning Schedule
The cleaning frequency required for a particular plant or office can best be determined by taking periodic light meter readings
after the first cleaning. When footcandles have dropped 15% to 20% it is time to clean again. An alternate method would be to
have an annual cleaning program scheduling each office area or shop to be cleaned at a definite date. This method permits one
trained crew to do all the cleaning as they progress from one plant to the other. The scheduling can be planned taking into
account dirt conditions, fixture ventilation, time required to clean each luminaire, and size of maintenance crew.

Illumination
10.3.1.3 Relamping
10.3.1.3.1 Group Relamping
The labor costs saved by group relamping usually more than compensate for the value of the depreciated lamps that are thrown
away before they burn out. Other advantages also accompany group relamping such as more light, fewer work interruptions,
better appearance of the lighting system, and less maintenance of auxiliary equipment. Group relamping should be related to
lamp life but may be varied slightly to fit into convenient schedules when there will be less interruption of work.
10.3.1.3.2 Spot Relamping
Some areas require spot replacement because of a hazardous location or to maintain appearances. In these areas and locations
where specialized high-cost lamps are in use, spot relamping may prove to be the most economical method of replacement.
10.3.1.4 Voltages
a. Light sources are designed to operate most economically when supplied with rated voltages. Voltages either too high or
too low will affect the life, efficiency and economy of the lamps.
b. The main types of lamps currently in use include Metal Halide, High Pressure Sodium, Low Pressure sodium and
flourescent. Standard fixtures are available in various voltages ratings including 120, 240, 277 and 480. Consultation
with the fixture manufacturer is recommended to determine the best fixture for a specific application to include the
affect of line voltage on fixture life and rated light output.
1
SECTION 10.4 LAMPS
10.4.1 ELECTRIC LAMP CHARACTERISTICS (2005)

3
a. For more detailed information, it is suggested that the Illuminating Engineering Society Lighting Handbook, and the
electric lamp manufacturers be consulted.
b. Electric lamps may be divided into three major types, namely: incandescent-filament lamps, electric-discharge lamps
and light emitting diodes.
SECTION 10.5 EVALUATION MEASUREMENTS AND TESTS
10.5.1 GENERAL (2005)
a. Since the primary considerations in railway car lighting vary with the accommodations and the task as described,
evaluation measurements should be based on tasks or functions normally found in the area of the railway under
construction. When evaluating the lighting for any particular area the applicable combination of measurements will
have to be employed.
b. The following general factors apply to any tests:
(1) Extraneous light should be excluded where possible.

(2) The voltage should be held constant at the switchboard or the voltage used for each reading and the reading
corrected for any voltage deviation from normal.
(3) Fluorescent lamps should be burned 100 hours before tests are made.
(4) Fluorescent systems should be lighted for at least one-half hour before any readings are taken.
(5) When photoelectric cell type instruments are used, the ambient temperature should be above 60 degrees F and
such instruments should have their cells exposed to the approximate levels of illumination to be measured for at
least 15 minutes prior to taking any readings.
c. Information should include the following:
(1) Name and type of property.
(2) Location when test is made.
(3) Names of those conducting test.
(4) Date.
(5) Time of Day:
(a) Daylight with shades drawn.
(b) Night with shades drawn.
(c) Night with shades up.
NOTE: Unshaded windows at night are black surfaces with very low reflectance factors. Shades are usually of a
much higher reflectance value.
(6) Instruments used, date of last calibration, and whether equipped with color correction filter.
(7) Identification of area tested.
(8) Color and cleanliness of walls, ceiling, furniture and floors.
(9) Type of lighting fixtures and record of which fixtures were lighted.
(10) Conditions of fixtures:
(a) New or old.
(b) Type of reflector and condition.
(c) Cleanliness.
(11) Wattage and rated voltage of lamps.
(12) Color of lamps, if fluorescent.
(13) Voltage at switchboard.
(14) Location where readings were taken.

Illumination
(15) Description of readings:
(a) Horizontal or vertical plane, or 45 degree plane.
(b) Distance above floor.


12
Part 12
Traction Power Supply and Distribution
Requirements for DC Rail Transportation Systems
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-2 1

12.1.1 Scope and Purpose (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-2
12.2 DC Traction Power System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-3

12.2.1 Light and Heavy Rail System Defining Characteristics (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-3
12.2.2 Transit Vehicle Propulsion Methods (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-3
12.2.3 Transit Vehicle Power Requirements (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-4
12.2.4 Traction Power System Load Characteristics (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-4 3
12.3 DC Traction Power Substations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-5
12.3.1 Substation Types and Configurations (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-5
12.3.2 Utility AC Supply Circuits and Interface Considerations (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-7
12.3.3 Rectifier Transformers (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-7
12.3.4 Uncontrolled Power Rectifiers (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-8
12.3.5 Controlled Power Rectifiers (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-8
12.3.6 DC Power Circuit Breakers (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-9
12.3.7 Relay Protection for Substation DC Equipment (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-10
12.3.8 Surge Protection for Substation DC Equipment (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-12
12.3.9 Grounding of Substation DC Equipment Enclosures (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-13
12.4 DC Traction Power Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-14

12.4.1 Positive Supply and Negative Return Circuits - General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-14
12.4.2 Positive Supply System Sectionalizing (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-15
12.4.3 Contact Rail (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-15
12.4.4 DC Traction Power Cables (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-17
12.4.5 DC Disconnect Switches (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-18

Electric Energy Utilization
12.5 DC Traction Power System Planning and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-20

12.5.1 Load Flow Simulation Studies (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-20
12.5.2 Substation Location (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-21
12.5.3 DC Rail Potentials (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-22
12.5.4 Rating of DC Power Cables (Ampacity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-22
LIST OF FIGURES
33-12-1 Example - Relay Protection for Substation DC Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33-12-12
LIST OF TABLES
33-12-1 Typical Rectifier Protective Device Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-12-10
Part 12 of Chapter 33 provides guidelines and recommendations for the planning and design of modern electrified rail
transportation systems that employ direct current (dc) for traction power. These electrified rail systems are normally
categorized as Light Rail Transit (LRT) and Heavy Rail Transit (HRT). Electric Trolleybus (ETB) and some Automated
Guideway Transit (AGT) and Automated People Mover (APM) systems also employ dc power for propulsion, but are not
specifically addressed herein. Most of the system planning and design guidelines, and the recommendations for LRT and
HRT, however, will also apply to ETB and dc APM systems.
Traction power requirements for historic trolley systems are included under the LRT system category in this chapter, and dc
commuter rail systems are included under the HRT category. The purpose of these guidelines and recommendations is to
standardize the planning and design of these systems based on proven, industry-accepted practices.
Voltage levels are covered in Part 3 of this chapter; a glossary of terms and list of abbreviations is located in the Glossary.

Traction Power Supply and Distribution Requirements for DC Rail Transportation Systems
SECTION 12.2 DC TRACTION POWER SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
12.2.1 LIGHT AND HEAVY RAIL SYSTEM DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS (2012)
a. Light rail transit (LRT) is comprised of passenger rail cars operating as single car units or in consists of multiple cars.
Light rail is suited for street running type operations in which the LRT trains obey roadway traffic signals along with
motorists, as well as operation on semi-exclusive or exclusive ROW. Roadway traffic signal priority or preemption
can be established with local transportation authorities to enhance train operations. Power for light rail transit is usually
supplied by an overhead contact system and collected through a pantograph on the car; a trolley pole is used instead of
a pantograph on some long-established street-running LRT systems. LRT is also known as "streetcar", "tramway" or
"trolley car."
b. Heavy rail transit (HRT) is an electric railway with the capacity for a heavy volume of traffic. It is characterized by:
high speed and rapid acceleration passenger rail cars operating singly or in multi-car trains; separate rights-of-way
from which all other vehicular and foot traffic are excluded; sophisticated signaling; and, high level platform loading.
If the service were converted to full automation with no onboard personnel, the service would be considered an
automated guideway. HRT is also known as “metro”, “subway”, “rapid transit” or “rapid rail”. DC power for heavy
rail transit is typically supplied by third rail (“contact rail”) and collected on the vehicle through collector shoes or
paddles which ride on top of, or underneath, the third rail; however, it may also be supplied by an overhead contact
system (OCS) via pantographs.
c. The traction power system should be designed to use proven hardware and design concepts. The systems fixed
facilities (structures and buildings) should be designed for continued operation over a minimum period of 50 years.
Major fixed system equipment should be designed for a minimum lifetime of 30 years. 1
d. Major equipment should be supplied by established manufacturers, have a documented history of successful operation,
and be available “off the shelf”, as far as practicable. The same requirements should apply to spare parts.
e. Recommended voltage levels for LRT and HRT systems are provided in Part 3. The typical nominal voltage for new
LRT and HRT systems in North America is 750 Vdc. Some newer LRT systems with high passenger capacity
requirements and/or the need for increased distances between substations have adopted 1,500 Vdc nominal. 3
12.2.2 TRANSIT VEHICLE PROPULSION METHODS (2012)
a. DC rail transit vehicles are typically propelled by one of four methods: Cam-controlled dc motors, chopper-controlled
dc motors, linear induction motors, or converter-controlled ac induction motors. Converter-controlled ac induction
motor propulsion, commonly referred to as an “ac traction drive” or “ac propulsion”, is the most common propulsion 4
method employed for new LRT or HRT rolling stock at this time.
b. For propulsion systems employing cam-controlled dc traction motors, series type dc motors have been most commonly
used. Speed control for series dc motors is obtained at lower speeds by varying the terminal voltage of the motor
through the switching in and out of resistors, and by reconfiguring the motors in a car from series to parallel operation.
At speeds above motor base speed, the motor fields are shunted (“weakened”) to obtain greater speeds. Regeneration
of power from the car into the traction power system during braking (regenerative braking) is not possible with this
older propulsion system technology.
c. Chopper-controlled dc propulsion behaves similarly to cam-controlled dc motors, except that the chopper provides the
voltage control rather than the switched resistors. If separately excited dc motors are used instead of series dc motors,
regenerative braking is possible.
d. Linear induction motor propulsion systems used in rapid transit systems to date have employed the “short stator” type
design, with the induction motor primary located on the car, and a reaction rail or plate on the guideway; a contact rail
is used to provide dc power supply to the car. Motor speed control is provided by variable voltage, variable frequency

converters. This form of propulsion has been used in North America on such systems as the JF Kennedy Airport
AirTrain, the TTC Scarborough LRT, the Vancouver Skytrain, and the Detroit People Mover.
e. AC propulsion systems employ power electronics to convert dc traction power to variable voltage, variable frequency
ac input to 3-phase induction motors. AC propulsion systems typically provide regenerative braking capability.
Modern ac propulsion systems also offer forced reduced performance (FRP) capability, which enables a proportional
reduction in propulsion motor current (and tractive effort) when contact system voltage drops below a programmable
threshold. Vehicles equipped with FRP are therefore more tolerant of low contact system voltage, reducing their
acceleration rates (and propulsion system current demand) in response to low contact system voltage, as long as the
voltage remains above the design drop-out limit.
12.2.3 TRANSIT VEHICLE POWER REQUIREMENTS (2012)
a. Transit vehicle power requirements vary greatly as vehicles accelerate from standstill to a constant speed, as they
operate at constant speed, and as they brake from constant speed to a standstill. Vehicle propulsion power
requirements at a particular speed are a function of many factors that include: vehicle dimensions and empty weight;
passenger load; track curvature and gradient, propulsion system type, efficiency and tractive effort vs. speed
characteristics; and contact system voltage.
b. At standstill, vehicle power requirements consist of vehicle “auxiliaries” only, which include the power required to
operate HVAC systems, lighting, air compressors, battery chargers, and miscellaneous electronics. Some of the
equipment that comprises the auxiliary load operates continuously, some cyclically, and some cyclically and
seasonally. For this reason, vehicle auxiliary load is difficult to estimate by calculation alone; measurements taken
over a period of time are preferable to calculation when a reliable per-car value is needed.
c. While in motion, a transit vehicle’s power requirements consist of propulsion system plus auxiliary system loads. For
dc transit vehicles, this power requirement is most conveniently expressed in terms of Amperes, or amps, at line
voltage. During full acceleration, the peak current demand of a single LRT or HRT vehicle can be on the order of
1,500 amps at 750 Vdc. Peak current demand can be predicted from design or test data curves prepared by the vehicle
manufacturer; however, these curves are normally prepared for one specific set of test track conditions (level tangent
track, typically), and may not adequately reflect operation everywhere on the system. Measurements of current
demand obtained during actual operation of a vehicle on its own system provide the most reliable results.
Alternatively, computer simulation can be used to predict vehicle power requirements and performance; it is
recommended that simulation results be corroborated against manufacturer or measured performance data if these are
available.
d. Transit vehicles equipped with regenerative braking can return propulsion power to the contact system, minus the
power required for vehicle auxiliary loads and dynamic braking. The amount of power returned depends on the
availability of power “receptors” (electrical loads); these receptors are typically nearby trains, but they can also be
energy storage devices. At present, the return of regenerated power to the electric utility, which requires bi-directional
(4-quadrant) substation converters for dc traction power systems, is not yet common in North America. Regenerative
braking can be a source of considerable energy savings, depending on system configuration.
12.2.4 TRACTION POWER SYSTEM LOAD CHARACTERISTICS (2012)
a. In comparison with other types of power systems, traction power systems are very dynamic in behavior. Not only do
the major electrical loads in a traction power system vary significantly with time, but they also physically move
between substations. The total load supplied by a traction power substation is thus time-varying (varying from
moment to moment), as are the loads at adjacent substations.
b. To provide a basis for the selection and sizing of traction power equipment such as transformers, rectifiers, switchgear
and cables, the varying load currents are converted to equivalent constant values. For most equipment, a root-mean-
square (rms) calculation is performed for this purpose (An rms calculation produces an equivalent constant value of

current from any periodic, time-varying current waveform; the rms value of a periodic current waveform is defined as
the equivalent constant direct current which would cause the same average heating in a resistive element).
c. Utilities that supply electricity to transit systems typically have separate charges for energy consumption (kWh) and for
peak demand (kW or kVA). Demand is an average of instantaneous power measured over a period of time termed the
“demand interval”; demand intervals are typically 15 or 30 minutes. Peak demand is the highest demand measured
during a billing period.
d. Transit systems that increase the frequency and/or the lengths of trains during rush hour will have a daily system load
characteristic (load versus time graph) that peaks twice daily, one peak for the AM rush hour and one for the PM rush
hour. This traditional transit system load shape is characteristic of individual main line substations as well; yard
substations, however, typically have different load characteristics that are functions of train storage procedures. The
AM and PM peak period loads for main line substations are typically much higher than the non-peak period loads. In
electric utility supply terms, these systems have low load factors. Load factor is defined as the average load over a
specific time interval divided by the peak load (demand) occurring during the same interval [1]. For utility supply and
equipment rating purposes, the time interval utilized is typically a 24 hour day, resulting in the term "daily load factor".
A sampling of heavy/commuter rail and light rail systems has found average daily load factors of 0.50 and 0.60,
respectively [2].
e. The type of demand billing used by electric utilities can have a significant impact on transit system power costs. The
most advantageous arrangement is for all traction power substations to be treated as a single load for peak demand
billing purposes (also known as coincident or conjunctive demand billing), using the longest demand interval available.
Otherwise, in the event of a serious catch-up service scenario, new peak demands could be reached at each substation
involved in the scenario, even though the total system load remains the same during the event. If the utility also
charges for the highest peak demand achieved at each substation over the course of the previous 6 to 12 months (also
1
known as a “demand ratchet”), then the power cost penalty at each substation for a catch-up service event could be
repeated for many months. There is significant precedent among existing transit properties for negotiating longer peak
demand intervals and coincident or conjunctive demand billing with their supplying utilities, which offers the potential
for significant operating cost savings.
f. DC traction power systems utilizing controlled (thyristor) and uncontrolled (diode) rectifiers are potential sources of 3
voltage and current harmonic distortion for the supplying electric utility(s), similar to large motor drives and UPS
systems. Proper system design including compliance with IEEE Standard 519, IEEE Recommended Practices and
Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems, will normally preclude power quality issues with the
supplying utilities.
g. Because of their unique load characteristics relative to other utility customers, it is recommended that transit agencies
begin electricity supply and rate negotiations with electric utilities as early as possible in the planning and design of 4
new HRT or LRT facilities.
SECTION 12.3 DC TRACTION POWER SUBSTATIONS
12.3.1 SUBSTATION TYPES AND CONFIGURATIONS (2012)
a. DC traction power substations convert (“rectify”) three-phase alternating current (ac) to direct current (dc) for
utilization by rail vehicles. With the exception of some trolley systems, the ac supply is in the medium voltage range,
4.16 to 34.5 kV being typical. The conversion from ac to dc may be performed by uncontrolled or controlled rectifiers.
Modern uncontrolled rectifiers utilize silicon diode type rectifiers, which have replaced rotary converter and mercury
arc type rectifiers. Controlled rectifiers are typically thyristor-controlled type rectifiers. Since both types of rectifiers

perform the same basic function (conversion of ac to dc), both types will be referred to herein as “rectifiers” unless a
distinction needs to be made between them.
b. DC traction power substation configurations vary from single transformer-rectifier units in small prefabricated
buildings to multiple transformer-rectifier units in large, multi-story masonry buildings. In general, the larger facilities
are associated with HRT systems, although this is not universally true. Selection of configuration is based on a number
of factors that include capital cost, site availability, redundancy, and the design practices and standards of existing
transit properties.
c. DC traction substations with two transformer-rectifier units are termed “double-ended” substations; ideally, both of
these transformer-rectifier units are also powered from different ac supply circuits. This configuration is common for
HRT systems, although additional rectifiers are often added to increase substation capacity.
d. The positive dc bus in a dc traction power substation having two or more rectifiers can be continuous, or it can be
subdivided with bus tie breakers or disconnect switches. Subdivision of the positive bus provides a means to keep a
portion of the dc switchgear in service if the positive bus is being maintained or repaired, or if dc switchgear is being
replaced or extended. Bus subdivision with normally-open bus tie breakers may also be required in large, multi-
rectifier substations to keep available short circuit currents within the ratings of the dc switchgear.
e. The negative dc bus in a dc traction power substation having two or more rectifiers is normally continuous. Commonly
referred to as a “negative equalizer” bus, it provides a single location where negative return cables from the right-of-
way can be terminated. The negative pole of each rectifier that is connected to the negative equalizer bus is provided
with a disconnect switch (Device 89N) that is interlocked with the rectifier main dc circuit breaker. The purpose of this
interlock is to preclude the operation of a rectifier with its negative polarity disconnected, which would be a hazardous
condition.
f. DC traction substations in North America have traditionally used a rectifier main (cathode) dc circuit breaker for
rectifier cathode switching and reverse current protection. This breaker was originally used to interrupt “arc-back”
faults that could occur in mercury arc type rectifiers.
g. The substation configuration and enclosure should provide sufficient space to accommodate all traction power
equipment and ancillary components with the necessary clearances during normal operation and maintenance. The
equipment arrangement should provide adequate clearances and working space with equipment access doors opened,
panels removed, and switchgear removable elements withdrawn. Ceiling heights, aisles, floor hatches, hallways and
structural openings should permit removal and replacement of the largest components installed in the substation.
h. Equipment arrangements, clearances and egress should comply with applicable local, state and national building, fire
and electrical safety codes. Special attention should be paid to the clearances around the dc switchgear enclosures and
rectifier enclosures, and to the electrical isolation typically required for these enclosures (refer to Article 12.3.9).
i. If substations are located below grade they should be constructed with adequately-sized and located equipment hatches
to permit the removal of any item of equipment from the substation to the ground level above, or doors to permit the
removal of equipment from the substation to track level.
j. DC traction power for use inside vehicle maintenance shop buildings is normally provided from dedicated shop
substations equipped with a negative bus that is connected to the grounded shop tracks and shop building grounding
system. This requires the contact system and running rails inside the maintenance shop buildings to be electrically
isolated from the contact system and rails outside of the shop.

12.3.2 UTILITY AC SUPPLY CIRCUITS AND INTERFACE CONSIDERATIONS (2012)
a. For traction substations with a single ac supply circuit, it is recommended that adjacent substations be connected to
different utility supply circuits, ideally from different utility distribution substations (“independent” supply circuits).
For traction substations with two ac supply circuits, it is recommended that each ac supply circuit be independent.
b. Underground ac supply circuits are recommended wherever feasible for maximum reliability. Service entrance
equipment connected to both underground and overhead ac supply circuits should include properly-sized station class
surge arresters.
c. For new substations, it is common practice to contact the supplying electric utility early in the design process to
determine their interconnection requirements and standard practices for equipment access and ownership, metering,
switchgear, and relay protection.
d. For substations that employ controlled rectifiers, mitigation of potentially high levels of harmonics and low power
factor in the ac supply circuits under certain load conditions may be required.
e. For traction substations receiving medium voltage power from a 4-wire electric utility service, connection of a utility
supply circuit neutral to the traction substation ac ground bus should be investigated, if the connection is permitted by
the utility. This connection provides the lowest impedance return path for traction substation ac ground fault current,
improving ac ground fault protection and reducing the size of the traction substation grounding grid (see IEEE
Standard 367, IEEE Recommended Practice for Determining the Electric Power Station Ground Potential Rise and
Induced Voltage from a Ground Fault for additional information). With this connection, there is a remote possibility of
stray dc current flow through the neutral of a utility supply circuit that is connected to adjacent traction substations. 1
Therefore, a utility neutral connection to the substation ac ground bus should be considered mainly for those
substations that could most benefit from it due to factors such as a high utility available line-to-ground fault current,
high site earth resistivity, small site, etc., unless engineering studies determine that potential stray currents can be
successfully mitigated.
12.3.3 RECTIFIER TRANSFORMERS (2012)

3
a. Power rectifiers for traction power application require special transformers that can provide the number of secondary
phases and the voltages and phase displacements required for rectification. In addition, these transformers must be
designed to sustain the repeated overload cycles and intermittent contact system short circuits that are typical of
electrified rail transit system operation. For this reason, a rectifier and its rectifier transformer must be designed as an
integrated unit, which is typically referred to as a “transformer-rectifier unit”.
b. The manufacture and testing of rectifier transformers in North America is addressed by IEEE Std C57.18.10, IEEE 4
Standard Practices and Requirements for Semiconductor Power Rectifier Transformers. This standard describes the
available rectifier circuit configurations and overload cycles, and also provides application information. IEEE
Standard C57.18.10 should be referenced for the design and specification of rectifier transformers.
c. The most common transformer-rectifier unit overload cycle specified in North American transit application is Extra
Heavy Traction, which involves application of 100 percent rated load current continuously until constant temperatures
have been reached by all parts of the rectifier unit, followed by 150 percent current for 2 hours and a superimposed
cycle of overloads consisting of five periods of 1 minute each at 300 percent of rated load current, followed by one
period of 450 percent of rated load amperes for 15 seconds at the end of the 2 hour period. These shorter periods are
evenly spaced throughout the 2 hour period.
d. The Heavy Traction transformer-rectifier unit overload cycle is sometimes specified, typically for yard and shop use
and some streetcar applications. It involves application of 100 percent rated load amperes continuously until constant
temperatures have been reached by all parts of the rectifier unit, followed by either 150 percent current for 2 hours
following 100 percent load, or 300 percent current for 1 minute following 100 percent load.

12.3.4 UNCONTROLLED POWER RECTIFIERS (2012)
a. Uncontrolled power rectifiers for traction applications are the traditional silicon diode type. These are available in a
number of circuit configurations, the most common of which is the 12-pulse bridge type (“double way”). This type of
rectifier requires a rectifier transformer with two secondary windings, one connected in delta, the other connected in
wye, providing a 30° phase displacement between similar secondary phases. Each secondary winding is connected to
a three-phase bridge rectifier circuit; the bridge circuits are typically connected in parallel through an interphase
transformer in what is known as an IEEE Circuit 31 configuration, although other circuit configurations are sometimes
employed.
b. The ac harmonic output of a rectifier decreases as the pulse number increases, which is a primary reason why 12-pulse
rectification is typically preferred to 6-pulse rectification for all transit applications except small shop rectifiers and
some historic streetcar systems. 12-pulse rectification may be obtained from one or more 12-pulse rectifiers. It may
also be obtained in effect from matched pairs of separate 6-pulse bridge type transformer-rectifier units with 30°
secondary phase displacement connected in parallel (one rectifier transformer secondary connected in wye, the other
connected in delta). With the latter approach, when one of the two 6-pulse rectifiers is out of service, the remaining
rectifier will provide 6-pulse rectification, resulting in an increase in the harmonics being injected into the ac supply
circuit.
c. Current sharing between the two bridges of 12-pulse rectifiers can be sensitive to high levels of voltage distortion and
phase unbalance in the primary ac supply; this is to some extent dependent on the rectifier and rectifier transformer
design. In general, high levels of voltage distortion and phase unbalance in the rectifier primary ac supply should be
avoided if possible. If this is not possible, then rectifier design studies based on actual measurements and consultations
with rectifier manufacturers are recommended.
d. Uncontrolled power rectifiers are typically indoor type, utilizing convection cooling.
e. The manufacture and testing of uncontrolled power rectifiers was governed for many years by two standards, both of
which have been long since rescinded: ANSI C34.2, Practices and Requirements for Semiconductor Power Rectifiers;
and, NEMA RI 9, Silicon Rectifier Units for Transportation Power Supplies. These have been superseded by a the new
IEEE Standard 1653.2, Standard for Uncontrolled Traction Power Rectifiers for Substation Applications up to 1500
Volts DC Nominal Output.
f. The various power rectifier circuit configurations that are commonly used in the transit industry are described in IEEE
Standard 1653.2.
12.3.5 CONTROLLED POWER RECTIFIERS (2012)
a. Controlled power rectifiers employ thyristors to control the rectifier firing angle, thereby enabling control of the dc
output voltage and current. These devices are typically manufactured in the 12-pulse bridge configuration. They are
more commonly known in North America as thyristor-controlled rectifiers (TCR).
b. Controlled power rectifiers used in North America typically maintain a fixed (steady) output voltage up to 100-150%
of rated full load current, after which the output voltage regulation becomes linear until it reaches maximum rated load
current. TCRs will normally control (limit) their output to a maximum current after a short time delay that allows fault
clearing by dc system protective devices.
c. Some TCR substations installed in North America have required the installation of capacitors on the primary side to
improve power factor.
d. Controlled power rectifiers are typically indoor type, utilizing forced air cooling.

e. If permitted by the supplying utility, TCR substations can be designed to allow the flow of regenerated power from the
dc traction system into the ac supply system, thus potentially improving the utilization of this power.
f. The manufacture and testing of controlled power rectifiers was governed for many years by ANSI C34.2, Practices
and Requirements for Semiconductor Power Rectifiers, which has been rescinded. A new IEEE standard for controlled
traction power rectifiers is being prepared by an IEEE Traction Power Substation Subcommittee Working Group.
12.3.6 DC POWER CIRCUIT BREAKERS (2012)
a. Rectifier main and dc feeder circuit breakers for modern transit application are draw-out type, single pole, high speed
or semi-high speed. The high speed type are typically used for systems with high short circuit current availability,
since they are designed to limit the current peak of the available (prospective) fault current by clearing any fault within
15 ms of inception.
b. The manufacture and testing of dc power circuit breakers in North America is currently addressed by IEEE standard
C37.14, Standard for Low-Voltage DC Power Circuit Breakers Used in Enclosures. This standard also includes an
application guide. Standard C37.14 currently refers to tables in IEEE Standard C37.16, IEEE Standard for Preferred
Ratings, Related Requirements and Application Recommendations for Low-Voltage AC (635 V and below) and DC
(3200 V and below) Power Circuit Breakers, for preferred electrical ratings and test values. The metal-enclosed
switchgear assemblies in which the circuit breakers are housed are addressed by IEEE Standard C20.1, Standard for
Metal-Enclosed Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear.
c. A dc circuit breaker must be capable of interrupting the maximum available (“prospective”) short-circuit current that
could flow through the breaker, including contributions from nearby substations. IEEE Standard C37.16 provides two 1
classifications for dc power circuit breaker short-circuit current interrupting ratings, light duty and heavy duty. The
light duty classification corresponds to a 4000 kW source which is equivalent to a 100 kA short-circuit current
interrupting rating for 800 Vdc class breakers. The heavy duty classification corresponds to a 8000 kW source which is
equivalent to a 200 kA short-circuit current interrupting rating for 800 Vdc class breakers (See Annex A of IEEE Std.
C37.14). These classifications are somewhat arbitrary and do not account for fault contributions from adjacent
substations.
3
d. DC feeder breakers are equipped with integral instantaneous overcurrent “direct-acting” trip units (Device 176). The
available setting range for the direct acting trip units is typically a multiple of the breaker frame size (the breaker
continuous current rating), a constraint which must be considered in the selection of the appropriate frame size.
e. The direct-acting trip units for dc feeder breakers can be bidirectional or unidirectional. Unidirectional trip units that
trip only for fault currents in the forward direction provide the most secure (selective) protection. Feeder breakers with
bidirectional trip units could theoretically nuisance-trip on reverse current flow (infeed) when another breaker on the 4
same bus is feeding a fault in the forward direction. This normally does not occur in practice because the breaker
feeding the fault “sees” a high forward fault current that is the sum of the reverse currents in the other breakers plus the
fault contribution from the substation rectifiers, and thus it trips first. This potential for miscoordination due to
bidirectional trip units is greater for dc breakers in tie (gap) breaker stations, because tie breaker stations do not have
the large fault current contributions from rectifiers that improve feeder breaker trip unit selectivity.
f. The most commonly used frame sizes for dc power circuit breakers conforming to IEEE standards are 4000, 6000 and
8000 Amperes, although other frame sizes are available.
g. The voltage classes for dc power circuit breakers conforming to IEEE standards are 800, 1000, 1200, 1600 and 3200
Vdc. The rated short circuit Amperes for heavy duty high-speed breakers for these voltage classes are 200 kA, 158 kA,
132 kA, 100 kA, and 50 kA, respectively. The 800 Vdc class is normally specified for transit systems with a 750 Vdc
nominal voltage. The reason a higher voltage class is not normally needed is discussed in Section 10.2.1 of IEEE
Standard C37.14-2002, which states: Circuit breaker dielectric ratings have been selected to provide a margin for
open-circuit voltage and voltages from regeneration. Normal operational voltages are less than maximum design levels

and, during short circuit, the actual voltage is reduced to measurably less than operational. Selection of a higher
voltage class also results in a lower short circuit current rating.
12.3.7 RELAY PROTECTION FOR SUBSTATION DC EQUIPMENT (2012)
a. Transformer-rectifier units are typically protected on the ac side by overcurrent relays that trip the ac supply and dc
cathode breakers upon detection of a fault or an overload. The current transformers employed for this protection are
typically located on the load side bushings of the transformer-rectifier unit ac supply breaker. The phase overcurrent
relaying must provide satisfactory overload protection while at the same time allowing the rectifier to sustain the short-
time overloads that are defined by its service rating without nuisance tripping. For example, the relay protection for a
rectifier with an IEEE Extra Heavy Traction service rating must be able to sustain a 450% overload for 15 seconds
without nuisance tripping, while also providing protection against thermally damaging overloads. To properly select
and set the unit overcurrent relays, time-current curves should be prepared that show the rectifier service rating
overload characteristic and available short circuit current as well as the proposed relay curves.
b. Rectifiers are typically protected on the dc side by direct-acting instantaneous reverse overcurrent trip units (Device 32
or 132) that are built into the rectifier cathode breakers.
c. Miscellaneous protections for power rectifiers include the following, although practices and device numbers vary
widely among transit agencies. In addition, the device numbers have not been formally standardized.
Table 33-12-1. Typical Rectifier Protective Device Numbers

Number Protective Device Description
26R1 Rectifier diode overtemperature—first stage
26R2 Rectifier diode overtemperature—second stage
33X Rectifier enclosure door open
57G Grounding device
63A Rectifier low air flow (forced-cooled only)
64 Rectifier enclosure energized—trip
64G Rectifier enclosure grounded—alarm
89N Rectifier negative pole disconnect switch
98A Rectifier diode failure—first stage
98T Rectifier diode failure—second stage
99A Rectifier surge protection failure
d. Modern relay protection for substation feeder circuit breakers normally includes instantaneous overcurrent, short-time
overcurrent, long-time overcurrent, and current rate-of-rise detection. The purpose of the rate-of-rise detection is to
discriminate between fault currents and the load currents of accelerating trains, since the load currents can be higher
than the currents resulting from remote faults. The rate-of-rise function should include ∆I (change in current) and ∆t
(time delay) settings; these can be adjusted to provide better protection against nuisance trips caused by rolling stock
electrical characteristics. The dc current input reference for the relays is obtained from shunts mounted in each circuit
breaker termination compartment; the shunts are typically sized to provide a 50 mV signal when conducting circuit
breaker full load current.
e. Some light rail systems power the inbound and outbound tracks in double track mainline areas from a single (shared)
feeder breaker (each substation has just two dc feeder breakers). While economical to construct, this approach can
negatively impact operations as well as limit the effectiveness of the OCS relay protection. With this arrangement, a
fault on either track will cause the OCS for both tracks to be de-energized until the fault can be located. In addition,
unless separate feeder cables and current measuring shunts are provided for each track, the feeder breaker relays cannot
determine which track’s OCS is overloaded, rendering OCS thermal and long-time protection ineffective. Light rail
systems that support frequent service should be equipped with four mainline dc feeder breakers per substation so that

inbound and outbound tracks are powered from separate circuit breakers, and are electrically independent. With the
four-breaker arrangement, a fault on one track will de-energize the OCS for the faulted track only.
f. Some traction power systems employ transfer tripping as part of the protective scheme for feeder breakers that power
the same OCS or contact rail section. Transfer trip (IEEE Device 85) causes all circuit breakers powering a contact
section to trip if any one of them trips. This provides improved electrical protection for remote faults, but the resulting
operational impact of complete power removal to a section due to nuisance trips should also be considered. The
negative operational impacts can be mitigated if the circuit breaker that originates the trip signal is permitted, under the
appropriate conditions, to perform the normal auto-reclosing cycle before sending the transfer trip signal. The
communications used for transfer tripping should be dedicated, point-to-point type circuits or channels.
g. DC feeder circuit breakers powering OCS or contact rail sections are normally equipped with automatic reclosing
capability. Control of the automatic reclosing is normally provided by combined voltage measuring (Device 83 or 183)
and load measuring (Device 82 or 182) schemes that attempt to determine if an automatic breaker tripping is the result
of a permanent fault, a temporary (transient) fault, an overload, or a nuisance trip. After a feeder breaker is tripped by
automatic means, the scheme measures the voltage on the load side of the open feeder breaker; this measurement is
performed after an adjustable time delay of several seconds. Modern relays also provide adjustable settings for the
duration of the voltage measurement interval; longer measurement intervals are sometimes required to allow the inrush
currents typical of modern rolling stock propulsion and auxiliary power systems to dissipate. Depending on the
measured voltage, three conditions could occur.
(1) If the measured voltage is above a set threshold (Vmax), the section is assumed to be fault-free, and the breaker will
immediately reclose.
(2) If the measured voltage is below a minimum threshold (Vmin), the breaker will begin what is called a “load
1
measuring cycle”; a fixed resistance will be inserted in parallel with the open feeder breaker contacts, and the
resulting voltage and current will be measured. The resulting calculated load resistance (the measured voltage
divided by the measured current) will then be compared against a minimum load resistance threshold (Ωmin). If the
measured resistance is below Ωmin, then a permanent fault is assumed to exist, and the breaker will be locked out.
If the measured resistance is above Ωmin, the breaker can be reclosed. Most load measuring schemes allow the
load measuring cycle to be repeated one or two additional times for more positive confirmation of a fault-free 3
condition, if desired.
(3) If the measured voltage is between Vmax and Vmin, the breaker will not be allowed to close, since a high resistance
fault may be present. If additional load measuring cycles do not detect voltages outside of these limits, the breaker
will be locked out. This indefinite condition, which is referred to by traction power relay engineers as “no man’s
land”, should be avoided to the extent possible by appropriate relay setting, particularly for single-ended power
sections (contact sections powered by a single feeder breaker). 4
h. The consistent detection and clearing of dc short circuits that involve a ground return path (ground faults) has
traditionally been a challenge with dc traction. Ground faults caused by feeder cable insulation breakdown, contact rail
insulator failure, track debris, broken OCS equipment, salt-laden snow, and other unforeseen events can result in low
levels of short circuit current flow insufficient to operate the substation feeder breaker overcurrent relays. These
ground faults may manage to evade rate-of-rise and long-time overcurrent relay settings and still produce hazardous
touch voltages and sufficient energy to damage equipment. This has been an industry-wide dilemma for many years; if
the relays are set to be highly sensitive, then nuisance tripping is frequent and operations are negatively impacted.
i. Alternative methods of either permanently or temporarily connecting the substation dc negative bus to ground have
been tried as an aid to ground fault detection. This topic is too complex to describe in this section, but considerable
industry literature is available describing these methods and their results. In summary, the approach that has been
gaining the greatest acceptance is the use of a normally ungrounded dc negative bus in combination with a device that
temporarily connects the negative bus to the substation grounding grid if the voltage between them becomes excessive
(high voltage between the negative bus and grounding grid is an indication of a ground fault). The closure of this
device is intended to allow the normal feeder breaker relays to detect the fault and clear only the faulted section. These

devices are known by such names as automatic grounding switch, short circuiting device, and negative grounding
device (“NGD”, which will be used here for convenience). Standards for NGDs and their application such as IEC
62128-1 [2] have existed for many years in Europe. NGDs built to comply with IEC 62128-1 are termed Voltage-
Limiting Devices. IEC 62128-1 includes a voltage versus time curve that specifies the maximum permissible durations
for touch voltages; NGD equipment built to this standard must clamp the highest voltages in no more than 20
milliseconds. Voltage limiting devices typically include power electronic switching devices such as thyristors in order
to achieve the required clamping speeds.
j. A very simplified circuit diagram illustrating a typical NGD arrangement for a 750 Vdc nominal system is shown in
the accompanying figure. The NGD is normally in an open state (non-conducting), measuring the voltage between the
negative bus and grounding grid. As long as the NGD remains open, significant fault current cannot flow back to the
substation dc negative bus. A small amount of fault current will flow into the rails near the fault via the distributed
leakage/shunt resistance of the rails, in proportion to how well they are insulated from earth. After the NGD senses a
triggering voltage difference across it and closes, the fault current will flow through the earth into the substation
grounding grid. The fault current will be limited by the resistance of the grounding grid to remote earth, Rg. For
example, if the grid resistance is 1 ohm, and the other typically smaller circuit resistances are neglected, the ground
fault current will be 750 V/1 Ω, or 750 amperes dc. This is a relatively low value of current for purposes of protective
relaying. It is clear from this example that the substation grounding grid resistance, Rg, must be made as low as
practicable for the NGD to work effectively.
Figure 33-12-1. Example - Relay Protection for Substation DC Equipment
12.3.8 SURGE PROTECTION FOR SUBSTATION DC EQUIPMENT (2012)
a. Rectifiers and dc switchgear assemblies conforming to IEEE standards have substantial dielectric ratings for primary
circuits. For example, the primary circuits of the most common 800 Vdc voltage class of circuit breakers and rectifiers
are built to withstand a 60 second rms design test voltage of 3700 Vac or the equivalent 5200 Vdc. The secondary
control wiring is built to sustain a 60 second rms design test voltage of 1500 Vac (2100 Vdc). Field dielectric tests are

limited to 75% of these values per IEEE standards. Surge protection for this equipment should limit worst case surge
voltages to levels below the field dielectric test values.
b. Since the sources of most potentially damaging electrical surges for traction power substation dc equipment are
external to the substation, surge protection is typically provided on the line (contact system) side of dc feeder breakers,
and also at the riser structures for OCS (aerial) feeders on the line side of riser disconnect switches. MOV type surge
arresters in polymer housings designed for dc system application are used at these locations. The circuit breaker line
side arresters should be installed at secure locations outside of the circuit breaker enclosures so that potential arrester
operation or rupture will not damage the dc switchgear. This also precludes the need to bring a ground connection into
the dc switchgear, a practice which should be avoided.
c. Surge protection for indoor rectifier transformers is typically provided by surge arresters that are located in the
incoming medium voltage switchgear.
d. In general, dc surge arresters that have a maximum continuous overvoltage (MCOV) rating that is slightly above the
maximum substation no-load dc voltage (including regeneration, if applicable) will provide the best equipment
protection. An insulation coordination study is recommended for selection of the appropriate arresters.
e. Satisfactory equipment protection from surge arresters requires that they be connected directly to a low-resistance
ground reference; for the dc feeder breaker line side arresters and the incoming ac service arresters, the lowest
resistance reference is the substation grounding grid. To provide the most effective surge protection, the substation
grounding grid should be designed to have as low a resistance to remote earth as practicable. Some substation
designers have provided separate ground grids for ac and dc equipment and surge arrester grounding under the theory
that the worst case ground potential rise (GPR) resulting from bolted ground faults on the ac supply equipment could
damage dc equipment. However, if the grounding grid is appropriately designed in accordance with IEEE Standard 80
1
to minimize GPR, a single large, low resistance grid will be adequate; this is the traditional approach to traction power
substation grounding grid design, and it is recommended. As noted above, the dc traction power equipment has
generous dielectric ratings.
12.3.9 GROUNDING OF SUBSTATION DC EQUIPMENT ENCLOSURES (2012)

3
a. Two approaches are commonly used in North America for the grounding of dc traction power equipment enclosures.
Both approaches isolate the rectifier and dc switchgear enclosures from ground. Electrical isolation is provided by
installing insulated flooring under the enclosures and around them to a perimeter extending five to six feet from the
enclosures on sides that do not have working access doors. On sides containing working access doors such as circuit
breaker and control compartment doors, the insulated flooring should extend far enough to include work being
performed with the access doors open. If space constraints require grounded equipment, walls or metallic items to be
inside this insulated zone perimeter, they must be covered with suitable electrical insulation such as flame-retardant 4
fiberglass-reinforced polyester laminate sheeting manufactured in accordance with NEMA GPO standards.
b. With both equipment enclosure grounding approaches, supervised relays are provided between the rectifier and dc
switchgear enclosures and ground to monitor the status of the electrical isolation between the enclosures and ground. If
a grounded condition is detected by the relay (Device 64G), an alarm is normally provided. If an energized (“hot
structure”) condition is detected by the relay (Device 64), all connected equipment is tripped and locked-out. The
approach most common in the USA is to use a high resistance relay that limits the current during a positive-to-
enclosure fault to several amperes while allowing the voltage on the insulated enclosure to approach system nominal
voltage. The alternate approach employs a low resistance relay that limits the voltage on the enclosure to no more than
five volts, but permits a significant fault current flow.
c. DC feeder breaker relaying for substations employing low resistance enclosure grounding should include transfer
tripping and adequate relay protection against reverse direction faults to ensure that all possible infeeds to an insulated
dc enclosure fault will be cleared.

d. Special anchors must be used for dc switchgear and rectifier enclosures to prevent bridging of the insulated flooring.
Electrical isolation must also be provided at bus duct enclosure connections to rectifiers and dc switchgear. Electrical
isolation must also be provided for metallic raceway connections to these enclosures such as conduits and cable tray,
although fiberglass cable tray and fiberglass (NEC type RNMC) conduit is typically used in the insulated zone to
maintain electrical isolation.
SECTION 12.4 DC TRACTION POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
12.4.1 POSITIVE SUPPLY AND NEGATIVE RETURN CIRCUITS - GENERAL (2012)
a. The positive supply portion of a traction power dc distribution system consists of the distribution equipment between
the dc feeder circuit breakers and the connections to the OCS or contact rail system. This normally consists of electrical
conductors and disconnect switches, which are covered elsewhere in this chapter, and cable raceway systems. Traction
power cable raceway systems include duct banks, distribution manholes and handholes, conduits, cable trays, and cable
supports.
b. The negative return portion of a traction power dc distribution system consists of the distribution equipment between
the connections to the running rails and the substation dc negative bus. Connections to the running rails typically
involve impedance bonds in signaled portions of track, although some heavy commuter rail properties employ tuned
reactors instead of impedance bonds for broken rail protection that accommodate negative return circuit currents
exceeding the electrical ratings of standard impedance bonds. The same distribution equipment used for the positive
supply equipment is also used for the negative return portion, with the exception of disconnect switches (negative
return distribution circuits are normally never switched).
c. DC positive and negative return distribution circuits are normally segregated from each other to the maximum extent
possible in order to minimize the possibility of potentially damaging dc short circuits occurring between them.
Separate raceways, manholes and handholes are normally provided.
d. Raceways for positive and negative return circuits are normally non-metallic to preclude the possibility of their
becoming energized by cable insulation failure. Since dc traction power systems are normally operated ungrounded, an
energized raceway ground fault could be difficult for substation feeder breaker relays to detect. Non-metallic conduit
types in common usage are PVC and FRE (NEC type RTRC). FRE has a significantly lower coefficient of friction for
cable pulling than PVC, a lower coefficient of expansion, and can be obtained in low smoke, zero halogen formulations
and formulations that meet NFPA 130 flammability requirements for surface mounted conduits. PVC-coated
galvanized rigid steel conduit can be used for feeder risers where mandated for mechanical protection, and it can be
field-bent to navigate obstructions. However, care must be taken during installation to protect the integrity of the
internal PVC coating. Heavy wall FRE conduit is preferred for feeder riser application.
e. DC positive and negative return circuits installed in cable tray should be designed in accordance with the NEC. To
obtain maximum circuit ampacity, cable trays should be the ladder or ventilated type, and the cables therein installed
with at least one cable diameter of spacing between them (side-by-side installation reduces cable ampacity by 25% per
NEC Article 392). Fiberglass cable tray is preferred for positive and negative return circuits to preclude the possibility
of the tray becoming energized by cable insulation failure.
f. DC positive and negative cable routing inside substations can also be accomplished by the use of cable support racks
comprised of structural channel assemblies. Cables are fixed in position on the racks with porcelain or epoxy insulated
cable clamps. This arrangement allows maximum cable ampacity (no derating of cables due to close proximity is
required).

12.4.2 POSITIVE SUPPLY SYSTEM SECTIONALIZING (2012)
a. Sectionalizing for dc traction power systems is the dividing up of the positive supply system into electrical segments to
better facilitate electrical protection, operational flexibility, and electrical safety.
b. Section breaks in contact rail systems are provided by gaps in the contact rail.
c. Section breaks in dc overhead contact systems are provided by section insulators or by insulated overlaps (see Sections
4.2.9 and 4.3).
d. Section breaks in dc traction power systems that utilize contact rail have traditionally been the non-bridging type,
meaning that two adjacent sections cannot be connected (bridged) by a single rail vehicle or group of electrically-
connected vehicles (a “married pair”, for example). Some newer systems have used bridgeable contact rail gaps to
accommodate rolling stock that requires a continuous power supply, but this practice is unusual in North America.
e. Section breaks are typically provided near substations to minimize the lengths of positive supply and negative return
circuits to the ROW. Normally open disconnect switches are typically installed across the section breaks at these
locations to permit the adjacent sections to be connected together when the substation dc switchgear or dc feeders are
out of service.
f. Section breaks are provided on crossover tracks to electrically isolate adjacent tracks under normal operations.
Normally closed section breaks are also provided on the through tracks just before and after crossovers to permit
segments of OCS or contact rail to be removed from service while keeping the crossover operational. The OCS
typically employs normally-closed disconnect switches to provide sectionalizing at crossovers, while contact rail 1
systems employ indoor circuit breakers and additional feeders.
g. Some contact systems use tie (gap) breaker stations to provide the additional feeders required to sectionalize remote
crossovers, and to provide emergency sectionalizing between adjacent substations. Tie breaker stations used for this
purpose connect the contact systems of inbound and outbound tracks together near the midpoint location between two
substations. Interconnecting the contact systems of adjacent tracks near the section midpoint increases voltage at the
trains and maximizes the opportunity for absorption of power from train regenerative braking. It can also improve fault 3
detection by increasing the available fault current at remote (mid-section) faults, and by dividing a power section
between two substations into two smaller sub-sections, each with their own protective relaying.
h. Section breaks are typically provided between main lines and storage yards to provide electrical isolation between
them under normal operations.
12.4.3 CONTACT RAIL (2012) 4
a. Contact rail in North America has two configurations, over-running and under-running. In the overrunning
configuration, the vehicle current collector paddles (shoes) ride on the upper surface of the contact rail. In the under-
running configuration, the collector shoes ride on the bottom surface. In North America at present, use of the under-
running configuration is limited to Metro-North Railroad and SEPTA.
b. With the over-running configuration, the contact rail is supported from beneath by porcelain or fiberglass post type
insulators. With the under-running configuration, the contact rail is supported beneath insulated brackets that attach to
the top of the contact rail. The support insulators are bolted to extended ties or tie extender plate assemblies at
approximately every 5th or 6th tie. With both configurations, the contact rail is allowed to slide along the surface of the
supports to allow for expansion and contraction.
c. The under-running configuration does not require a coverboard, since the upper three sides of the contact rail can be
covered with electrical insulation. It also does not require heating strips to keep the contact surface free of ice. The
over-running configuration requires both of these accessories.

d. Two types of contact rail are in widespread use, steel and composite. The most commonly-used steel contact rail is the
150 lb NMC section. Type 150 lb NMC has a nominal electrical resistance of 0.00360 ohms/1000 ft. at 20°C, and a
nominal weight of 150 lbs/yard.
e. Composite type contact rail is comprised of a steel rail section with aluminum conductor bars swaged collar fastener to
each side of the rail web. The current collector shoe rides on the head of the steel rail section. The most common steel
rail sections used for composite rail are the 84C, which is a replacement for 150 lb NMC steel rail, and the 85 lb
section. Both sections have a nominal electrical resistance of 0.002 ohms/1000 ft. at 20°C, and a nominal weight of
105 lbs/yard.
f. Aluminum contact rail, which is widely used overseas, has an aluminum body attached to a stainless steel wear strip.
The resistance for this type of rail can be significantly lower than that of composite contact rail, with nominal values of
.0014 ohms/1000 feet at 20°C available in the USA, corresponding to a nominal weight of 52.5 lbs/yard.
g. Contact rail is typically manufactured and delivered in 39 foot sections (“sticks”). To minimize waste during
construction, the lengths of contact rail segments in contact rail layout designs should be multiples of the standard
section length, to the extent feasible.
h. Contact rail design practices and standards vary considerably between transit properties. However, the following
general guidelines can be considered typical.
(1) The length of contact rail gaps in areas of complex trackwork must be coordinated with the types and consists of
electrified rolling stock that will traverse them. In general, gaps that are intended to be “bridged” must provide
continuous power to the shortest consist and/or the vehicle with the shortest distance between collector shoes. An
analysis should also be performed to confirm that vehicles will not lose power and stop in non-bridgeable gaps,
while also ensuring that the gaps will not be bridged.
(2) Inclined rail sections (end approaches) are used at gaps in the contact rail to guide and transition the current-
collecting shoes to the contact surface elevation, minimizing collector shoe bounce and the resulting arcing. These
typically vary in length from 6 to 12 feet. The choice of length is a function of vehicle speed, available space, and
agency standards. Longer lengths provide the least collector shoe bounce at high speeds.
(3) BART uses “dip rail” sections instead of gaps at some locations. Dip rail sections allow the contact rail to remain
continuous, but at a low elevation that avoids contact with the collector shoes.
(4) Inclined side approaches are used by a few properties to transition the shoes to the contact rail at turnouts. This
practice avoids the need for a gap in the contact rail for the tangent (through) track. If side approaches are not used,
the tip of the end approach on the toe side of the switch must be offset from the toe of the switch by a clearance
that varies by agency (7.5 feet is typical).
(5) Protective coverboards for over-running systems should extend between 12-18 inches beyond the tip of the end
approach.
(6) Contact rail through passenger stations should be located at trackside opposite the station platform.
(7) Contact rail at grade should be located in the area between running tracks, except at yard areas, special trackwork,
and through center platform stations.
(8) In sections of contact rail of 2,000 ft or less, a contact rail anchor should be provided at midpoint; otherwise, rail
anchors should be provided at maximum 1,000 ft intervals at midpoint between expansion joints. Spacing of
anchors should be adjusted to provide an anchor near the middle of curved sections, with expansion joints at points
of tangent.

(9) Contact rail joints should be free of misalignment or roughness. Bolted butt joints should have minimum gap
between rail ends and be ground smooth to minimize wear and abrasion on collector shoes.
(10) Continuity jumper cables between contact rail gaps and expansion joints should be of equal length to equalize the
currents flowing through them.
(11) Clearances between the contact rail and coverboards, running rails, collector shoes and surrounding infrastructure
vary with contact rail and running rail type and transit agency standards. Contact rail system design must be based
on the clearance diagrams for the transit agency for whom the design is being performed.
12.4.4 DC TRACTION POWER CABLES (2012)
a. DC traction power cables should be stranded, copper conductors with insulation rated for at least 2,000 Vdc or a
voltage consistent with system design voltage. Non-shielded construction is typical, however, some transit agencies
use shielded construction for positive feeder cables as part of an insulation failure detection scheme.
b. The copper used for the conductor should be soft-drawn type conforming to ASTM B8 with Class C or D stranding.
Cable insulation should be EPR, protected by a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) jacket for above-ground applications, or a
flame-retardant, low-smoke, non-halogen, cross-linked polyolefin (XLPO) jacket where required.
c. Cable insulation temperature rating should match the maximum temperature of the terminations used, but should not
exceed 90 °C conductor temperature for normal operation in wet or dry locations, 130 °C for emergency operation, and
250 °C for short-circuit conditions.
1
d. Traction power cables connecting dc feeder breakers to the overhead contact system (OCS) or third rail, and from
running rails to the negative bus, should be sized to sustain maximum overload and short-circuit currents with a
temperature rise not to exceed the insulation design limits of the cables based on a minimum insulation life of 40 years.
e. Feeder cables should be of a common conductor size, using multiple conductors as required to accommodate the
ampacity requirements for different circuits.
3
f. Conductor size should be selected so as to minimize life cycle costs, which include costs of installation, raceway
construction, and electrical losses.
g. Maximum cable ampacity should not be compromised by the use of different types of raceway arrangements for
various sections of the feeder.
h. Feeder cables should have sufficient conductivity to maintain traction power voltage levels within the specified limits, 4
confining the significant voltage drops to the contact system and the running rails.
i. The traction power feeder cables must be sized so that they do not exceed rated cable insulation temperature during
expected operating conditions. The current-carrying capacity requirements for sizing the positive and negative cables
should be determined by load flow studies.
j. As a rule of thumb, the current carrying capacity of the negative cables at a substation should be approximately equal
to the current carrying capacity of the substation positive cables. However, it is recommended that the results of load
flow studies be used to determine the precise number of cables required.
k. Since contact rails and OCS conductors will vibrate due to operations and move due to temperature, their cable
terminations should be designed to assure sufficient flexibility to preclude cable failure. OCS feeder cables should
terminate at a junction box at the base of the OCS support pole or on a riser pole disconnect switch, if present, with
extra-flexible stranded “jumper” cables utilized for the final connection to the OCS conductors. Contact rail feeder

cables should terminate at a pothead near the contact rail, and extra-flexible jumper cables utilized for the final
connection to the contact rail.
l. Surge protection should be provided for underground positive feeders at raceway system entry and exit locations.
m. Raceways containing dc traction power cables should be nonmetallic to preclude the possibility of the raceway
becoming energized due to cable insulation failure. Since dc traction power systems are normally operated
ungrounded, the grounding of metallic raceways containing dc cables may be ineffective.
n. Cable supports in manholes and handholes should be non-metallic.
o. Underground raceway system design parameters such as conduit size, cable tensions, maximum total angle of bends,
minimum embedment depth below grade, manhole spacing and duct gradient should be in accordance with NEC,
NESC and cable manufacturer requirements. Feeder ductwork should be identified by a red warning tape 6 inches wide
marked “Caution – Buried High Voltage Cable Below,” installed 12 inches above concrete encasement in backfill. It is
recommended that the concrete encasement include a red dye additive.
p. Feeder ductwork should be run as directly as practicable and should be located to avoid interference with foundations,
utilities, and similar underground facilities.
12.4.5 DC DISCONNECT SWITCHES (2012)
a. DC disconnect switches are devices that will open the circuit of a direct current power system; they are classified as
load break or non-load break, and manual or motorized. A load break switch is designed to interrupt its rated current
when opened, while a non-load break switch cannot be opened under any load and the line must be de-energized when
the switch is opened.
b. Motorized switches are operated through a mechanism by a motor that can be locally or remotely controlled. They
usually have an override feature that allows them to be operated manually. Manual disconnect switches are operated by
hand or hookstick so that the person performing the switching operation physically pulls the switch blade open or
pushes it closed. Manually operated switches should not be opened under load unless they are specifically designed to
do so.
c. Switch current-carrying components should be made from copper or copper alloys and may be silver plated. Copper
and copper alloys should conform to ASTM B187 and silver plating should range from 0.20 mils to 3.0 mils thick with
the contact area having the greatest thickness. Silver plating should conform to ASTM B700.
d. In locations having extreme industrial pollution, such as nearby refineries and paper mills where high hydrogen
sulphide gas exists in the air, tin plating should be substituted for silver plating. Tin thickness should be in the range of
0.001-0.003 inches, conforming to ASTM B545.
e. Switch insulating components, such as mounting bases, should be made from composite insulating materials
conforming to NEMA Grade GPO-3 (minimum) when mounted in enclosures with an insulating base. They may also
be mounted on insulators of polyester based resins or of high grade wet process porcelain. Bolts used for mounting the
base, insulators or other switch components must be completely covered or insulated if exposed on the outside surface
of the enclosure.
f. Switches can be placed in enclosures or mounted on insulators and supports without an enclosure so that all parts are
exposed. For maximum safety and maintenance considerations, disconnect switches should be placed in non-
conducting enclosures in such a manner that no part of the enclosure will contact the energized portions of the switch
and any physical contact by personnel to the outside of the enclosure will not result in electric shock. All enclosure
metallic components must be completely insulated and incapable of becoming energized. Enclosures should have

ventilation to prevent moisture buildup; this can be accomplished with louver type vents, either metallic or plastic, but
metallic vents should be completely insulated on the inside of the enclosure.
g. Switch design should conform in all aspects to IEEE Std C37.30, IEEE Standard Requirements for High-Voltage
Switches, for temperature rise. Many styles of disconnect switches are available from manufacturers but no matter what
type is chosen, it should conform to these recommendations. Styles of switches can be, but are not limited to, knife
blade, arcing horn or plunger. The more practical and economical type of switch is the knife blade type where the blade
pivots 180° around a hinge and inserts into a jaw. This type usually provides maximum electrical clearance between the
jaw and hinge when in the open position.
h. The electrical contact surfaces of the switch should have sufficient, consistent pressure that when closed, the insertion
of a feeler gage with a thickness of 0.002 inches (0.05 mm) or greater cannot be inserted between the two contact
surfaces for non pressure bolted switches. Pressure bolted switches have the jaw contacts forcibly closed for maximum
pressure and hence, low resistance.
i. Switches should be designed for the intended load as well as emergency overloads and the designer must consider this
to prevent switches from overheating when in operation. Switch dielectric ratings must accommodate the voltage
being applied including voltage rise due to transients and vehicle regeneration. The Basic Impulse Level (BIL) of the
enclosure and ancillary insulation, or insulators if not in an enclosure, shall match or exceed the BIL of the cable to
which they are attached.
j. Mounting of switches in enclosures should be such that environmental surroundings do not compromise switch
operation. On rights of way, switches should be mounted vertically on stanchions away from tracks where possible so
that personnel can operate them with adequate clearance from rolling stock. On public streets, they should be placed on
OCS support poles at a height above the sidewalk where the public cannot access them. Minimum height should be at
1
a level consistent with the operating agency’s standards or local and national safety codes such as the NESC. This is
typically a minimum of 8 feet when mounted in public thoroughfares.
k. For disconnect switches mounted on poles or structures where personnel access is not possible, insulated operating
rods with handles should be employed. These must have sufficient insulation for the operating voltage to prevent
electric shock and should be mounted so that they are inaccessible to the public. Operating rods must be of sufficient 3
strength to prevent bending when operating the switch and should be able to be fully operated in all types of weather
conditions, including ice buildup, without damage.
l. Switch devices that use manually operated handles that are located within the enclosure must be of a non-conducting
material and so constructed that repeated operations do not cause material failure. They must be designed so that when
the enclosure door is opened, a restraint will not permit the handles to fall out. For side operated switches, metallic
handles must be completely insulated from the interior of the switch mechanism so that voltage cannot accidently be 4
impressed onto the handle. Non-conducting or insulated metallic handles should be considered by the purchaser of the
equipment for additional protection from electric shock.
m. Switches installed in subways or tunnels should be located where sufficient clearance to trains can be maintained on
tangent and curved track and should be mounted on tunnel walls or other structures in the vertical position. When
clearances are extremely tight and switch enclosures must be placed between tracks and/or third rails, the enclosure
door should open parallel to the track so if left in the open position, it will not be struck by any portion of the train.
n. Switch operating mechanisms or enclosures should be equipped with an agency approved lock to prevent unauthorized
access. This may require simple padlocks or Kirk Key type interlocks. Enclosures or open faced switches should have
identification signs or name plates conforming to the operating agency’s standards. When two or more switches are
ganged in an enclosure or mounting, the group can be identified as one switch location, primary number with sub
numbers or each individual switch with a separate number. Enclosure identification signs should be easily readable
with permanent letters and numbers. Switch position should either be indicated or visible to the operator.

o. Motor operated switches must have local provisions to render the switch inoperable. The device must be highly visible
and the position of the automatic and local features easily accessible but immune from accidental operation.
p. Cables attached to vertically mounted switches should be supported so that undue strain is not placed on the switch
components and to prevent the cables from moving when they are disconnected from the switch termination bus bar.
Cables should have identification tags placed on them in the enclosure identifying the cable number or circuit number.
Where there is extreme moisture buildup in the enclosure and it “wicks” into the strands of the attached cables, the
cable ends should be soldered solid and a moisture resistant insulating compound or heat shrink tubing should be used
to cover the strand-to-insulation interface, preventing moisture ingress into the cable.
q. Disconnect switches mounted on OCS poles or on rights of way where cables exit from underground conduit should be
provided with polymer housed, MOV type surge arresters. The arresters should be connected on the contact system
(load) side of the switch, outside of the switch enclosure, and be provided with a direct connection to a ground rod or
ground road array. No arrester connections should be made inside of the switch enclosure.
SECTION 12.5 DC TRACTION POWER SYSTEM PLANNING AND DESIGN
12.5.1 LOAD FLOW SIMULATION STUDIES (2012)
a. Load flow simulation studies for existing or new dc traction power systems are used to predict the performance of the
system design under a variety of conditions. The results of the studies provide a basis for the location and sizing of the
traction power equipment.
b. Load flow simulation studies for dc traction power systems are in general more complicated and demanding than load
flow studies for commercial electric power systems, requiring the use of specialized software and numerical
techniques. DC systems have a negative return electrical network that must be incorporated into the network solution,
unlike the neutral return in a balanced three-phase ac network that can be omitted. There is also no system "steady
state" for a dc traction power system, that is, the major loads on the power system are physically moving as well as
significantly changing in magnitude with time. Contact system temperatures increase and decrease as trains approach
and pass. For systems employing transit vehicle regenerative braking, the analytical challenge is compounded by the
constraint of one-way power flow through the substation rectifiers typically in use today. Moreover, the amount of
regenerated power actually utilized at a given instant is dependent on the position and magnitude of other loads and
regenerating vehicles at that instant. Power is exchanged between neighboring substations as dc bus voltages vary
under changing loads. This presents a dynamic load flow problem that requires analytically advanced software and
understanding on the part of those performing the studies.
c. The impedance of wires, cables and rails in a direct current power system has only a resistive component that is
proportional to operating temperature. To obtain accurate, “real-world” results in load flow studies, it is important to
use realistic operating temperatures when selecting equivalent resistances for these components. This is true for OCS,
contact rail and running rail in particular, since the greatest proportion of voltage drop typically occurs across these
elements. Contact and running rails have large cross-sectional areas, and tend to cool quickly. Continuous-welded rail
is also designed to operate within a limited temperature range. To verify assumptions, field measurements of OCS and
rail temperatures can be easily made from a distance using infrared thermometers.
d. The IEEE Traction Power Substation Subcommittee is currently in the final stages of developing IEEE P1653-3, Trial-
Use Guide for Traction Power Systems Modeling. This document provides a much better description of this complex
topic than can be satisfactorily described in this section; reference to it is recommended.
e. Modern load flow simulation software is capable of providing the following information as an aid to system analysis
and design.

(1) Load currents throughout the dc positive and negative return electrical networks;
(2) Voltages at trains between the positive current collectors and the return rails, and any other location on the traction
power system;
(3) Running rail-to-earth voltages, and stray current flows through earth and metallic structures;
(4) OCS conductor operating temperatures;
(5) System energy losses in individual system components as total system losses;
(6) Substation metered demand and energy consumption;
(7) Power and energy regenerated into the electrical system during braking; and
(8) System receptivity to regenerated power.
12.5.2 SUBSTATION LOCATION (2012)
12.5.2.1 Basis for Substation Location and Rating
The selection of suitable locations for traction power substations (TPSS) should include an evaluation of the following
considerations as a minimum.
1
a. Load flow study findings for normal operation and contingency operation conditions.
b. Minimizing the distance between the substations and the right-of-way (ROW), to minimize the lengths of positive
feeder and negative return circuits between the ROW and TPSS.
c. Potential above-ground and below-ground utility conflicts between the TPSS and the associated feeder and negative
return circuit terminations on the ROW. 3
d. Availability and cost of medium voltage service from the applicable electric utility.
e. Visual impact on surroundings/neighborhood.
f. Subsurface conditions: the presence of shallow ledge is normally cost-prohibitive for duct bank and substation
foundation installation, and it complicates substation grounding. 4
g. Construction access: suitability for equipment transport and rigging for the initial installation and for equipment
replacement.
h. Maintenance access: the avoidance of access roads that require a track crossing as the sole means of vehicular access is
recommended.
12.5.2.2 Normal Operation
Normal operation describes the functioning of a traction power system when all traction power equipment is in service and
operating at full electrical ratings. The location and rating of TPSS should provide a minimum vehicle operating voltage that
allows full performance during normal operation. This requirement typically pertains to peak service periods and to the
ultimate design headway, train consist, and vehicle parameters for the traction power system. Full performance refers to full
(normal) acceleration (see Article 3.2.4).

During normal operation, all traction power equipment thermal ratings should be below maximum rated values for the
duration of the peak service periods.
12.5.2.3 Contingency Operation
Contingency operation describes the functioning of a traction power system with one or more items of traction power
equipment out of service, typically for at least the peak service period. “Single contingency” refers to operation with any
single item of equipment out of service. “Double contingency” refers to any two items of equipment out of service.
Requirements for contingency operation vary among transit agencies, and between LRT and HRT systems. Requirements for
contingency operation on existing transit systems are usually defined in the traction power design criteria for those systems.
However, the following guidelines can be considered typical for use on new systems, or systems that do not have established
design criteria.
a. The location and rating of TPSS should provide a minimum rail vehicle voltage that supports peak period service
during single contingency operation, but not at full performance. The contingency minimum vehicle operating voltage
(See Article 3.2.5) is dependent on system voltage and rolling stock. Rolling stock equipped with forced reduced
performance capability can typically sustain a higher contingency minimum vehicle operating voltage.
b. For systems that utilize substations containing more than one transformer-rectifier unit, the rail vehicles must operate
at full performance with any single transformer-rectifier unit out of service.
12.5.3 DC RAIL POTENTIALS (2012)
[Future]
12.5.4 RATING OF DC POWER CABLES (AMPACITY)
[Future]
SECTION 12.6 REFERENCES
1. "Westinghouse Distribution Systems Electric Utility Engineering Reference Book”, Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
East Pittsburgh, PA, 1965, pages 24-25.
2. International Standard IEC 62128-1:2003, Railway Applications – Fixed Installations – Part 1: Protective provisions
relating to electrical safety and earthing.
3. R. W. Stell, “A Review of Current Standards and Codes for Maximum Permissible Rail Voltage Rise on Direct Current
Traction Power Systems”, March, 2011 IEEE/ASME Joint Rail Transit Conference, Paper JRC2011-56121.
4. R. W. Stell, “Cable Ampacity Tables for Direct Current Traction Power Systems”, 2005 APTA Rail Transit Conference.

33
Chapter 33 Glossary
The following terms are used in the railway electrification industry.
Access-way
That portion of the ground, any floor, passage, stairway or other recognized fixed foothold, affording approach to high
voltage electrical equipment, and on which it is intended that railroad or other qualified personnel shall walk or stand while
such electrical equipment is “live.”
Air Break
An OCS arrangement for providing section isolation wherein electrical sections are insulated from each other by an air
space and overlap each other in the horizontal plane to provide smooth transition of a pantograph from one section to
another without interruption of the power supply to the locomotive or car, also called “Air Gap” or “Insulated Overlap.”
Air Break Switch

A switch or isolator, the contacts of which make and break in the air. 1
Along-Track Feeder
A portion of an OCS feeder that is approximately parallel to the track, typically mounted on the same OCS structures.
Along-Track Movement
Movement of OCS of an auto-tensioned OCS due to thermal expansion and contraction of the conductors. 3
Assembly
An arrangement of hardware used repetitively in an OCS and typically given a reference code to simplify cataloging.
Auto-tensioned OCS
An OCS arrangement whose conductors are maintained at a constant tension over a specified range of conductor
temperature by means of balance weights, springs, or pneumatic and hydraulic tensioning devices.
Autotransformer
Apparatus which serves to reduce current in traction power conductors on AC electrification systems. It uses a single
winding having three terminals. The intermediate terminal is connected to the rail and its position determines the catenary
to rail voltage. The other two terminals are connected to the catenary and feeder wires.
Auxiliary Messenger
A conductor in a compound catenary system, installed between a messenger wire and the contact wire, used in high speed
electrification, and/or to increase the ampacity of the OCS and to improve mechanical characteristics; also called
“Auxiliary Wire” or “Auxiliary Trolley Wire.”

Backbone
A cable between two OCS poles providing lateral registration to the OCS conductors in span, typically used in lieu of
additional pull-off poles.
Balance Weight
An assembly containing weights used to maintain constant conductor tension in an auto-tensioned OCS placed at one or
both ends of a tension section.
Basic Insulation Level (BIL)

Voltage level specified in NESC for air clearances and equipment ratings for protection against impulse voltage flashover.
Blow Off
Lateral displacement of OCS conductors caused by wind pressure.
Body Span
A center horizontal cable of a cross catenary used to carry the horizontal loads of the messenger(s).
Bond
An electrical connection between metal hardware, structural components or cables.
Booster Transformer
Two-winding current transformer with one winding connected in series with the OCS and the other in the return system for
the purpose of diverting return current from rails to the return circuit to reduce interference with adjacent electric circuits;
also called “suction transformer.”
Bridle Wire
A flexible tension member extending longitudinally at supporting points in an OCS which substitutes for a messenger wire
over a support; also called “stitch wire.”
Cantilever
A frame for supporting OCS, often including solid core insulators; for auto tensioned systems cantilever connections at
pole are hinged to enable along-track movement.
Carbon Collector
A carbon strip on top of a pantograph or insert of a harp assembly on trolley poles which provides a sliding contact with a
contact wire for current collection.
Catenary
Mathematical term to describe the shape of a cable sagging under its uniformly distributed weight and used in railroad
electrification to describe a system consisting of two or more conductors, hangers and in-span hardware of an overhead
contact system, excluding supports.
Catenary Attachment
An assembly of insulators and hardware attached to an overgrade bridge, tunnel, station or other structure which supports,
steadies or dead-ends an OCS.

Glossary
Chainage
The stationing or mileage marking along an alignment or track.
Circuit
Alpha-numeric identification for an electrical section between two switching points.
Clearance Envelope
An envelope around a vehicle, pole, or electrical conductor into which no person or equipment may intrude.
Clearance Gauge
A clearance diagram for vehicles and their loads into which no fixed equipment may intrude.
Clipping In
Clamping of electrical conductors after correct positioning and tension have been achieved.
Compound Catenary
An OCS arrangement of three or more conductors comprising a contact wire supported from an auxiliary wire, which is
supported from the messenger wire.
Constant Tension OCS

See “Auto-tensioned OCS.” 1
Contact Bridge
A rigid bar about 2 meters long fixed closely above the in-running contact wire forming a slot for a second contact wire to
pass through.
Contact Rail System 3

A positive electrical distribution system for transmission of traction power to transit vehicles using an electrical conductor
located alongside the track, also known as a “third rail.”
Contact Wire
An overhead wire with which the pantograph or other current collector is designed to make contact, also called “trolley
wire.” 4
Contact Wire Gradient
Slope of a contact wire relative to top-of-rail.
Contact Wire Height

Height of the underside of the contact wire above a road or top-of-rail level when not uplifted by the pantograph or trolley
pole.
Counterbalance
See “Counterweight.”
Counterpoise
A buried wire or a configuration of wires to provide a low resistance to grounded systems.

Counterweight
The weighted tensioning device at one or both ends of a tension section of a constant tension OCS, also called
“counterbalance.” See “Balance Weight.”
Creep
A non-elastic elongation of wires under tension.
Cross Bonding
Electrical interconnection of rails of separate tracks to facilitate traction power return through impedence bonds when
signals are used.
Cross Catenary
Transverse cables or cables strung between poles or other fixed structures which support one or more catenaries.
Cross-Track Feeder
Portion of an OCS feeder that is perpendicular to the tracks usually connecting the OCS to the feeder system.
Cross Span
A single across track wire supporting one or more single contact wires typically in a light rail or streetcar trolley system.
Current Transformer (CT)

A transformer that supplies current exactly proportional to the system currents, typically used in control circuits and
protective relaying circuits.
Current Collectors
See “Carbon Collector.”
Dead-end Assembly
A fixed termination for OCS or other tensioned conductors.
Deenergized
Electric apparatus, such as overhead wires, substation conductors, cables, third rail, switches and circuit breakers, which is
disconnected from their electric power source(s) but not necessarily grounded.
Deflector
An OCS assembly which maintains the relative position of contact wires at crossovers.
Disconnect Switch
A no-load interrupting type electrical switch for disconnecting electrical power from a line section.
Drop Bracket
An assembly fixed below a registration pipe that permits the heel of the steady arm to be adjusted for height.
Dynamic
Pertaining to the horizontal or vertical disturbance by a vehicle or conductor due to the movement along track of that
vehicle or to the passing of trolley poles or pantographs mounted on the vehicle.

Glossary
Electrical Clearance, Passing

Minimum clearance between live parts of either a vehicle (such as a pantograph) or the OCS and grounded parts of fixed
structures or the vehicle, which exists during the passage of an electrically powered vehicle.
Electrical Clearance, Static

Minimum clearance between grounded structures and live parts of the OCS when not subjected to pantograph pressure.
Electrification/Electric Traction System

System whereby traction power is provided to trains via an overhead contact system or third rail system.
Electrified Section/Territory
Portion of a railroad equipped for electric train operation by overhead contact system or third rail system.
Energized
Electric apparatus, such as overhead wires, substation conductors, cables, third rail, switches and circuit breakers, which is
connected to an electric power source.
Envelope
A theoretical outline which is greater than the physical dimensions of the item (see “Clearance Envelope”).
Equalizer 1
Jumper in an OCS that distributes current between messengers and contact wire by interconnection at regular intervals
along the system.
Equivalent Span
Weighted average span length for a given tension section of OCS, used in sag and tension calculations. Also called “ruling
span.”
3
Face of Pole (Column)
Absolute nearest part of a pole (column) from a track, but excluding base plate unless this is located significantly above the
level of the rails and intrudes into the clearance envelope.
Feeder 4
A conductor which supplies power to, or augments the power-carrying capacity of, the OCS or contact rail system.
Fixed Termination OCS

An OCS arrangement whose conductors have fixed dead ends such that their tension varies inversely with temperature.
Floating Section
A section of insulated wire or rail with no electrical connections to a power supply or to a grounding circuit. Also called
“Neutral Section.”
Frog
A track device where two running rails intersect and which provides flange ways to permit wheels and wheel flanges on
either rail to cross the other; piece of overhead hardware providing the same function for trolley contact wires and
permitting the passage of trolley pole current collectors.

Ground
Conducting mass of the earth; physical connection between an apparatus and ground grid or rod.
Ground Grid (Mat)

A buried grid for installations such as substations and switch platforms to provide low resistance path to ground.
Ground Rod
A metal rod with ground wire connection driven into the ground to disperse currents.
Ground Wire
A conductor installed for the purpose of providing electrical continuity between the supporting structures of the overhead
contact system or transmission lines and the grounding system.
Grounded
Connected to the conducting mass of the earth in such a manner as will ensure at all times an immediate discharge of
electrical energy without danger.
Grounding
The act or operation of applying a temporary or permanent ground connection.
Hanger
A fitting providing vertical support between the messenger and auxiliary or contact wires of an OCS.
Harp
Type of trolley pole collector shoe assembly.
Headspan
The top cable of a cross catenary used to carry the weight of one or more OCS equipments.
Heel of Steady or Pull-Off Arm

The end opposite the contact wire clamp of a steady arm.
Hinged Cantilever
Hardware used for attaching the cross arm to a pole which allows movement along track by allowing the end away from the
pole to swing.
Hog
To arch upward in the middle of span (opposite of sag).
Horn
The bent or downward angled portion of a pantograph head at either end of the carbon collector.
Hot Stick
An insulated telescoping device typically used for measuring the height of live conductors above rails or ground; name used
for various insulated tools used by linemen.

Glossary
Impedance Bond
A single winding coil with center tap between rails that has a high reactance to high frequency currents used to maintain
integrity of signal track circuits while allowing traction power return through the rails.
Inclined Catenary
An arrangement of OCS conductors such that the messenger carries the horizontal (radial) load of the contact (and
auxiliary) wires on curved alignment, in addition to providing vertical support, and in which the contact wire closely
follows the centerline of curved track.
In-Running Wires
Conductors of an OCS that provide continuous sliding contact for the pantograph.
Insulated Joint
A rail joint in which electrical insulation is provided between abutting sections of rail.
Insulated Overlap
An OCS overlap that also provides insulation between adjoining electrical OCS sections.
Isokeraunic Level
Measure of incidence of discharge of atmospheric electricity (lightning strikes) at a specific location.
Isolating Switch
1
A switch provided for isolating electrical apparatus and circuits.
Jumper
An electrical connection installed in an overhead contact system to provide continuity between tension lengths or
conductors.
3
Knuckle
A short rigid bar providing mechanical connection between adjacent conductors.
Lightning Arrester
A device which protects electrical equipment against over voltage due to lightning by providing a path to ground through a 4
spark gap, or spark gap with variable resistance elements.
Live
An electrically energized circuit or component.
Load Breaking Switch

Switch that will connect or interrupt load current.
Load Flow Simulation

An analysis that calculates the combined performance, including power consumption, voltage and current data, of trains
operating simultaneously, typically used for the sizing and locating of substation equipment and OCS conductors and feeder
cables.

Loop
An auxiliary or secondary path for electric current to flow to a load.
Messenger Wire
The wire from which the contact wire or auxiliary messenger is suspended by means of hangers in a catenary OCS.
Messenger Stringing Tension

The tension to which a messenger is loaded before it carries the load of the other parts of a catenary system such as hangers
and contact wire.
Midpoint Anchor
The structure between two balance weights at which an auto-tensioned catenary is fixed longitudinally.
Midpoint Guy
The span guy that provides the midpoint anchor restraint.
Midpoint Guy Pole

The pole, normally with a down guy, that takes the strain from the midspan guy.
Midspan Offset
The deviation of the contact wire from the superelevated centerline of a curved alignment at midspan, also called
“versine.”
Multiple Unit Train

Passenger train consisting of self-powered cars typically equipped with current collecting pantographs or third rail
collectors.
Negative Feeder
In an AC system, an energized feeder adjacent to the catenary system that utilizes autotransformers to boost or maintain
OCS voltage at selected points, and provide dual voltage transmission capability, and provide some mitigation of electrical
interference to adjacent electrical circuits; in a DC system, portion of return circuit back to the traction power substation.
Neutral Section
See “Floating Section.”
Neutralizing Wire
A conductor installed parallel to communication circuits for the purpose of reducing inductive interference on those
circuits.
No Load Switch
An electrical switch designed to be opened or closed only when current is not passing in the circuit in which it is placed.
Offset of Contact Wire

Deviation of the contact wire from the alignment at the superelevated centerline of the track.

Glossary
Offset Pole
The pole next to the counterweight structure within an overlap section that carries the radial load of the anchoring
equipment.
Out-of-Running (OOR) Wires

Conductors of an OCS that do not provide primary passage for the pantograph.
Overhead Contact Rail

Overhead conductor in form of a rigid rail used in place of contact wire used, for example, on moveable bridges or close
clearance tunnels.
Overhead Contact System (OCS)

That part of traction power electrification system comprising the contact or trolley wire, auxiliary, messenger, supports,
foundations, balance weights or tensioning devices and other equipment and assemblies that deliver electric power from a
substation to the rail vehicle pantograph or trolley pole.
Overlap Jumper
A full current jumper at tensioning overlaps.
Overlap Section
A portion of the overhead contact system between two main structures, where the contact and messenger wires of two
adjoining sections overlap and terminate, while allowing for continuous collection of power by a pantograph. 1
Pantograph
Current collector apparatus comprising a mechanically jointed frame mounted on top of electrically powered rail vehicles
that provides a sliding electrical contact with the contact wire.
Pantograph Sway 3
Lateral displacement of the pantograph induced by vehicle roll, lateral shock loads, cross-track tolerance and gauge
deviation.
Pantograph Up-Thrust
Nominal upward force exerted by the pantograph on the contact wire.
4
Parallel Groove Clamp
A device used to clamp two parallel grooved wires together.
Paralleling Station
An electrical substation which connects catenary and negative feeder through autotransformers to balance and boost
catenary voltage.
Phase Break
An arrangement of insulators and grounded or non-energized wires that is located between two sections of the overhead
contact system that are fed from different AC phases or at different frequencies or voltages under which a pantograph may
pass without shorting or bridging the phases, frequencies or voltages.

Pin Insulator
An insulator, usually upright, attached by a pin, standoff or cantilever.
Portal Structure
An OCS structure consisting of a crossbeam or truss supported by two columns placed on either side of multiple tracks for
supporting OCS conductors.
Potential Equalizer
A jumper in the OCS that provides electrical continuity between adjacent conductors.
Potential Transformer
See “Voltage Transformer”
Power Director
Person in charge of the electric power distribution system for a railroad, also known as “power dispatcher” or “load
dispatcher.”
Power Transformer
A device which transforms power on an AC system from one voltage level to another (e.g., from 115kV to 25kV).
Presag
Static difference between the average contact wire height at the end hangers in a span and the height at midspan.
Prestress
To apply to a ductile conductor a higher tension than for normal operation to accelerate the removal of conductor stretch (in
stranded conductors) and creep effect for a prescribed period during construction.
Prestretch
See “Prestress.”
Pull Off Registration

Registration of a contact wire towards the pole by means of cross-track spans and assemblies or cantilever assemblies.
Pulley System
The combination of block(s) and sheave(s) and their attachment(s) used in messenger support and OCS conductor
termination systems.
Push Off Registration

Registration of a contact wire away from the pole by means of cross-track spans and assemblies or cantilever assemblies.
Radial Load
Transverse or across-track horizontal loads induced in support and registration assemblies due to deviation of the OCS
conductors from a straight line between two adjacent registration points.
Rail Bond
Electrical connection between adjacent lengths of rail.

Glossary
Rail Return
The combination of track structure, jumpers, impedance bonds, grounds and cables that provide an electrical return path
from a train to a substation.
Rake
A preset lean of an OCS pole from vertical.
Registration
The process of lateral positioning of contact wires over the track.
Registration Pipe
The horizontal pipe to which the drop bracket or heel of the steady arm is attached.
Return Wire
A conductor used to supplement the current-carrying capacity of the rail return current.
Ruling Span
See “Equivalent Span.”
Sag
The vertical deviation of a conductor between two supports; the process of wire tensioning when employing the magnitude 1
of sag measurement as a means to obtain a preset tension in a conductor.
Section
The electrical circuit beyond one or between two or more switching points.
Section Break or Gap 3

An electrical break in an OCS permitting separation of circuits while allowing for continuous collection of power from
catenary or third rail.
Section Insulator
A device for dividing an OCS into electrical sections while maintaining mechanical continuity and continuous path for
trolley poles or pantograph collectors. 4
Segments
A curved device deployed in trolley bus OCS to provide a smooth circular path in a horizontal plane for power collectors.
Shield Wire
See “Static Wire.”
Shoe
Device used to hold a carbon collector to a pantograph; sliding contact on underside of electrical equipment that collects
power from a third rail.
Shoe Paddle
Wedge shaped non conductor inserted between contact shoes and third rail to isolate a car from third rail power.

Signal Rail
The track rail used as the conductor for the track circuits controlling signaling appliance in a single rail signal system, and
not used for traction return current. (Note: in modern U.S. systems both rails are used for both signals and power.)
Simple Catenary
An OCS arrangement of two conductors comprising a contact wire supported by a messenger wire.
Span Length
Distance along an alignment or track between supporting points.
Sprawl
The string line of a contact wire on inclined catenary.
Stagger
Offset of the contact wire from a projected track centerline at a support due to registration, and created to distribute wear on
pantograph carbon collectors.
Stagger Effect
The value added to blow off to determine maximum displacement when stagger of adjacent supports are not equal.
Static Clearance
See “Electrical Clearance, Static.”
Static Position of Wire

Position of the wire without uplift and without wind.
Static Wire
Wire or cable located above OCS conductors to conduct atmospheric electricity (lightning) to ground.
Stay
A short rod or wire providing restraint; a guy.
Steady Arm
A lateral restraining rod attached to a contact wire at a structure typically used in light loading conditions.
Steady Span
Lowest cable of a cross catenary used to carry the horizontal loads of the contact wire(s).
Stitched Catenary
An inverted Y arrangement, used at the supports of a catenary system to improve dynamic performance at the contact
wire/pantograph interface.
String line
A length of string or similar nonconducting material held against the gauge line of a track at each end for the purpose of
measuring the middle ordinate; theoretical straight line created by a string line.

Glossary
Substation
A location where power is received at high voltage and changed to the voltage and characteristics required at the OCS, third
rail or other delivering electrical system, containing equipment such as transformers, rectifiers, circuit breakers and
sectionalizing switches.
Switching Station
A location where power is switched between feeders and OCS conductors or third rails, or between various OCS
conductors or third rails containing circuit breakers and sectionalizing switches.
System Height
Distance between messenger and contact wire of a catenary system normally at the support structure.
Tail
Wire that joins the yoke plate to the balance weight assembly.
Tangent Chord Catenary

An arrangement of OCS conductors through curves such that a messenger supports only the vertical loading of contact (and
auxiliary) wires with the horizontal loads on the contact (and auxiliary) wires being carried by registration assemblies at
support or pull-off structures.
Tensioning
Method of controlling sag from supported wires by pulling. 1
Tensioning Device
An assembly containing weights, springs or pneumatic and hydraulic tensioning devices used to maintain constant
conductor tension in an auto-tensioned catenary, typically placed at each end of a tension section.
Tension Length (Section) 3

Length of OCS between its mechanical terminations.
Third Rail
See “Contact Rail System.”
Transition Curve (Spiral)

4
A curve of increasing or decreasing radius that connects a curve to a tangent or another curve.
Transmission Lines
A system of conductors and structural supports used for electric power transmission, usually at very high voltage.
Trolley Jumper
Jumper between contact wires.
Trolley Pole
A pole mounted on the roof of a streetcar or tram for current collection from a contact wire.
Trolley Shoe
A device on the end of a trolley pole which provides the sliding contact with a contact wire.

Trolley Wire
Alternative term for contact wire, typically used in single wire OCS.
Twin Contact Wire

An arrangement of OCS conductors comprising two contact wires typically used at restricted clearance bridges with
insufficient room for a messenger, or to improve conductance.
Uplift
Lift of a contact wire and or messenger due to upward pressure of passing pantograph or trolley pole.
Voltage Transformer (VT)

A transformer that provides voltage exactly proportional to, but usually much lower than, the system voltage, typically used
for control circuits and protective relays.
Warning Portal
A portal placed at level crossings to warn highway traffic of the high voltage overhead wire danger and restrict height of
loads.
Wood Stick Insulator

An insulator made from wood capable of carrying mechanical tension from the conductor to which it is attached.
Yoke or Yoke Plate

A plate or casting typically proportioned to accommodate unequal tensions in two or more wires or cables which are
terminated on one side and which are balanced by a single terminating cable on the other side.

General Subject Index
A ACCOUNTING (CONT)
Account 5 - Tunnels and Subways 16-12-6
Account 6 - Bridges, Trestles and Culverts 16-12-7
AASHTO LOAD RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN, HIGH DENSITY Account 7 - Elevated Structures 16-12-7
POLYETHYLENE PIPE DESIGN EXAMPLE 1-4-117 Account 8 - Ties 16-12-7
ABBREVIATIONS 15-6-5 Account 9 - Rails and Other Track Material 16-12-8
ABILITY TO RESIST 30-2-8 Account 11 - Ballast 16-12-8
Test 3B: Spike Lateral Restraint 30-2-9 Account 13 - Fences, Snowsheds, and Signs 16-12-9
ABOVE GROUND OIL WATER SEPARATOR AND EQUIPMENT Account 16 - Station and Office Buildings 16-12-9
DRAINAGE 6-17-19 Account 17 - Roadway Buildings 16-12-9
ABRASION VERSUS FLEXIBILITY 27-1-14 Account 18 - Water Stations 16-12-10
ABSORBENTS AND TRACK MATS, SPECIAL WASTE, 13-5-15 Account 19 - Fuel Stations 16-12-10
ABUTMENTS AND RETAINING WALLS 8-5-1, 8-29-5 Account 20 - Shops and Enginehouses 16-12-11
ABUTTING JOINTS 15-3-8 Account 22 - Storage Warehouses 16-12-11
AC ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM CONFIGURATION 33-6-5 Account 23 - Wharves and Docks 16-12-11
General 33-6-5 Account 24 - Coal and Ore Wharves 16-12-12
Normal and Contigency Operation 33-6-14 Account 25 - TOFC/COFC Terminals 16-12-12
Traction Power Distribution System 33-6-7 Account 26 - Communication Systems 16-12-13
Traction Power Return System 33-6-14 Account 27 - Signals and Interlockers 16-12-13 1
Traction Power Supply System 33-6-6 Account 29 - Power Plants 16-12-14
ACCEPTABILITY, MATERIALS, CONCRETE 8-1-7 Account 31 - Power Transmission Systems 16-12-14
ACCEPTABILITY, OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS 8-1-9 Account 35 - Miscellaneous Structures 16-12-15
ACCEPTANCE 4-2-23, 4-3-37, 5-7-4 Account 37 - Roadway Machines 16-12-15
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA Account 39 - Public Improvements, Construction 16-12-16
For Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-14 Account 44 - Shop Machinery 16-12-16
ACCEPTANCE Account 45 - Power-Plant Machinery 16-12-17
Bonded Insulated Rail Joints 4-2-37 Account 52 - Locomotives 16-12-18 3
Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-42 Account 53 - Freight-Train Cars 16-12-18
ACCEPTANCE TESTS AND COMMISSIONING 6-17-23 Account 54 - Passenger-Train Cars 16-12-19
ACCESS SYSTEMS FOR MAINTENANCE OF WAY MACHINES Account 55 - Highway Revenue Equipment 16-12-19
27-2-62 Account 56 - Floating Equipment 16-12-20
General 27-2-62 Account 57 - Work Equipment 16-12-20
Purpose 27-2-62 Account 58 - Miscellaneous Equipment 16-12-21
Scope 27-2-62 Account 59 - Computer Systems and Word Processing
ACCESS TO WORKS 4-3-31 Equipment 16-12-22
ACCESSIBILITY OF PARTS 15-1-42 General 16-12-5
ACCOUNT DEFINITION 16-12-4 Information to be Reported 16-12-4
ACCOUNTING 16-12-1 Introduction 16-12-4
Authority for Expenditures 16-12-23 Scope 16-12-4
General 16-12-23 Joint Facilities 16-12-24
Capital Expenditure or Operating Expense 16-12-22 General 16-12-24
General 16-12-22 National Transportation Agency of Canada System of Accounts
Definition of Unit of Property 16-12-5 16-12-25
General 16-12-5 General 16-12-25
Depreciation Accounting 16-12-23 Property Asset Ledgers 16-12-25
Explanation of Contents of ICC Account Listings 16-12-4 Roadway Completion Reports 16-12-24
Account Definition 16-12-4 General 16-12-24
Information to be Reported 16-12-4 Typical Items Included 16-12-4
Typical Items Included 16-12-4 ACCURACY & CALIBRATION, RAIL WEAR PARAMETERS 2-2-21
ICC Primary Accounts 16-12-5 ACHIEVING COST EFFECTIVE ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM
Account 2 - Land for Transportation Purposes 16-12-5 DESIGN 33-6-17
Account 3 - Grading 16-12-5 ACID RESISTANT COATING 8-10-4
Account 4 - Other Right-of-Way Expenditures 16-12-6
© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association I-1

Index
ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE ANCHORAGE 8-20-13, 15-6-23

Due to Surcharge Loads 8-20-6 of Decks and Rails on Steel Bridges 15-8-13
Due to Unbalanced Water Pressure 8-20-9 Flexibility 8-20-13
Due to Weight of Backfill 8-20-6 Mechanical 8-2-29
ADA REQUIREMENTS 11-3-5 of Rail 15-8-13
ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS 27-2-38 ANCHORAGE BEARING REACTION FORCE 8-26-36
ADDITIVES 8-25-8 ANCHORAGE ZONES, ANCHORAGE BLISTERS AND DEVIATION
ADHESION 16-3-3 SADDLES 8-26-34
ADHESIVE, MEMBRANE 8-29-15 ANCHORAGE ZONES, FORCES AND REINFORCEMENT IN
ADMIXTURE GENERAL 8-26-35
Types of 8-1-20 ANCHORAGE ZONES, POST-TENSIONED 8-17-34
ADVANCE MATERIAL 15-3-22 ANCHORAGE ZONES, PRETENSIONED 8-17-45
ADVANCES IN ENERGY COST SAVINGS FOR RAILWAY BUILDINGS ANCHORAGES IN DIAPHRAGMS 8-26-36
AND SHOP FACILITIES 6-5-5 ANCHORAGES IN SPECIAL BLISTERS 8-26-36
ADVANTAGES, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SPOT CAR REPAIR SHOPS ANCHORED BULKHEADS, DESIGN OF 8-20-11
6-3-3 ANCILLARY POWER SYSTEMS 33-9-1
AGGREGATE 8-1-9, 8-1-22, 8-1-55 Wayside/Standby Power Systems 33-9-1
Coarse 8-1-41 ANNUAL BUDGET 16-15-8
Coarse, Freeze-Thaw Test 8-1-15 ANNUAL OPERATING EXPENSES 33-1-6
Fine 8-1-10 ANTI-BONDING PAPER 8-29-20
Lightweight Coarse, for Structural Concrete 8-1-14 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS 15-6-37
Normal Weight Coarse 8-1-12 ANTIFREEZE AND COOLANT, SPECIAL WASTE 13-5-15
AGREEMENT, JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-2 APPLICANT’S RESPONSIBILITIES 15-8-26
AIR BRAKES 15-6-99 APPLICATION
AIR BUFFERS 15-6-34, 15-6-103 Dampproofing 8-29-29
AIR COMPRESSORS AND CONTROLLERS 6-17-15 of Loads 8-17-53
AIR DRYERS, SANDING FACILITIES 6-6-14 and Measurement of Prestressing Force 8-17-53
AIR QUALITY of Rail Bonds 4-3-31
Sanding Facilities 6-6-17 Application Procedures 4-3-32
AIR QUALITY COMPLIANCE 13-4-1 Application of Propulsion Using External Heat 4-3-33
Introduction 13-4-2 Introduction 4-3-31
Mobile Sources 13-4-2 Weld Integrity - Preventing Martensite Formation in Welded
Ozone Depleting Substances 13-4-13 or Brazed Applications 4-3-31
Provisions Relating to Enforcement 13-4-14 Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins 8-1-58
Stationary Sources 13-4-6 Requirements and Instructions, Fire-Retardant Coating for
Toxic/Hazardous Air Pollutants 13-4-12 Creosoted Wood 7-1-19
AIR RECEIVER TANKS 6-17-19 of Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design of Anchorage Zones
AIR RIGHTS, YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-2 8-17-39
AIR SUPPLY SYSTEM, SANDING FACILITIES 6-6-12 APPLICATION PROCEDURES, RAIL BONDS 4-3-32
ALERT TRAIN CREWS OR DISPATCHERS 16-5-9 APPLICATION OF PROPULSION RAIL BONDS USING EXTERNAL
ALIGNING AND LOCKING 15-6-14 HEAT 4-3-33
ALIGNMENT 1-4-71 APPLICATIONS 27-1-21
of Finished Holes 15-3-15 Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100
ALIGNMENTS AND CLEARANCES 12-4-45 APPLYING THE SPIRAL TO COMPOUND CURVES 5-3-6
ALIGNMENT TOLERANCES 4-3-44 APPROACH 9-2-3
ALLOWABLE LOAD ON PILES 8-4-5 APPROVAL OF PLANS 1-5-9, 1-5-21, 1-5-27
ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURES 8-3-15 APPROXIMATE METHODS, POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE
ALLOWABLE STRESSES 8-20-15, 8-17-19 ZONES 8-17-40
During Erection 15-4-5 ARC-FLASH HAZARD STUDY 33-6-20
Service Load 8-2-38 ARCH
Unit, for Stress Graded Lumber 7-2-20 Sidewalls and 8-11-3
ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES FOR STRESS-GRADED LUMBER ARCHES 8-21-24
7-2-20 Lining 8-14-13
ALTERNATES 33-7-12 Long Single-Span and Multiple-Span with Spandrel Fill 8-29-6
ALTITUDE COMPENSATION 33-2-10 ARTICULATED CARS 16-2-9
AMENITIES 17-4-3 ASPHALT 8-29-28
ANALYSES, JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-2 Coatings, Emulsified 8-29-28
ANALYSIS for Mopping 8-29-14
and Design, Reinforced Concrete 8-2-33 Plank 8-29-17
ANALYSIS PROCEDURES 9-1-23 Primer 8-29-28
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE, ENERGY CONSUMPTION 16-2-20 Roof Coatings, Asbestos-Free 8-29-29
ANCHOR BOLTS 15-1-64 ASPHALTIC PANELS 8-29-17
ANCHOR INSERTS, TESTING 8-27-13
ANCHOR PULL 8-20-13
I-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Index
ASSEMBLING MACHINERY
in Frames 15-6-103
B
on Structural Supports 15-6-103
ASSEMBLY 1-4-72 BACKFILL 1-4-72, 8-10-14, 8-25-8
and Installation of Pipe Culverts 1-4-70 Character 8-20-3
ASSESSMENT AND RETROFIT, EXISTING BRIDGES 9-1-30 Character of 8-5-3
ASTM D Computation of Pressure 8-5-5
41 8-29-8 Design of 8-5-7
43 8-29-8 BACKFILLING
173 8-29-8 Bore Holes 8-22-10
226 8-29-8 BACKGROUND
227 8-29-9 Roadway Signs 1-7-4
312 8-29-9 Wayside/Standby Power Systems 33-9-1
449 8-29-9 BAGGING 5-7-4
450 8-29-10 BALANCING OF GEARS 15-6-103
517 8-29-10 BALLAST 1-2-1, 5-8-9, 16-10-12
692 8-29-10 Account 11 16-12-8
946 8-29-10 and Ballast Pressure 30-1-6
1187 8-29-10 Concrete Ties 30-4-45
1190 8-29-11 Design 1-2-5
1227 8-29-11 Track Substructure Design 1-2-5
1327 8-29-11 Gradations 1-2-18
1668 8-29-11 Inspection 1-2-14
2178 8-29-11 Loading 1-2-13
2823 8-29-11 Maintenance Practices 1-2-15
3515 8-29-12 Ballast Gradations 1-2-18
4215 8-29-12 Commentary 1-2-15
4479 8-29-12 Methods of Unloading and Distributing Ballast 1-2-15
4586 8-29-12
6134 8-29-12
Replacement of Ballast and in Track Cleaning 1-2-15 1
Materials 1-2-9
ASTM DESIGNATIONS, APPLICABLE 8-29-8 Types of Materials 1-2-9
ASTM - INTERNATIONAL 8-1-7 Materials for Concrete Tie Track Installation 1-2-12
AT GRADE CROSSINGS 11-3-5, 12-3-10 Measurement and Payment 1-2-15
ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION CONTROL STUDY 33-6-20 General 1-2-15
ATTACHING METAL 33-7-19, 33-7-26 Methods of Unloading and Distributing 16-10-14
ATTITUDE SURVEYS 11-2-6, 12-2-8, 17-2-3 Production and Handling 1-2-13
AUDIBLE NAVIGATION SIGNALS 15-6-100 General 1-2-13
AUDIT SURVEY INSTRUMENTATION 6-5-8 Property Requirements 1-2-10
3
AUDITS OF BRIDGE MANAGEMENT RECORDS 10-1-15 Ballast Materials for Concrete Tie Track Installation 1-2-12
Compliance and Correct Application 10-1-16 Chemical Analysis 1-2-11
Reasons for Audits 10-1-15 Gradations 1-2-12
Representative Samples 10-1-16 Limiting Test Values 1-2-11
AUDITOR QUALIFICATIONS 6-5-7 Physical Analysis 1-2-10
AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE PILES 8-4-13, 8-4-16 Replacement and Cleaning 16-10-14
AUTOMATED TRACK COMPONENT EVALUATION 2-5-1 Road Crossing Foundations 1-1-76
Definitions 2-5-2 Sampling and Testing 1-2-14
4
Description 2-5-2 General 1-2-14
Introduction 2-5-2 Scope 1-2-9
Measurement Frequency 2-5-2 Sub-ballast Specifications 1-2-19
Recommended Practices 2-5-2 Commentary 1-2-25
Typical Uses of Data 2-5-2 Construction of Sub-ballast Section 1-2-24
AUTOMATIC CAR IDENTIFICATION (ACI) SYSTEM 14-1-2 Design 1-2-20
AUTOMATIC TRAIN CONTROL (ATC) SYSTEM 17-6-4 General 1-2-19
AUTOMATION AND INSTRUMENTATION, SANDING FACILITIES Inspection 1-2-25
6-6-16 Measurement and Payment 1-2-25
AUTOMOBILE AND TRUCK LOADING/UNLOADING FACILITIES Production and Handling 1-2-24
14-4-31 Summary 1-2-26
AUTOMOBILE LOADING/UNLOADING 14-4-31 Testing 1-2-24
AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS, EQUIPMENT, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR and Subgrade 30-1-5
CTC CENTERS 6-11-3 Substructure Introduction 1-2-4
AXIAL AND BENDING LOADS 7-2-29 Description 1-2-4
AXLE, WHEEL AND HUB SPECIFICATIONS 27-2-40 Nomenclature 1-2-4
Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-9
BALLAST AND SUB-BALLAST 18-2-2
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering I-3

Index
BAR CODE FORMAT 27-1-20 BENDING, TIE TESTS (CONT)

BAR CODES AND THEIR APPLICATION FOR ROADWAY WORK Test 1D: Flexural Fatigue 30-2-7
EQUIPMENT 27-1-18 BENDING AND STRAIGHTENING
BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS 8-17-54 Concrete Reinforcement 8-1-20, 8-1-56
BARREL AND APRON 1 8-16-13 BENDING PROPERTIES 4-3-16
BARREL AND APRON 2 8-16-13 Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Microalloyed Joint Bars, and
BASE AND MASONRY PLATES 15-1-64 Forged Compromise Joint Bars 4-3-16
BASE OF FOOTINGS, DEPTH 8-3-7 Steel Screw Spikes 5-10-3
BASIC ALLOWABLE STRESSES 15-1-37, 15-10-7 Tie Plates 5-1-3
and Deflections 15-8-6 Track Spikes 5-2-3
and Hydraulic Pressures 15-6-28 BENDS, HOOKS AND 8-2-17
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS BENEFITS OF BAR CODES 27-1-18
General Design of Prestressed Concrete 8-17-18 BENTONITE 8-25-7
BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF SCOUR 1-3-20 BENTS 7-2-6
Contraction Scour 1-3-22 BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES, WATER AND WASTEWATER
Lateral Stream Migration 1-3-23 COMPLIANCE 13-3-4, 13-3-6
Local Scour 1-3-22 BEVEL GEARS 15-6-102
Long-term Elevation Streambed Changes (Aggradation and BEVELING OR SLOTTING OF RAIL ENDS 4-4-76
Degradation) 1-3-21 BIAXIAL LOADING 8-2-53
References for Section 3.4 1-3-24 BID DOCUMENTS, ORGANIZATION OF, RAILWAY BUILDINGS
Scour 1-3-20 6-1-3
Total Scour 1-3-24 Bidding Requirements 6-1-3
BASIC DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, CONTINUOUS AND CANTILEVER Construction Specifications Institute Format 6-1-5
STEEL STRUCTURES 15-1-69 Contract Forms 6-1-3
BASIC ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS General Conditions 6-1-4
Basic Principles of Location 16-1-7 Recommended Format 6-1-3
Definition of Location 16-1-2 Special Conditions 6-1-4
Investment Evaluation 16-1-5 Technical Specifications 6-1-4
Principles of Economic Design 16-1-3 BIDDING REQUIREMENTS 6-1-4
Traffic Forecasts 16-1-8 BILLING CONCEPTS, UTILITY METERING 33-6-28
BASIC FORMULAE FOR CALCULATION OF VERTICAL AND BINS 6-3-11
LATERAL STRUCTURE OPENINGS 33-2-11 BLUE SIGNAL/FLAG PROTECTION 6-4-37
BASIC PROCEDURE 33-1-2 BODY OR CAB TOP 27-2-34
BATTER PILES 8-4-4 BOILER OPTIMIZATION 6-5-5
BATTERY CHARGING 6-4-30 BOILER TEST KIT 6-5-10
BATTERY-CHARGING AREA OR ROOM FOR MATERIALS BOLTED CONNECTIONS, WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES 7-2-38
MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 6-7-6 BOLTS
BEAMS, CONNECTION OF SECONDARY 8-26-41 Bearing on 7-2-31
BEAMS, NOTCHED 7-2-38 and Holes 15-6-103
BEARING 7-2-21, 15-6-29 and Nuts 15-6-44
and Anchorage 8-5-13 in Tension 15-6-32
Area 5-7-2 BONDING 8-11-7
at Angle to Grain 7-2-29 BONDING, FUTURE 8-1-28
on Bolts 7-2-31 BORINGS
BEARING AT ANGLE TO GRAIN 7-2-29 Core 8-22-9
BEARING ON BOLTS 7-2-31 Core, in Rock 8-22-5
BEARING CONSTRUCTION 15-11-1 Depth of 8-22-4
Bronze or Copper-Alloy sliding Expansion Bearings 15-11-8 Dry Sample 8-22-5, 8-22-8
Construction and Installation 15-11-3 Number and Location of 8-22-4
Elastomeric 15-11-12 BOX GIRDER CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS AND DETAILS
Manufacture or Fabrication 15-11-3 8-26-42
Multi-Rotational bearings 15-11-16 BOX GIRDERS 8-21-4, 8-21-24
Packaging, Handling and Storage 15-11-3 BOX-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION 8-2-37
PTFE Bearing Surface 15-11-9 BRACING 15-1-66, 15-1-70
Shop Drawings 15-11-2 BRACING BETWEEN COMPRESSION MEMBERS 15-1-24
BEARINGS 8-2-35, 15-6-102 BRACING MEMBERS USED AS TIES OR STRUTS ONLY 15-1-62
and Anchorage 15-4-4 BRACING OF TOP FLANGES OF THROUGH GIRDERS 15-1-60
BEDDING BRACING OF VIADUCT TOWERS AND BENTS 15-1-62
Factors 8-10-6 BRAKE SYSTEMS 27-2-10
BELT CONVEYOR SCALES 7-1 BRAKES 27-2-24, 17-5-10
BENDING, TIE TESTS 30-2-3 Air 15-6-99
Test 1A: Bending - Railseat Positive 30-2-3 and Machinery Design for Braking Forces 15-6-21
Test 1B: Bending - Railseat Negative 30-2-4 for Span Operation 15-6-99
Test 1C: Bending - Center Negative 30-2-5

Index
BRAKING BRIDGES WITH INTERNAL DUCTS 8-26-37

Dynamic 16-3-13 BRIDGES, NEW 9-1-17
Electric 16-3-9 BRIDGES, TRESTLES AND CULVERTS - ACCOUNT 6 16-12-7
BRANDING 4-3-31 BRONZE OR COPPER-ALLOY SLIDING EXPANSION BEARINGS
and Stamping 4-2-13 15-10-13, 15-11-8
BRIDGE, CULVERT, AND TUNNEL RECORDS 18-1-5 BUDGETING 18-1-7
BRIDGE AND DRAINAGE STRUCTURES 17-4-4 BUILDING CONFIGURATION 6-13-4
BRIDGE INSPECTION PROCEDURE 15-7-23, 10-1-11 BUILDING AND UTILITY PLANS AND RECORDS 18-1-6
Level of Detail of Inspection 10-1-11 BUILDING SYSTEMS 6-8-16
Scheduling 10-1-11 BUILDINGS 14-4-53
BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAM 10-1-7 Arrangement, Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities
BRIDGE INSPECTION REPORTS 10-1-13 6-4-13
Review of 10-1-14 Codes 6-3-4
Structure of 10-1-14 Construction and Maintenance 16-10-22
BRIDGE INSPECTION TEAM LEADERS 10-1-11 Reinforced Concrete 8-2-6
BRIDGE INSPECTIONS, SPECIAL 10-1-12 Superstructure Details, Design Criteria for Diesel Repair
Detail 10-1-13 Facilities 6-4-19
Flood 10-1-12 and Support Facilities 6-i
Load Rating 10-1-13 Types 6-3-5
Underwater 10-1-12 BUILDINGS AND SUPPORT FACILITIES 9-1-34, 9-2-23
BRIDGE FABRICATION SHOP 14-17-6 BULK GRANULAR SOLIDS TERMINALS
BRIDGE LOAD CAPACITY RATING PROCESS 10-1-4 Design of 14-4-45
BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 10-1-11 BULKHEADS, CANTILEVER 8-20-15
BRIDGE OPERATOR 15-6-109 BULK-FLUIDS 14-4-49
BRIDGE PIERS, DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR Site Selection 14-4-50
8-5-12 BULK-SOLID 14-4-43
BRIDGE TIES. SEE SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER BRIDGE TIES BUSINESS INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 16-B-1
BRIDGES 1-3-61, 1-3-149, BUTTRESS WALLS 8-5-11
Construction and Maintenance 16-10-21
Decks and Floors
BUTYL GUM TAPE 8-29-15
BUTYL RUBBER
1
Cast in Place Concrete 8-29-6 Butyl-based IIR 8-29-14
Precast Slabs for 8-29-6
and Drainage Structures 11-4-14, 12-4-36
Additional Structure Amenities Required for Passenger Rail C
Operations 11-4-15
Alignments and Clearances 12-4-45
CAB 27-2-11
Clearances through Structures 11-4-14
Construction 12-4-44
CAISSONS 8-5-13 3
Cofferdams or Forms 8-1-42
Curved Girder Bridges 12-4-88
CALCULATING SCOUR 1-3-25
Design Considerations for Drainage Structures 11-4-14
Estimating Contraction Scour 1-3-31
Emergency Egress for Bridges and Structures 11-4-14
Estimating Local Pier Scour 1-3-43
General 11-4-14
Evaluating Local Scour at Abutments 1-3-49
Hydraulic and Hydrologic Concerns 12-4-41
Predicting Aggradation and Degradation 1-3-25
Introduction 12-4-36
Predicting Lateral Migration 1-3-28
Joint Railroad/Transit Operations 12-4-36
Marine Protection 12-4-42
References for Section 3.5 1-3-59 4
Total Scour Calculation Problem 1-3-53
Operational Concerns 12-4-42
CALCULATION METHODOLOGY, RAIL PROFILE QUALITY
Passenger Stations on Bridges 11-4-15
INDICES 2-2-17
Retaining Walls 12-4-44
CALCULATION OF VERTICAL AND LATERAL STRUCTURE
Safety and Security 11-4-15
OPENINGS 33-2-19
Stray Current Effects 12-4-44
Formulae 33-2-19
Structure Serviceability Criteria 12-4-40
Sample Calculations 33-2-20
Transit System Loads 12-4-36
CALCULATIONS 33-2-13
Utilities 12-4-44
Train Performance 16-2-10
Evaluation of 15-8-31
Using a Computer 16-2-14
Organization 16-8-6
CALIBRATION RAILS 4-4-64
Railway, Clearance Diagrams 28-1-4
Manufacture of 4-4-64
Repair and Modification of 10-1-15
Recommended Calibration Rails for Rail Flaw Detection
Design of 10-1-15
Systems 4-4-64
and Trestles, Wood
CALIBRATION OF TEST EQUIPMENT 4-4-69
Methods of Fireproofing 7-4-18
CAMBER 15-1-15, 15-1-70
Rules for Rating Existing 7-3-2
CANDIDATE SELECTION AND CLASS SIZE CRITERIA 27-1-23
Walkways and Handrails on 15-8-27
CANTILEVER BULKHEADS 8-20-15
Wood Railway, Design 7-2-1

Index
CANTILEVER POLES 8-12-1 CELLULAR CONFINEMENT SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS FOR

Construction 8-12-2 RAILROAD USE 1-10-24
Installation 8-12-2 Compliance, Inspection and Sampling Requirements 1-10-26
Design 8-12-3 Construction Details and Methods 1-10-27
General 8-12-3 Description 1-10-24
General 8-12-2 Material Requirements 1-10-25
Introduction 8-12-2 Measurement and Payment 1-10-27
Scope 8-12-2 Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-26
Materials 8-12-2 CEMENT 8-1-8, 8-1-41, 8-25-8
Pole 8-12-2 Membranes 8-29-15
CANTILEVER WALLS 8-5-11 CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS AND CONCRETE ADMIXTURES
CAPACITY 8-1-19
Locomotive 16-3-3 CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS, OTHER 8-1-9
of Plant 8-1-41 Acceptability 8-1-9
Sanding Facility 6-6-3 Documentation 8-1-10
CAPACITY AND SIZE 8-2 General 8-1-9
CAPITAL COST ESTIMATES 12-2-20, 17-2-6 Materials Not Included in This Recommended Practice 8-1-10
CAPITAL EQUIPMENT COSTS 33-1-4 Specifications 8-1-9
CAPITAL EXPENDITURE OR OPERATING EXPENSE 16-12-22 CENTER OF GRAVITY CORRECTION FOR STRAND TENDONS
CARPENTRY SHOP 6-9-6 8-26-24
CARRIER PIPE 1-5-11, 1-5-23 CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT INTERFACES 12-2-12, 17-2-4
CARRYING CAPACITY, WOOD BRIDGES AND TRESTLES 7-3-2 CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT STATIONS 12-2-24
CAR BODY EXTERIOR 17-5-3 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 15-1-19
CAR BODY INTERIOR AND ENVIRONMENT 17-5-11 For Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-2-8, 7-3-3
CAR CLEARANCE GAGE, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-4 CERTIFICATION
CAR SHOPS 12-4-31, 17-4-4 Of Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-16
CARS Quality Control, Inspection, and Identification, Engineered
Articulated 16-2-9 Composite Ties 30-5-12
Dynamometer or Test, Field Testing 16-2-19 CHANNEL LIGHTS 15-6-108
Four-Wheel 16-2-10 CHAPTER 8 8-i
Moving Equipment 6-3-11 CHAPTER 8 CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND FOUNDATIONS 8-i
Self-Propelled Rail 16-3-16 CHARACTER
Speed Control of Backfill 8-20-3
Continuous 14-2-12 of Foundation 8-5-4
Intermittent 14-2-10 of Hydraulic Traffic (Abrasive, Corrosive, Etc.) 1-4-6
System, Hybrid 14-2-14 of Subsurface Materials 8-3-5
CASING PIPE 1-5-6 CHARACTERISTICS OF REMOTE CONTROL LOCOMOTIVES (RCL)
CAST STEEL 15-1-41 14-2-33
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE CHARTING ALL OBSTRUCTIONS, SUGGESTED METHODS 28-3-9
Bridge Decks or Floors 8-29-6 CHECK ANALYSIS 4-3-20
Piles 8-4-11 CHEMICAL
CAST-IN AND POST-INSTALLED INSERTS FOR CONCRETE TIES Analysis 1-2-11
30-4-52 Composition
CATENARY AND LOCOMOTIVE INTERACTION 33-8-1 Heat-Treated Carbon-Steel Track Bolts and Nuts 4-3-19
Locomotive Electric Interaction with the Catenary 33-8-2 Joint Bars
Electrical Characteristics 33-8-2 Forged Compromise 4-3-15
Introduction 33-8-2 Mocroalloyed 4-3-15
Types of Traction Motor Control Circuits 33-8-2 Quenched Carbon-Steel 4-3-15
Locomotive Mechanical Interaction with the Catenary 33-8-9 Soft-Steel Track Spikes 5-2-2
Pantograph Basics 33-8-9 Steel Screw Spikes 5-10-2
CATENARY DEFINITIONS, STANDARDS AND CONCEPTS 33-4-3 Steel Rails 4-2-4
CATENARY MAINTENANCE MANUALS AND PROCEDURES, Steel Tie Plates 5-1-3
PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-6 Control
CATENARY POLE CRITERIA 33-4-12 Selection of Herbicides 1-9-7
CATENARY POLE FOOTINGS/SEATINGS 33-4-14 CHEMICAL CONTROL
CATENARY SAFETY DESIGN, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-5 Techniques 1-9-12
CATENARY SUPPORT OPTIONS 33-4-3 CHEMICAL HARDNESS REQUIEMENTS FOR STRIKING AND
CATENARY SYSTEM - GENERAL DESCRIPTION, PROPULSION STRUCK TOOLS 5-6-6
SYSTEMS 11-6-4 CHOICE OF DESIGN AND ALIGNMENT 16-1-14
CATENARY SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA 33-4-8 Causes of Expenses 16-1-16
CATENARY SYSTEM INSTALLATION DESIGN, PROPULSION Effects of Line Characteristics 16-1-16
SYSTEMS 11-6-6 Highway-Rail Grade Crossings 16-1-16
CAUSE OF FAILURES 27-1-13 Traffic and Operating Factors 16-1-15
CHORD DEFLECTION 7-3-5

Index
CLAIMS, TRACK GEOMETRY MEASURING VEHICLES 2-1-42, CLEARANCES (CONT)

2-2-17 Preserving Existing Clearance During Maintenance Work
CLASSES 1-6-10 28-3-68
CLASSIFICATION Safe Movement of Excess Dimension Loads on Foreign
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-3 Trackage/Joint Tracks 28-3-66
of Existing Bridges 15-7-2 Blanket Authority 28-3-67
of Investigations 8-22-2 Clearance Data 28-3-66
Locomotive 16-3-4 Operations 28-3-66
of Piles 7-1-7 Priorities 28-3-66
of Roadway Signs 1-7-2 Procedures 28-3-66
Spread Footing Foundations 8-3-2 Scope 28-3-66
Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-3-2 Suggested Method
CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGE WORK 15-6-9 Charting All Obstructions 28-3-10
CLASSIFICATION OF WIRE ROPE 27-1-9 General 28-3-9
CLEANING, FACILITY MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 17-7-5 Presenting Published Clearances 28-3-9
CLEANING SITE 8-22-10 General 28-3-10
CLEANING AND COATING OF EXISTING STEEL RAILWAY Movable Objects 11-3-5, 17-3-3
BRIDGES 15-8-32 Naturally Occurring Events That Can Alter Clearances 28-3-71
CLEARANCE AND SAFETY 27-2-35 Passenger Operations 11-3-5, 17-3-3
CLEARANCE CRITERIA 33-4-10 Recommended Clearance Specification to Provide for Overhead
CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS Electrification 33-2-2
Fixed Obstructions 28-1-1 Altitude Compensation 33-2-12
Double-Track Railway Tunnels 28-1-6 Clearances from Energized Ancillary Conductors 33-2-12
General 28-1-2 Depth of Construction of the OCS at Supports (D) 33-2-14
General Outline 28-1-3 Design and Construction Clearance 33-2-7
Highway Structures Over Railroads 28-1-8 Electrical Clearances from Energized Parts to Grounded Parts
Overhead Electrification 28-1-8 (Air Clearances) 33-2-9
Railway Bridges 28-1-4 General 33-2-6
Railway Side Tracks and Industrial Tracks 28-1-7
Single-Track Railway Tunnels 28-1-5
Lateral Displacements and Super-Elevation 33-2-15
OCS Clearances Requirement at Overhead Structures (H)
1
CLEARANCE MODIFICATION 33-1-6 33-2-14
CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS, LEGAL 28-3-19 Tolerances in the OCS System and Position of Track 33-2-8
CLEARANCES 11-3-5, 15-1-12, 17-3-3, 33-2-1, 28-i Vertical Clearance 33-2-7
ADA Requirements 11-3-5 Vertical Clearance Requirements at Overhead Structures
Calculation of Vertical and Lateral Structure Openings 33-2-19 33-2-15
Formulae 33-2-19 Regulatory Requirements 11-3-5, 17-3-3
Sample Calculations 33-2-20 Reporting, Modifications or Additions 28-3-57
Fixed Objects 11-3-5, 17-3-3 Third-rail Arrangements 33-2-2
3
Freight Operations 11-3-5, 17-3-3 Track and Roadway Considerations 12-3-1
General 11-3-5, 12-3-7, 17-3-3 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 33-4-8
Methods and Procedures 28-3-1 CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION 6-8-20, 6-10-5
Allowances for Horizontal Movements, Passenger Cars COACH SHOP, MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS 6-13-9
28-3-3 COACH SHOP, SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS 6-13-3
General 28-3-3 Combined Coach Locomotiv Shop 6-13-8
Computing Curve Offsets on Loads 28-3-19 COACH SHOP AND/OR LOCOMOTIVE SHOP, STRUCTURAL
Examples 28-3-19 REQUIREMENTS 6-13-9 4
Tables 28-3-19 COAL AND ORE WHARVES, ACCOUNT 24 16-12-12
Excessive Loads 28-3-11 COAL-TAR
Report Information 28-3-12 Saturated Organic Felt 8-29-28
Field Handbook, Measuring Excess Dimension Loads COAL-TAR PITCH 8-29-28
28-3-52 for Mopping 8-29-14
Combined Center of Gravity Formula 28-3-58 COALESCING FILTERS 6-17-18
Instructions for Measuring 28-3-53 COATED CORRUGATED STEEL PIPE AND ARCHES,
Legend 28-3-54 SPECIFICATIONS 1-4-17
Reporting Measurements of Excess Width or Height COATINGS 1-4-84, 7-4-19
28-3-53 CODE REQUIREMENTS
Legal Clearance Requirements 28-3-20 Site Considerations for Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive
General 28-3-20 Maintenance, Repair and Servicing Facilities 6-13-3
Maintenance Procedures that can Adversely Effect Site Considerations for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-3
Clearances 28-3-67 CODES, REFERENCES, SANDING FACILITIES 6-6-18
Methods of Measuring Railway Line Clearances 28-3-49 COEFFICIENTS, THERMAL AND SHRINKAGE 8-2-34
Modifications to Clearances Reporting 28-3-61 COFFERDAMS, CAISSONS OR FORMS 8-1-42
Procedure 28-3-61 COLLARS 15-6-40
Purpose 28-3-61

Index
COLORS, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY OFFICE BUILDINGS COMMUNICATIONS (CONT)

6-2-13 Internal System, Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-36
COLUMN Systems, Account 26 16-12-13
Loads 8-3-16 Technology 12-2-16, 17-2-5
COMBINATION FREIGHT AND PASSENGER STATIONS 6-8-14 Television System 6-4-36
COMBINATIONS OF DISSIMILAR TYPES OF CONNECTIONS COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 11-6-2, 17-6-16
15-1-44 COMMUNITY RELATIONS 12-2-12, 17-2-4
COMBINED AXIAL AND BENDING LOADS 7-2-29 COMMUTER AND INTERCITY RAIL SYSTEMS 11-i
COMBINED CENTER OF GRAVITY FORMULA 28-3-54 Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1
COMBINED COACH LOCOMOTIVE SHOP, SPECIAL Facilities and Structural Considerations 11-4-1
REQUIREMENTS 6-13-7 Introduction 11-1-1
COMBINED FOOTINGS 8-3-15 Maintenance of Way Considerations 11-7-1
Sizing 8-3-16 Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Considerationis
COMBINED STRESSES 7-3-4, 15-1-32 11-6-1
COMBINED USE OF GUARD TIMBERS AND GUARD RAILS 7-4-23 Track and Roadway Considerations 11-3-1
COMMENTARIES, RAIL 4-6-1 Vehicle Considerations 11-5-1
COMMENTARY COMMUTER STATIONS 6-8-12
AASHTO Load Resistance Factor Design, High Density COMPACTION 8-5-7
Polyethylene Pipe Design Example 1-4-117 COMPANY EQUIPMENT 15-4-9
Concrete Slab Tracks 8-27-22 COMPENSATED GRADIENTS 5-3-16
Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts COMPENSATED GRADIENTS
8-16-18 Proposed AREMA standards for 5-3-16
Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures 8-21-20 COMPLETION OF WORK 5-5-5
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements 8-1-55 COMPLIANCE AND CORRECT APPLICATION, BRIDGE
Pile Foundations 8-4-17 MANAGEMENT RECORDS 10-1-16
Recommendations for the Design of Segmental Bridges 8-26-43 COMPLIANCE, INSPECTION AND SAMPLING REQUIREMENTS
Seismic Design for Railway Structures 9-2-1 1-10-20
Specifications for Uncased Gas Pipelines within the Railway Cellular Confinement System Specifications for Railroad Use
Right-of-Way 1-5-20 1-10-26
Sub-ballast Specifications 1-2-25 Geogrid Specifications for Ballast and Sub-Ballast
Timber Structures 7-6-1 Reinforcement 1-10-28
Construction and Maintenance Commenatary 7-6-12 Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-13
Design Commentary 7-6-5 Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-18
Inspection Commentary 7-6-12 Railroad Track Stabilization Applications 1-10-8
Materials Commentary 7-6-2 System Specifications for Railroad Applications 1-10-21
Rating Commentary 7-6-12 COMPONENT WEAR LIMITS 17-7-4
Vegetation Control 1-9-19 COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 10-1-4
COMMENTARY INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY Bridge Inspection Program 10-1-7
STRUCTURES Bridge Load Capacity Rating Program 10-1-4
Inspection 8-21-22 Designations and Qualifications of Responsible Persons 10-1-8
Site and Crossing 8-21-23 Inventory 10-1-4
COMMENTARY Preservation of Documents 10-1-6
INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS 8-2-35
8-21-23 COMPOSITE FLEXURAL MEMBERS 8-17-18
COMMENTARY TO SEISMIC DESIGN FOR RAILWAY STRUCTURES COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE SPANS 15-1-56
9-2-1 COMPOSITE TIE TYPES 30-5-3
COMMISSARY 6-13-6 COMPOSITE TIES, ENGINEERED 30-5-1
COMMODITY STORAGE 14-4-53 COMPOSITE TRUSSES 7-3-5
COMMON DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 14-5-10 COMPRESSED AIR 6-3-8, 6-4-18
COMMON INDUSTRY PRACTICE, MEASUREMENT FREQUENCY Devices 15-6-46
PRACTICES FOR TRACK GEOMETRY MEASURING VEHICLES Facility Enclosures 6-17-11
2-4-2 COMPRESSION
Railroads 2-4-2 Allowable Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-20
Summary 2-4-3 COMPRESSION MEMBERS 8-2-52, 15-1-46
Transit Systems 2-4-3 Limits for Reinforcement 8-2-21
Yards, Terminals and Sidings 2-4-2 Slenderness Effects in 8-2-54
COMMON INSPECTION ITEMS 18-3-37 Strengths 8-2-52
COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALS 18-4-1 COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN OR CENTRALLY LOADED
COMMUNICATIONS 15-6-8, 33-1-6 COLUMNS 7-2-20
and Data, Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-35 COMPRESSION TESTS 8-1-35
Data System 6-4-36 COMPRESSOR OIL 6-4-26
Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-5 COMPROMISE EFB WELDS IN TRACK 4-3-45
Signal Systems 17-6-7 COMPUTAION
Support, Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-20 of Stresses, Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-3-2

Index
COMPUTATION CONCRETE (CONT)

of Applied Forces 8-5-4 Minimum Cover 8-1-44, 8-1-46, 8-17-12
of Backfill Pressure 8-5-5 Mixing 8-1-37
of Deflections 8-2-34 Mixture Proportions 8-1-53, 8-1-61
of Lateral Forces 8-28-5 Mixtures, Strength of 8-1-33
Acting on Bulkheads 8-20-6 Moderate Exposure 8-1-45
of Stresses Placement of 8-1-46
or Strengths 8-19-3 Placing Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-42
COMPUTER AND TECHNICIAN’S ROOM 6-11-6 Placing Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-42
COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND WORD PROCESSING EQUIPMENT, Placing Cyclopean 8-1-42
ACCOUNT 59 16-12-22 Placing Rubble 8-1-42
CONCLUSION Prestressed 8-26-22
Design Considerations for Future Expansion 12-3-38 Protecting in Sea Water 8-1-44
CONCLUSIONS Protection for Reinforcement 8-2-18
Selection and Maintenance of Roofing Systems 6-14-13 Pumping 8-1-38
CONCRETE 8-1-44, 8-19-5, 15-6-35 Ready-Mixed 8-1-36
Admixtures 8-1-20, 8-1-57 Reinforcement
Air Content of Air-Entrained 8-1-33 Development and Splices 8-2-23
in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water 8-1-45 Spacing 8-2-18
Bonding 8-1-40 Roadway Signs 1-7-4
Bridges Sea Water 8-1-44
Rules for Rating Existing 8-19-1 Seals 8-1-44
Excessive Loading 8-19-11 Segmental Bridges 8-26-8
Action to be Taken 8-19-11 Selection of Materials 8-1-6
General 8-19-2 Severe Exposure 8-1-45
Scope 8-19-2 Site, Mixed 8-1-36
Load Combinations and Rating Formulas 8-19-9 Structures
Formulas 8-19-10 and Foundations 8-i
Notations 8-19-9
Loads and Forces 8-19-4
Inspection 8-21-1
Introduction 8-21-1
1
Dead Load 8-19-4 Repair and Rehabilitation 8-14-1
General 8-19-4 Determination of Causes of Concrete Deterioration
Impact 8-19-4 8-14-3
Live Load 8-19-4 Evaluation of the Effects of Deterioration and Damage
Other Loads 8-19-4 8-14-4
Materials 8-19-5 Methods 8-14-4
Concrete 8-19-5 Reevaluation 8-14-5
Reinforcing Steel 8-19-6 Results 8-14-4
3
Rating 8-19-2 Special Cases 8-14-5
Computation of Stresses or Strengths 8-19-3 Introduction 8-14-3
General 8-19-2 Principal Materials Used in Repair 8-14-5
Inspection 8-19-3 Epoxy Materials 8-14-6
Load Carrying Capacity 8-19-2 Fiber Reinforcement Polymers (FRP Composites)
Maximum 8-19-2 8-14-6
Normal 8-19-2 Non-Shrink Grouts 8-14-6
Chuting 8-1-38 Polymers in Concrete 8-14-6 4
Compacting 8-1-39 Reinforcement 8-14-5
Condition of Exposure 8-1-45 Repair Methods 8-14-6
Continuous Depositing 8-1-40 Arch Lining 8-14-13
Continuous Work, Depositing 8-1-42 Internal Structural Repairs 8-14-13
Cover for Bar Bundles 8-2-19 Non-Structural Crack Repair 8-14-18
Cover for Corrosive and Marine Environments 8-2-19 Reinforcement Splices 8-14-21
Cover, Minimum 8-2-18 Surface Repairs Using Polymer Concretes 8-14-12
Delivery 8-1-37 Surface Repairs Using Portland Cement Materials
Depositing 8-1-37 8-14-6
Depositing in Sea Water 8-1-44 Tuckpointing 8-14-12
Depositing, Under Water 8-1-41 Repair Methods for Prestressed Members 8-14-22
Design of Reinforced 8-2-1 Summary 8-14-24
Handling and Placing 8-1-37 Temperature 8-1-40
High Strength 8-1-52, 8-1-59 Ties, Resistance to Train Movement 16-2-9
Leveling and Cleaning the Bottom to Receive 8-1-42 Tremie 8-25-9
Lining Railway Tunnels 8-11-7 Very Severe Exposure 8-1-45
Materials 8-17-10
Methods of Depositing 8-1-42

Index
CONCRETE BRIDGES CONDITIONS TO REPORT 15-7-24

Rules for Rating Existing CONDITIONS REQUIRING HEADWALLS, WINGWALLS, INVERTS
Load Combinations and Rating Formulas AND APRONS AND REQUISITES THEREFORE 1-4-68
Loads and Forces 8-19-9 CONDUCTING AN INSPECTION 6-15-3
CONCRETE COVER AND REINFORCEMENT SPACING 8-26-42 CONDUCTOR PARAMETERS, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-5
CONCRETE JOINTING 8-1-28 CONDUCTORS 33-7-12, 33-7-18, 33-7-24
CONCRETE PILES CONDUITS AND INSERTS 8-11-6
Cast-In-Place 8-4-11 CONFERENCE ROOM 6-2-9
Precast 8-4-11 CONFIGURATION(S)
CONCRETE PIT 15-8-26 Building 6-13-4
CONCRETE PLACEMENT FOR CONCRETE SLAB TRACK 8-27-10 Train 6-13-3
CONCRETE SLAB Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) 14-4-75
Continuously Reinforced 8-27-9 CONNECTIONS
CONCRETE SLAB TRACK 8-27-1 Bolted, Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-38
Design Considerations 8-27-23 of Components of Built-up Members 15-1-45
General Considerations 8-27-6 and Splices 15-1-43
Loading Conditions 8-27-6 CONNECTORS 7-2-38
Scope and Notations 8-27-3 CONSIDERATIONS, OVERALL, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY
Application 8-27-3 BUILDINGS 6-1-13
Definitions 8-27-5 CONSIDERATIONS FOR PERFORMING LATERAL RESTRAINT
Special considerations 8-27-17 MEASUREMENTS 2-3-3
Transition Areas 8-27-17 CONSIDERATIONS, SPECIAL, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY
CONCRETE SLAB TRACK, CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED 8-27-23 BUILDINGS 6-1-13
CONCRETE SLAB TRACKS CONSIDERATIONS, STRUCTURAL, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR
Commentary 8-27-22 RAILWAY BUILDINGS 6-1-13
Construction 8-27-10 CONSIDERATIONS FOR DEVELOPING METHODS, ORGANIZATION
Continuity of Slab TRack over Bridge Deck 8-27-26 16-8-5
Continuity of Slab Track over Bridge Deck 8-27-20 CONSOLE ROOM 6-11-6
Design of 8-27-8 CONSOLIDATION 8-11-7
Materials 8-27-7 CONSTRAINTS 12-2-13
Modification of Existing Tunnel Concrete Invert to Slab Track CONSTRUCTION 27-1-7
8-27-20 Bridge Bearings 15-11-1
Transition Areas 8-27-26 Introduction 15-11-2
Treatment at Slab Ends 8-27-17 Bridge and Drainage Systems 12-4-44
CONCRETE SLABTRACK Cantilever Poles 8-12-2
Direct Fixation Fastening System 8-27-14 Details and Methods
CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRESS TRANSFER 8-17-45 Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-12
CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND FOUNDATIONS Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-17
Casing Removal 8-24-11 Railroad Track Stabilization Applications 1-10-7
Continuity of Work 8-24-12 Drawings 15-8-26
Records 8-24-12 of Embankment and Roadbed 1-3-40
Testing 8-24-12 of Embankment Protection 1-3-41
CONCRETE TIE REPAIR 30-4-55 and Expansion Joints 8-11-5
Railseat Abrasion Repair 30-4-56 Forms 8-1-23
Shoulder Replacement or Repair 30-4-55 and Maintenance Operations 16-10-1
CONCRETE TIES 30-4-1 Appendix 16-10-28
Ballast 30-4-45 Details of Track Calculations 16-10-28
Cast-In and Post-Installed Inserts for Concrete Ties 30-4-52 Ballast 16-10-12
Commentary 30-4-51 Economic Section 16-10-12
Concrete Tie Repair 30-4-53 Ballast Depth Under Ties 16-10-12
Electrical Properties 30-4-26 General 16-10-12
Flexural Strength of Prestressed Monoblock Ties 30-4-19 Methods of Unloading and Distributing 16-10-14
Flexural Strength of Two-Block Ties 30-12-23 Replacement and Cleaning 16-10-14
General Considerations 30-12-4 Bridges 16-10-21
Lateral Rail Restraint 30-4-26 General 16-10-21
Longitudinal Rail Restraint 30-4-26 Type of Structures 16-10-21
Material 30-4-9 Buildings 16-10-22
Recommended Practices For Shipping, Handling, Application General 16-10-22
and Use 30-4-44 Methods 16-10-22
Testing of Monoblock Ties 30-4-26 Handling of Traffic 16-10-27
Testing of Two-Block Ties 30-4-39 General 16-10-27
Tie Dimensions, Configuration and Weight 30-4-16 Other Track Material 16-10-15
Ties for Grade Crossing Panels 30-4-53 Proper Use 16-10-15
Ties for Turnouts 30-4-45 Reclamation 16-10-18

Index
CONSTRUCTION (CONT) CONTACT WIRE DEFLECTIONS 33-4-11

Rail 16-10-3 CONTACT WIRE GRADIENTS 33-4-12
Methods of Extending Rail Life 16-10-8 CONTACT WIRE HEIGHT, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-4
Methods of Joining and Laying 16-10-7 CONTAINERIZED SHIPPING 14-4-38
Selection Criteria 16-10-3 CONTEMPORARY DESIGNS AND DESIGN AIDS, TIMBER
Rail Support 16-10-9 STRUCTURES 7-A1-1
Design Analysis 16-10-9 CONTIGENCY MINIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE 33-3-2
Performance Criteria 16-10-9 CONTINUOUS AND CANTILEVER STEEL STRUCTURES 15-1-69
Roadway 16-10-20 Basic Design Assumptions 15-1-69
Equipment 16-10-20 Bracing 15-1-70
General 16-10-20 Camber 15-1-70
Methods 16-10-20 Cover Plates 15-1-71
Special Features 16-10-20 Definition 15-1-69
Track 16-10-19 Deflection 15-1-69
Equipment 16-10-19 Impact Load 15-1-70
General 16-10-19 Longitudinal Stiffeners 15-1-70
Methods 16-10-19 Splices in Flexural Members 15-1-72
Tunnels 16-10-23 Uplift 15-1-70
Construction 16-10-23 CONTINUOUS CONTROL SYSTEM 14-2-16
Introduction 16-10-23 CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT, RAIL GRINDING 4-4-92
Maintenance 16-10-23 CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL (CWR) 5-5-19
Methods 1-4-71, 16-8-4 CONTOUR BLENDING OF CORNERS 5-6-56
Concrete Slab Track 8-27-10 CONTRACT DOCUMENTS 1-1-38
of a New Line of Railroad with Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) CONTRACTING AND CONTRACT MANAGEMENT 18-1-7
5-5-12 CONTRACTION SCOUR 1-3-22
of New Tunnels 16-10-23 CONTRACTOR’S DRAWINGS 8-17-49
Of Conrete Slab Track 8-27-10 CONTRACTORS, ORGANIZATION 16-8-8
Of Mechanically Stabilized Embankments 8-7-3 CONTRACTS
Phase 8-25-3
Pipelines
Forms 6-1-4
CONTRACTS, EASEMENTS, AND AGREEMENTS 18-1-2
1
Conveying Flammable Substances 1-5-8 CONTROL 16-9-15
Conveying Non-Flammable Substances 1-5-26 Consoles 6-11-2
Uncased Gas 1-5-20 of Deflections 8-2-65
and Maintenance of Timber Structures 7-4-1 CONTROL FUNCTIONS 16-15-16
of Protection of Roadbed Across Reservoir Areas 1-3-34 CONTROL SYSTEM - PROPULSION SYSTEM ELECTROMAGNETIC
Slurry Wall 8-25-1 COMPATIBILITY 17-6-7
Specifications for Tunnel Construction 1-8-3 CONTROLLING DIMENSIONS 8-3-4, 8-5-3
Temporary Structures for 8-28-1 CONTROLS 27-2-34
3
Traction Power Supply for Railroad AC Electrification Systems CORE BORINGS 8-22-9
33-6-29 in Rock 8-22-5
Installation Verification Testing 33-6-29 CORRIDOR EVALUATION 12-2-11, 17-2-4
Pre-Revenue Operation Testing 33-6-30 Central Business District Interfaces 12-2-12, 17-2-4
Quality Assurance/Quality Control 33-6-29 Community Relations 12-2-12, 17-2-4
System-Wide Integration Testing 33-6-30 Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1
of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90 Equipment Capability Requirements 17-2-4
Waterproofing 8-29-20 General 12-2-11, 17-2-4 4
Wire Ropes 15-6-72 Joint Facility Development Opportunities 12-2-12, 17-2-4
CONSTRUCTION AND ON-SITE INSPECTION 25 Land Availability 12-2-12, 17-2-4
CONSTRUCTION CLEARANCE 33-2-3 Multi-Modal Interfaces 12-2-12, 17-2-4
CONSTRUCTION-DEMOLITION WASTE 13-5-15 Passenger Convenience 12-2-12, 17-2-4
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS AND METHODS 1-10-8, 1-10-14, Property Value Impacts 12-2-13, 17-2-4
1-10-18, 1-10-22, 1-10-27, 1-10-33 Rolling Stock Requirements 12-2-13
CONSTRUCTION FUNDAMENTALS 31 Safety/Security 12-2-13, 17-2-5
CONSTRUCTION LOAD COMBINATIONS, STRESSES AND Selection of Route within Corridor 12-2-11, 17-2-4
STABILITY 8-26-19 Shared Right of Way 12-2-13, 17-2-4
CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL SOURCES 1-1-8 Shared Trackage 12-2-13, 17-2-4
CONSTRUCTION OF FACILITIES 14-4-64 Suitable Support and Maintenance Opportunities 12-2-12,
CONSTRUCTION OF OTHERS 9-1-35 17-2-4
CONSTRUCTION OF SUB-BALLAST SECTION 1-2-24 CORRIDOR IDENTIFICATION 12-2-12, 17-2-3
CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS Constraints 12-2-11, 17-2-4
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100 Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1
CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS INSTITUTE FORMAT 6-1-6 General 12-2-10, 17-2-3
CONSTRUCTION TOLERANCES 33-4-11 Land Availability 12-2-11, 17-2-4
CONTACT WIRE AMPACITY 33-4-21 Operations Criteria 12-2-10, 17-2-4

Index
CORRIDOR IDENTIFICATION (CONT) CORRIDOR PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS (CONT)

Rail Corridor Criteria 12-2-10, 17-2-4 Fare Collection Technology 12-2-16
Rail Line / Neighborhood Interface 12-2-11 General 12-2-13
Regulatory Interface 12-2-12, 17-2-4 Propulsion Technology 12-2-15
Route Identification 12-2-10, 17-2-4 Route Technical Constraints 12-2-17
Route Owner Interface 17-2-4 Safety and Security Technology 12-2-16
Traffic Sources and Destinations 12-2-10, 17-2-4 Signal Technology 12-2-15
CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION 12-2-25 Stations and Facilities 12-2-17
CORRIDOR IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS 17-2-5 Track Technology 12-2-15
Capital Cost Estimates 17-2-6 Vehicle Technology Types 12-2-13
Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1 Multi-modal Interfaces 17-2-5
General 17-2-5 Planning 12-2-4, 17-2-3
Implementation Schedules 17-2-6 Economic Acceptance 12-2-5
Operations and Costs Estimates 17-2-6 Environmental Acceptance 12-2-6
Operations Simulations 17-2-6 General 12-2-4
12-2-1, 17-2-1 Institutional Issues 12-2-8
Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems 11-2-1 Safety / Security 12-2-6
Corridor Evaluation 12-2-11, 17-2-4 Social Acceptance 12-2-6
Central Business District Interfaces 12-2-12 User Needs 12-2-4
Community Relations 12-2-12 Regional Transportation Interfaces 12-2-19
General 12-2-11 Central Business District Stations 12-2-19
CORRIDOR PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS General - Interface with Other Transportation Modes
Joint Facility Development Opportunities 12-2-12 12-2-22
Land Availability 12-2-12 Types of Interfaces 12-2-19
Multi-Modal Interfaces 12-2-12 Typical Station Interfaces 12-2-19
Passenger Convenience 12-2-12 CORROSION 4-4-70
Property Value Impacts 12-2-13 CORROSION CONTROL AND PROTECTION 33-12-27
Rolling Stock Requirements 12-2-13 CORROSION PROTECTION 8-2-19
Safety / Security 12-2-13 CORRUGATION 4-4-68
Selection of Route Within Corridor 12-2-11 COST/OPPORTUNITIES, ENERGY AUDITS 6-5-6
Shared Right-of-Way 12-2-13 COSTS
Shared Trackage 12-2-13 Eliminated or Reduced by Defect Detectors 16-5-13
Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas 12-2-12 Incurred from Defect Detectors, Initial and Annual 16-5-12
Corridor Identification 12-2-10, 17-2-3 COSTS AND BENEFITS, PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS AND PUBLIC
Constraints 12-2-11 PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS 16-7-1
General 12-2-10 Cost and Benefit Analysis 16-7-9
Land Availability 12-2-11 Costs and Benefits 16-7-9
Operations Criteria 12-2-10 Force Account Project Estimates 16-7-7
Rail Corridor Criteria 12-2-10 Government Relationship Considerations 16-7-10
Rail Line / Neighborhood Interface 12-2-11 Introduction 16-7-2
Regulatory Interface 12-2-11 Plans, Specifications and Special Provisions 16-7-8
Route Identification 12-2-10 Preliminary Engineering for Public Improvements 16-7-6
Traffic Sources and Destinations 12-2-10 Project Completion and Billing 16-7-10
Corridor Implementation 12-2-20 Public Improvement Agreements 16-7-8
Capital Cost Estimating 12-2-20 Public Improvement Project Development 16-7-2
General 12-2-20 Public Private Partnerships 16-7-2
Implementation Schedule and Plan 12-2-20 COUNTERFORT, RETAINING WALLS 8-5-11
Operations and Maintenance Cost Estimating 12-2-20 COUNTERMEASURE DESIGN GUIDANCE 1-3-78
Operations Simulation 12-2-20 COUNTERMEASURE SELECTION 1-3-62
Corridor Implementation Considerations 17-2-5 COUNTERWEIGHTS 15-6-14, 15-6-35, 15-6-107
Data Collection 12-2-8, 17-2-3 COUPLERS 8-26-40
Attitude Surveys 11-2-6, 12-2-8 COUPLING BANDS 1-4-13
Demographic Data 11-2-6, 12-2-8 Class I and Class II 1-4-22
Environmental Data 11-2-7, 12-2-9 COUPLINGS 15-6-102
General 11-2-6, 12-2-8 Corrugaged High Density Polyethylene Pipe, Specificaiton for
Geographic and Physical Data 11-7, 12-2-10 1-4-28
Population and Economic Data 11-2-7, 12-2-11 COVER PLATES 15-1-75
Transportation Demand Data 11-2-7, 12-2-10 COVER AND SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT 8-17-45
Zoning Data 11-2-7, 12-2-9 COVERS 15-6-46
General Information 11-2-1, 12-2-3, 17-2-3 CRACKS
Environmental 11-2-1 Repair, Non-Structural 8-14-18
Identification of Technology 12-2-13, 17-2-5 CRAFT SHOPS 6-13-6
Communications Technology 12-2-16 CRASH WALLS 11-4-15, 12-4-89, 17-4-4
Electric Traction Characteristics 12-2-19 General 11-4-15

Index
CRASHWORTHINESS 17-5-11 CULVERTS (CONT)

CREEP AND SHRINKAGE 8-26-14 Corrugaged High Density Polyethylene Pipe, Specificaiton for
CREOSOTE 1-4-28
Primer 8-29-28 Couplings 1-4-29
CREW FACILITIES 6-13-5 General 1-4-28
CRIB WALLS 8-6-1 Materials 1-4-28
Design 8-6-2 Corrugaged High Density Polyethylene Pipe, Structural Design
General 8-6-2 Considerations of 1-4-78
General 8-6-2 Design Criteria 1-4-78
Definitions 8-6-2 Introduction 1-4-78
Scope 8-6-2 Loads and Load Factors 1-4-78
Specifications for Metal 8-6-5 Culvert Rehabilitation 1-4-78
Installation 8-6-5 In Place Installation of Concrete Invert 1-4-81
Manufacture 8-6-5 Localized Repairs 1-4-79
Specifications for Reinforced Concrete 8-6-3 Methods of Rehabilitation 1-4-78
General 8-6-3 Relining Materials 1-4-79
Installation 8-6-4 Survey of Existing Structures 1-4-78
Manufacture 8-6-4 Design Criteria for Corrugated Metal Pipes 1-4-56
Specifications for Timber 8-6-6 Criteria 1-4-56
General 8-6-6 Formulas 1-4-56
Installation 8-6-6 Loads 1-4-58
Materials 8-6-6 Minimum and Maximum Height of Cover in Feet 1-4-60
CRIB WALLS. SEE MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EMBANKMENT Pipe Arches 1-4-63
CRITERIA, TEMPORARY STRUCTURES FOR CONSTRUCTION Pipe Culvert Design 1-4-58
8-28-2 Design Criteria for Structural Plate Pipes 1-4-65
CRITERIA FOR USE OF INCREASED ALLOWABLE STRESSES Criteria Formulas 1-4-65
7-2-148 Minimum and Maximum Height of Cover in Feet 1-4-66
CRITERIA FORMULAS 1-4-65
CROSS FRAMES AND DIAPHRAGMS FOR DECK SPANS 15-1-61
Seam Strength of Structural Plate Pipes 1-4-65
Earth Boring and Jacking Culvert Pipe through Fills 1-4-76
1
CROSS GRINDING RAIL ENDS 5-10-10 General 1-4-76
CROSS TIE DIMENSIONS 30-1-4 Precautions in Unstable Soils 1-4-77
CROSS TIES, SPECIAL WASTE 13-5-16 Protection of Pipe Against Percolation, Piping and Scour
CROSSING SURFACE MATERIAL SELECTION AND INSTALLATION 1-4-77
5-8-11 Safety 1-4-77
CROSSING SURFACE MATERIALS 5-8-11 Size and Length of Pipe 1-4-76
CROSSTIES AND SWITCH TIES 18-2-4 Type of Pipe Suitable for Jacking 1-4-76
CULVERTS 1-4-1, 8-21-25 Hydraulics of Culverts 1-4-29
3
Assembly and Installation of Pipe Culverts 1-4-70 Design Method 1-4-29
Alignment 1-4-71 Flow Conditions 1-4-30
Assembly 1-4-72 Hydraulic Computations 1-4-34
Backfill 1-4-72 Introduction 1-4-29
Construction Methods 1-4-71 Location and Type 1-4-6
End Treatment 1-4-74 Character of Hydraulic Traffic (Abrasive, Corrosive, etc.)
General 1-4-70 1-4-6
Handling and Unloading 1-4-71 Economics of Various Types 1-4-8 4
Multiple Installations 1-4-74 Foundation Conditions 1-4-7
Post Installation Inspection 1-4-87 Height and Character of Embankment 1-4-7
Preparation of Foundation 1-4-71 Loading, Live and Dead 1-4-7
Protection of Pipe Culvert from Construction Loads 1-4-74 Span Required 1-4-6
Safety Provisions 1-4-75 Topographic Conditions Determining Angle, Gradient, and
Conditions Requiring Headwalls, Wingwalls, Inverts and Length of Structure 1-4-7
Aprons and Requisites Therefore 1-4-68 Waterway Required 1-4-6
Headwalls 1-4-68 Other Facilities and Infrastructure 9-1-33, 9-2-23
Introduction 1-4-68 Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100
Inverts and Aprons 1-4-70 Applications 1-4-100
Wingwalls 1-4-69 Construction Requirements 1-4-102
Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90 General 1-4-100
Description 1-4-90 Hydraulic Design 1-4-101
Installation 1-4-90 Inspection and Acceptance 1-4-104
Measurement 1-4-90 Materials 1-4-100
Payment 1-4-90 Operation and Maintenance 1-4-104
Scope 1-4-90 Related Filter Materials 1-4-101
Safety Provisions 1-4-104

Index
CULVERTS (CONT) CURVES (CONT)

Structural Design 1-4-102 Elevations and Speeds for Curves 5-3-11
Rehabilitation 1-4-78 Elevation of Curves 5-3-11
Reinforced Concrete Pipe 8-10-1 Minimum Tangent Lengths Required Between Reverse Curves
Specification for Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-82 for Yard Operations 5-3-14
Coatings 1-4-84 No Sprial and No Superelevation 5-3-14
Design 1-4-84 With Spirals and Superelevation 5-3-15
Fabrication 1-4-83 Resistance and Radial Trucks 16-2-7
General 1-4-82 Speeds of Trains through Level Turnouts 5-3-13
Material 1-4-83 Spirals 5-3-2
Specifications for Coated Corrugated Steel Pipe and Arches Applying the Spiral to Compound Curves 5-3-6
1-4-17 Formulas 5-3-5
Specification for Bituminous Coated Galvanized Steel Pipe Notation 5-3-4
and Pipe Arches 1-4-17 Purpose 5-3-2
Specification for Polymeric Coated Corrugated Galvanized Staking Spirals by Deflections 5-3-5
Steel Pipe or Pipe Arches 1-4-17 Staking Spirals by Offsets 5-3-6
Specifications for Corrugated Structural Aluminum Alloy Plate The Spiral Curve 5-3-3
Pipe, Pipe-arches, and Arches 1-4-26 String Lining of Curves by the Chord Method 5-3-6
Fabrication 1-4-28 Process 5-3-7
General 1-4-26 Scope 5-3-6
Material 1-4-27 Tools Required 5-3-7
Specifications for Corrugated Structural Steel Plate Pipe, Vertical Curves 5-3-15
Pipe-arches, and Arches 1-4-24 CUTS 1-1-13
Fabrication 1-4-26
General 1-4-24
Material 1-4-24 D
Specifications for Placement of Reinforced Concrete Culvert
Pipe 1-4-9
DAMPPROOFING 8-29-5
Specifications for Prefabricated Corrugated Steel Pipe and
Application 8-29-29
Pipe-arches for Culverts and Storm Drains, and
Method 8-29-29
Underdrains 1-4-10
Preparation of Surfaces 8-29-29
Coupling Bands 1-4-13
Temperature 8-29-29
Fabrication 1-4-10
Field Inspection and Acceptance 1-4-16
Scope 8-29-28
General 1-4-10
Materials 8-29-28
Material 1-4-10
Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coatings 8-29-29
Mill or Shop Inspection 1-4-16
Asphalt 8-29-28
Shape 1-4-14
Primer 8-29-28
Workmanship 1-4-16
Coal-Tar Pitch 8-29-28
Standard Specification for Corrugated Aluminum Alloy Pipe
Coal-Tar Saturated Organic Felt 8-29-28
1-4-17 Creosote Primer 8-29-28
Coupling Bands - Class I and Class II 1-4-22
Emulsified Asphalt Coating
Fabrication 1-4-20
Protective 8-29-28
General 1-4-17
Emulsified Asphalt Coatings 8-29-28
Material 1-4-18
Woven Cotton Fabrics 8-29-28
Shape - Class I and Class II 1-4-23
DAPPING OR SIZING TIMBER BRIDGE TIES 7-1-17
Wood, Recommended Practice for Design 7-2-39
DATA 33-1-3
CURING 8-1-48, 8-1-58, 8-17-50
DATA BASE, PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 16-9-15
Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-51
DATA COLLECTION 11-2-6, 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag
Attitude Surveys 11-2-6, 12-2-8, 17-2-3
8-1-51 Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1
Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-51
Demographic Data 11-2-6, 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Hot Weather 8-1-47
Environmental Data 11-2-7, 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Membrane 8-1-47, 8-1-58
General 11-2-6, 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Of Concrete Slab Track 8-27-11
Geographical and Physical Data 11-2-7, 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Steam 8-1-48
Population and Ecomonic Data 11-2-7, 12-2-9, 17-2-3
Wet 8-1-47
Transportation Demand Data 11-2-7, 12-2-10, 17-2-3
CURRENT COLLECTION AND PRIMARY POWER SYSTEM 17-5-10
Zoning Data 11-2-7, 12-2-8, 17-2-3
CURRENT PRACTICE, WAYSIDE/STANDBY POWER SYSTEMS
DATA SYSTEM, DIESEL REPAIR FACILITIES 6-4-36
33-9-1 DAVIS FORMULA 16-2-4
CURVED GIRDER BRIDGES 12-4-88
DEAD LOAD 7-2-7, 8-16-9, 8-19-4, 15-1-16
CURVES 5-3-1
For Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-3-3
Compensated gradients 5-3-16
DEAD LOAD OR DEFLECTION ADJUSTMENT, PROVISION FOR
Computing Offsets on Loads 28-3-18
FUTURE 8-26-38

Index
DEAD LOADS 8-26-13 DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS TRACK GEOMETRY PARAMETERS AND

DECK 15-4-8 RELATED ELEMENTS USED TO DESCRIBE TRACK
DEFECT DETECTOR SYSTEMS, ECONOMICS AND LOCATION GEOMETRY (CONT)
16-5-1 Track Geometry in the Longitudinal Plane 2-1-5
Alert Train Crews or Dispatchers 16-5-9 Track Geometry in the Track Plane 2-1-7
Rolling Stock Detectors 16-5-9 Track Geometry in the Transverse Vertical Plane 2-1-6
Wayside Condition Detectors 16-5-10 DEFLECTION 15-1-12, 15-9-8, 8-17-17
Design Considerations for Defect Detectors 16-5-8 Computation of 8-2-34
General Information 16-5-8 Continuous and Cantilever Steel Structures 15-1-69
Rail Mounted Detector Equipment 16-5-9 Control of 8-2-65
Design Criteria Cross Reference 16-5-9 Permanent Set 7-2-20
Economics of Detectors 16-5-11 DEFORMED WIRE FABRIC 8-2-28
Costs Eliminated or Reduced 16-5-13 DEGREE OF CONTROL, VEGETATION CONTROL 1-9-4
General 16-5-11 DELIVERY 5-6-15, 27-2-39
Initial and Annual Costs Incurred 16-5-12 of Materials 15-4-3
Integration of Defect Detector Systems 16-5-11 Of Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-28
Introduction 16-5-2 Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-6
Location of Defect Detectors 16-5-5 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA 11-2-6, 12-2-8, 17-2-3
General Criteria 16-5-5 DEPRECIATION ACCOUNTING 16-12-23
Rolling Stock Detectors Site Considerations 16-5-6 DEPRECIATION GROUPINGS 16-14-2
Wayside Condition Detectors Site Considerations 16-5-7 Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS) 16-14-3
References in 2002 AREMA Communications & Signals Class Life Asset Depreciation Range System (ADR) 16-14-3
Manual of Recommended Practice, Volume 2, Part 5 Defect Class Life System 16-14-3
Detection Systems 16-5-14 Guideline Depreciation 16-14-3
Summary 16-5-14 Original 1942 Submission 16-14-2
Types of Defect Detector Systems 16-5-2 Section 94 (Technical Correction as of 1956) 16-14-2
Rolling Stock Detectors 16-5-2 Tax Reform Act of 1986 16-14-4
Wayside Condition Detectors 16-5-4 DEPRESSED FLOOR - RAISED RAIL 6-4-20
DEFECT DETECTOR SYSTEMS, INTEGRATION OF 16-5-11
DEFECT DETECTOR SYSTEMS, LOCATION OF 16-5-5
DEPTH
of Base of Footings 8-3-7
1
DEFECT DETECTORS, DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR 16-5-8 of Borings 8-22-4
DEFECT DETECTORS, TYPES OF 16-5-2 of Embedment 8-20-11
DEFECT FOUND AFTER DELIVERY 4-3-31 DEPTH OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE CATENARY 33-2-9
DEFECTIVE MATERIALS, CONCRETE 8-1-7 DESCRIPTION
DEFECTS Cellular Confinement System Specifications for Railroad Use
Found After Delivery 4-3-31 1-10-24
DEFICIENT BRIDGE CONDITION 10-1-9 Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90
DEFINITION, CONTINUOUS AND CANTILEVER STEEL of a Generic Track Geometry Measuring Vehicle (TGMV) 2-1-9
3
STRUCTURES 15-1-69 of the Measured Geometry Parameters 2-1-19
DEFINITION OF VERTICAL TRACK STIFFNESS 30-1-12 of the Priority Defect Report 2-1-19
DEFINITIONS 15-9-32, 33-3-2 of a Strip Chart 2-1-12
Concrete Slab Track 8-27-5 Substructure Introduction 1-2-4
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-3 DESIGN 1-1-12, 1-2-5, 1-2-20, 1-4-84, 5-6-14, 5-7-2, 15-1-1,
Equated Mileage Parameters 16-11-2 15-10-1, 33-7-12, 33-7-18, 33-7-24
Guidelines for the Development of Bridge Management Analysis, Rail Support 16-10-9
Programs 10-1-1 Anchor Bolts and Rods 15-10-12 4
Highway/Railway Grade Crossings 5-8-2 of Anchored Bulkheads 8-20-11
Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) During Maintenance of Roadway of Anchored Sheet Pile Walls 8-28-6
Machines 27-2-56 of Anchored Soldier Beam with Lagging Walls 8-28-8
Rail Measuring Systems 2-2-2 and Construction, Details of, Retaining Walls and Abutments
Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility 8-5-8
Guideline for New On-Track Machinery 27-2-61 Appendix 15-1-68
Sizing of Footings 8-3-7 Reactions 15-1-68
Spread Footing Foundations 8-3-2 Supplemental Formulas 15-1-70
and Terminology, Methods of Controlling Drifting Snow 1-6-21 Assumptions 8-17-18
of Terms 15-1-6, 15-4-2 of Backfill 8-5-7
Track Structure Assessment Measuring Systems 2-3-1 Basic Allowable Stresses 15-1-36
Types of Audit 6-5-6 Cast Steel 15-1-40
DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS TRACK GEOMETRY PARAMETERS AND Masonry 15-1-40
RELATED ELEMENTS USED TO DESCRIBE TRACK Structural Steel, Rivets, Bolts and Pins 15-1-36
GEOMETRY 2-1-3 Timber Bridge Ties 15-1-40
Introduction 2-1-3 Weld Metal 15-1-39
Related Track Geometry Terminology 2-1-9 Bearing Selection Criteria 15-10-6
Track Geometry in the Horizontal Plane 2-1-3 of Braced Excavations 8-28-10

Index
DESIGN (CONT) DESIGN (CONT)

Bracing 15-1-66 Hydraulic Repair 6-9-7
Bracing Members Used As Ties or Struts Only 15-1-68 Machine Shop 6-9-7
Bracing of Top Flanges of Through Girders 15-1-66 Motor Car Repair 6-9-6
Bracing of Viaduct Towers and Bents 15-1-68 Paint Shop 6-9-5
Cross Frames and Diaphragms for Deck Spans 15-1-67 Shop Equipment Repair and Maintenance 6-9-6
Lateral Bracing 15-1-66 Steel Fabrication, Welding and Sheet Metal Shop 6-9-8
Portal and Sway Bracing 15-1-67 Test Bay 6-9-8
Bronze or Copper-Alloy Plates 15-10-8 Wash Bay 6-9-8
Cantilever Poles 8-12-3 Support Areas 6-9-9
of Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls 8-28-5 First Aid Room 6-9-11
of Cantilever Soldier Beam with Lagging Walls 8-28-7 Flammable Storage 6-9-11
Cast Steel 15-10-7 Lunch and Locker Rooms 6-9-10
Central Guide Keys and Guide Bars 15-10-13 Materials Management Area 6-9-10
of Cofferdams 8-28-10 Office 6-9-9
Considerations Special Requirements 6-9-9
Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Toilet Facilities 6-9-10
Equipment Repair Shops 6-9-3 Tool Room 6-9-10
Considerations for Future Expansion, Track and Roadway Typical Facility Arrangements 6-9-11
12-3-34 Criteria for Corrugated Metal Pipes 1-4-56
Continuous and Cantilever Steel Structures 15-1-69 Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-1
Basic Design Assumptions 15-1-69 Equipment 6-11-2
Bracing 15-1-70 Auxiliary Functions 6-11-3
Camber 15-1-70 Control Consoles 6-11-2
Cover Plates 15-1-71 Overview Displays 6-11-3
Definition 15-1-69 Functional Requirements 6-11-4
Deflection 15-1-69 Dispatcher Location 6-11-4
Impact Load 15-1-70 Locker Facilities 6-11-4
Longitudinal Stiffeners 15-1-70 Lunch Room 6-11-4
Splices in Flexural Members 15-1-72 Relay Racks and Computer Equipment 6-11-4
Uplift 15-1-70 Service Spaces 6-11-4
of Crib Walls 8-6-2 Smoking Area 6-11-4
Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility 6-12-1 Supervisory Offices 6-11-4
Introduction 6-12-2 Room Finishes 6-11-6
Location 6-12-2 Computer and Technician’s Room 6-11-6
Operations 6-12-2 Console Room 6-11-6
Scope and Purpose 6-12-2 Offices 6-11-6
Washing Facility 6-12-3 UPS and Battery Room 6-11-6
Drip/Clean-up Area 6-12-5 Site Considerations 6-11-2
Service Equipment (Support Area) 6-12-6 Support Systems 6-11-4
Typical Facility Arrangement 6-12-3 Communications 6-11-5
Washer Building 6-12-5 Fire Protection 6-11-5
Washing System 6-12-3 HVAC Systems 6-11-5
Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Repair Lighting 6-11-4
Shops 6-9-1 Uninterruptible Power Supply 6-11-5
Introduction 6-9-2 Wiring Spaces 6-11-5
Design Considerations 6-9-3 Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-1
Location 6-9-3 Blue Signal/Flag Protection 6-4-37
Organization 6-9-3 Building Arrangement 6-4-13
Scope and Purpose 6-9-2 General 6-4-13
Machine and Material Handling 6-9-9 Building Superstructure Details 6-4-19
General 6-9-9 Doors 6-4-31
Machine Maintenance Area 6-9-4 Floors 6-4-19
Machines Area Walls and Roof 6-4-19
Large 6-9-4 Communications and Data 6-4-35
Medium 6-9-4 Data System 6-4-36
Small 6-9-4 General 6-4-22
Other Workshop Areas 6-9-5 Internal Communicaiton System 6-4-36
Carpentry Shop 6-9-6 Television System 6-4-36
Electrical Machine Repair Area 6-9-7 Electric Lighting and Power Supply 6-4-21
Electronic Equipment Room 6-9-8 General 6-4-21
Engine Rebuild Area 6-9-6 Equipment and Related Facilities 6-4-14
General 6-9-5 Depressed Floor - Raised Rail 6-4-20

Index

Drop Tables 6-4-15 General Construction Materials 6-10-3
Elevated Platforms 6-4-14 Mechanical and Electrical Facilities and Equipment
Jacking Operation 6-4-15 6-10-4
Locker and Toilet Facilities 6-4-16 Types 6-10-2
Locomotive Progression Systems 6-4-15 General 6-10-2
Material Handling Platform 6-4-16 Criteria for Railway Materials Management Facilities 6-7-1
Office 6-4-16 Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-1
Other Facilities 6-4-25 Electrical Equipment 6-2-16
Pits 6-4-14 Electrical Considerations 6-2-16
Store Room 6-4-16 Lighting 6-2-16
Truck and Traction Motor Repair and Overhaul 6-4-23 Finish Materials 6-2-12
of Falsework Systems 8-28-14 Colors 6-2-13
Fire Protection 6-4-23 Exterior Materials 6-2-12
Foreword 6-4-3 Floor Coverings and Finishes 6-2-12
Classification 6-4-3 Furniture 6-2-14
Definition 6-4-3 Sound Control 6-2-14
Scope 6-4-3 Wall and Ceiling Finishes 6-2-12
Heating and Ventilating 6-4-20 Fire and Life Safety 6-2-17
General 6-4-20 Fire Protection 6-2-17
Heating 6-4-21 Life Safety 6-2-17
Ventilating 6-4-20 Functional Requirements 6-2-4
Pollution 6-4-22 Employee Circulation Considerations 6-2-5
Air 6-4-22 General Considerations 6-2-4
Noise 6-4-22 Special Equipment Considerations 6-2-5
Water 6-4-22 Work Sequence Considerations 6-2-4
Service Facilities 6-4-17 Mechanical Considerations 6-2-15
Battery Charging 6-4-30 Elevators 6-2-16
Compressed Air 6-4-18
Compressor Oil 6-4-26
Energy Efficiency 6-2-16
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning 6-2-15
1
Electrical Cleaning Solvent 6-4-19 Plumbing 6-2-16
Electrical Welding 6-4-29 Site Considerations 6-2-3
General Washing System 6-4-18 Code Requirements 6-2-3
Locomotive Devicing 6-4-19 Expansion 6-2-3
Locomotive Toilet Servicing 6-4-19 Landscaping 6-2-3
Locomotive Washing 6-4-18 Location 6-2-3
Lubricating Oil Parking 6-2-3
Drainage/Recovery 6-4-26 Spacial Requirements 6-2-6
3
Supply 6-4-17 Conference Room 6-2-9
Parts Cleaner 6-4-29 File Space 6-2-7
Radiator Water Reclaim System 6-4-18 General Considerations 6-2-6
Services Required 6-4-25 Office Space 6-2-7
Traction Motor Oil 6-4-26 Space Required for Aisles 6-2-8
Used Oil Filters 6-4-17 Special Room Allowance 6-2-8
Water Supply Systems (Service and Treated) 6-4-27 Storage Spaces 6-2-8
Welding Gases 6-4-29 Structural Requirements 6-2-10 4
Site Considerations 6-4-15 Floor Systems 6-2-10
Storage Tanks 6-4-37 Framing Systems 6-2-10
Track Drip Collection 6-4-38 Partitions 6-2-11
Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-1 Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-1
Introduction 6-16-2 Electrical Systems 6-8-18
Services Provided 6-16-4 Communications Support 6-8-20
Site 6-16-2 Lighting 6-8-18
Types of Main Line Fueling Activities 6-16-3 Power 6-8-19
Criteria for Observation Towers 6-10-1 Train Information Systems 6-8-19
Introduction 6-10-2 Functional Requirements 6-8-7
Site Considerations 6-10-2 Combination Freight and Passenger Stations 6-8-14
Special Features 6-10-5 Commuter Stations 6-8-12
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) 6-10-5 General Considerations 6-8-7
Tower Furnishings 6-10-6 Intercity Passenger Stations 6-8-7
Tower Roof Overhang 6-10-5 Intermodal Stations 6-8-14
Tower Size 6-10-5 Introduction 6-8-3
Towers 6-10-6 General 6-8-3
Tower Construction 6-10-3 Types of Stations 6-8-3

Index

Mechanical Systems 6-8-17 Fracture Control Plan for Fracture Critical Members
Escalators/Elevators 6-8-19 Fatigue 15-1-67
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning 6-8-17 General Features, Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-4
Plumbing 6-8-17 General Requirements 15-1-7, 15-10-5
Site 6-8-4 Camber 15-1-14
Selection 6-8-4 Clearances 15-1-12
Station Development 6-8-4 Deflection 15-1-11
Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-1 Dimensions for Calculations of Stresses 15-1-13
Building Codes 6-3-4 Materials 15-1-7
General 6-3-4 Nameplates 15-1-14
Environment Control 6-3-11 Open Deck Bridge Ties 15-1-14
Finish 6-3-8 Provision for Expansion 15-1-14
Exterior 6-3-8 Skew Bridges 15-1-14
Interior 6-3-8 Spacing of Trusses, Girders, and Stringers 15-1-11
General 6-3-3 Steel Inner Guard Rails and Guard Timbers 15-1-14
Advantages 6-3-3 Types of Bridges 15-1-11
Mechanical 6-3-9 Welding 15-1-10
Bins 6-3-11 General Rules 15-1-42
Car Moving Equipment 6-3-11 Accessibility of Parts 15-1-42
Hoists 6-3-10 Combinations of Dissimilar Types of Connections 15-1-44
Hose Reels 6-3-10 Connections and Splices 15-1-43
Jacking Systems and Related Equipment 6-3-9 Connections of Components of Built-Up Members 15-1-45
Jib Cranes 6-3-10 Development of Fillers 15-1-44
Mechanical, Electrical and Specialized Equipment 6-3-7 Drainage of Pockets 15-1-42
Compressed Air 6-3-8 Eccentric Connections 15-1-43
Gutters and Downspouts 6-3-8 Effective Bearing Area of Rivets and Pins 15-1-42
Heating 6-3-7 Effective Diameter of Fasteners 15-1-42
Lighting and Power 6-3-8 Field Connections 15-1-44
Separation, Recovery or Disposal of Oil 6-3-8 Net Section 15-1-43
Sewers 6-3-8 Sealing 15-1-45
Ventilation 6-3-8 Slenderness Ratio 15-1-42
Miscellaneous Considerations 6-3-9 Thickness of Material 15-1-42
Doors 6-3-9 Welded Closed Box Members 15-1-45
Firewalls 6-3-9 of the General Zone 8-17-35
Walls 6-3-9 Inclined Bearings 15-10-12
Windows and Skylights 6-3-9 Lining Railway Tunnels 8-11-2
Site Considerations 6-3-3 Load, Forces and Stresses 15-1-16
Landscaping 6-3-4 Dead Load 15-1-16
Location 6-3-3 Distribution of Live Load 15-1-17
Parking 6-3-3 Bracing Between Compression Members 15-1-24
Trackage 6-3-4 Centrifugal Load 15-1-22
Space Requirements 6-3-5 Combined Stresses 15-1-35
Heavy Repairs 6-3-7 Earthquake Loads 15-1-36
Size 6-3-5 Fatigue 15-1-24
Special Areas 6-3-6 Impact Load 15-1-20
Structural Requirements 6-3-5 Lateral Loads from Equipment 15-1-23
Building Types 6-3-5 Longitudinal Load 15-1-24
Floors 6-3-5 Proportioning of Truss Web Members 15-1-36
Roofs 6-3-5 Secondary Stresses 15-1-36
Structural Systems 6-3-5 Stability Check 15-1-22
Summary 6-3-12 Wind Load on Loaded Bridge 15-1-23
Criteria for Structural Plate Pipes 1-4-65 Wind Load on Unloaded Bridge 15-1-23
of Track Cut Spike 5-2-5 Live Load 15-1-17
Definition of Terms 15-10-3 Loads and Forces 15-1-16
Direct Fixation 12-4-98 Loads
Elastomeric Bearings 15-10-8 of the Local Zone 8-17-43
Expansion Bearings 15-10-6 Concrete 8-2-11
Fixed Bearings 15-10-6 Masonry 15-10-8
Floor Members and Floorbeam Hangers 15-1-56 Materials 15-10-9
End Connections of Floor Members 15-1-57 Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension or Compression
End Floorbeams 15-1-56 15-1-46
Floorbeams and Floorbeam Hangers 15-1-57 Compression Members 15-1-46
Forms 8-1-21

Index

Effective Area for Tension Members - Fatigue 15-1-50, of Rail 4-1-1
15-9-29 Recommended Rail Sections 4-1-1
Effective Net Area for Tension Members - Strength 15-1-48, Reinforced Concrete 8-2-1
15-9-29 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-4
Lacing and Perforated Cover Plates for Tension and Riveted and Bolted Construction 15-1-57
Compression Members 15-1-48 Edge Distance of Fasteners 15-1-58
Outstanding Elements in Compression 15-1-47 Fasteners in Indirect Splices 15-1-59
Stay Plates 15-1-47 Grip of Rivets 15-1-57
Members Stressed Primarily in Bending 15-1-50 Minimum Spacing of Fasteners 15-1-58
Composite Steel and Concrete Spans 15-1-56 Pitch and Gage of Fasteners 15-1-57
Flange Sections 15-1-51 Sizes of Fasteners in Angles 15-1-58
Flange Splices 15-1-53 Roadway Signs 1-7-4
Flange-To-Web Connection of Plate Girders 15-1-52 Rocker Plates, Rockers and Rollers 15-10-10
Proportioning Girders and Beams 15-1-50 Scope 15-10-8
Rigid Frame Structures 15-1-60 Segmental Girder Guideways 12-4-97
Stiffeners at Points of Bearing 15-1-53 Shoes and Pedestals 15-10-10
Thickness of Web Plates 15-1-51 of Shoring Systems 8-28-5
Web Plate Stiffeners (Intermediate Transverse and Sole, Base and Masonry Plates 15-10-11
Longitudinal) 15-1-54 Specifications for Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-15
Web Splices 15-1-53 Specifications for Tunnel Construction 1-8-2
Method Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-5
Culverts 1-4-29 of Tie Plates for Use with Area Rail Sections 5-1-7
Methods Ties for Grade Crossing Panels 30-4-53
Reinforced Concrete 8-2-5 Timber 15-10-8
Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-9-56, 15-10-30 Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) 7-2-11
Of Concrete Slab Tracks 8-27-8 Welded Construction 15-1-59
Of Mechanically Stabilized Embankments 8-7-2 Fillet Welds 15-1-60
Special Considerations 8-7-2
Of Waterfront Facilities 14-4-5
Fracture Critical Members 15-1-60
Material Weldability 15-1-60
1
Pile Foundations 8-4-2 Prohibited Types of Joints and Welds 15-1-59
Pins and Pin-Connected Members 15-1-62 Transition of Thickness or Widths in Welded Butt Joints
Forked Ends of Compression Members 15-1-63 15-1-59
Pins 15-1-62 Welded Attachments 15-1-60
Reinforcing Pates at Pin Holes 15-1-62 of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-2-1
Section at Pin Holes 15-1-62 of Yard Compressed Air Facilities for Train Air Brake Systems
Proposals and Drawings 15-1-6 6-17-10
Definition of Terms 15-1-6 Above Ground Oil Water Separator and Equipment Drainage
3
Design of Public Works Projects 15-1-7 6-17-19
Drawings to Govern 15-1-7 Acceptance Tests and Commissioning 6-17-23
Notice to Engineer 15-1-7 Air Compressors and Controllers 6-17-15
Patented Devices 15-1-7 Air Receiver Tanks 6-17-19
Permits 15-1-7 Coalescing Filters 6-17-18
Proposals 15-1-6 Compressed Air Facility Enclosures 6-17-11
Shop Drawings 15-1-6 General 6-17-10
PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-10-14 Pressurization Time Calculations 6-17-12 4
of Public Works Projects 7-2-3, 15-1-7 Refrigerated Air Dryers 6-17-17
Qualification Specifications for Elastic Fasteners on Timber Site Location of Yard Compressed Air Facilities 6-17-22
Cross Ties 5-9-1 Underground Compressed Air Connection and Isolation Pits
General Requirements 5-9-3 6-17-22
Fastener Profile 5-9-3 Valves and Accessories 6-17-20
Minimum Acceptance 5-9-3 Yard Air Distribution Lines 6-17-19
Qualification Test Facility 5-9-3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS, TO RESIST SCOUR 8-5-9
Submittals 5-9-3 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES 33-2-4
Introduction 5-9-2 Third-rail Arrangements 33-2-3
Terms 5-9-2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX
Laboratory Qualifying Tests 5-9-3 CULVERTS 8-16-1
Longitudinal Rail Restraint 5-9-5 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX
Repeated Load Test 5-9-6 CULVERTS METRIC
Rotational Restraint 5-9-8 Backfill 8-16-14
Sampling 5-9-3 Backfill and Bedding Materials 8-16-5
Test Configuration 5-9-3 Barrel and Apron 8-16-12
Test Sequence 5-9-4 Concrete 8-16-5
Uplift Test 5-9-4 Dead Load 8-16-7

Index
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX DESIGN-GENERAL

CULVERTS METRIC (CONT) Design, Construction or Reconstruction of Highway/Railway
Definition 8-16-2 At-Grade Crossings 5-8-3
Design Considerations 8-16-6 DESIGN LOADS 8-16-7, 8-17-4
Design to Accomodate Flow 8-16-6 Falsework Systems 8-28-15
Drainage and Waterproofing 8-16-14 Road Crossing Foundations 1-1-75
Existing Embankment Materials 8-16-4 DESIGN METHODS 8-16-6
Existing Foundation Materials 8-16-4 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS,
General 8-16-7 TO RESIST SCOUR 8-5-9
Impact Load 8-16-12 DESIGN PROCEDURE, TO RESIST SCOUR 8-5-9
Longitudinal Reinforcement 8-16-14 DESIGN STRESSES, LOADINGS, AND DEFLECTIONS, FALSEWORK
Miscellaneous Materials 8-16-6 SYSTEMS 8-28-17
Miscellaneous Metal 8-16-5 DESIGN OF WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES AND TRESTLES
Other Forces 8-16-12 Loads, Forces and Stresses 7-2-7
Reinforcement 8-16-5 DESIGN OF WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES AND TRESTLES FOR
Scope 8-16-3 RAILWAY LOADING
Structural Design 8-16-6 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-20
Units 8-16-2 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) 7-2-11
Wingwalls 8-16-12 DESIGN THEORY AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 8-17-18
DESIGN AND REVIEW RESPONSIBILITIES 15-9-32 DESIGN VALUES FOR GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER (GLULAM)
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 16-1-8 7-2-11
Balanced Profiles 16-1-11 DESIGNATIONS AND QUALIFICATIONS OF RESPONSIBLE
Communications Facilities 16-1-13 PERSONS, BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS 10-1-8
Communications Facilities Required 16-1-9 DESIGNING BRIDGES TO RESIST SCOUR 8-5-9
Compensation for Curvature 16-1-11 Design Considerations 8-5-9
Customer Service 16-1-9 Design Philosophy and Concepts 8-5-9
Environmental, and Public Policy Concerns 16-1-13 Design Procedure 8-5-9
For Concrete Slab Track 8-27-23 DESIGNING FOR ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS 7-2-11
For Concrete Slab Tracks 8-27-8 Design Equations 7-2-17
For Defect Detectors 16-5-8 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) 7-2-11
Grade Through Tunnels 16-1-11 DETAILED GEOTECHNICAL EXPLORATION IN ROCK 1-1-6
Helper Districts 16-1-10 DETAILED GEOTECHNICAL EXPLORATION IN SOIL 1-1-4
Initial Construction 16-1-8 DETAILING PROVISIONS, SEISMIC DESIGN FOR RAILWAY
Momentum Grades and Locomotive Short-Time Ratings STRUCTURES 9-1-25
16-1-11 DETAILS OF DESIGN 8-16-12
Motive Power 16-1-9 Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-38
Passing Sidings 16-1-12 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR ABUTMENTS AND
Ruling Grades 16-1-10 RETAINING WALLS 8-5-11
Signal Design Concerns 16-1-12 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR BRIDGE PIERS
Terminal/System Operators 16-1-9 8-5-12
Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) 14-4-76 DETAILS OF INSPECTION, TIMBER STRUCTURES 7-5-2
Vehicle Considerations 11-5-1, 17-5-3 DETAILS OF PRESTRESSING TENDONS AND DUCTS 8-17-12
DESIGN CRITERIA 33-3-3 DETAILS OF TRACK CALCULATIONS 16-10-28
Corrugaged High Density Polyethylene Pipe, Structural Design DETAILS, CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT 8-2-17
Considerations of 1-4-78 DETECTOR EQUIPMENT, RAIL MOUNTED 16-5-9
Cross Reference, Defect Detector Systems 16-5-9 DETECTORS
Railway Buildings 6-1-13 Economics of 16-5-11
Electrical 6-1-14 Rolling Stock 16-5-4
Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning 6-1-14 Wayside Condition 16-5-4
Materials 6-1-13 DETERMINATION
Overall Considerations 6-1-13 of the Causes of Concrete Deterioration 8-14-3
Special Considerations 6-1-13 of Groundwater Level 8-22-6
Structural Considerations 6-1-13 of Wave Heights 1-3-34
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY OFFICE BUILDINGS DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CAPACITY OF STRUCTURES
Mechanical Considerations 1-3-27
Elevators 6-2-16 Electronic Tool to Establish the Cross Section Descriptions
Energy Efficiency 6-2-16 1-3-47
Plumbing 6-2-16 Flood Hazard Investigations in Coastal, Alluvial Fan, and
Spacial Requirements 6-2-6 Ice-Effected River Systems 1-3-40
DESIGN EQUATIONS, ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS 7-2-17 General 1-3-27
DESIGN FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERTED, WAYSIDE/STANDBY Glossary 1-3-48
POWER SYSTEMS 33-9-2 Hydraulic Analysis Techniques for Preliminary Assessment or
DESIGN FEATURES for Temporary Construction 1-3-27
Of Direct Fixation Fastening System 8-27-16 Hydraulic Analysis Using Detailed Techniques 1-3-30

Index
DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CAPACITY OF STRUCTURES DRAINAGE (CONT)

OTHER METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 1-3-46 Road Crossing Foundations 1-1-69
Prevention of Stream Erosion 1-3-48 Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-9
References for Section 3.3 1-3-47 DRAINAGE BASIN DATA, WATERWAY OPENINGS 1-3-6
Sensitivity Issues 1-3-44 DRAINS 8-11-6
DETERMINING REHABILITATION NEEDS 16 DRAWINGS 33-7-11, 33-7-17, 33-7-21
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH Information on 8-3-15
Bundled Bars 8-2-26 DRIFT OR TRAFFIC PINS 15-4-5
Deformed Bars in Compression 8-2-26 DRILLED SHAFT 8-24-4
Deformed Bars in Tension 8-2-25 DRILLED SHAFT FOUNDATIONS 8-24-1
Deformed Wire in Tension 8-2-25 Bells or Underreams 8-24-10
DEVELOPMENT OF FILLERS 15-1-44 Casing 8-24-10
DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSING STRAND 8-17-14 Concrete 8-24-9
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SITE, RAILWAY PASSENGER STATIONS Connection between Supported Structure and Drilled Shaft
6-8-4 8-24-7
DEVIATION SADDLES 8-26-37 Construction 8-24-9
DIAGRAMS Contractor Qualifications 8-24-9
Clearance, Fixed Obstructions 28-1-1 Design 8-24-5
Equipment 28-2-1 Design Loads 8-24-3
DIAMETER 27-1-6 Dewatering 8-24-10
DIAPHRAGMS 8-17-17 Field Survey 8-24-5
DIAPHRAGMS, DEEP BEAMS, CORBELS AND BRACKETS, SPECIAL General 8-24-2, 8-24-5
REQUIREMENTS 8-26-32 Group Action of Drilled Shafts 8-24-7
DIESEL LOCOMOTIVES 16-3-11 Information Required 8-24-5
DIMENSIONAL REQUIREMENTS, ENGINEERED COMPOSITE TIES Inspection 8-24-11
30-5-5 Material 8-24-9
DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE, BONDED INSULATION RAIL JOINTS Permanent Steel Casing Material 8-24-9
4-3-34 Placing Concrete 8-24-11
DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
for Structural Members 15-3-4
Placing Steel 8-24-11
Purpose and Necessity 8-24-2
1
DIMENSIONS Reinforcing Steel 8-24-9
for Calculations of Stresses 15-1-13 Scope 8-24-2
Rail Anchors 5-7-3 Shaft Excavation 8-24-9
Roadway Signs 1-7-4 Sockets 8-24-10
Steel Screw Spikes 5-10-4 Subsurface Investigation 8-24-5
DIRECT FIXATION 12-4-98 Temporary Casing Material 8-24-9
Design 12-4-98 Testing 8-24-12
Introduction 12-4-98 Capacity 8-24-12
3
DIRECT FIXATION FASTENING SYSTEM 8-27-14 Integrity 8-24-12
Design Features 8-27-16 Material 8-24-12
Laboratory Testing of Fasteners 8-27-17 Tolerances 8-24-10
DIRECT TRUCK LOADING 6-16-3 DRILLING 4-2-19
DISC BEARINGS 15-10-32 DRIP/CLEAN-UP AREA 6-12-5
DISCUSSION 33-5-3 DRIVEN PILES 8-4-14
DISPATCHER LOCATION 6-11-4 DRIVING
DISTRIBUTION Piles 7-4-5 4
of Flexural Reinforcement 8-2-64 Timber 7-4-7
of Live Load 15-1-17 DROP TABLES 6-4-15
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 33-4-5 DRY SAMPLE BORINGS 8-22-5, 8-22-8
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE STUDY DRY SAMPLES 8-22-6
33-6-18 DUCT
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM TYPE 33-12-10 Area 8-26-38
DIVISION OF SUBJECT 15-7-3 Confinement Reinforcement 8-26-40
DOCUMENTATION, OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS 8-1-10 Minimum Radius of Curvature 8-26-38
DOORS 6-3-9, 6-4-31 Size, Clearance and Detailing 8-26-39
DRAIN HOLES 15-6-46 Supports 8-26-39
DRAINAGE 1-1-25, 5-8-9, 8-3-14, 8-5-7, 8-16-14, 8-20-3, DUCT DETAILS 8-26-38
8-27-9, 11-3-6, 12-3-10, 17-3-4, 18-2-2 DUCTILITY LIMITS 8-17-28
Design for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-9 DUCTS, POST-TENSIONING 8-17-13
During Placing of Concrete 8-11-7 DYNAMIC BRAKING 16-3-13
and Erosion Control 1-1-62 DYNAMIC LOADING 16-10-9
Information Required 8-28-4 DYNAMOMETER OR TEST CARS, FIELD TESTING 16-2-19
of Pockets 15-1-42

Index
ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 33-1-3

ELECTRICAL EFFECTS 33-5-3
ELECTRICAL ENERGY UTILIZATION 33-i
E ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 6-2-16
ELECTRICAL MACHINE REPAIR AREA 6-9-7
ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL CLEARANCES, PROPULSION
EARTH SYSTEMS 11-6-4
Boring and Jacking Culvert Pipe through Fills 1-4-76 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES, CONCTRETE TIES 30-4-26
EARTHQUAKE ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS, PASSENGER RAIL
Forces 15-1-33 (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND
ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS 15-1-43 SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-11
ECCENTRICITY ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION TYPE 33-12-9
of Loads 8-4-3 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 27-2-31
ECONOMIC ACCEPTANCE 12-2-6, 17-2-3 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 14-6-13, 27-2-43
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS, RAILWAY LOCATION 16-1-2 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-18
ECONOMICS ELECTRICAL WELDING 6-4-29
of Detectors 16-5-11 ELECTRIFICATION FEEDING AND SECTIONALIZING
Energy Conservation and Audits 6-5-4 ARRANGEMENTS 33-4-16
of Plant, Equipment and Operations 16-i ELECTRIFICATION PARAMETERS 33-12-5
of Various Types of Culverts 1-4-8 ELECTRIFICATION AND SIGNAL SYSTEM INTERFACE ISSUES
ECONOMY, JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-2 33-5-4
EDGE DISTANCE OF FASTENERS 15-1-58 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS 33-12-7
EFFECTIVE BEARING AREA OF RIVETS AND PINS 15-1-42 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM LOAD 33-6-3
EFFECTIVE DIAMETER OF FASTENERS 15-1-42 General 33-6-3
EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH 8-17-16 Traction Power Demand 33-6-3
EFFECTIVENESS AND APPLICATIONS ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM SELECTION 33-6-15
Specifications for Snow Fences 1-6-24 Achieving Cost Effective Electrification System Design
EFFECTS ON ADJACENT LAND USES 17-7-3 33-6-17
EFFECTS ON REVENUE OPERATION AND CUSTOMERS 17-7-3 Electrification Voltage 33-6-16
EFFLUENT DISCHARGE LIMITS, WATER AND WASTEWATER Electromagnetic Interference 33-6-16
COMPLIANCE 13-3-10 Substation Spacing 33-6-16
ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS 8-17-40 System Configuration 33-6-15
ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS 15-10-17, 15-11-12 Utility Power Availability 33-6-16
Certification 15-11-16 Voltage Rise Along the Return System 33-6-17
Design 15-10-18 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS AND POWER SUPPLY 33-12-1
External Steel Load Plates 15-11-13 ELECTRIFICATION VOLTAGE 33-6-16
Installation 15-11-16 ELECTRIFICATION, OVERHEAD, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-8
Marking 15-11-14 ELECTRODES 5-5-26
Materials 15-10-18, 15-11-12 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE 33-6-16
Scope 15-10-17 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE AND COMPATIBILITY
Test Criteria 15-11-15 33-12-28
Tolerances 15-11-13 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT ROOM 6-9-8
ELASTOMERIC BRIDGE BEARINGS ELECTRONIC TOOL TO ESTABLISH THE CROSS SECTION
Acceptance Criteria 15-11-14 DESCRIPTIONS, HYDRAULIC CAPACITY OF STRUCTURES
ELECTRIC BRAKING 16-3-9 1-3-47
ELECTRIC LAMP CHARACTERISTICS 33-10-19 ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE DESIGN, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS
ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND POWER SUPPLY ENGINEERING 16-6-5
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-21 ELEMENTS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION PROGRAM 6-5-3
ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 16-3-4 ELEVATED CONSTRUCTION 33-12-28
ELECTRIC TRACTION 33-5-3 ELEVATED PLATFORMS 6-4-14
ELECTRIC TRACTION CHARACTERISTICS 12-2-19 ELEVATED STRUCTURES, ACCOUNT 7 16-12-7
ELECTRIC TRACTION POWER 17-6-16 ELEVATION OF CURVES 5-3-11
ELECTRIC TRACTION SYSTEMS CONSIDERATIONS 33-12-3 ELEVATIONS AND SPEEDS FOR CURVES 5-3-11
ELECTRICAL 6-1-14 ELEVATORS 6-2-16
Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-8 EMBANKMENT 1-3-60
Sanding Facilities 6-6-16 EMBANKMENT. SEE MECHANICALLY STABILIZED
ELECTRICAL APPARATUS CABINETS 27-2-43 EMBEDDED TRACK 12-8-1
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS 33-8-2 Appendix A - Commentary on Analysis of Lateral Acceleration
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-5 and Jerk Rate for Establishing Superelevation and Spiral
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RUNNING RAIL 33-12-22 Length 12-8-23
ELECTRICAL CLEANING SOLVENT 6-4-19 Embedded Track Alignment 12-8-4
ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES (AIR CLEARANCES) 33-2-3 Introduction 12-8-2
ELECTRICAL CONSIDERATIONS, ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT Rail12-8-8
6-2-16 Rail Fixation (Fastening) 12-8-22

Index
EMBEDDED TRACK (CONT) ENERGY CONSERVATION AND AUDITS (CONT)

Special Trackwork 12-8-22 Definition 6-5-6
Stations, Stops, Passenger Access & Safety 12-8-22 ENERGY CONSUMPTION 16-2-20
Support Structure 12-8-22 Analytical Procedure 16-2-20
Wheel Rail Interface 12-8-8 Other Freight Railway Procedures 16-2-22
EMBEDDED TRACK ALIGNMENT 12-8-4 ENERGY DISSIPATION 8-23-21
General 12-8-4 ENERGY EFFICIENCY 6-2-16
Horizontal Alignment 12-8-5 ENGINE 27-2-5
Vehicle Interface 12-8-4 ENGINE AND POWER TRAIN 27-2-26
Vertical Alignment 12-8-7 ENGINE REBUILD AREA 6-9-6
EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED TENDON 8-17-49 ENGINE SHOPS 12-4-31, 17-4-4
EMERGENCY INSPECTIONS 15-7-24 ENGINEERED COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-1
EMERGENCY OPERATION 15-6-15 or Open Deck Bridges 30-5-12
EMPLOYEE CIRCULATION CONSIDERATIONS, DESIGN CRITERIA Applicability 30-5-12
FOR RAILWAY OFFICE BUILDINGS 6-2-5 Design Validation Tests 30-5-15
EMPTY GONDOLA, HOPPER AND FLAT CARS 16-2-10 General 30-5-12
END BEARINGS General Requirements 30-5-13
Piles 8-4-5 Material 30-5-13
Splices 8-2-32 Production Quality Control of Alternate Material Open Deck
END CONNECTIONS Bridge Ties 30-5-18
of Floor Members 15-1-57 Structural Requirements 30-5-15
END FLOORBEAMS 15-1-56 ENGINEERED POLYMER COMPOSITE (EPC) TIES 30-5-8
END LIFTING DEVICES FOR SWING SPANS 15-6-108 ENGINEERED SAFETY PROVISIONS, LOCOMOTIVE SANDING
END SPLITTING CONTROL DEVICES FACILITIES 6-6-2
For Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-19 ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCT (EWP) TIES 30-5-10
END TIES 15-6-18 ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS, DESIGNING FOR 7-2-11
END TREATMENT 1-4-74 ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS, SPECIFICATIONS FOR 7-1-3
ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT 13-2-3 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS (TRENDS, DERAILMENT ANALYSIS,
ENERGY CONSERVATION AND AUDITS 6-5-1
Advances in Energy Cost Savings for Railway Buildings and
ETC.) 2-1-41, 2-2-17
ENGINEERING DESIGN, PLANNING AND SUPPORT 16-8-2
1
Shop Facilities 6-5-5 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS 4-3-32, 4-3-38
Boiler Optimization 6-5-5 ENVIRONMENT AND MAINTENANCE 14-4-54
Microcomputer Applications 6-5-5 ENVIRONMENTAL 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 13-i
Optimizing Electrical Demand 6-5-5 Air Quality Control 13-4-1
Small Scale Cogenerational Systems 6-5-5 Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1
Utility Monitoring and Reporting Operations 6-5-5 Environmental Review Considerations 13-2-1
Appendix A 6-5-14 Introduction 13-1-1
Appendix B 6-5-15 Waste Management 13-5-1
3
Audit Survey Instrumentation 6-5-8 Water and Wastewater Compliance 13-3-1
Boiler Test Kit 6-5-10 ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTANCE 12-2-6, 17-2-3
Measuring Electrical Systems 6-5-8 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 6-6-17, 11-3-4, 12-3-6,
Measuring Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning 15-8-35, 17-3-3, 33-6-22
(HVAC) 6-5-10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SPOT CAR
Measuring Railway Building and Facility Shop Losses 6-5-8 REPAIR SHOPS 6-3-11
Portable Electronic Thermometer 6-5-9 ENVIRONMENTAL DATA 11-2-7, 12-2-9, 17-2-3
Psychrometer 6-5-9 ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION AND RECORDS 18-1-6 4
Scope 6-5-8 ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
Surface Pyrometer 6-5-9 For Materials Management Facilities 6-7-5
Temperature Measuring Systems 6-5-9 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 6-16-8
Elements of Energy Conservation Program 6-5-3 ENVIRONMENTAL PROVISIONS, YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-3
General 6-5-3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 12-4-29, 17-4-4
Foreword 6-5-2 ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW CONSIDERATIONS 13-2-1
Introduction 6-5-2 Endangered Speciec Act 13-2-3
Justification of Program 6-5-12 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), Over view 13-2-1
Life-cycle Costing 6-5-12 National Historic Preservation Act 13-2-3
Organization of Railroad Energy Management Program 6-5-7 ENVIRONMENTAL, RIGHT OF WAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND
Auditor Qualifications 6-5-7 CONSIDERATIONS 17-3-4
Record Collection 6-5-7 EPDM (ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE-DIENE-MONOMERS) 8-29-14
Strategies and Economics 6-5-4 EPOXY 8-14-6
Economics 6-5-4 EQUALIZERS 15-6-46
Strategy 6-5-4 EQUATED MILEAGE PARAMETERS 16-11-1
Types of Audits 6-5-6 Examples 16-11-5
Categories 6-5-6 Introduction 16-11-2
Cost/Opportunities 6-5-6 Definition 16-11-2

Index
EQUATED MILEAGE PARAMETERS (CONT) ERECTION (CONT)

Purpose 16-11-2 General 15-4-2
Tables 16-11-3 Work to Be Done 15-4-3
Track Component, Track Geometry and Traffic Loading of Machinery 15-6-105
16-11-3 Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-11-21
Track Type and Track Components 16-11-3 Procedure 15-4-4
Traffic Loading 16-11-3 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-11-9
EQUIPMENT 27-1-19 Specifications for Right-of-way Fences 1-6-18
Concrete 8-1-7 of Trunnion Bearings and Counterweight Sheave Bearings
Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-2 15-6-106
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-14 of Wire Ropes 15-6-107
Diagrams 28-2-1 ERECTION LOADS 8-26-13
General 28-2-2 Reinforcement Details 8-26-42
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation 8-22-4 ESCALATORS/ELEVATORS 6-8-19
Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-6 ESTABLISHMENT OF LINES AND ELEVATIONS 15-4-4
Roadway Construction and Maintenance 16-10-20 ESTIMATING 16-9-12
Selection for Vegetation Control 1-9-10 ESTIMATING CONTRACTION SCOUR 1-3-31
Track Construction and Maintenance 16-10-19 ESTIMATING LOCAL PIER SCOUR 1-3-43
EQUIPMENT CAPABILITY REQUIREMENTS 17-2-4 ETS SYSTEM 33-12-25
EQUIPMENT DESIGN 33-6-23 EVALUATING LOCAL SCOUR AT ABUTMENTS 1-3-49
EQUIPMENT OPERATOR TRAINING EVALUATION
Methods 27-1-22 of Bridge 15-8-31
Program Requirements 27-1-23 of the Effects of Deterioration and Damage 8-14-4
Retraining and Recertification 27-1-24 Recommended Procedures for Operator Performing Ultrasonic
EQUIPMENT OPERATOR TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION 27-1-22 Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-69
EQUIPMENT, MISCELLANEOUS, ACCOUNT 58 16-12-21 of Results of a Vegetation Control Program 1-9-14
ERECTION 15-4-1, 15-6-105, 8-17-50 EVALUATION MEASUREMENTS AND TESTS 33-10-28
General EVALUATIVE TESTS FOR TIE SYSTEMS 30-2-1
Allowable Stresses During Erection 15-4-5 Ability to Resist 30-2-8
Bearings and Anchorage 15-4-4 Bending 30-2-3
Company Equipment 15-4-9 Fastener 30-2-11
Deck 15-4-8 Test 2: Rail/Plate Area Compression 30-2-7
Delivery of Materials 15-4-3 Test 6: Wear/Abrasion 30-2-17
Drawings or Special Provisions to Govern 15-4-3 Test 7: Fastener Electrical Impedance Test 30-2-19
Drift or Traffic Pins 15-4-5 Test 8: Single Tie Lateral Push 30-2-20
Erection Procedure 15-4-4 Tie Pad 30-2-10
Establishment of Lines and Elevations 15-4-4 Tie Performance Test Descriptions 30-2-3
Substructure Constructed by Company 15-4-4 EXAMINATION OF PERSONNEL
Substructure Constructed by Contractor 15-4-4 Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing
Falsework 15-4-5 Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-67
Field Assembly of Members 15-4-6 EXAMPLES OF RAILROAD-RELATED WASTE
Field Cleaning and Painting 15-4-8 Hazardous 13-5-7
Field Connections Using Pins 15-4-7 Universal 13-5-10
Field Inspection 15-4-7 EXAMPLES OF USED OIL FOUND ON RAIL FACILITIES 13-5-14
Field Welding 15-4-7 EXCAVATION 1-8-4
Fitting-Up of Field Connections 15-4-6 Treatment of Bottom 8-3-15
Handling and Storing Materials 15-4-4 EXCESS DIMENSION LOADS 28-3-10
High Strength Bolted Field Connections 15-4-7 Measuring, Field Handbook 28-3-48
Interference with Traffic 15-4-9 Reporting Measurements 28-3-49
Laws and Permits 15-4-10 EXCESSIVE LOADING 8-19-11
Misfits 15-4-7 EXCESSIVE LOADS, REPORT INFORMATION 28-3-11
Patents 15-4-10 EXECUTING A VEGETATION CONTROL PROGRAM 1-9-11
Plans 15-4-3 EXECUTION OF WORK 1-5-10, 1-5-21, 1-5-28
Steel Structure Fabricated by Contractor 15-4-3 EXHAUST SYSTEM 27-2-27
Steel Structure Supplied by Company 15-4-3 EXISTING BRIDGES 9-1-30, 15-7-1
Plant 15-4-3 General 15-7-2
Reinforcement of Members 15-4-5 Classification 15-7-2
Removal of Old Structure and Falsework, and Cleanup Division of Subject 15-7-3
15-4-8 Form of Presentation 15-7-4
Risk 15-4-9 Rating of Bridges 15-7-3
Riveted Field Connections 15-4-6 Rating of Equipment 15-7-3
Work Train Service 15-4-9 Inspection 15-7-22
Introduction Bridge Inspection Procedure 15-7-22
Definitions of Terms 15-4-2 Emergency Inspections 15-7-24

Index
EXISTING BRIDGES (CONT) FABRICATION (CONT)

General 15-7-22 Straightening Material 15-3-3
Inspection Sketches for Identification of Members 15-7-26 Surfaces of Bearing Plates and Pedestals 15-3-8
Periodic Inspections 15-7-23 Inspection 15-3-20
Conditions to Report 15-7-24 Facilities for Inspection 15-3-20
Special Inspections 15-7-24 High Strength Bolted Joints 15-3-20
Maintenance 15-7-28 Inspector Authority 15-3-20
General 15-7-28 Rejection 15-3-20
Maintenance of Structural Elements 15-7-28 Welded Work 15-3-20
Maintenance Painting 15-7-28 Riveted and Bolted Construction 15-3-9
Rating 15-7-13 Alignment of Finished Holes 15-3-15
Action to be Taken 15-7-21 Fitting for Shop Riveting or Bolting 15-3-15
General 15-7-13 High Strength Bolts, Nuts and Washers 15-3-10
Inspection 15-7-13 Installation of High Strength Bolts 15-3-10
Loads and Forces 15-7-14 Match Marking 15-3-15
Stresses 15-7-16 Preparation of Holes for Field Fasteners 15-3-13
Repair, Strengthening and Retrofitting 15-7-5 Preparation of Holes for Shop Fasteners 15-3-12
Floor Systems 15-7-10 Quantity of Field Fasteners 15-3-12
General 15-7-5 Reaming and Drilling
Other Structures 15-7-12 After Assembly 15-3-15
Plate Girders or Rolled Beams 15-7-8 Templates for 15-3-14
Trusses 15-7-10 Through Templates 15-3-14
EXPANSION 15-1-14, 6-2-3 Rivets and Riveting 15-3-9
and Contraction 8-17-14 Size and Workmanship of Holes 15-3-12
EXPANSION JOINTS 8-11-5 Testing and Documentation of ASTM A325 and A490
Rail 15-8-15 Bolts 15-3-15
EXPENDITURES, AUTHORITY FOR 16-12-23 Shipment and Pay Weight 15-3-21
EXPLANATION OF CONTENTS OF ICC ACCOUNT LISTINGS Advance Material 15-3-22
16-12-4
EXPLORATION AND TESTING 1-1-3
Marking, Packaging and Loading 15-3-21
Pay Weight 15-3-22
1
EXPLORATION METHODS 8-22-5 Shop Painting 15-3-19
EXTERIOR Machined Surfaces 15-3-19
Finishes 6-3-8 Structural Steel 15-3-19
Materials 6-2-12 Welded Construction 15-3-18
Flange-To-Web Welds of Flexural Members 15-3-19
General 15-3-18
F Preparation of Material for Welding 15-3-18
Tack Welds 15-3-19
3
Welder and Welding Operator Qualifications 15-3-19
FABRIC
FACILITIES
Membranes 8-29-14
for Inspection 15-3-20
FABRICATION 8-1-25, 7-2-43
for Testing 15-6-75
Culverts 1-4-10, 1-4-20, 1-4-26, 1-4-28, 1-4-83
Unloading and Loading 14-4-52
Materials - Reinforcing Steel 8-17-54
FACILITIES AND STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS 11-4-1, 12-4-1,
Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-11-17
17-4-1
PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-11-9
Bridges and Drainage Structures 11-4-14, 12-4-36, 17-4-4 4
Steel Structures 15-3-1
Crash Walls 11-4-15, 12-4-89, 17-4-4
General 15-3-3
Direct Fixation 12-4-98
Abutting Joints 15-3-8
General Information 11-4-2, 12-4-3, 17-4-3
Dimensional Tolerances for Structural Members 15-3-4
Multi-Modal Facilities 11-4-10, 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Facing Floorbeams, Stringers, and Girders 15-3-7
Passenger Facilities 11-4-3, 12-4-3, 17-4-3
Fit of Stiffeners 15-3-7
Segmental Girder Guideways 12-4-97
Fitting of Base and Cap Plates 15-3-8
Tunnels 11-4-15, 12-4-89, 17-4-4
Flame Cutting 15-3-3
Yards and Shops 11-4-10, 12-4-11, 17-4-4
Flexural Member Web Plates, Riveted and Bolted
FACILITY DESIGN FACTORS 14-4-20
Construction 15-3-7
FACILITY MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 11-7-3, 17-7-5
Lacing Bars 15-3-7
Cleaning 17-7-5
Material Orders and Shipping Statements 15-3-3
General 17-7-5
Notice of Beginning Work 15-3-3
Snow and Ice Removal 17-7-5
Piece Marking 15-3-9
FACILITY RESPONSE PLANS, WATER AND WASTEWATER
Pin Clearances 15-3-8
COMPLIANCE 13-3-9
Pins and Rollers 15-3-8
FACILITY SIZE 6-16-4
Planning Sheared Edges 15-3-7
FACILITY TYPES, TRANSLOADING FACILITIES (OTHER THAN
Quality of Workmanship 15-3-3
BULK) 14-4-77
Storage of Material 15-3-3

Index
FACILITY TYPES AND EQUIPMENT 14-4-15 FASTENER REQUIREMENTS 30-1-11

FACING FLOORBEAMS, STRINGERS, AND GIRDERS 15-3-7 General 30-1-9
FACTOR OF SAFETY 8-10-12, 27-1-13 FASTENERS 15-8-30
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN MAKING ELECTRIFICATION in Indirect Splices 15-1-59
ECONOMIC STUDIES 33-1-1 for Timber Trestles, Specifications 7-1-13
Annual Operating Expenses 33-1-6 Material 7-1-13
Fuel and Energy 33-1-7 Types of Fasteners 7-1-13
General 33-1-6 Types of Rail Fasteners for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-26
OCS/Third Rail Maintenance 33-1-7 FASTENINGS 30-1-9
Signal and Communications Maintenance 33-1-8 Fastener Requirements 30-1-11
Substations and Transmission Line Maintenance 33-1-8 Fastener Requirements - General 30-1-9
Taxes 33-1-8 General 30-1-9
Train Crew Wages 33-1-7 Introduction 30-1-9
Vehicle Maintenance 33-1-7 FASTENINGS AND OTM 18-2-4
Capital Equipment Costs 33-1-4 FATIGUE 15-1-24, 15-1-67, 15-6-18
Clearance Modification 33-1-6 Stress Limit for Reinforcement 8-2-64
Communications 33-1-6 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS 8-26-34
Miscellaneous Power 33-1-6 Bonded Nonprestressed Reinforcement 8-26-34
Motive Power Maintenance Facilities 33-1-4 Prestressed Reinforcement 8-26-34
Motive Power Units 33-1-4 FEDERAL INCOME TAX 16-14-2
Power Distribution Systems 33-1-5 FELT, MEMBRANES 8-29-14
Power Generating Facilities 33-1-5 FENCES 1-6-1
Power Transfer 33-1-5 Methods of Controlling Drifting Snow 1-6-21
Signal Modification 33-1-6 Definitions and Terminology 1-6-21
Substations 33-1-5 Justification and Scope 1-6-21
General References 1-6-21
Basic Procedure 33-1-2 Specifications for Clearing and Mowing Vegetation 1-6-23
Data 33-1-3 Specifications for Placement of Bungalows and Other
Electrical Distribution Systems 33-1-3 Structure 1-6-23
Objective 33-1-2 Specifications for Roadbed Geometry 1-6-22
System Operation 33-1-2 Temporary Control Measure 1-6-23
Intangible Benefits and Liabilities 33-1-9 Specification for Metal Fence Posts 1-6-10
General 33-1-9 Classes 1-6-10
Maintenance of Way Changes 33-1-8 Finish 1-6-10
General 33-1-8 Inspection 1-6-13
Traffic 33-1-3 Material 1-6-10
Freight Traffic 33-1-3 Special Fabrication for End, Corner, and Gate Posts 1-6-11
Passenger Trains 33-1-3 Special Fabrication for Line Posts 1-6-11
Traffic Projection 33-1-3 Weights and Shapes 1-6-11
Train Schedules 33-1-4 Workmanship 1-6-10
Train Size and Speed 33-1-3 Specifications for Concrete Fence Posts 1-6-6
FACTORS TO CONSIDER, MEASUREMENT FREQUENCY Manfacturer 1-6-7
PRACTICES FOR TRACK GEOMETRY MEASURING VEHICLES Materials 1-6-6
2-4-1 Proportioning and Mixing 1-6-7
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PREVENTIVE RAIL GRINDING Specifications for Right-of-way Fences 1-6-13
4-4-85 Erection 1-6-18
FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS 8-22-3 General 1-6-13
FALSEWORK 15-4-5 Material 1-6-17
FALSEWORK SYSTEMS Specifications for Snow Fences 1-6-24
Construction 8-28-19 Effectiveness and Applications 1-6-24
Design of 8-28-14 Structural Fences 1-6-24
Removing 8-28-19 Tree and Shrub Plantings 1-6-39
Review and Approval of 8-28-14 Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-4
Special Conditions 8-28-18 Delivery 1-6-6
FARE COLLECTION TECHNOLOGY 12-2-16, 17-2-5 Design 1-6-5
FASTENER 30-2-11 Inspection 1-6-6
Test 5A: Fastener Uplift 30-2-11 Manufacture 1-6-5
Test 5B: Fastener Longitudinal Restraint 30-2-13 Material 1-6-4
Test 5C: Fastener Repeated Load 30-2-14 Physical Requirements 1-6-4
Test 5D: Fastener Lateral Load Restraint 30-2-15 Preservative Treatment 1-6-6
Test 5E: Fastener Assembly Rotation 30-2-16 Stock Guards 1-6-20
FASTENER INSERTS General 1-6-20
Construction of Concrete Slab Track 8-27-11 FENCES, SNOWSHEDS, AND SIGNS, ACCOUNT 13 16-12-9
FASTENER PROFILE 5-9-3 FENDER FLEXIBILITY 8-23-22

Index
FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERS (FRP COMPOSITES) 8-14-6 FIRST AID ROOM 6-9-11
FIELD ASSEMBLY OF MEMBERS 15-4-6 FIT OF STIFFENERS 15-3-7
FIELD CALIBRATION OF TRACK SCALE TEST WEIGHT CARS 4-4 FITS AND SURFACE FINISHES 15-6-33
FIELD CLEANING AND PAINTING 15-4-8 FITTING FOR SHOP RIVETING OR BOLTING 15-3-15
FIELD CONDITIONS 8-3-14 FITTING OF BASE AND CAP PLATES 15-3-8
FIELD CONNECTIONS 15-1-44 FITTING-UP OF FIELD CONNECTIONS 15-4-6
Using Pins 15-4-7 FIXED FACILITIES 6-16-3
FIELD HANDBOOK, MEASURING EXCESS DIMENSION LOAD FIXED OBJECTS 11-3-5, 12-3-9, 17-3-3
28-3-48 FLAKING 4-4-62
FIELD INSPECTION FLAME CUTTING 15-3-3
and Acceptance of Prefabricated Corrugated Steel Pipe and FLAMMABLE AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Pipe-arches 1-4-16 In Materials Management Facilities 6-7-6
Erection of Steel Structures 15-4-7 FLAMMABLE MATERIAL
Vegetation Control 1-9-14 Storage 6-9-11
FIELD, RAIL FLAW IDENTIFICATION 4-4-3 FLANGE BEARING WHEELS 12-3-10
Scope 4-4-3 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT 8-17-45
FIELD SIDE GUARD OR SPACER TIMBERS 7-4-23 FLANGE SPLICES 15-1-53
FIELD SURVEYS FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS-BOX GIRDERS 8-17-16
Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads 8-20-3 FLANGE WIDTH 8-17-16
and Records 8-28-4 FLANGED SECTIONS 15-1-52, 8-17-27
Retaining Walls and Abutments 8-5-3 FLANGE-TO-WEB CONNECTION OF PLATE GIRDERS 15-1-53
Spread Footing Foundations 8-3-4 FLANGE-TO-WEB WELDS OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 15-3-19
FIELD TESTS 8-1-35 FLANGEWAY WIDTH AND DEPTH 5-8-11
FIELD WELDING 15-4-7 FLAT CLASSIFICATION YARDS DESIGN 14-2-25
FILE SPACE 6-2-7 FLAT YARD
FILLET WELDING 15-1-60 Design Factors 14-2-27
FILLING OF FORMS 8-11-6 FLEXIBILITY OF ANCHORAGE 8-20-13
FILLS 1-1-20 FLEXIBLE SHEET PILE BULKHEADS 8-20-1
FINAL CONDITION 8-25-6
FINAL PLANS AND WORK PREPARATION 25
Cantilever Bulkheads 8-20-15
Scope 8-20-15
1
FINISH 1-6-10, 4-3-18, 4-3-25, 4-3-30, 5-2-4, 5-10-3 Commentary 8-20-17, 8-21-20
Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-8 Computation of Lateral Forces Acting on Bulkheads 8-20-6
Formed Surface 8-1-48 Active Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge Loads 8-20-6
Materials 17-4-3 Active Earth Pressure Due to Unbalanced Water Pressure
Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-12 8-20-9
and Permissible Variation in Dimensions 5-1-4 Active Earth Pressure Due to Weight of Backfill 8-20-6
Rubbed 8-1-49 Passive Earth Pressure 8-20-9
Sidewalk 8-1-49 Reduction of Weight in Passive Wedge Due to Upward
3
Unformed Surface 8-1-49 Seepage 8-20-9
FINISHES, DECORATIVE 8-1-53 Design of Anchored Bulkheads 8-20-11
FINISHING 5-5-28 Allowable Stresses 8-20-15
FIRE Anchor Pull 8-20-13
Alarms Systems 7-4-19 Anchorages 8-20-13
Barriers 7-4-19 Connections 8-20-13
and Life Safety 6-2-17 Depth of Embedment 8-20-11
Prevention Flexibility of Anchorage 8-20-13 4
and Planning 14-1-6 Maximum Moment 8-20-11
in Yards 14-1-3 General 8-20-2
Protection 6-2-17 Scope 8-20-2
Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-5 Types 8-20-2
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-23 Information Required 8-20-3
Rolling Stock 14-1-5 Character of Backfill 8-20-3
in Yards 14-1-4 Drainage 8-20-3
Yards and Terminals 14-1-3 Field Surveys and Records 8-20-3
Types of 15-8-29 Loads 8-20-3
FIRE PROTECTION Soil Investigation 8-20-3
In Materials Management Facilities 6-7-6 Notations 8-20-16
FIRE-RETARDANT COATING FOR CREOSOTED WOOD Stability 8-20-10
Application Requirements and Instructions 7-1-21 Calculations 8-20-10
General Product Requirements 7-1-20 FLEXURAL MEMBERS
Recommendations for 7-1-19 Composite Concrete 8-2-35
Scope 7-1-19 Distribution of Reinforcement 8-2-19
Testing 7-1-22 Lateral Reinforcement 8-2-20
FIREWALLS 6-3-9 Maximum Reinforcement 8-2-49

Index
FLEXURAL MEMBERS (CONT) FRAME, WHEELS, AXLES, AND BEARINGS 27-2-19

Minimum Reinforcement 8-2-19 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION 8-17-15
Web Plates, Riveted and Bolted Construction 15-3-7 FRAMING
FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT Systems 6-2-10
Distribution 8-2-64 of Timber 7-4-4
FLEXURAL STRENGTH 8-17-26 FREIGHT
of Prestressed Monoblock Ties 30-4-19 Delivery and Transfer 14-3-1
of Two-Block Ties 30-4-22 FREIGHT OPERATIONS 11-3-5, 12-3-9, 17-3-3
FLEXURE 8-2-40, 8-2-49 FRIEGHT RAILWAY PROCEDURES, OTHER, ENERGY
FLEXURE REQUIREMENT, RAIL 30-1-8 CONSUMPTION 16-2-22
FLOATING EQUIPMENT, ACCOUNT 56 16-12-20 FREIGHT TERMINALS, SPECIALIZED 14-4-1
FLOOD HAZARD INVESTIGATIONS IN COASTAL, ALLUVIAL FAN, Automobile and Truck Loading/Unloading Facilities 14-4-31
AND ICE-EFFECTED RIVER SYSTEMS 1-3-40 Automobile Loading/Unloading 14-4-31
FLOORBEAMS AND FLOORBEAM HANGERS 15-1-57 Containerized Shipping 14-4-38
FLOORS 8-11-2, 6-3-5, 6-4-19 Military Vehicles 14-4-38
Coverings and Finishes 6-2-12 Security 14-4-39
Members and Floorbeam Hangers 15-1-56 Truck Chassis Loading/Unloading 14-4-37
Systems 15-7-10, 6-2-10 Bulk-fluids 14-4-49
FLOW CONDITIONS 1-4-30 Buildings 14-4-53
FLY ASH AS AN ADMIXTURE TO CONCRETE 8-1-53 Commodity Storage 14-4-53
FOOTINGS Environment and Maintenance 14-4-54
At Varying Levels 8-3-14 Introduction 14-4-49
Combined 8-3-15 Security 14-4-54
Depth of Base 8-3-7 Site Selection 14-4-50
On Non-Homogeneous Deposits 8-3-11 Terminal Configuration 14-4-55
On Soils with Cohesion and Friction 8-3-12 Unloading and Loading Facilities 14-4-52
Shallow Bulk-Solid 14-4-43
On Granular Material 8-3-8 Design of Bulk Granular Solids Terminals 14-4-45
On Saturated Clay 8-3-10 Grain Elevators 14-4-43
Sizing 8-3-7 Design of Intermodal Facilities 14-4-13
Stresses 8-3-14 Design Factors 14-4-20
Unsaturated Silts and Clays 8-3-11 Facility Types and Equipment 14-4-15
With Eccentric Loads 8-3-12 Introduction 14-4-13
FORCE ACCOUNT PROJECT ESTIMATES 16-7-4 Merchandise Terminal 14-4-59
FORCES, LOADS AND 8-19-4, 8-19-9 Produce Terminals 14-4-59
FOREWORD Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) 14-4-75
Anchorage of Decks and Rails on Steel Bridges 15-8-13 Waterfront 14-4-3
Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-4-18 General 14-4-3
Steel Structures, Miscellaneous 15-8-1 FREIGHT TRAFFIC 33-1-3
FORKED ENDS OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS 15-1-63 FREIGHT YARDS AND FREIGHT TERMINALS 14-2-1
FORM COATING AND RELEASE 8-1-24 Flat Classification Yards Design 14-2-25
FORM FACTOR 7-2-20 Design Factors 14-2-27
FORMS 8-1-23, 8-11-6 General 14-2-25
Program 16-9-5 Gradients 14-2-26
FORMULA, COMBINED CENTER OF GRAVITY 28-3-54 Hump Classification Yard Design 14-2-7
FOUNDATIONS Continuous Car Speed Control 14-2-12
Character of 8-5-4 General 14-2-7
Conditions 1-4-7 Hybrid Car Speed Control System 14-2-14
Drilled Shaft 8-24-1 Intermittent Car Speed Control 14-2-10
Investigations 8-22-2 Objective 14-2-14
Spread Footing 8-3-1 Introduction 14-2-3
FOUNDATIONS, PIERS AND ABUTMENTS 8-21-3, 8-21-23 General 14-2-3
FOUR-WHEEL CARS 16-2-10 Terminal Design Considerations for Run Through Trains
FRACTURE CRITICAL MEMBER 14-2-29
Scope 15-9-28 Characteristics of Run Through Trains 14-2-29
FRACTURE CRITICAL MEMBERS 15-1-60, 15-1-65 Design Features 14-2-31
Definitions 15-1-65 Design Objectives 14-2-30
Design and Review Responsibilities 15-1-65 Run Through Train Operation 14-2-30
Notch Toughness of Steel in Fracture Critical Members 15-1-65 Yard Facility Functions 14-2-30
Scope 15-1-65 Track Arrangement 14-2-4
Special Welding Requirements 15-1-65 General 14-2-4
FRACTURE TEST 5-7-3 Yard Components 14-2-4
FRAME AND SUSPENSION 27-2-25 Classification Yard 14-2-4
FRAME, WHEELS, AXLES AND BEARINGS 27-2-6 Departure Yard 14-2-5

Index
FREIGHT YARDS AND FREIGHT TERMINALS (CONT) GENERAL (CONT)

Local Yard 14-2-6 Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines 27-2-62
Miscellaneous Yard Tracks and Facilities 14-2-6 Aggregates 8-1-9
Receiving Yard 14-2-4 Allowances for Horizontal Movements, Passenger Cars 28-3-3
Repair Yard 14-2-6 Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation Saddles
Yard Design for Remote Control Locomotives (RCL) 14-2-33 8-26-34
Characteristics of Remote Control Locomotives 14-2-33 Annual Operating Expenses 33-1-6
General Yard Design or Redesign 14-2-34 Assembly and Installation of Pipe Culverts 1-4-70
Isolation of RCL Operations 14-2-35 ASTM Designations 8-29-8
Lighting 14-2-35 Authority for Expenditures 16-12-23
Walkways 14-2-35 Ballast 16-10-12
FREIGHT-TRAIN CARS, ACCOUNT 53 16-12-18 Bar Codes and their Application for Roadway Work Equipment
FREQUENCY OF MEASUREMENT, RAIL WEAR PARAMETERS 27-1-18
2-2-21 Applications 27-1-21
FREQUENCY OF TESTING 4-3-57 Bar Code Format 27-1-20
FRICTION Benefits of Bar Codes 27-1-18
Piles 8-4-5 Equipment 27-1-19
FRICTION MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS 4-4-79 Introduction 27-1-18
FROG SHOP 6-17-5 Manufacturers Requirements for Parts Books 27-1-21
FRP COMPOSITES 8-14-6 Bridge Construction and Maintenance 16-10-21
FUEL AND ENERGY 33-1-7 Bridges, New 9-1-17
FUEL OPERATED LIFT TRUCKS Building Arrangement 6-4-13
In Materials Management Facilities 6-7-6 Building Codes 6-3-4
FUEL STATIONS, ACCOUNT 19 16-12-10 Building Construction and Maintenance 16-10-22
FUEL TANK 27-2-7, 27-2-27 Building Systems 6-8-16
FUELING STATIONS 14-5-5 Cantilever Poles 8-12-2
FUNCTION 5-7-2 Capital Expenditure or Operating Expense 16-12-22
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS Cement 8-1-8
Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-4
Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-4
Cementitious Materials, Other 8-1-9
Clearances 17-3-3
1
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-7 Commentary, Pile Foundations 8-4-17
Passenger Facilities Commentary, Reinforced Concrete Design 8-2-65
Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and Communications 6-4-22
Servicing Facilities 6-13-3 Conclusions, Roofing Systems Descriptions and
System Design 33-6-20 Recommendations for Selection 6-14-29
Yards and Shops 12-4-26, 17-4-4 Concrete Admixtures 8-1-20
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR MATERIALS MANAGEMENT Concrete, Curing 8-1-48
FACILITIES 6-7-3 Considerations, Concrete Ties 30-4-4
3
FUNCTIONS, ORGANIZATION 16-8-2 Considerations, Ties 30-1-1
FURNITURE 6-2-14 Construction 1-1-33
Construction of Protection of Roadbed Across Reservoir Areas
1-3-34
G Construction, Waterproofing 8-29-20
Control 16-9-15
Corridor Evaluation 12-2-11, 17-2-4
GAGE 5-5-22, 11-3-15, 12-3-13, 17-3-4
Corridor Identification 12-2-10 4
GAGE LIMITS 17-7-4
Corridor Implementation 12-2-25
GAGE RESTRAINT MEASURING SYSTEMS (GRMS), DESCRIPTION
Corridor Implementation Considerations 17-2-5
OF 2-3-2 Corrugaged High Density Polyethylene Pipe, Specificaiton for
Background 2-3-2
1-4-28
Considerations for Performing Lateral Restraint Measurements
Crib Walls 8-6-2
2-3-3 Culvert Rehabilitation 1-4-78
Recommended Practice for Measurement Frequency of GRMS
Data Collection 11-2-6, 12-2-8, 17-2-3
Vehicles 2-3-13
Definitions, Spread Footing Foundations 8-3-2
System Quality Assurance 2-3-5
Depositing Concrete 8-1-38
Typical Maintenance Planning Use of Gage Restraint
Depositing Concrete Under Water 8-1-42
Measurement System Data 2-3-13
Depreciation Accounting 16-12-23
Typcial Uses of Data 2-3-11
Design 1-1-12
GAINS AND LOSSES 16-14-5
Design Considerations 17-5-3
GANTRY CRANE SYSTEMS, SANDING FACILITIES 6-6-8
Design Criteria, Vehicle Cosiderations 17-5-3
GAS TURBINE-ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 16-3-16
Design Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-2
GEAR TEETH 15-6-40
Design Criteria, Parallel Railways and Highways 5-8-12
GEARS AND PINIONS 15-6-102
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-3
GENERAL 1-1-3, 8-16-2, 15-7-2, 14-4-63, 27-1-1
Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-3
AC Electrification System Configuration 33-6-5

Index
GENERAL (CONT) GENERAL (CONT)

Design Loads, Segmental Bridges 8-26-12 High Strength Concrete 8-1-52, 8-1-59
Design of Crib Walls 8-6-2 Hump Classification Yard Design 14-2-7
Design of Yard Compressed Air Facilities for Train Air Brake Hydrologic Capacity of Waterway Openings 1-3-5
Systems 6-17-10 ICC Primary Accounts 16-12-5
Design, Cantilever Poles 8-12-3 Identification of Technology 12-2-13, 17-2-5
Design, Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-4 Illumination 33-10-2
Details of Design and Construction for Abutments and Retaining Illustrations, Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance,
Walls 8-5-11 Repair and Servicing Facilities 6-13-11
Details of Design, Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-38 Increasing Clearances in Existing Tunnels 1-8-7
Determination of Hydraulic Capacity of Structures 1-3-27 Inspection 15-7-21
Diesel-Electric Locomotives 16-3-11 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning 17-7-3
Earth Boring and Jacking Culvert Pipe Through Fills 1-4-76 Inspection Pits 14-5-6
Economics of Detectors 16-5-11 Inspection of Timber Structures 7-5-1
Electric Lighting and Power Supply 6-4-21 Insulation for Track Tools Standard Specifications 5-6-18
Electric Locomotives 16-3-4 Intangible Benefits and Liabilities 33-1-9
Electrical Requirements, Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Introduction 12-8-2, 15-4-2, 33-3-2
Maintenance, Repair and Servicing Facilities 6-13-11 Investment Tax Credit (ITC) 16-14-6
Electrification System Load 33-6-3 Joint Facilities 16-12-24
Elements of Energy Conservation Program 6-5-3 Legal Clearance Requirements 28-3-19
Equipment Diagrams 28-2-2 Lining Railway Tunnels 8-11-2
Estimating 16-9-12 Load Factors 8-26-17
Evaluation Measurements and Tests 33-10-28 Loads and Forces 8-19-4
Facility Maintenance Operations 17-7-5 Location of Parallel Railways and Highways 5-8-10
Factors to Consider in Making Electrification Economic Studies Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) During Maintenance of Roadway
33-1-2 Machines 27-2-56
Fastenings 30-1-9 Locomotive Facilities 14-5-2
Federal Income Tax 16-14-2 Locomotive Sanding Facilities 6-6-1
Fixed Obstructions 28-1-2 Machine and Material Handling 6-9-9
Flat Classification Yards Design 14-2-25 Maintenance 15-7-28
Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads 8-20-2 Maintenance Philosophy 17-7-3
Commentary 8-20-17 Maintenance of Way Changes 33-1-8
Flexural Strength, Segmental Bridges 8-26-24 Material, Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-3
Formed Surface Finish 8-1-51 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements 8-1-5
Forms 8-1-23 Means of Protecting Roadbed and Bridges from Washouts and
Forms, Railway Tunnel Lining 8-11-6 Floods 1-3-32
Freight Yards and Freight Terminals 14-2-3 Measurement and Payment 1-2-15
Functions, Organization 16-8-2 Method of Determining Rail Bond Sizes - Electric Traction
Gage 5-5-22 33-7-4
General Care and Maintenance of Maintenance-of-Way Methods of Analysis, Segmental Bridges 8-26-8
Equipment (Including Rail Gear Equipment) 27-1-4 Mixing, Concrete 8-1-37
General 27-1-4 Mortar and Grout 8-17-52
General Considerations, Vehicle Considerations 17-5-2 Multi-modal Interfaces 17-2-5
General Information Associated with Wire Rope as Used on Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-11-17
Roadway Work Equipment 27-1-6 National Transportation Agency of Canada System of Accounts
Abrasion Versus Flexibility 27-1-14 16-12-25
Cause of Failures 27-1-13 Natural Waterways 1-3-3
Classification of Wire Rope 27-1-9 Oil Pollution Prevention 13-3-7
Construction 27-1-7 Organization 16-8-6
Diameter 27-1-6 Other Cementitious Materials 8-1-9
Factor of Safety 27-1-13 Other Workshop Areas
General 27-1-6 Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way
Grades of Wire Rope 27-1-12 Equipment Repair Shops 6-9-5
Introduction 27-1-6 Passenger Facilities 17-4-3
Lubrication of Wire Rope 27-1-13 Passenger Train Yards 6-8-32, 14-6-8
References and Sources of Additional Information 27-1-15 Penetrating Water Repellent Treatment of Concrete Surfaces
Types of Strand Construction 27-1-8 8-1-50, 8-1-58
Wire Rope Connections 27-1-15 Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100
Wire Rope Lays 27-1-11 Physical and Mechanical Properties, Engineered Composite Ties
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation 8-22-3 30-5-4
Grading Rules for Hardwood Structural Timbers 7-1-3 Pile Foundations 8-4-2
Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons 8-17-11 Pile Types 8-4-9
Handling of Traffic 16-10-27 Planning, Corridor Planning Considerations 12-2-4, 17-2-3
Heating and Ventilating 6-4-20 Plans for Steel Screw Spikes 5-10-5

Index
GENERAL (CONT) GENERAL (CONT)

Plans for Track Tools 5-6-23 Specifications for Engineered Wood Products 7-1-3
Primers 8-29-13 Specifications for Metal Crib Walls 8-6-5
Production and Handling 1-2-13 Specifications for Prefabricated Corrugated Steel Pipe and
Property Asset Ledgers 16-12-25 Pipe-arches for Culverts and Storm Drains, and
Proportioning, Concrete 8-1-31 Underdrains 1-4-10
Proposals and General Requirements 15-6-5 Specifications for Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls 8-6-3
Propulsion System Maintenance Operations 17-7-5 Specifications for Right-of-way Fences 1-6-13
Provisional Post-Tensioning Ducts and Anchorages 8-26-37 Specifications for Timber Crib Walls 8-6-6
PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-11-9 Standard Specification for Corrugated Aluminum Alloy Pipe
Public-Private Partnerships 16-7-2 1-4-17
Rail Anchor Patterns Number of Rail Anchors to Resist Rail State Income Tax 16-14-5
Creepage 5-5-18 Station Environment 14-6-3
Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility Stock Guards 1-6-20
Guideline for New On-Track Machinery 27-2-61 Stores 6-17-2
Rating 15-7-13 Storm Water Discharges - Construction Activities 13-3-5
Rationale and Scope of Work, Vegetation Control 1-9-2 Storm Water Discharges - Industrial Activities 13-3-3
Recommended Clearance Specification to Provide for Overhead Strategies and Techniques, Industrial & Systems Engineering
Electrification 33-2-2 16-6-4
Recommended Colors for Painting Motor Cars, Roadway Structures Maintenance Operations 17-7-4
Machines, Work Equipment and Rail Guide Wheel Sub-ballast Specifications 1-2-19
Equipment 27-1-3 Suggested Method for Charting All Obstructions 28-3-9
General 27-1-3 Suggested Method, Presenting Published Clearances 28-3-8
Recommended Practice for Identifying and Locating Track System Design Criteria 11-3-2, 12-3-3, 17-3-3
Geometry Priority Defects Detected by a Track Geometry System Studies 33-6-18
Measuring Vehicle 2-1-11 Temperature Expansion for Laying Rails 5-5-18
Recommended Practices for Rail Anchor Application and Temporary Structures for Construction 8-28-2
Maintenance 5-7-5 Terminal Planning 14-6-2
Recommended Practices for Rail/Wheel Friction Control 4-4-77
Recommended Practices for Road Crossing Foundations 1-1-69
Terms, Pier Protection Systems 8-23-2
Third-rail Arrangements 33-2-3
1
Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in CWR Ties for Grade Crossing Panels 30-4-53
4-4-74 Ties for Turnouts 30-4-45
Records 8-22-8 Track Arrangement 14-2-4
Regional Transportation Interfaces, Interface with Other Track Construction and Maintenance 16-10-19
Transportation Modes 12-2-19 Track Maintenance Limits 17-7-3
Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-2 Track Maintenance Operations 17-7-4
Reinforced Concrete Design 8-2-5 Track and Roadway Considerations 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4
Reinforcement, Concrete 8-1-17 Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-8
3
Repair, Strengthening and Retrofitting 15-7-5 Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC
Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins 8-1-57 Electrification Systems 33-6-3
Requirements and Material, Segmental Bridges 8-26-4 Purpose 33-6-3
Requirements, Shear and Torsion 8-26-25 Scope 33-6-3
Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations 11-3-5, Training 16-8-8
12-3-9, 17-3-4 Transloading Facilities (Other Than Bulk) 14-4-75
Right of Way Maintenance 17-7-3 Unformed Surface Finish 8-1-52
Roadway Completion Reports 16-12-24 Unit of Property, Definition of 16-12-5 4
Roadway Construction and Maintenance 16-10-20 Unloading Pits 15-8-17
Rules for Rating Existing Concrete Bridges 8-19-2 Wastewater Pretreatment and Discharges 13-3-9
Rules for Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-3-2 Water Body and Wetlands Permits 13-3-11
Sales and Use Tax 16-14-7 Water, Concrete 8-1-17
Sampling and Testing 1-2-14 Waterfront 14-4-3
Segmental Bridges 8-26-4 Wayside Lubrication of Rail on Curves 5-5-25
Slurry Wall Construction 8-25-2 Welded Construction 15-3-18
Construction 8-25-10 Yards and Shops 12-4-11, 17-4-4
Design 8-25-3 GENERAL ANALYSIS
Special Considerations, Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-8 Prestressed Concrete 8-17-14
For Engineered Polymer Composite (EPC) Ties 30-5-8 GENERAL APPROACH 12-3-35
For Engineered Wood Product (EWP) Ties 30-5-10 Design Considerations for Future Expansion 12-3-34
Specification for Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-82 GENERAL CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY
Specification for Stud Terminal Copper Rail Bonds 33-7-8 EQUIPMENT (INCLUDING RAIL GEAR EQUIPMENT) 27-1-4
Specifications for Corrugated Structural Aluminum Alloy Plate GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A RAIL JOINT 4-3-4
Pipe, Pipe-arches, and Arches 1-4-26 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Specifications for Corrugated Structural Steel Plate Pipe, Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-4, 6-2-6
Pipe-arches, and Arches 1-4-24 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-7

Index
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS (CONT) GENERAL PLATFORM LAYOUT, LOCOMOTIVE SANDING

Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-2 FACILITIES 6-6-3
for Functional Requirements for Passenger Rail GENERAL PRACTICES, WATERPROOFING 8-29-12
(Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and Servicing Design 8-29-12
Facilities 6-13-3 Types 8-29-13
Main Line Fueling 14-5-8 GENERAL PRINCIPLES, WATERPROOFING 8-29-4
for Railway Building Design 6-1-10 Purpose 8-29-4
Special Requirements - Coach Shop 6-13-5 Scope 8-29-4
Special Requirements - Combined Coach Locomotive Shop GENERAL PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS
6-13-7 Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood 7-1-20
Temporary Structures, Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles GENERAL PROVISIONS
7-2-148 Specifications for Timber Piles 7-1-6
Ties 30-1-1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Fastenings 30-1-9 All Timber Piles 7-1-10
Influence of Cross Ties on Track Stiffness and Track Design, Steel Structures 15-1-7
Transitions 30-1-12 Elastic Fasteners 5-9-3
Introduction 30-1-3 and Materials 8-17-4
Lateral Loads 30-1-7 Design Loads 8-17-4
Load Environment 30-1-3 Scope 8-17-4
Longitudinal Load 30-1-8 Prestressed Concrete 8-17-4
Rail 30-1-8 Specifications for Pipelines Conveying Flammable Substances
Vertical Loads 30-1-4 1-5-3
Vehicle Considerations 11-5-1, 17-5-2 Specifications for Pipelines Conveying Non-Flammable
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS, OBSERVATION TOWERS Substances 1-5-22
6-10-3 Specifications for Uncased Gas Pipelines within the Railway
GENERAL CRITERIA, LOCATION OF DEFECT DETECTORS 16-5-5 Right-of-Way 1-5-10
GENERAL DEFINITIONS AND OBJECTIVES 17-6-2 GENERAL SCOPE, SPRING WASHERS 4-3-29
GENERAL DESCRIPTION, VEHCLE CONSIDERATIONS 17-5-4, GENERAL WASHING SYSTEM 6-4-18
17-5-9 GENERAL YARD DESIGN OR REDESIGN 14-2-34
GENERAL DESIGN, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 8-17-18 GENERAL ZONE, DEISIGN OF 8-17-35
GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY BUILDINGS 6-1-8 GENERAL ZONE AND LOCAL ZONE 8-17-35
GENERAL DETAILING, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 8-17-45 GENERALITIES, YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-1
GENERAL ENGINEERING 18-1-1 Air Rights 14-1-2
GENERAL FABRICATION 8-17-49 Automatic Car Identification (ACI) System 14-1-2
GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN Environmental Provisions 14-1-3
Steel Structures 15-8-3 Fire Prevention in Yards 14-1-3
Wood Railway Bridges 7-2-4 Building Fire Protection 14-1-4
GENERAL INFORMATION Fire Prevention and Planning 14-1-6
Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1, 17-2-3 Introduction 14-1-3
Environmental 11-2-1 Rolling Stock Fire Protection 14-1-5
Design Considerations for Defect Detectors 16-5-8 Summary 14-1-6
Environmental, Introduction 13-1-1 Joint Yards and Terminals 14-1-2
Facilities and Structural Considerations 11-4-2, 12-4-3, 17-4-3 Agreement 14-1-2
ADA Requirements 11-4-2 Analyses 14-1-2
Regulatory Requirements 11-4-2 Economy 14-1-2
Safety and Security 11-4-3 Security Requirements 14-1-3
Sustainability 11-4-2 Fire Protection 14-1-3
High Speed Rail Systems 17-1-1 GEOCOMPOSITE DRAINAGE SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS FOR
Introduction RAILROAD APPLICATIONS 1-10-18
Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems 11-1-1 GEOGRAPHIC AND PHYSICAL DATA 11-2-7, 12-2-10, 17-2-3
Rail Transit 12-1-2 GEOGRID SPECIFICATIONS FOR BALLAST AND SUB-BALLAST
Maintenance of Way Considerations 11-7-1, 17-7-3 REINFORCEMENT 1-10-28
Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Considerations Compliance, Inspection and Sampling Requirements 1-10-32
11-6-1, 17-6-1 Construction Details and Methods 1-10-33
Track and Roadway Considerations 11-3-2, 12-3-2, 17-3-3 Introduction 1-10-28
Use of Chapter 12 12-1-2 Material Requirements 1-10-30
Vehicle Considerations 11-5-1, 17-5-1 Measurement and Payment 1-10-33
GENERAL INFORMATION ASSOCIATED WITH WIRE ROPE AS USED Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-32
ON ROADWAY WORK EQUIPMENT 27-1-6 Separation Considerations 1-10-31
GENERAL AND INTRODUCTION GEOMETRY
Highway/Railway Grade Crossings 5-8-2 of Anchorage Zone 8-17-34
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 33-4-8 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATIONS 8-22-9
GENERAL OUTLINE, FIXED OBSTRUCTIONS 28-1-3

Index
GEOSYNTHETICS 1-10-1 GEOTECHNICAL SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION (CONT)

Cellular Confinement System Specifications for Railroad Use Exploration Methods 8-22-5
1-10-24 Core Borings in Rock 8-22-5
Compliance, Inspection and Sampling Requirements Dry Sample Borings 8-22-5
1-10-26 Test Pits 8-22-5
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-27 General 8-22-3
Description 1-10-24 Depth of Borings 8-22-4
Material Requirements 1-10-25 Equipment 8-22-4
Measurement and Payment 1-10-27 Number and Location of Borings 8-22-4
Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-26 Permits 8-22-4
Geocomposite Drainage System Specifications for Railroad Planning an Exploration Program 8-22-3
Applications 1-10-20 Introduction 8-22-2
Compliance, Inspection and Sampling Requirements Scope 8-22-2
1-10-21 Miscellaneous 8-22-9
Geotextile Overwrap 1-10-21 Backfilling Bore Holes 8-22-10
Introduction 1-10-20 Cleaning Site 8-22-10
Material Requirements 1-10-20 Geophysical Explorations 8-22-9
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-22 In-Situ Testing of Soil 8-22-10
Measurement and Payment 1-10-22 Records 8-22-7
Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-21 Core Borings 8-22-9
Geogrid Specifications for Ballast and Sub-Ballast Dry Sample Borings 8-22-8
Reinforcement 1-10-28 General 8-22-8
Compliance, Inspection and Sampling Requirements Scope 8-22-7
1-10-32 Sampling 8-22-6
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-33 Dry Samples 8-22-6
Introduction 1-10-28 Rock Cores 8-22-7
Material Requirements 1-10-30 GEOTEXTILE SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD TRACK
Measurement and Payment 1-10-33 SEPARATION/STABILIZATION APPLICATIONS 1-10-2
Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-32
Separation Considerations 1-10-31
GEOTEXTILE OVERWRAP 1-10-19
GEOTEXTILE SPECIFICATIONS
1
Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Track for Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-8
Separation/Stabilization Applications 1-10-2 for Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-13
Compliance, Inspection, and Sampling Requirements 1-10-8 GLOSSARY
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-8 Building and Support Facilities 6-G-1
Introduction 1-10-2 Clearances 28-G-1
Material Requirements 1-10-4 Concrete Structures and Foundations 8-G-1
Measurement and Payment 1-10-9 Electric Energy Utilization 33-G-1
Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-7 Hydraulic Capacity of Structures 1-3-48
3
Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Drainage Applications Roadway and Ballast 1-G-1
1-10-9 Rail 4-G-1
Compliance, Inspection, and Sampling Requirements Rail Transit 12-G-1
1-10-13 Seismic Design for Railway Structures 9-G-1
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-14 Steel Structures 15-G-1
Introduction 1-10-9 Ties 30-G-1
Material Requirements 1-10-10 Timber Structures 7-G-1
Measurement and Payment 1-10-14 Track 5-G-1 4
Packing and Identification Requirements 1-10-13 Track Measuring System 2-G-1
Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Erosion Control GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER
Applications 1-10-15 Design Values for Glulam 7-2-11
Compliance, Inspection and Sampling Requirements GLULAM
1-10-18 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber 7-2-11
Construction Details and Methods 1-10-18 Structural Glued Laminated Timber 7-1-3
Introduction 1-10-15 GOUND MOTION LEVELS 9-1-8
Material Requirements 1-10-15 GRADATIONS 1-2-12
Measurement and Payment 1-10-19 GRADE CLASSIFICATION 5-6-15
Packing nnd Identification Requirements 1-10-15 GRADE CROSSINGS (USA) 17-3-5
GEOTECHNICAL FABRIC GRADE RESISTANCE 16-2-8
Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-9 GRADES OF WIRE ROPE 27-1-12
GEOTECHNICAL STUDY 33-6-20 GRADIENTS
GEOTECHNICAL SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION 8-22-1 Flat Yard Design 14-2-26
Classification 8-22-2 GRADING
Failure Investigations 8-22-3 Account 3 16-12-5
Foudation Investigations 8-22-2 Drainage, Site Preparation 6-17-9
Determination of Groundwater Level 8-22-6 Rules for Hardwood Structural Timbers 7-1-3

Index
GRAIN ELEVATOR PITS AND SIMILAR UNDERGROUND HARDWOOD STRUCTURAL TIMBERS, GRADING RULES 7-1-3
STRUCTURES 8-29-7 HARMONIC DISTORTION AND SYSTEM RESONANCE STUDY
GRAIN ELEVATORS 14-4-43 33-6-19
GRAVITY OVERHEAD SYSTEMS, LOCOMOTIVE SANDING HARMONICS 33-12-23
FACILITIES 6-6-6 HAZARD DETECTION AND SURVEILLANCE 17-6-9
GRINDING CYCLES FOR PREVENTIVE GRINDING 4-4-90 HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS 13-4-12
GRINDING EQUIPMENT 5-10-9 HAZARDOUS WASTE 13-5-4
GRINDING FROGS, TRACK CROSSING AND SWITCH POINTS HEAD
5-10-10 Checking 4-4-60
GRINDING PRACTICE 5-10-9 HEADING, HEAT-TREATED CARBON STEEL TRACK BOLTS AND
GRINDING RAIL END SURFACE WELDS 5-10-10 CARBON-STEEL NUTS 4-3-25
GRINDING STOCK RAILS 5-10-10 HEADWALLS 1-4-68
GRINDING WELDED ENGINE BURNS AND THERMITE BUTT HEAT-TREATED CARBON STEEL TRACK BOLTS AND
WELDS 5-10-10 CARBON-STEEL NUTS, SPECIFICATION FOR 4-3-19
GRIP OF RIVETS 15-1-57 HEATING 6-3-7, 6-4-21
GROOVES IN JOURNALS AND LININGS 15-6-103 and Seizing 15-6-30
GROUNDING 11-3-22, 17-3-6 and Ventilating 6-4-20
GROUNDING/STRAY CURRENT 12-3-24 HEATING, VENTILATING, AND AIR CONDITIONING 6-1-14,
GROUNDING AND BONDING 33-12-21 6-2-15, 6-8-17
GROUNDING AND BONDING, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-5 HEAVY REPAIRS 6-3-7
GROUNDWATER LEVEL, DETERMINATION OF 8-22-6 HEIGHT AND CHARACTER OF EMBANKMENT 1-4-7
GROUT HIGH (PRIMARY) VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND
For Post-Tensioning Tendons 8-17-11 DISCONNECT SWITCHES 33-6-23
GUARANTEE 33-7-10 HIGH SPEED RAIL SYSTEMS 17-i
GUARD RAILS Corridor Planning Considerations 17-2-1
and Guard Timbers Facilities and Structural Considerations 17-4-1
Combined Use 7-4-23 Introduction 17-1-1
Use of 7-4-23 Maintenance of Way Considerations 17-7-1
GUIDANCE ON REHABILITATION OF TRACK AND ROADWAY Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Considerations
COMPONENTS 19 17-6-1
GUIDELINES, POST-SEISMIC EVENT OPERATION GUIDELINES Track Roadway Considerations 17-3-1
9-2-2 Vehicle Considerations 17-5-1
GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATING FIRE DAMAGED STEEL RAILWAY HIGH STRENGTH BOLTED FIELD CONNECTIONS 15-4-7
BRIDGES 15-8-28 HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS, NUTS AND WASHERS 15-3-10
GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION OR HIGH STRENGTH STEELS 15-8-30
RECONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAY/RAILWAY AT-GRADE HIGH VOLTAGE SUB-TRANSMISSION LINES 33-12-17
CROSSINGS 5-8-2 HIGH-SPEED PASSENGER TRAINS 16-2-10
GUIDELINES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRIDGE MANAGEMENT HIGHWAY
PROGRAMS 10-1-1 Bridges 8-2-6
Audits of Bridge Management Records 10-1-15 HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSINGS 18-2-4
Bridge Inspection Procedures 10-1-11 HIGHWAY REVENUE EQUIPMENT, ACCOUNT 55 16-12-19
Bridge Inspection Reports 10-1-13 HIGHWAY/RAILWAY GRADE CROSSINGS 5-8-1
Components of a Bridge Management Program 10-1-4 Crossing Surface Material Selection and Installation 5-8-11
Definitions 10-1-3 Crossing Surface Materials 5-8-11
Protection of Train Operations 10-1-9 Flangeway Width and Depth 5-8-11
Purpose 10-1-2 Width of Crossing 5-8-11
Repair and Modification of Bridges 10-1-15 General and Introduction 5-8-2
Review of Bridge Inspection Reports 10-1-14 Definitions 5-8-2
Scheduling of Bridge Inspections 10-1-11 Scope 5-8-2
Special Bridge Inspections 10-1-12 Guidelines for the Design, Construction or Reconstruction of
GUIDELINES FOR THE REHABILITATION OR MAINTENANCE OF Highway/Railway At-Grade Crossings 5-8-3
HIGHWAY/RAILWAY AT-GRADE CROSSINGS 5-8-7 Design-General 5-8-3
GUTTERS AND DOWNSPOUTS 6-3-8 Railway Design and Geometrics 5-8-6
Roadway Design and Geometrics 5-8-4
Guidelines for the Rehabilitation or Maintenance of
H Highway/Railway At-Grade Crossings 5-8-7
Roadway Approach Rehabilitation and Maintenance 5-8-7
Track and Crossing Surface Rehabilitation and Maintenance
HAND BRAKES AND FOOT BRAKES 15-6-100
5-8-8
HANDLING AND TRANSPORTING CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL
License or Easement Applications (Highway - Street - Roadways
5-5-7 5-8-14
HANDLING OF TIES FROM THE TREE INTO THE TRACK 30-3-23
Definitions 5-8-14
HANDLING OF TRAFFIC 16-10-27
General 5-8-14
HANDLING, STORING AND SURFACE CONDITION OF
General Plans & Specifications 5-8-15
REINFORCEMENT 8-17-54

Index
HIGHWAY/RAILWAY GRADE CROSSINGS (CONT)

Purpose 5-8-14
Location of Parallel Railways and Highways 5-8-8
General 5-8-10 I
General Design Criteria 5-8-12
Limited Access Highways 5-8-13
ICC PRIMARY ACCOUNTS 16-12-5
Physically Restricted Areas 5-8-13
IDENTIFICATION 5-7-4, 33-7-13, 33-7-19
Traffic Impact Studies 5-8-11
IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY 12-2-13, 17-2-5
The Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-8
Communications Technology 12-2-16, 17-2-5
Ballast 5-8-9
Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1
Drainage 5-8-9
Electric Traction Characteristics 12-2-19
General 5-8-8
Fare Collection Technology 12-2-16, 17-2-5
Geotechnical Fabric 5-8-9
General 12-2-13, 17-2-5
Lining and Surfacing Track 5-8-10
Propulsion Technology 12-2-15, 17-2-5
Rail 5-8-10
Route Technical Constraints 12-2-17
Removing and Replacing Track 5-8-10
Safety and Security Technology 12-2-16, 17-2-5
Subgrade 5-8-9
Signal Technology 12-2-15, 17-2-5
Tie Plates, Spikes, Anchors 5-8-10
Stations and Facilities 12-2-17, 17-2-5
Ties 5-8-10
Track Technology 12-2-13, 17-2-5
HIGHWAY STRUCTURES OVER RAILROADS 28-1-8
Vehicle Technology (Rolling Stock) 17-2-5
HISTORIC BUILDINGS 6-8-14
Vehicle Technology Types 12-2-14
HOISTS 6-3-10
IDENTIFICATION OF TRACK GEOMETRY PRIORITY DEFECTS
HOOKS, STANDARD 8-2-17
USING THE TGMV’S REPORTS 2-1-22
HOPPER TYPE SCALES 6-1
ILLUMINATION 33-10-2
General 6-2
Evaluation Measurements and Tests 33-10-27
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 17-3-6
General 33-10-27
HORIZONTAL DEVIATIONS AND VARIATIONS 17-7-4
Illumination 33-10-2
HORIZONTAL GEOMETRY 11-3-15, 12-3-19
General 33-10-2
HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT CLEARANCE ALLOWANCES,
PASSENGER CARS 28-3-3
Lamps 33-10-19 1
Electric Lamp Characteristics 33-10-19
HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT OF PASSENGER CARS, CLEARANCE
Lighting of Fixed Properties 33-10-8
ALLOWANCES 28-3-3
Factors Affecting Efficient Lighting 33-10-15
HORIZONTAL SHEAR 7-2-30
Maintenance 33-10-15
HORSEPOWER 16-3-2
Outdoor Area Lighting - Floodlighting in Railroad Yards
HOSE REELS 6-3-10
33-10-8
HOUSEKEEPING 7-4-19, 4-3
ILLUSTRATIONS, PASSENGER RAIL (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE
HOUSES 15-6-7
for Operators, Machinery, Hydraulic Equipment, Electrical
MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND SERVICING FACILITIES 3
Equipment and Signal Devices 15-6-15
6-13-11
ILLUSTRATIONS OF RAIL SURFACE CONDITIONS 4-4-60
HUBS 15-6-43, 15-6-102
Corrosion4-4-70
HUMP CLASSIFICATION YARD DESIGN (FULL AUTOMATIC
Corrugation 4-4-68
CONTROL) 14-2-7
Flaking 4-4-62
HUMP YARD, OBJECTIVE 14-2-14
Head Checking 4-4-60
HVAC SYSTEMS, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CTC CENTERS 6-11-5
Shelling 4-4-66
HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES FOR PRELIMINARY
ASSESSMENT OR FOR TEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION 1-3-27
Spalling 4-4-64 4
IMPACT FACTORS, VERTICAL LOADS 30-1-5
HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS USING DETAILED TECHNIQUES 1-3-30
IMPACT LOAD 7-3-3, 8-19-4, 15-1-20, 15-1-70, 15-6-18,
HYDRAULIC AND HYDROLOGIC CONCERNS 12-4-41
15-9-10
HYDRAULIC COMPUTATIONS 1-4-34
IMPACT PROPERTIES 5-2-3
HYDRAULIC DESIGN
IMPEDANCE BOND CONNECTIONS 33-5-7
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100
IMPEDANCE BOND DESCRIPTION 33-5-5
HYDRAULIC REPAIR 6-9-7
IMPEDANCE BOND FAILURE MODES FOR SIGNALS 33-5-5
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM 27-2-8, 27-2-27
IMPEDANCE BOND FUNCTIONS 33-5-6
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 15-6-53, 27-2-40
IMPEDANCE BOND INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS 33-5-7
and Components 15-6-32
Impedance Bond Connections 33-5-7
HYDRAULICS OF CULVERTS 1-4-29
Impedance Bond Locations 33-5-7
HYDROGEN ELIMINATION 4-2-14
Impedance Bond Windings 33-5-8
HYDROLOGIC CAPACITY OF WATERWAY OPENINGS 1-3-5
Non-Typical Impedance Bond Configurations 33-5-9
Drainage Basin Data 1-3-6
Typical Impedance Bond Circumstances 33-5-9
General 1-3-5
IMPEDANCE BOND LOCATIONS 33-5-7
Hydrologic Methods 1-3-9
IMPEDANCE BOND WINDINGS 33-5-8
References for Section 3.2 1-3-26
IMPERIAL UNITS 8-16-10
Sensitivity Issues 1-3-25
HYDROLOGIC METHODS, WATERWAY OPENINGS 1-3-9

Index
IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULES 17-2-5 INSPECTION (CONT)

and Plan 12-2-20 Waterway 7-5-2
IMPLEMENTING AGENCY, WATER AND WASTEWATER General 8-21-2
COMPLIANCE 13-3-4, 13-3-6, 13-3-7, 13-3-10, 13-3-12 High Strength Bolted Joints 15-3-20
IMPREGNATION 7-4-19 Methods 16-8-4
IMPROVEMENT, PUBIC 16-7-1 Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-38
IN PLACE INSTALLATION OF CONCRETE INVERT 1-4-81 of Pile Driving 8-4-16
INCLINED BEARINGS 15-1-64 Purpose of 18-3-36
INCREASES TO ALLOWABLE STRESSES TO TEMPORARY of Railway Buildings 6-15-1, 6-15-2
STRUCTURES 7-2-148 Conducting an Inspection 6-15-3
INCREASING CLEARANCES IN EXISTING TUNNELS 1-8-7 Inspection Reports 6-15-5
INDEX OF CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL MANUAL MATERIAL Inspections 6-15-3
5-5-16 Inspectors 6-15-2
INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS ENGINEERING, RAILWAY Organization and Inspection Preparation 6-15-2
APPLICATIONS 16-6-1 Reporting 18-3-36
Organization Issues 16-6-2 Reports 6-15-5
Overview 16-6-2 Sketch for Identification of Members 15-7-24
Project Design and Mangement 16-6-3 Specification for Metal Fence Posts 1-6-13
Project Management with Cross-Functional Team 16-6-3 Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-6
Recommended Design Steps for Effective Results 16-6-3 Structural Protection 8-21-5
Strategies and Techniques 16-6-4 and Tests
Elements of Effective Design 16-6-5 Waterproofing 8-29-20
General 16-6-4 of Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-16
Operations Research 16-6-7 of Timber Structures 7-5-1
Performance Measures 16-6-9 Welded Work 15-3-20
Production Planning and Control 16-6-12 Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-3-2
Summary of Railway Applications 16-6-17 INSPECTION AND REJECTION 33-7-10
INDUSTRIAL TRACKS, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-7 INSPECTION CHECK LIST 18-2-12
INFLUENCE OF CROSS TIES ON TRACK STIFFNESS AND TRACK INSPECTION DOORS 8-11-6
TRANSITIONS 30-1-12 INSPECTION, EVALUATION, AND PLANNING 11-7-2, 17-7-3
Definition of Vertical Track Stiffness 30-1-12 General 17-7-3
Track Transition Problems 30-1-12 Signals 17-7-3
Track Transition Remedies and Practices 30-1-13 Structures 17-7-3
INFORMATION REQUIRED, SPREAD FOOTING FOUNDATIONS Track 17-7-3
8-3-4 Traction Power 17-7-3
INFORMATION REQUIRED, TEMPORARY STRUCTURES FOR INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES
CONSTRUCTION 8-28-4 General 8-21-1
Drainage 8-28-4 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
Field Surveys and Records 8-28-4 Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100
Loads 8-28-4 INSPECTION OVERVIEW 18-3-10
Soil Investigation 8-28-4 INSPECTION PITS 14-5-6
Soil Properties 8-28-5 INSPECTION PLAN 36
INITIAL AND ANNUAL COSTS INCURRED 16-5-12 INSPECTION PROCEDURES 18-2-11
INITIAL PREPARATION AND SERVICING 27-2-35 Recommended Procedures for Operator Performing Ultrasonic
INQUIRY OR PURCHASE ORDER 7-1-6 Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-69
IN-SITU TESTING OF SOIL 8-22-10 INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS, FABRICATION OF CONTINUOUS
INSPECTING IRON AND STEEL BRIDGES 18-3-39 WELDED RAIL 4-3-51
INSPECTING MASONRY BRIDGES 18-3-37 INSPECTION, TIMBER STRUCTURES 7-5-1
INSPECTING TIMBER BRIDGES 18-3-38 Details of Inspection 7-5-2
INSPECTION 1-2-14, 1-2-25, 4-3-18, 4-3-32, 4-3-38, 5-1-5, General 7-5-1
5-2-4, 5-6-14, 5-7-4, 5-10-4, 8-19-3, 8-21-2, 8-25-13, INSPECTIONS 6-15-3
15-3-20, 15-7-13, 15-7-22, 33-7-14, 33-7-20, 33-7-27 Results of 18-3-36
Bonded Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-32 INSPECTOR AUTHORITY 15-3-20
and Classification of Second Hand Rail for Welding 4-3-53 INSPECTORS, ORGANIZATION 16-8-6
of Concrete and Masonry Structures 8-21-1 INSPECTORS, RAILWAY BUILDINGS 6-15-2
Conducting an 6-15-3 INSTALLATION
of Continuous Welded Rail in Track 5-5-13 Cantilever Poles 8-12-2
Details of 7-5-2 Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90
Earthquakes 7-5-4 of High Strength Bolts 15-3-10
Fire Protection 7-5-4 of Metal Crib Walls 8-6-5
Identification 7-5-2 Of Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-16
Substructure 7-5-3 of Piles 8-4-14
Superstructure 7-5-3 of Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls 8-6-4
Track 7-5-3 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-12

Index
INSTALLATION PROCEDURES, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-6 INTRODUCTION (CONT)

INSTALLATION VERIFICATION TESTING 33-6-29 General Considerations, Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-2
INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES 12-2-8, 17-2-3 General Considerations, Ties 30-1-3
INSTRUCTIONS General Information, Rail Transit 12-1-2
for Measuring Excess Dimension Loads 28-3-49 Geocomposite Drainage System Specifications for Railroad
INSULATION 27-2-26 Applications 1-10-18
of Track 15-6-15 Geogrid Specifications for Ballast and Sub-Ballast
for Track Tools Standard Specifications 5-6-18 Reinforcement 1-10-28
INSULATION COORDINATION STUDY 33-6-20 Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation 8-22-2
INTANGIBLE BENEFITS AND LIABILITIES 33-1-9 Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Track
INTEGRATION OF DEFECT DETECTOR SYSTEMS 16-5-11 Separation/Stabilization Applications 1-10-2
INTERCITY PASSENGER STATIONS 6-8-7 Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Drainage Applications
INTERFACE REQUIREMENTS 17-5-2 1-10-8
INTERFERENCE WITH TRAFFIC 15-4-9 Geotextile Specifications for Railroad Erosion Control
INTERIOR CONDITION/MACROETCH STANDARDS 4-2-15 Applications 1-10-13
INTERIOR DIMENSIONS 8-11-2 Guidelines for Evaluating Fire Damaged Steel Railway Bridges
Design, Tunnels 1-8-2 15-8-28
INTERIOR, FINISH 6-3-8, 6-8-16 High Speed Rail Systems 17-1-1
INTERLOCKING 15-6-15 Hydraulics of Culverts 1-4-29
INTERLOCKING SYSTEM 17-6-7 Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures 8-21-1
INTERMODAL FACILITY Locomotive Sanding Facilities 6-6-1
Design of 14-4-13 Observation Towers 6-10-2
INTERMODAL STATIONS 6-8-14 Organization 16-8-2
INTERNAL COMBUSTION 15-6-77 Planning, Budgeting and Control 16-15-2
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM, DIESEL REPAIR Program Development 16-9-2
FACILITIES 6-4-36 Programming Work 16-9-2
INTERNAL STRUCTURAL REPAIRS 8-14-13 Public Improvements and Public-Privat Partnerships Costs and
INTRODUCTION 5-9-2, 15-10-3, 18-1-2, 33-8-2, 16-4-2 Benefits 16-7-1
Accounting 16-12-4
Air Quality Compliance 13-4-2
Rail Measuring Systems 2-2-2
Rail Transit 12-1-1
1
Application of Rail Bonds 4-3-31 Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail
Bridge and Drainage Structures 12-4-36 Testing 4-4-60
Bulk-fluids 14-4-49 Recommended Practices for Using, Redressing, Sharpening and
Cantilever Poles 8-12-2 Replacing Handles in Track Tools 5-6-57
Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems 11-1-1 Roadway Material Reclamation and Fabrication Facilities
Concrete Structures, Repair and Rehabilitation 8-14-3 6-17-4
Conditions Requiring Headwalls, Wingwalls, Inverts and Roofing Systems Descriptions and Recommendations for
Aprons and Requisites Therefore 1-4-68 Selection 6-14-2
3
Construction, Bridge Bearings 15-11-1 Safety/Security, Rail Transit 12-1-3
Contact Wire Ampacity 33-4-21 Segmental Girder Guideways 12-4-97
Corrugaged High Density Polyethylene Pipe, Structural Design Seismic Design for Railway Structures 9-1-3
Considerations of 1-4-78 Taxes 16-14-2
Damproofing 8-29-28 Track Geometry Measuring Systems 2-1-1
Defect Detector Systems, Economics and Location 16-5-2 Track Structure Assessment Measuring Systems 2-3-1
Definitions of Various Track Geometry Parameters and Related Tunnels 16-10-23
Elements Used to Describe Track Geometry 2-1-3 Typical Uses of Data Collected by Track Geometry Measuring 4
Design Considerations for Future Expansion 12-3-34 Vehicles 2-1-30
Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility 6-12-2 Waste Management 13-5-2
Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Water and Wastewater Compliance 13-3-2
Repair Shops 6-9-2 INVENTORY 9-2-22
Design Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-2 INVENTORY, BRIDGE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 10-1-4
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-3 INVENTORY OF PROPERTY AND EQUIPMENT 16-15-6
Design of Intermodal Facilities 14-4-13 INVERTS AND APRONS 1-4-70
Direct Fixation 12-4-98 INVESTMENT TAX CREDIT (ITC) 16-14-6
Economics and Location of Defect Detector Systems 16-5-2 IRS SUBMISSIONS 16-14-5
Embedded Track 12-8-2 ISOLATION OF RCL OPERATIONS 14-2-35
Energy Conservation and Audits 6-5-2
Environmental 13-1-1
General Information 13-1-1 J
Equated Mileage Parameters 16-11-2
Fastenings 30-1-9
JACKING OPERATION 6-4-15
Fire Prevention in Yards 14-1-3
JACKING SYSTEMS AND RELATED EQUIPMENT 6-3-9
Flexural Strength 8-17-26
JIB CRANES 6-3-10
Freight Yards and Freight Terminals 14-2-3

Index
JOINING OF RAIL 4-3-1 LABORATORY TESTING

Application of Rail Bonds 4-3-31 Of Fasteners for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-17
Application Procedures 4-3-32 LACING
Application of Propulsion Rail Bonds Using External Heat Bars 15-3-7
4-3-33 and Perforated Cover Plates for Tension and Compression
Introduction 4-3-31 Members 15-1-48
Weld Integrity - Preventing Martensite Formation in Welded LADDER TRACK YARDS WITH CAR SPEED CONTROL 14-2-28
or Brazed Applications 4-3-31 LADLE ANALYSIS 4-3-20, 5-2-2
General Characteristics of a Rail Joint 4-3-4 LAITANCE 8-11-7
Inspection and Classification of Second Hand Rail for Welding Removing 8-1-43
4-3-53 LAMPS 33-10-19
Joint Bars and Assemblies 4-3-5 LAND AVAILABILITY 12-2-13, 12-2-14, 17-2-4
Rail Drillings, Bar Punchings and Bolts 4-3-13 LAND FOR TRANSPORTATION PURPOSES, ACCOUNT 2 16-12-5
Specification for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail 4-3-49 LANDSCAPING
Specification for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Bolts and Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-4
Carbon-Steel Nuts 4-3-19 Passenger Facilities 17-4-3
Specification for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash Butt Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and
Welding of Rail 4-3-46 Servicing Facilities 6-13-3
Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Welding of Railway Office Buildings 6-2-3
Rail 4-3-55 LAP SPLICES 8-2-31
Specifications for Bonded Insulation Rail Joints 4-3-32 LATERAL BRACING 15-1-61
Specifications for Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail LATERAL DISPLACEMENTS AND SUPERELEVATION 33-2-10
Joints 4-3-38 LATERAL FORCE
Specifications for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Other 7-2-9, 7-3-4
Microalloyed Joint Bars, and Forged Compromise Joint LATERAL FORCES FROM EQUIPMENT 15-1-20
Bars 4-3-15 LATERAL LOADS 30-1-7
Specifications for Spring Washers 4-3-29 Distribution 30-1-7
JOINT Environmental 30-1-7
Expansion, in Walls 8-1-28 LATERAL RAIL RESTRAINT 30-4-26
JOINT BARS LATERAL REINFORCEMENT 8-2-21
and Assemblies 4-3-5 LATERAL RESTRAINT MEASUREMENTS, CONSIDERATIONS FOR
Quenched Carbon-Steel, Microalloyed, and Forged Compromise PERFORMING 2-3-3
4-3-15 LATERAL STREAM 1-3-23
JOINT BEAMS, PERMANENT 8-25-9 LATERAL SUPPORT 8-4-6
JOINT FACILITIES 16-12-24 LAWS AND PERMITS 15-4-10
JOINT FACILITY DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES 12-2-12, LAY 15-6-72
17-2-4 LAYING
JOINT RAILROAD/TRANSIT OPERATION 12-4-36 and Maintenance of Continuous Welded Rail 5-5-6
JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-2 Procedure for Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) on Existing
JOINTED TRACK AND WHERE TEMPERATURE EXPANSION IS Track 5-5-8
PROVIDED 5-5-19 Rail 5-5-4
JOINTING, TYPES OF 8-1-28 LAYOVER YARDS 12-4-34, 17-4-4
JOINTS LEAD AGENCIES, VEGETATION CONTROL 1-9-16
Construction 8-1-29, 8-1-44, 8-1-46 LEGACY DESIGNS, TIMBER STRUCTURES 7-A3-1
Construction of Concrete Slab Track 8-27-11 LEGAL CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS 28-3-19
Contraction 8-1-29 LEGENDS FOR ROADWAY SIGNS 1-7-4
Expansion 8-1-28 LENGTH 4-2
Watertight Construction 8-1-30 Determination, Pile 8-4-6
JOURNAL BEARINGS 15-6-36 Steel Rails 4-2-19
JOURNALS 15-6-101 LEVEL TANGENT TRACK 16-2-3
LICENSE OR EASEMENT APPLICATIONS (HIGHWAY – STREET –
ROADWAYS) 5-8-14
K LIFE CYCLE COSTS 6-5-12
LIFE SAFETY 6-2-17
LIFT TRUCKS
KEYS
In Materials Management Facilities 6-7-6
and Keyways for Machinery Parts 15-6-43
LIGHT DENSITY AND SHORT LINE RAILWAYS 18-i
KEYS AND KEYWAYS 15-6-102
LIGHTING
KEYS FOR TRUNNIONS 15-6-44
Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-4
Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-18
L Electricial Equipment 6-2-16
For Materials Management Facilities 6-7-5
and Power 6-3-8
LABORATORY QUALIFYING TESTS 5-9-3 Sanding Components 6-6-16

Index
LIGHTING (CONT) LOADS (CONT)

Yard Design for Remote Control Locomotives (RCL) 14-2-35 and Forces 7-2-7, 8-19-4, 8-19-9, 15-1-13, 15-7-14
LIGHTING OF FIXED PROPERTIES 33-10-8 Information Required 8-28-4
LIMITED ACCESS HIGHWAYS, PARALLEL RAILWAYS AND On Piles 8-4-3
HIGHWAYS 5-8-13 Other 8-19-4
LIMITING TEST VALUES 1-2-11 and Stresses 15-8-4
LINE LOADS AND FORCES
Bearing Load 15-6-31 For Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-2-7, 7-3-3
LINES TO BE ELECTRIFIED, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-3 LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS
LINING Corrugaged High Density Polyethylene Pipe, Structural Design
Tunnels 1-8-6 Considerations of 1-4-78
LINING RAILWAY TUNNELS 8-11-1 LOADS, FORCES AND STRESSES
Concrete 8-11-7 For Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles 7-2-7
Consolidation 8-11-7 LOCAL SCOUR 1-3-22
Drainage During Placing 8-11-7 LOCAL ZONE, DESIGN OF 8-17-43
Laitance and Bonding 8-11-7 LOCAL ZONE, AND GENERAL ZONE 8-17-35
Order of Placing 8-11-7 LOCALIZED REPAIRS 1-4-79
Shotcrete 8-11-7 LOCATION 4-2
Specification 8-11-7 of Defect Detectors 16-5-5
Design 8-11-2 Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility 6-12-2
Conduit and Inserts 8-11-6 Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Equipment
Construction and Expansion Joints 8-11-5 Repair Shops 6-9-3
Drains 8-11-6 Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-3
Floors 8-11-2 of Parallel Railways and Highways 5-8-10
Interior Dimensions 8-11-2 Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and
Preliminary Data 8-11-2 Servicing Facilities 6-13-1
Refuge Niches 8-11-6 Railway 16-1-1
Sidewalls and Arch 8-11-3 Roadway Signs 1-7-2
Forms 8-11-6
Filling 8-11-6
Site Considerations 6-2-3
LOCATION OF METERING EQUIPMENT 33-6-28
1
General 8-11-6 LOCATION AND VERIFICATION OF TRACK GEOMETRY PRIORITY
Inspection Doors 8-11-6 DEFECTS IN THE TRACK 2-1-28
Removal 8-11-6 LOCKER AND TOILET FACILITIES 6-4-16
General 8-11-2 LOCKER ROOM 6-9-10
Scope 8-11-2 LOCKOUT/TAGOUT (LOTO) DURING MAINTENANCE OF
LINING AND SURFACING TRACK 5-8-10 ROADWAY MACHINES 27-2-56
LININGS 15-6-36, 15-6-102 Definitions 27-2-56
LIVE 8-16-9 General 27-2-56
3
LIVE LOAD 7-2-8, 7-3-3, 8-16-20, 8-19-4, 15-1-17, 15-6-18 Procedures 27-2-58
LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY 8-19-2 Requirements 27-2-57
LOAD COMBINATIONS 8-19-9 LOCOMOTIVE ELECTRIC INTERACTION WITH THE CATENARY
LOAD DISTRIBUTION 30-1-5 33-8-2
LOAD ENVIRONMENT 30-1-3 LOCOMOTIVE FACILITIES 14-5-1, 33-1-4
LOAD FACTOR Buildings 14-5-3
Design 8-2-48 Design Considerations 14-5-4
LOAD FACTORS 8-26-17, 8-17-18 Diesel, Diesel-Electric and Electric 14-5-7 4
LOAD GAUGE 33-2-10 Shop Building and Appurtenances 14-5-7
LOADING 1-2-13, 4-2-24 General 14-5-2
Combination 8-2-15 Buildings 14-5-3
Live and Dead 1-4-7 Design Considerations 14-5-4
Tests 8-4-8 Miscellaneous Facilities 14-5-4
LOADING CONDITIONS Requirements 14-5-2
For Concrete Slab Track 8-27-6 Site Selection 14-5-3
LOADS 1-4-58, 8-3-4, 8-4-2, 8-4-17, 8-5-3, 8-10-4, 8-20-3, Track Layout 14-5-3
15-8-17, 15-8-27 Inspection Pits 14-5-6
and Forces 7-2-7 General 14-5-6
Column 8-3-16 Main Line Fueling 14-5-8
Combined Axial and Bending 7-2-29 Common Design Considerations 14-5-10
Computing Curve Offsets on 28-3-18 General Considerations 14-5-8
Eccentric Types of Fueling Facilities 14-5-9
In One Direction 8-3-12 Requirements 14-5-2
In Two Directions 8-3-13, 8-3-14 Sanding 6-6-1
Eccentricity 8-4-3 Environmental Considerations 6-6-17
Exclusive of Earth Pressure 8-5-4 Air Quality 6-6-17

Index
LOCOMOTIVE FACILITIES (CONT) LONG-TERM PLANNING 16-15-6

Waste Sand 6-6-17 LOSS OF PRESTRESS 8-17-21
Introduction 6-6-2 LOW HEAT INPUT 5-5-26
Engineered Safety Provisions 6-6-2 LUBRICANTS AND/OR FRICTION MODIFIERS 4-4-80
General 6-6-2 LUBRICATING OIL
References 6-6-18 Drainage/Recovery 6-4-26
Codes 6-6-18 Supply 6-4-17
Publications 6-6-19 LUBRICATION 15-6-38, 15-6-107
Sanding Components 6-6-12 Rail 16-2-8
Air Dyers 6-6-14 of Wire Ropes During Fabrication 15-6-72
Air Supply System 6-6-12 LUBRICATION OF WIRE ROPE 27-1-13
Automation and Instrumentation 6-6-16 LUMBER AND TIMBER, STRUCTURAL GRADES OF SOFTWOOD
Electrical 6-6-16 7-1-3
Lighting 6-6-16 LUNCH ROOM 6-9-10, 6-11-4
Nozzles 6-6-15
Piping System 6-6-15
Sand Cocks 6-6-15 M
Sanding Facility 6-6-3
Capacity 6-6-3
MACHINE AND MATERIAL HANDLING, CENTRALIZED
General Platform Layout 6-6-3
MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY EQUIPMENT REPAIR SHOPS 6-9-9
Storage 6-6-4
MACHINE MAINTENANCE AREA, CENTRALIZED
Transfer from Storage to Servicing Tanks 6-6-5
MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY EQUIPMENT REPAIR SHOPS 6-9-4
Unloading 6-6-5
MACHINE MOLDING 15-6-102
System Types 6-6-6
MACHINE SHOP 6-9-7
Gantry Crane Systems 6-6-8
MACHINERY 15-6-36
Gravity Overhead Systems 6-6-6
Design 15-6-22
Pneumatic Conveyin Systems 6-6-9
and Hydraulic Design 15-6-6
Servicing Facilities 14-5-5
and Hydraulic Drawings 15-6-6
Fueling Stations 14-5-5
Losses 15-6-21
Sanding 14-5-5
Manufacture 15-6-101
Site Selection 14-5-3
Parts 15-6-28
Track Layout 14-5-3
Resistances 15-6-20
LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE 33-1-7
Supports 15-6-22
LOCOMOTIVE MECHANICAL INTERACTION WITH THE
MACHINES 15-6-76
CATENARY 33-8-9
MACHINES AREA, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CENTRALIZED
LOCOMOTIVE SHOP, MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS 6-13-10
MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY EQUIPMENT REPAIR SHOPS
LOCOMOTIVE SHOP, SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS - COMBINED
Large 6-9-4
COACH LOCOMOTIVE SHOP 6-13-8
Medium 6-9-4
LOCOMOTIVE SHOP AND/OR COACH SHOP, STRUCTURAL
Small 6-9-4
REQUIREMENTS 6-13-9
MACRO SITE SELECTION 6-16-2
LOCOMOTIVES 16-4-2
MAIN LINE FUELING FACILITIES, TYPES OF 6-16-3
Account 52 16-12-18
MAINTENANCE 1-1-48, 15-7-28, 33-10-15
Capacity 16-3-3
of Bridges with Continuous Welded Rail 15-8-16
Classification 16-3-4
of Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) in Track 5-5-14
Deicing 6-4-19
of Earth Slopes 1-1-58
Diesel 16-2-19
Painting 15-7-28
Diesel-Electric 16-3-11
Philosophy 17-3-4, 17-4-4
Electric 16-2-16, 16-3-4
Practices 1-2-15
Gas Turbine-Electric 16-3-16
Road Crossing Foundations 1-1-76
Progression Systems 6-4-15
of Roadbed 1-1-48
Toilet Servicing 6-4-19
of Rock Slopes 1-1-56
Washing 6-4-18
of Structural Elements 15-7-28
LONG-TERM ELEVATION STREAMBED CHANGES (AGGRADATION
Tunnels 16-10-23
AND DEGRADATION) 1-3-21
MAINTENANCE GANGS, ORGANIZATION 16-8-7
LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS 8-26-12
MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHY 11-3-13, 11-7-2, 12-3-13,
LONGITUDINAL FORCE 7-3-4, 15-9-12, 15-1-21, 15-9-44
12-4-18, 17-7-3
LONGITUDINAL FORCES 8-19-1
Effects on Adjacent Land Uses 17-7-3
LONGITUDINAL LOAD 30-1-8
Effects on Revenue Operations and Customers 17-7-3
Distribution 30-1-8
General 17-7-3
Environment 30-1-8
Program Maintenance and Spot Repairs 17-7-3
LONGITUDINAL RAIL RESTRAINT 5-9-5, 30-4-26
Reliability Under Adverse Weather Conditions 17-7-3
LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT 8-2-21
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES THAT CAN ADVERSELY EFFECT
LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS 15-1-70
CLEARANCES 28-3-67
LONGITUDINAL THRUST 15-6-40

Index
MAINTENANCE OF RAIL 4-4-1 MANHOLES 8-10-3

Beveling or Slotting of Rail Ends 4-4-95 MANPOWER OPERATION 15-6-76
Field, Rail Flaw Identification 4-4-4 MANUFACTURE 4-2-3, 4-3-15, 5-1-2, 5-6-14, 5-10-2, 8-6-4,
Illustrations of Rail Surface Conditions 4-4-58 8-6-5, 33-7-8
Rail Grinding Best Practices 4-4-82 Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Welding of
Recommended Calibration Rails for Rail Flaw Detection System Rail 4-3-55
4-4-71 Specifications for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars,
Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail Microalloyed Joint Bars, and Forged Compromise Joint
Testing 4-4-61 Bars 4-3-15
Recommended Practices for Rail/Wheel Friction Control 4-4-95 Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-5
Friction Measurement Systems 4-4-99 MANUFACTURE AND INSTALLATION 4-2
General 4-4-95 MANUFACTURE OF CALIBRATION RAILS 4-4-64
Lubricants and/or Friction Modifiers 4-4-100 MANUFACTURE OF PRECAST UNITS 8-16-15
Measuring Friction Control Effectiveness 4-4-96 MANUFACTURE OF RAIL 4-2-1
Scope 4-4-95 Specifications for Steel Rails 4-2-3
Recommended Procedures for Operator Performing Ultrasonic MANUFACTURER 15-6-71
Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-68 Specifications for Concrete Fence Posts 1-6-7
Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing MANUFACTURERS REQUIREMENTS FOR PARTS BOOKS 27-1-21
Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track 4-4-65 MANUFACTURING REQUIREMENTS, FABRICATION OF
Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in CWR CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL 4-3-49
4-4-80 MAPS
Reconditioning Rail Ends 4-4-95 Base Acceleration Coefficient 9-1-11
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS 4-3 MARINE PROTECTION 12-4-42
MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND SERVICING FACILITIES FOR MARKING 4-3-25, 4-3-38, 4-3-42, 5-1-5, 5-2-4, 5-10-4,
PASSENGER RAIL (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE 6-13-1 33-7-15, 33-7-21, 33-7-27
Electrical Requirements 6-13-11 Of Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-14
Functional Requirements 6-13-3 and Stamping 4-3-18
Illustrations 6-13-11 MARKING, PACKAGING AND LOADING 15-3-21
Maintenance and Repair Areas 6-13-6
Mechanical Requirements 6-13-9
MARKINGS 4-2-24
MASONRY 15-1-41
1
Site Considerations 6-13-2 Structures, Inspection of 8-21-1
Special Equipment 6-13-9 MASS FLOW METERS 8-1
Special Requirements - Coach Shop 6-13-5 MATCH MARKING 15-3-15
Special Requirements - Combined Coach Locomotive Shop MATERIAL 1-4-10, 1-4-18, 1-4-24, 1-4-27, 1-4-83, 4-3-29,
6-13-7 5-6-13, 15-6-13, 27-2-24
Structural Requirements 6-13-9 Cantilever Poles 8-12-2
MAINTENANCE STANDARDS, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-7 Concrete Ties 30-4-9
MAINTENANCE OF TIMBER STRUCTURES, AND CONSTRUCTION Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-3
3
7-4-1 Handling of, Timber Structures 7-4-3
MAINTENANCE OF WAY CHANGES 33-1-8 Handling Platform 6-4-16
MAINTENANCE OF WAY CONSIDERATIONS 11-7-1, 17-7-1 Handling, Timber Piles 7-4-3
Facility Maintenance Operations 11-7-3, 17-7-5 Requirements
General Information 11-7-1, 17-7-3 Cellular Confinement System Specifications for Railroad Use
Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning 11-7-2, 17-7-3 1-10-25
Maintenance Philosophy 11-7-2, 17-7-3 Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-10
Propulsion System Maintenance Operations 11-7-3, 17-7-5 Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-15 4
Right of Way Maintenance 11-7-2, 17-7-3 Railroad Track Stabilization Applications 1-10-4
Signal and Communications Maintenance Operations 11-7-3, System Specifications for Railroad Applications 1-10-20
17-7-4 Specification for Metal Fence Posts 1-6-10
Structures Maintenance Operations 11-7-2, 17-7-4 Specifications for Right-of-way Fences 1-6-17
Track Maintenance Limits 11-7-2, 17-7-3 Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products,
Track Maintenance Operations 11-7-2, 17-7-4 Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and
MAINTENANCE OF WAY EQUIPMENT 17-7-3 Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted
MAINTENANCE OF WAY SHOPS 12-4-34, 17-4-4 Wood 7-1-1
MAINTENANCE OF WAY WORK EQUIPMENT 27-i Specifications for Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-15
MAINTENANCE OF WAY - WORK EQUIPMENT BULLETIN 27-2-21 Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-4
MAINTENANCE, PLANNED AND REPLACEMENT 16-8-4 Storage of 7-4-3
MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY 1-7-2 MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP 33-7-12, 33-7-17, 33-7-24
MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY ANNUAL EXPENSE BUDGET 16-15-10 MATERIAL INVENTORY RECORDS 18-1-7
MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY CAPITAL BUDGET 16-15-8 MATERIAL ORDERS AND SHIPPING STATEMENTS 15-3-3
MAJOR BRIDGE COMPONENTS 18-3-31 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS 1-10-4, 1-10-10, 1-10-15, 1-10-20,
MANAGEMENT ACTIONS 18-3-30 1-10-25, 1-10-30
MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE 13-5-5
MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTE 13-5-4

Index
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR LUMBER, TIMBER, MATERIALS (CONT)

ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS, TIMBER PILES, Penetrating Water Repellent 8-1-51
FASTENERS, TIMBER BRIDGE TIES AND Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FIRE-RETARDANT COATING FOR Prestressing Tendons 8-17-10
CREOSOTED WOOD 7-1-1 PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-10-14, 15-11-9
Grading Rules for Hardwood Structural Timbers 7-1-3 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-3
General 7-1-3 Reinforcing Steel 8-17-53
Ordering Structural Lumber, Timber and Engineered Wood General 8-17-53
Products 7-1-5 Rigid Ducts 8-17-12
Inquiry or Purchase Order 7-1-6 Roadway Signs 1-7-4
Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Specifications for Concrete Fence Posts 1-6-6
Wood 7-1-19 Storage of, Concrete 8-1-22
Specifications for Engineered Wood Products 7-1-3 Subgrade 8-27-7
Structural Glued Laminated Timber - Glulam 7-1-3 MATERIALS MANAGEMENT AREA 6-9-10
Specifications for Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-15 MATERIALS MANAGEMENT FACILITIES
Bridge Tie Installation 7-1-17 Design Criteria for 6-7-1
Dapping or Sizing Bridge Ties 7-1-17 Environmental Planning for 6-7-5
Delivery 7-1-17 Exterior Storage 6-7-6
Design 7-1-16 Fire Protection 6-7-6
End Splitting Control Devices 7-1-19 Flammable and Hazardous Materials 6-7-6
Inspection 7-1-16 Fuel Operated Lift Trucks 6-7-6
Material 7-1-15 Functional Requirements 6-7-3
Physical Requirements 7-1-15 Lighting 6-7-5
Preservative Treatment of Bridge Ties 7-1-19 Office, Welfare and Building Services 6-7-5
Shipment 7-1-17 Site Considerations 6-7-2
Spike or Bolt Holes 7-1-19 MATERIALS MANAGEMENT FACILTIES
Tie Branding 7-1-19 Battery-Charging Area 6-7-6
Tie Plugs 7-1-19 MATERIALS AND MIXING, MORTAR AND GROUT 8-17-52
Specifications for Timber Piles 7-1-6 MATERIALS NOT INCLUDED IN THIS RECOMMENDED PRACTICE,
Classification of Piles 7-1-7 OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS 8-1-10
General Provisions 7-1-6 MATERIALS QUALITY CONTROL 8-25-9
General Requirement for All Piles 7-1-10 MATERIALS, TESTS AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS 8-1-1
Inquiries and Purchase Orders 7-1-12 Aggregates 8-1-9
Special Requirements for First-Class Piles 7-1-11 Fine Aggregates 8-1-10
Special Requirements for Second-Class Piles 7-1-12 General 8-1-9
Specifications of Fasteners for Timber Trestles 7-1-13 Lightweight Coarse Aggregate for Structural Concrete
Material 7-1-13 8-1-14
Types of Fasteners 7-1-13 Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate 8-1-12
Use of Protective Coatings for Steel Fasteners and Timber Cement 8-1-7
Bridges 7-1-15 General 8-1-7
Structural Grades of Softwood Lumber and Timber 7-1-3 Quality, Sampling and Testing 8-1-9
Grading Rules 7-1-3 Specifications 8-1-7
Preservative Treatments 7-1-3 Commentary 8-1-55
MATERIAL WELDABILITY 15-1-60 Aggregates 8-1-55
MATERIAL YARDS 12-4-35, 17-4-4 Concrete Admixtures 8-1-57
MATERIALS 1-2-9, 8-16-4, 15-1-8 Fly Ash as an Admixture to Concrete 8-1-57
Bonded Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-32 Curing 8-1-48
Concrete 8-2-16, 8-17-10 Membrane Curing 8-1-50
Corrugaged High Density Polyethylene Pipe, Specificaiton for High Strength Concrete 8-1-59
1-4-28 Concrete Mixture Proportions 8-1-61
for Dampproofing 8-29-28 General 8-1-59
Design Criteria for Railway Buildings 6-1-13 Materials 8-1-59
Design of Wood Railway Bridges and Trestles for Railway Penetrating Water Repellant Treatment of Concrete Surfaces
Loading 7-2-4 Application 8-1-59
Elastomeric Bearings 15-11-12 Environmental Requirements 8-1-58
and Fabrication 8-17-49 Quality Assurance 8-1-59
For Concrete Slab Tracks 8-27-7 Penetrating Water Repellent Treatment of Concrete Surfaces
and General Requirements 8-17-4 8-1-58
Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons 8-17-11 General 8-1-58
High Strength Concrete 8-1-52, 8-1-59 Surface Preparation 8-1-58
for Machinery and Similar Parts 15-6-16 Reinforcement 8-1-55
Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-10-29, 15-11-17 Bending and Straightening 8-1-56
Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-39 Repairs and Anchorage Using Expoxy Materials 8-1-59
Non-Prestressed Reinforcement 8-17-11 Concrete Admixtures 8-1-20

Index
MATERIALS, TESTS AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS MATERIALS, TESTS AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
(CONT) (CONT)
General 8-1-20 Rubbed Finish 8-1-52
Types of Admixtures 8-1-20 Forms 8-1-23
Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water 8-1-45 Construction 8-1-23
Concrete for Moderate Exposure 8-1-45 Design 8-1-21
Concrete for Severe Exposure 8-1-45 Form Coating and Release 8-1-24
Concrete for Very Severe Exposure 8-1-45 General 8-1-23
Condition of Exposure 8-1-45 Moldings 8-1-24
Construction Joints 8-1-46 Removal 8-1-24
Minimum Cover 8-1-46 Safety 8-1-21
Placement of Concrete 8-1-46 Temporary Openings 8-1-24
Concrete in Sea Water 8-1-44 General 8-1-6
Concrete 8-1-44 Acceptability 8-1-7
Construction Joints 8-1-44 ASTM - International 8-1-7
Depositing in Sea Water 8-1-44 Defective Materials 8-1-7
Minimum Cover 8-1-44 Equipment 8-1-7
Protecting Concrete in Sea Water 8-1-44 Purpose 8-1-6
Concrete Jointing 8-1-28 Scope 8-1-6
Construction Joints 8-1-29 Selection of Materials 8-1-7
Contraction Joints 8-1-29 Terms 8-1-6
Expansion Joint in Walls 8-1-28 Test of Materials 8-1-7
Expansion Joints 8-1-28 High Strength Concrete 8-1-52
Scope 8-1-28 Concrete Mixture Proportions 8-1-53
Types of Jointing 8-1-28 General 8-1-52
Watertight Construction Joints 8-1-30 Materials 8-1-52
Curing 8-1-48 Mixing 8-1-37
Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-51 Bonding 8-1-40
Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag
8-1-51
Chuting 8-1-38
Compacting 8-1-39
1
Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-51 Continuous Depositing 8-1-40
General 8-1-48 Delivery 8-1-37
Hot Weather Curing 8-1-49 Depositing Concrete 8-1-38
Membrane Curing 8-1-50 General 8-1-37
Steam Curing 8-1-50 Handling and Placing 8-1-37
Wet Curing 8-1-49 Pheumatic Placing (Shotcreting) 8-1-38
Decorative Finishes 8-1-53 Placing Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-42
Depositing Concrete Under Water 8-1-42 Placing Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-42
3
Caissons, Cofferdams or Forms 8-1-42 Placing Cyclopean Concrete 8-1-42
Capacity of Plant 8-1-41 Placing Rubble Concrete 8-1-42
Cement 8-1-41 Pumping Concrete 8-1-38
Coarse Aggregates 8-1-41 Ready-Mixed Concrete 8-1-37
Concrete Seals 8-1-44 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete 8-1-38
Continuous Work 8-1-42 Sitemixed Concrete 8-1-37
General 8-1-41 Temperature 8-1-40
Leveling and Cleaning the Bottom to Receive Concrete Water Gain 8-1-41 4
8-1-42 Other Cementitious Materials 8-1-9
Methods of Depositing 8-1-42 Acceptability 8-1-9
Mixing 8-1-37 Documentation 8-1-10
Placing Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-42 General 8-1-9
Placing Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-42 Materials Not Included in This Recommended Practice
Removing Laitance 8-1-43 8-1-10
Soundings 8-1-43 Specifications 8-1-9
Standard Specifications 8-1-41 Penetrating Water Repellent Treatment of Concrete Surfaces
Details of Reinforcement 8-1-25 8-1-50
Fabrication 8-1-25 Application 8-1-50
Placing of Reinforcement 8-1-26 Deliver, Storage and Handling 8-1-52
Concrete Protection for Reinforcement 8-1-28 Environmental Requirements 8-1-50
Future Bonding 8-1-28 General 8-1-50
Provisions for Seismic Loading 8-1-25 Materials 8-1-51
Spacing of Reinforcement 8-1-27 Quality Assurance 8-1-51
Surface Conditions of Reinforcement 8-1-25 Surface Preparation 8-1-50
Formed Surface Finish 8-1-51 Proportioning 8-1-31
General 8-1-51 Air Content of Air-Entrained Concrete 8-1-33

Index
MATERIALS, TESTS AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS MEASURING HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
(CONT) (HVAC) 6-5-10
Compression Tests 8-1-35 MEASURING RAIL WEAR PARAMETERS, RECOMMENDED
Field Tests 8-1-35 PRACTICE FOR 2-2-21
General 8-1-31 Accurancy & Calibration 2-2-21
Measurement of Materials 8-1-31 Frequency of Measurement 2-2-21
Slump 8-1-35 Rail Measurements 2-2-21
Special Provisions When Using Cementitious Materials MEASURING RAILWAY BUILDING AND FACILITY SHOP LOSSES
Other Than Portland Cement 8-1-34 6-5-8
Strength of Concrete Mixtures 8-1-33 MEASURING RAILWAY LINE CLEARANCES, METHODS 28-3-28
Water-Cementitious Material Ratio 8-1-31 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE 8-2-29
Workability 8-1-35 MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS 8-2-31
Reinforcement 8-1-17 MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, ENGINEERED
Bending and Straightening 8-1-20 COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-4
General 8-1-17 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF RAILS 4-2-4
Specifications 8-1-18 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS, HEAT-TREATED CARBON STEEL
Welding 8-1-17 TRACK BOLTS AND CARBON-STEEL NUTS 4-3-20
Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins 8-1-52 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS, PASSENGER RAIL
Storage of Materials 8-1-22 (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND
Aggregates 8-1-22 SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-9
Cementitious Materials and Concrete Admixtures 8-1-19 MECHANICAL STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY OF SPRING WASHERS
Reinforcement 8-1-23 4-3-29
Unformed Surface Finish 8-1-52 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 14-6-13, 17-4-3
General 8-1-52 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-17
Concrete Containing Fly Ash 8-1-53 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT
Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag 6-3-7
8-1-52 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EMBANKMENT 8-7-1
Concrete Containing Silica Fume 8-1-52 Definitions 8-7-2
Sidewalk Finish 8-1-52 General 8-7-2
Water 8-1-17 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EMBANKMENTS
General 8-1-17 Construction 8-7-3
MAXIMUM MOMENT 8-20-11 Design of 8-7-2
MAXIMUM NO-LOAD SUBSTATION VOLTAGE 33-3-2 Special Considerations 8-7-2
MAXIMUM PRESTRESSING STEEL 8-17-28 MEDIUM (SECONDARY) VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR 33-6-25
MAXIMUM RATING 8-19-2 MEMBERS STRESSED PRIMARILY IN AXIAL TENSION OR
MAXIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 8-2-49 COMPRESSION 15-1-46
MAXIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE 33-3-2 MEMBERS STRESSED PRIMARILY IN BENDING 15-1-50
MEANS OF PROTECTING ROADBED AND BRIDGES FROM Composite Steel and Concrete Spans 15-1-56
WASHOUTS AND FLOODS 1-3-32 Flange Sections 15-1-51
MEASUREMENT Flange Splices 15-1-53
Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90 Flange-To-Web Connection of Plate Girders 15-1-52
Measurement Frequency for Track Geometry Measuring Proportioning Girders and Beams 15-1-50
Vehicle, Recommended Practice 2-1-75 Rigid Frame Structures 15-1-60
of Materials Stiffeners at Points of Bearing 15-1-53
Cement 8-1-31 Thickness of Web Plates 15-1-51
and Payment 1-2-15, 1-2-25 Web Plate Stiffeners (Intermediate Transverse and Longitudinal)
Cellular Confinement System Specifications for Railroad Use 15-1-54
1-10-27 Web Splices 15-1-53
Geogrid Specifications for Ballast and Sub-Ballast MEMBRANES 8-29-14, 8-29-21
Reinforcement 1-10-28 Protection 8-29-17
Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-14 MERCHANDISE TERMINAL 14-4-59
Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-19 METAL GAGE SIDE GUARD RAILS 7-4-23
Railroad Track Stabilization Applications 1-10-9 METAL PROTECTION 7-4-18
System Specifications for Railroad Applications 1-10-22 METAL TO METAL CONTACT STRIKING TOOLS 5-6-5
MEASUREMENT FREQUENCY OF GRMS VEHICLES, METAL TO METAL CONTACT STRUCK TOOLS 5-6-6
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR 2-3-13 METALS, ROADWAY SIGNS 1-7-4
MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 1-10-22 METERIALS
MEASURING AGAINST THE PERFORMANCE GUIDELINES 4-4-62 Stabilized Subbase for Concrete Slab Tracks 8-27-7
MEASURING ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 6-5-8 METHOD OF CALCULATING AMPACITY 33-4-21
MEASURING EXCESS DIMENSION LOADS METHOD OF DETERMINING RAIL BOND SIZES – ELECTRIC
Field Handbook 28-3-48 TRACTION 33-7-4
Instructions 28-3-49 METHOD OF SLOW BEND TEST, APPENDIX 1 4-3-42
MEASURING FRICTION CONTROL EFFECTIVENESS 4-4-77 METHOD OF TESTING 4-3-29
METHODOLOGY, PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT 16-9-3

Index
METHODS 1-3-6 MISCELLANEOUS (CONT)

of Analysis 16-9-6 Grinding Practice 5-10-9
of Application, Dampproofing 8-29-29 Grinding Rail End Surface Welds 5-10-10
Considerations for Developing 16-8-5 Grinding Stock Rails 5-10-10
of Controlling Drifting Snow 1-6-21 Grinding Welded Engine Burns and Thermite Butt Welds
for Establishing the Corner Contour of Hand Tool Striking Faces 5-10-10
5-6-54 Operation 5-10-8
for Establishing the Corner Contour of Hand Tool Struck Faces Rail Cutting 5-10-11
5-6-55 Scope 5-10-6
of Extending Rail Life 16-10-8 Storage 5-10-7
of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-4-18 Wheel Markings 5-10-7
of Increasing Stability 8-25-6 Specifications for Steel Screw Spikes 5-10-2
of Joining and Laying Rail 16-10-7 Bending Properties 5-10-3
of Measuring Railway Line Clearances 28-3-28 Chemical Composition 5-10-2
of Opening Snow Blockades 1-1-64 Dimensions 5-10-4
and Procedures, Clearances 28-3-1 Finish 5-10-3
of Rehabilitation 1-4-78 Inspection 5-10-4
of Shortening of Eyebars to Equalize the Stress 15-8-9, 15-9-55 Manufacture 5-10-2
of Tamping 5-5-23 Marking 5-10-4
of Testing 4-3-29 Number of Tests 5-10-3
Track Construction and Maintenance 16-10-19 Packaging 5-10-5
of Unloading and Distributing Ballast 1-2-15, 16-10-14 Process 5-10-2
METHODS OF ANALYSIS, SEGMENTAL BRIDGES 8-26-8 Rejection 5-10-4
METRIC UNITS 8-16-11 Scope 5-10-2
METRICATION M-1 Tensile Properties 5-10-3
Conversion M-3 Track 5-10-1
Introduction to SI Units M-2 MISFITS 15-4-7
Metric Measurement Units M-2 MITIGATION REQUIREMENTS, WATER BODY AND WETLANDS
Numerals M-3
Prefixes for SI Unit Multiples M-2
PERMITS 13-3-13
MIXED PASSENGER TRANSIT AND FREIGHT 11-3-2, 12-3-4,
1
Quantity Symbols vs. Unit Symbols M-4 17-3-3
References M-4 MIXING
SI Writing Style M-3 Concrete 8-1-37
Significant Digits M-3 MOBILE SOURCES, AIR QUALITY COMPLIANCE 13-4-2
MICRO SITE SELECTION 6-16-2 MODIFICATION OF DESIGN 8-3-14
MICROCOMPUTER APPLICATIONS 6-5-5 MODIFICATION TO SERVICE - PROVEN TECHNOLOGY 17-5-2
MILEAGE PARAMETERS, EQUATED 16-11-1 MODIFICATIONS TO CLEARANCES REPORTING 28-3-57
MILITARY VEHICLES 14-4-38 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY 8-2-34
3
MILL OR SHOP INSPECTION 1-4-16 MOISTURE, CONTROL 7-4-18
MINIMUM BEND DIAMETER 8-2-17 MOLDINGS 8-1-24
MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER 8-2-18, 8-17-12 MONITORING RESULTS 16-9-15
MINIMUM PIPE STRENGTH 8-10-12 MORTAR AND GROUT 8-17-52
MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT 8-17-29 General 8-17-52
MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT 8-2-20 Materials and Mixing 8-17-52
MINIMUM SPACING OF FASTENERS 15-1-58 Placing and Curing 8-17-52
MINIMUM TANGENT LENGTHS REQUIRED BETWEEN REVERSE MOTIVE POWER, TYPES 16-3-2 4
CURVES FOR YARD OPERATIONS 5-3-14 MOTIVE POWER MAINTENANCE FACILITIES 33-1-4
MINIMUM VEHICLE OPERATING VOLTAGE 33-3-2 MOTIVE POWER UNITS 33-1-4
MIRRORS AND CAMERAS 27-2-63 MOTOR CAR REPAIR 6-9-6
MISCELLANEOUS 27-2-14 MOTOR CONTROL APPARATUS OVERLOAD RELAYS 27-2-44
Considerations, Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-9 MOVABLE BRIDGES 15-6-1
Facilities 14-5-4 Basic Allowable Stresses and Hydraulic Pressures 15-6-28
Plans for Steel Screw Spikes 5-10-5 Bearing 15-6-29
General 5-10-5 Bolts in Tension 15-6-32
Power 33-1-6 Heating and Seizing 15-6-30
Rail 4-5-1 Hydraulic Systems and Components 15-6-32
Rail Information 4-5-1 Line Bearing Load 15-6-31
Recommended Practice for Use of Abrasive Wheels 5-10-6 Machinery Parts 15-6-28
Abrasive Wheel Mounting 5-10-8 Shafts 15-6-31
Cross Grinding Rail Ends 5-10-10 Structural Parts 15-6-28
General 5-10-4 Erection 15-6-105
General Safety 5-10-6 Bridge Operator 15-6-109
Grinding Equipment 5-10-9 Channel Lights 15-6-108
Grinding Frogs, Track Crossing and Switch Points 5-10-10 Counterweights 15-6-107

Index
MOVABLE BRIDGES (CONT) MOVABLE BRIDGES (CONT)

End Lifting Devices for Swing Spans 15-6-108 Brakes, and Machinery Design for Braking Forces 15-6-21
Erection of Machinery 15-6-105 End Ties 15-6-18
Erection of Trunnion Bearings and Counterweight Sheave Fatigue 15-6-18
Bearings 15-6-106 Impact Load 15-6-18
Erection of Wire Ropes 15-6-107 Live Load 15-6-18
Lubrication 15-6-107 Machinery Design 15-6-22
Painting 15-6-107 Machinery Losses 15-6-21
Protection of Parts 15-6-106 Machinery Resistances 15-6-20
Testing 15-6-108 Machinery Supports 15-6-22
General Details 15-6-33 Power Requirements and Machinery Design 15-6-19
Air Buffers 15-6-34 Special Provisions for Bascule Bridges 15-6-24
Anti-Friction Bearings 15-6-37 Special Provisions for Swing Bridges 15-6-23
Bolts and Nuts 15-6-44 Special Provisions for Vertical Lift Bridges 15-6-25
Collars 15-6-40 Wind Load and Ice Load 15-6-18
Compressed Air Devices 15-6-46 Power Equipment 15-6-76
Concrete 15-6-35 Air Brakes 15-6-99
Conterweights 15-6-35 Audible Navigation Signals 15-6-100
Covers 15-6-46 Brakes for Span Operation 15-6-99
Drain Holes 15-6-46 Electric 15-6-78
Equalizers 15-6-46 Hand Brakes and Foot Brakes 15-6-100
Fits and Surface Finishes 15-6-33 Internal Combustion 15-6-77
Gear Teeth 15-6-40 Machines 15-6-76
Hubs 15-6-43 Manpower Operation 15-6-76
Hydraulic Systems 15-6-53 Power Operation 15-6-76
Journal Bearings 15-6-36 Proposals and General Requirements 15-6-5
Keys and Keyways for Machinery Parts 15-6-43 Abbreviations 15-6-5
Keys for Trunnions 15-6-44 Classification of Bridge Work 15-6-9
Linings 15-6-36 Communication 15-6-8
Longitudinal Thrust 15-6-40 General 15-6-5
Lubrication 15-6-38 Guarantees 15-6-13
Machinery in General 15-6-36 Houses 15-6-7
Rail End Connections 15-6-34 Machinery and Hydraulic Design 15-6-6
Roller Bearings for Heavy Loads 15-6-36 Machinery and Hydraulic Drawings 15-6-6
Safety Devices 15-6-46 Optional Requirements 15-6-13
Screw Gearing and Cams 15-6-43 Parts Included in Glasses 15-6-10
Set Screws 15-6-45 Signals and Interlocking 15-6-7
Shaft Couplings 15-6-40 Time of Opening 15-6-6
Shafts 15-6-39 Warning Lights 15-6-7
Special Provisions for Bascule Bridges 15-6-49 Weight and Center of Gravity 15-6-7
Special Provisions for Swing Bridges 15-6-46 Wiring Diagrams, Operator’s Instructions, Electrical,
Special Provisions for Vertical Lift Bridges 15-6-50 Hydraulic and Mechanical Data Booklets, and
Speed Reducers 15-6-37 Lubrication Charts 15-6-8
Springs 15-6-46 Wrenches 15-6-8
Step Bearings 15-6-36 Wire Ropes and Sockets 15-6-71
Strength of Gear Teeth 15-6-41 Construction 15-6-72
Tapped Holes 15-6-45 Diameter of Rope 15-6-71
Worm Gearing 15-6-43 Facilites for Testing 15-6-75
General Features of Design 15-6-13 Lay 15-6-72
Aligning and Locking 15-6-14 Lubrication During Fabrication 15-6-72
Counterweights 15-6-14 Manufacturer 15-6-71
Emergency Operation 15-6-15 Operating Ropes 15-6-76
Houses for Operators, Machinery, Hydraulic Equipment, Prestretching 15-6-75
Electrical Equipment and Signal Devices 15-6-15 Rejection 15-6-74
Insulation of Track 15-6-15 Rope Length 15-6-75
Interlocking 15-6-15 Shipping 15-6-76
Material 15-6-13 Sockets 15-6-75
Materials for Machinery and Similar Parts 15-6-16 Splices 15-6-72
Rail Ends 15-6-17 Ultimate Strength 15-6-74
Stairways, Walks, and Elevators 15-6-16 Wire - Physical Properties 15-6-72
Standby Power 15-6-15 Workmanship 15-6-101
Types of Bridges 15-6-14 Air Buffers 15-6-103
Loads, Forces and Stresses 15-6-18 Assembling Machinery in Frames 15-6-103
Anchorage 15-6-23 Assembling Machinery on Structural Supports 15-6-103

Index
MOVABLE BRIDGES (CONT) NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION AGENCY OF CANADA SYSTEM OF

Balancing of Gears 15-6-103 ACCOUNTS 16-12-25
Bearings 15-6-102 NATURAL WATERWAYS 1-3-1
Bevel Gears 15-6-102 Basic Concepts and Definitions of Scour 1-3-20
Bolts and Holes 15-6-103 Contraction Scour 1-3-22
Couplings 15-6-102 Lateral Stream Migration 1-3-23
Gears and Pinions 15-6-102 Local Scour 1-3-22
Grooves in Journals and Linings 15-6-103 Long-term Elevation Streambed Changes (Aggradation and
Hubs 15-6-102 Degradation) 1-3-21
Journals 15-6-101 References for Section 3.4 1-3-24
Keys and Keyways 15-6-102 Scour 1-3-20
Linings 15-6-102 Total Scour 1-3-24
Machine Molding 15-6-102 Calculating Scour 1-3-25
Machinery Manufacture in General 15-6-101 Estimating Contraction Scour 1-3-31
Racks 15-6-101 Estimating Local Pier Scour 1-3-43
Shafts 15-6-101 Evaluating Local Scour at Abutments 1-3-49
Special Provisions for Bascule Bridges 15-6-104 Predicting Aggradation and Degradation 1-3-25
Special Provisions for Swing Bridges 15-6-103 Predicting Lateral Migration 1-3-28
Special Provisions for Vertical Lift Bridges 15-6-105 References for Section 3.5 1-3-59
Worms and Worm Wheels 15-6-102 Total Scour Calculation Problem 1-3-53
MOVABLE OBJECTS 11-3-5, 12-3-9, 17-3-3 Construction of Protection of Roadbed Across Reservoir Areas
MOVEMENT, RESISTANCE TO 16-2-3 1-3-34
MSW RAIL HAUL EQUIPMENT 14-4-63 Determination of Wave Heights 1-3-34
MULTI-MODAL FACILITIES 11-4-10, 12-4-7, 17-4-3 Construction of Embankment and Roadbed 1-3-40
Amenities 11-4-10, 12-4-11 Construction of Embankment Protection 1-3-41
Baggage 11-4-10, 12-4-11 Determination of Hydraulic Capacity of Structures 1-3-27
Car Shops 17-4-4 Electronic Tool to Establish the Cross Section Descriptions
Circulation 11-4-10, 12-4-10 1-3-47
Connections 11-4-10
Engine Shops 17-4-4
Flood Hazard Investigations in Coastal, Alluvial Fan, and
Ice-Effected River Systems 1-3-40
1
Environmental Requirements 17-4-4 General 1-3-27
Functional Requirements 11-4-10, 12-4-10, 17-4-4 Glossary 1-3-48
General 11-4-10, 12-4-7, 17-4-4 Hydraulic Analysis Techniques for Preliminary Assessment
Layover Yards 17-4-4 or for Temporary Construction 1-3-27
Maintenance Philosophy 17-4-4 Hydraulic Analysis Using Detailed Techniques 1-3-30
Maintenance of Way Shops 17-4-4 Other Methods and Techniques 1-3-46
Material Yards 17-4-4 Prevention of Stream Erosion 1-3-48
Parking 11-4-10, 12-4-10 References for Section 3.3 1-3-47
3
Passenger Information/Signage 11-4-10, 12-4-11 Sensitivity Issues 1-3-44
Regulatory Requirements 17-4-4 General 1-3-3
Safety/Security 17-4-4 Importance 1-3-3
Site Considerations 17-4-4 Scope 1-3-3
Utility Considerations 17-4-4 Hydrologic Capacity of Waterway Openings 1-3-5
MULTI-MODAL INTERFACES 17-2-4, 17-2-5 Drainage Basin Data 1-3-6
Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1, 12-2-12 General 1-3-5
General 17-2-5 Hydrologic Methods 1-3-9 4
Rural Stations 17-2-5 References for Section 3.2 1-3-26
Special Use Stations 17-2-5 Sensitivity Issues 1-3-25
Suburban Stations 17-2-5 Means of Protecting Roadbed and Bridges from Washouts and
Types of Interfaces 17-2-5 Floods 1-3-32
Urban Stations 17-2-5 Bridges 1-3-33
MULTI-MODAL FACILITIES 12-4-7 General 1-3-32
MULTI-ROTATIONAL BEARINGS 15-9-56, 15-10-29, 15-11-17 Roadway 1-3-32
MULTI-ROTATIONAL BEARINGS FOR BRIDGES 15-11-16 Protecting Roadway and Bridges From Scour 1-3-60
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW) TERMINALS 14-4-63 Bridges 1-3-61
Countermeasure Design Guidance 1-3-78
Countermeasure Selection 1-3-62
N Embankment 1-3-60
Negative Moment Reinforcement 8-2-24
NATURALLY OCCURRING EVENTS THAT CAN ALTER
NAMEPLATES 15-1-15
CLEARANCES 28-3-71
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT (NEPA), OVERVIEW
NDT LEVEL III OR PROGRAM ADMINISTRATOR REQUIREMENTS
13-2-1 4-4-66
NATIONAL HISTORIC PRESERVATION ACT 13-2-3
NEGATIVE RETURN CIRCUIT 33-12-21

Index
NET SECTION 7-2-38, 15-1-43 OPERATIONS

NEW TUNNEL - SLAB TRACK 8-27-20 Centers 11-6-1, 17-6-2
NOISE EXPOSURE 27-2-39 and Cost Estimates 17-2-6
NOMENCLATURE 1-2-4 Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility 6-12-2
NOMINAL OPERATING VOLTAGE 33-3-2 Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Equipment
NON-COMPLIANCE 27-2-39 Repair Shops 6-9-3
NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT 8-17-11, 8-17-29 Simulations 12-2-20, 17-2-6
NON-SHRINK GROUTS 8-14-6 OPERATIONS RESEARCH, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
NON-STRUCTURAL CRACK REPAIR 8-14-18 16-6-7
NON-TYPICAL IMPEDANCE BOND CIRCUMSTANCES 33-5-10 OPERATIONS, CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 16-10-1
NORMAL AND CONTINGENCY OPERATION, AC OPERATOR REQUIREMENTS, WASTEWATER PRETREATMENT
ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM CONFIGURATION 33-6-5 AND DISCHARGES 13-3-10
NORMAL INSPECTION PROTOCOL 17-7-4, 17-7-5 OPERATOR TRAINING METHODS
NORMAL RATING 8-19-2 Background 27-1-22
NOTATIONS 5-3-4, 8-19-9 OPTIMIZING ELECTRICAL DEMAND 6-5-5
Concrete 8-2-7 OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT 27-2-16, 27-2-21
Prestressed Concrete 8-17-5 OPTIONAL REQUIREMENTS 15-6-13
NOTCH TOUGHNESS OF STEEL IN FRACTURE CRITICAL ORDER OF PLACING 8-11-7
MEMBERS 15-9-32 ORDERING STRUCTURAL LUMBER, TIMBER AND ENGINEERED
NOTCHED BEAMS, WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES 7-2-38 WOOD PRODUCTS 7-1-5
NOTCHES 7-2-30 ORGANIZATION 16-8-1
NOTES Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Equipment
on the Use of Stress-Graded Lumber 7-6-7 Repair Shops 6-9-3
NOTICE OF BEGINNING WORK 15-3-3 Functions 16-8-2
NOTICE TO ENGINEER 15-1-7 Construction 16-8-3
NOZZLES Engineering Design, Planning and Support 16-8-2
Sand Facility 6-6-15 General 16-8-2
NUMBER AND LOCATION OF BORINGS 8-22-4 Inspection 16-8-3
NUMBER OF TESTS 4-3-17, 5-1-4, 5-2-3, 5-10-3 Planned Maintenance and Replacement 16-8-4
Repair 16-8-4
Testing 16-8-3
O Introduction 16-8-2
Methods 16-8-4
Considerations for Developing Methods 16-8-5
OBJECTIVE 33-1-2
General 16-8-4
OBJECTIVES FOR PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS 16-7-3
Organization 16-8-6
OBSTRUCTIONS, CHARTING, SUGGESTED METHODS 28-3-9
Contractors 16-8-8
OCS/THIRD RAIL MAINTENANCE 33-1-7
General 16-8-6
OFFICE, WELFARE AND BUILDING SERVICES FOR MATERIALS
Inspectors 16-8-6
MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 6-7-5
Maintenance Gangs 16-8-7
OFFICES 6-4-16, 6-9-9, 6-11-6
Program Gangs 16-8-8
Space 6-2-7
Supervisors 16-8-6
OIL POLLUTION PREVENTION 13-3-7
Training 16-8-8
Facility Response Plans 13-3-9
Consultants and Contractors 16-8-9
General 13-3-7
General 16-8-8
Implementing Agency 13-3-7
Railroad Forces 16-8-8
Regulatory Citations 13-3-7
ORGANIZATION OF BID DOCUMENTS, RAILWAY BUILDINGS
Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure Plans 13-3-7
6-1-4
OPEN DECK BRIDGE TIES 15-1-15
Bidding Requirements 6-1-3
OPEN DECK BRIDGES 5-5-21
Construction Specifications Institute Format 6-1-5
OPEN DECK BRIDGES, ENGINEERED COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-12
Contract Forms 6-1-3
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
General Conditions 6-1-4
Diesel-Electric Locomotives 16-3-11
Recommended Format 6-1-3
Electric Locomotives 16-3-5
Special Conditions 6-1-4
OPERATING LIMITATIONS, UNLOADING PITS 15-8-17
Technical Specifications 6-1-4
OPERATING ROPES 15-6-76
ORGANIZATION AND INSPECTION PREPARATION 6-15-2
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
ORGANIZATION ISSUES, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS ENGINERING
Cost Estimating 12-2-20
16-6-2
ORGANIZATION OF RAILROAD ENERGY MANAGEMENT
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE RECORDS 18-1-3
PROGRAM 6-5-7
OPERATION, RAILWAY 16-4-1
ORIGINAL RIGHT-OF-WAY GRANT INSTRUMENTS 18-1-3
OPERATIONAL CONCERNS 12-4-42
OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS 8-1-9
OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS 27-2-4
Acceptability 8-1-9
Documentation 8-1-10

Index
OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS (CONT) PACKING AND IDENTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS (CONT)

General 8-1-9 Railroad Track Stabilization Applications 1-10-7
Materials Not Included in This Recommended Practice 8-1-10 System Specifications for Railroad Applications 1-10-21
Specifications 8-1-9 PAINT 27-2-15, 27-2-21, 27-2-36
OTHER FACILITIES AND INFRASTRUCTURE, SEISMIC DESIGN FOR PAINT SHOP 6-9-5
RAILWAY STRUCTURES 9-1-32, 9-2-23 PAINT SPRAY BOOTHS 6-13-9
Buildings and Support Facilities 9-1-34, 9-2-23 PAINT SYSTEMS 15-8-35
Culverts 9-1-33 PAINTING 15-6-107
Rail Transit 9-1-35 of Existing Steel Railway Bridges 15-8-32
Retaining Walls 9-1-33 PANTOGRAPH BASICS 33-8-9
Scope 9-1-32 PAPER, ANTI-BONDING 8-29-20
Track and Roadbed 9-1-32, 9-2-23 PARKING 6-2-3, 6-3-3, 6-13-3
Tunnels and Track Protection Sheds 9-1-34 PARTITIONS 6-2-11
Utilities, Signal and Communication Facilities 9-1-34 PARTNERSHIP PROJECT EXAMPLES 16-7-3
OTHER METHODS AND TECHNIQUES, HYDRAULIC CAPACITY OF PARTS CLEANER 6-4-29
STRUCTURES 1-3-46 PARTS AND INSTRUCTION BOOKS 27-2-37
OTHER RIGHT-OF-WAY EXPENDITURES, ACCOUNT 4 16-12-6 PARTS INCLUDED IN GLASSES 15-6-10
OTHER SCALES 8-1 PASSENGER CARS, HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT CLEARANCE
Other Scales ALLOWANCES 28-3-3
Capacity and Size 8-2 PASSENGER COMFORT 11-3-4, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
Definition 8-1 PASSENGER CONVENIENCE 12-2-12, 17-2-4
General 8-1 PASSENGER FACILITIES 11-4-3, 14-6-1, 12-4-3, 17-4-3
Records 8-2 Activities 14-6-7
Test Weights 8-2 Amenities 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Testing and Tolerances 8-2 Finish Materials 12-4-7, 17-4-3
OTHER TRACK MEASURING SYSTEMS 2-6-1 Functional Requirements 11-4-3, 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Definitions 2-6-2 General 11-4-3, 12-4-3, 17-4-3
Description 2-6-2 Landscaping 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Introduction 2-6-2
Measurement Frequency 2-6-2
Mechanical Systems 12-4-7, 17-4-3
Passenger Information/Signage 12-4-7, 17-4-3
1
Recommended Practices 2-6-2 Passenger Train Yards 14-6-8
Typical Uses of Data 2-6-2 Activities 14-6-12
OTM AND FASTENINGS 18-2-4 General 14-6-8
OUTDOOR AREA LIGHTING – FLOODLIGHTING IN RAILROAD Site 14-6-9
YARDS 33-10-8 Regulatory Requirements 12-4-7, 17-4-3
OUTLINE, GENERAL, FIXED OBSTRUCTIONS 28-1-3 Safety/Security 12-4-7, 17-4-3
OUTSTANDING ELEMENTS IN COMPRESSION 15-1-47 Site 14-6-4
OVERALL CONSIDERATIONS 6-1-13 Site Considerations 12-4-7, 17-4-3
3
OVERHEAD ELECTRIFICATION, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-8 Station Environment 14-6-3
OVERHEAD STRUCTURES 6-16-6 Activities 14-6-7
OVERLOAD OR SHORT TIME AMPACITY CONDITIONS 33-4-24 General 14-6-3
OVERLOAD OR SHORT TIME AMPACITY RATINGS 33-4-24 Site 14-6-4
OVERVIEW, RAILWAY APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL & Structural Systems 12-4-7, 17-4-3
SYSTEMS ENGIEERING 16-6-2 Terminal Planning 14-6-2
OVERVIEW DISPLAYS 6-11-3 General 14-6-2
OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES 13-4-13 Utilities 14-6-13 4
Electrical Systems 14-6-13
Mechanical Systems 14-6-13
P PASSENGER INFORMATION/SIGNAGE 17-4-3
PASSENGER OPERATIONS 11-3-5, 12-3-9, 17-3-3
PASSENGER RAIL (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE,
PACKAGING AND HANDLING 4-3-38, 4-3-42
REPAIR AND SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-1
PACKAGING, HANDLING AND STORAGE
Electrical Requirements 6-13-11
Of Bridge Bearings 15-11-3
Functional Requirements 6-13-3
PACKAGING, HEAT-TREATED CARBON STEEL TRACK BOLTS
Illustrations 6-13-11
AND CARBON-STEEL NUTS 4-3-26
Mechanical Requirements 6-13-9
PACKAGING, STEEL SCREW SPIKES 5-10-5
Site Considerations 6-13-2
PACKING 4-3-30, 33-7-10, 33-7-20, 33-7-27
Special Equipment 6-13-9
PACKING AND IDENTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
Special Requirements - Coach Shop 6-13-5
Cellular Confinement System Specifications for Railroad Use
Special Requirements - Combined Coach Locomotive Shop
1-10-26 6-13-7
Geogrid Specifications for Ballast and Sub-Ballast
Structural Requirements 6-13-9
Reinforcement 1-10-28
Railroad Drainage Applications 1-10-13
Railroad Erosion Control Applications 1-10-15

Index
PASSENGER TRAIN YARDS 6-8-32, 14-6-8 PERMITS 15-1-7

Activities 14-6-12 Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation 8-22-4
General 6-8-32 Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams
Site 14-6-9 8-23-4
Yard Activities 6-8-35 PERSONNEL
Yard Electrical Systems 6-8-37 Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing
Yard Mechanical Systems 6-8-36 Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-67
Yard Site Considerations 6-8-33 PHASE UNBALANCE STUDY 33-6-19
PASSENGER TRAINS 33-1-3 PHYSICAL ANALYSIS 1-2-10
PASSENGER TRAINS, HIGH SPEED 16-2-10 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, ENGINEERED
PASSENGER-TRAIN CARS, ACCOUNT 54 16-12-19 COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-4
PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE 8-20-9 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS 33-7-9
PATENTED DEVICES 15-1-7 PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS 5-6-14
PATENTS 15-4-10 For Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-15
PAY WEIGHT 15-3-22 Specifications for Wood Fence Post 1-6-4
PAYMENT PHYSICALLY RESTRICTED AREAS 5-8-13
Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90 PICK UP OF RELEASED RAIL 4-3-53
PCBS, SPECIAL WASTE 13-5-16 PIECE MARKING 15-3-9
PEDESTRIAN SUBWAYS 8-29-6 PIER PROTECTION 8-2-6
PENETRATING WATER REPELLENT Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams 8-23-1
Application 8-1-50, 8-1-59 Commentary 8-23-21
Deliver, Storage and Handling 8-1-52 Energy Dissipation 8-23-21
Environmental Requirements 8-1-50, 8-1-58 Fender Flexibility 8-23-22
Materials 8-1-51 Sources of Information 8-23-22
Quality Assurance 8-1-51, 8-1-59 Construction 8-23-17
Surface Preparation 8-1-50, 8-1-58 Fabrication of Structural Steel 8-23-20
Treatment of Concrete Surfaces 8-1-50, 8-1-58 Framing of Timber 8-23-20
PERCUSSION TOOLS 5-6-5 General 8-23-17
PERFORATED PIPE DRAINS 1-4-100 Handling and Storage of Materials 8-23-20
Applications 1-4-100 Materials 8-23-18
Construction Requirements 1-4-102 Pile Driving 8-23-20
General 1-4-100 Design 8-23-4
Hydraulic Design 1-4-101 Design Loads 8-23-4
Inspection and Acceptance 1-4-104 General 8-23-4
Materials 1-4-100 Suggested Design Procedure 8-23-7
Operation and Maintenance 1-4-104 General 8-23-2
Related Filter Materials 1-4-101 Purpose 8-23-2
Safety Provisions 1-4-104 Scope 8-23-2
Structural Design 1-4-102 Special Considerations 8-23-2
PERFORMANCE, DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS, VEHICLE Permits 8-23-4
CONSIDERATIONS 17-5-4 Types of Construction 8-23-3
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA 9-1-19 Vessel 8-23-2
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA, RAIL SUPPORT 16-10-9 Waterway 8-23-2
PERFORMANCE GUIDELINE FOR REGULAR TESTING 4-4-60 PIER SPACING, ORIENTATION AND TYPE 8-5-12
PERFORMANCE MEASURES, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS PIER SHAFTS 8-5-12
ENGINEERING 16-6-9 PIERS IN NAVIGABLE STREAMS 8-5-13
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS, ENGINEERED COMPOSITE TIES PILE AND PILE BENTS 8-21-3
30-5-5 PILE DRIVING 7-4-7
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS Tests 8-4-8
PERFORMANCE TO BE ACHIEVED, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-3 PILE FOUNDATIONS 8-4-1
Data Base 16-9-15 Allowable Load on Piles 8-4-5
PERFORMANCE, TRAIN 16-2-1 End Bearing Piles 8-4-5
PERIODIC INSPECTIONS 15-7-23 Friction Piles 8-4-5
PERIODIC TESTS, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-7 Lateral Support 8-4-6
PERMANENT JOINT BEAMS 8-25-9 Pile Driving and Loading Tests 8-4-8
PERMANENT SET 4-3-30 Pile Length Determination 8-4-6
PERMANENT STEEL CASING MATERIAL 8-24-9 Subsurface Investigation 8-4-5
PERMISSIBLE STRESS Commentary 8-4-17
Bearing 8-2-63 Allowable Load on Piles 8-4-18
Shear 8-2-56 Design 8-4-17
PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS IN DIMENSIONS 5-2-3 Loads 8-4-17
Batter Piles 8-4-18
On Piles 8-4-17
Scour 8-4-18

Index
PIER PROTECTION (CONT) PIPELINES (CONT)

General 8-4-17 Design 1-5-32
Scope 8-4-17 Documentation 1-5-39
Inspection of Pile Driving 8-4-19 Maintenance 1-5-40
Installation of Piles 8-4-19 Planning 1-5-31
Pile Types 8-4-18 Scope 1-5-31
Design 8-4-2 Specifications for Overhead Pipelines Crossings 1-5-28
Batter Piles 8-4-4 General Conditions 1-5-28
Eccentricity of Loads 8-4-3 General Design Requirements 1-5-29
Loads 8-4-2 Inspection and Maintenance 1-5-31
Loads on Piles 8-4-3 Scope 1-5-28
Scour 8-4-5 Structural Elements 1-5-29
Spacing of Piles 8-4-4 Specifications for Pipelines Conveying Flammable Substances
Uplift on Piles 8-4-3 1-5-3
General 8-4-2 Approval of Plans 1-5-9
Scope 8-4-2 Casing Pipe 1-5-6
Inspection of Pile Driving 8-4-16 Construction 1-5-8
Installation of Piles 8-4-14 Execution of Work 1-5-10
Augered Cast-In-Place Piles 8-4-16 General Requirements 1-5-3
Driven Piles 8-4-14 Plastic Carrier Pipe Conveying Non Liquid Flammable
Pile Types 8-4-9 Substances 1-5-6
Augered Cast-In-Place 8-4-13 Scope 1-5-3
Cast-In-Place Concrete 8-4-11 Steel Carrier Pipe 1-5-5
General 8-4-9 Specifications for Pipelines Conveying Non-Flammable
Precast Concrete 8-4-11 Substances 1-5-22
Steel 8-4-10 Approval of Plans 1-5-27
Timber 8-4-9 Carrier Pipe 1-5-23
PILE LENGTH DETERMINATION 8-4-6 Construction 1-5-26
PILE TYPES 8-4-9
PILES
Execution of Work 1-5-28
General Requirements 1-5-22
1
Allowable Load on 8-4-5 Scope 1-5-22
Augered Cast-In-Place 8-4-13, 8-4-16 Steel Casing Pipe 1-5-24
Batter 8-4-4 Specifications for Uncased Gas Pipelines within the Railway
Cast-In-Place Concrete 8-4-11 Right-of-Way 1-5-10
Driven 8-4-14 Approval of Plans 1-5-21
End Bearing 8-4-5 Carrier Pipe 1-5-12
Friction 8-4-5 Commentary 1-5-21
Inspection of Driving 8-4-16 Construction 1-5-20
3
Installation of 8-4-14 Execution of Work 1-5-21
Loads on 8-4-3 General Requirements 1-5-11
and Post Footings 7-2-7 Scope 1-5-10
Precast Concrete 8-4-11 PIPING SYSTEMS 6-16-7
Spacing 8-4-4 SANDING FACILITIES 6-6-15
Steel 8-4-10 PIT, CONCRETE 15-8-26
Timber 8-4-9 PITCH AND GAGE OF FASTENERS 15-1-57
Uplift on 8-4-3 PITS 4
PIN CLEARANCES 15-3-8 Equipment and Related Facilities 6-4-14
PINS 15-1-62 Unloading 15-8-17
PINS AND PIN-CONNECTED MEMBERS 15-1-62 PLACE OF TESTS 4-3-31
PINS AND ROLLERS 15-3-8 PLACEMENT
PIPE 8-10-3 of Ducts, Steel, and Anchorage Hardware 8-17-50
Arches 1-4-63 of Roadway Signs 1-7-4
Culvert Design 1-4-58 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH 8-1-42
Installation 8-10-13 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME 8-1-42
Manholes and Pipe Tunnels 8-29-6 PLACING AND CURING, MORTAR AND GROUT 8-17-52
Minimum Strength 8-10-12 PLACING AND FASTENING 8-17-54
Strength 8-10-12 PLANNED MAINTENANCE AND REPLACEMENT 16-8-4
PIPELINES 1-5-1 PLANNING 12-2-4, 17-2-3
Specifications for Fiber Optic "Route" Construction on Railroad Corridor Planning Considerations 11-2-1
Right of Way 1-5-31 Economic Acceptance 12-2-6, 17-2-3
Abbreviations 1-5-44 Environmental Acceptance 12-2-6, 17-2-3
Appendix 1-5-45 an Exploration Program 8-22-3
Construction 1-5-36 General 12-2-4, 17-2-3
Definitions 1-5-41 Institutional Issues 12-2-8, 17-2-3

Index
PLANNING (CONT) PLATFORMS 6-8-20

and Quality Control of Rail Grinding 4-4-92 Access 6-8-21
Safety 12-2-7 Dimensions 6-8-21
Safety/Security 17-2-3 General 6-8-20
Social Acceptance 12-2-6, 17-2-3 Lighting 6-8-22
User Needs 12-2-4, 17-2-3 PLATFORMS, WALKWAYS AND ROADWAYS 8-29-7
PLANNING SHEARED EDGES 15-3-7 PLUMBING 6-2-16
PLANNING, BUDGETING AND CONTROL 16-15-1 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-17
Annual Budget 16-15-8 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM 27-2-9, 27-2-33
Develop Maintenance of Way Annual Expense Budget Sanding Facilities 6-6-9
16-15-10 POLES
Development of the Maintenance-of-Way Capital Budget Cantilever 8-12-1
16-15-8 POLES AND FOUNDATIONS, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-6
Objectives 16-15-8 POLLUTION
Purpose 16-15-8 Air 6-4-22
Scope 16-15-8 Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-22
Authorization Process 16-15-14 Noise 6-4-22
Departmental Responsibilities 16-15-14 Water 6-4-22
Objectives 16-15-14 POLLUTION/CONTAMINATION, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-8
Plan/Budget Documentation 16-15-15 POLYETHER URETHANE DISC BEARINGS 15-9-55, 15-10-8
Project Documentation 16-15-15 POPULATION AND ECONOMIC DATA 11-2-7, 12-2-9, 17-2-3
Purpose 16-15-14 PORTABLE ELECTRONIC THERMOMETER 6-5-9
Scope 16-15-14 PORTAL AND SWAY BRACING 15-1-61
Control Functions 16-15-16 PORTLAND CEMENT
Capital Performance Reviews (Post Audit) 16-15-17 Concrete 8-29-17
Impact on Operating Budget 16-15-17 POSITIVE MOMENT
Objectives 16-15-16 Reinforcement 8-2-24
Purpose 16-15-16 POST INSTALLATION INSPECTION, PIPE CULVERTS 1-4-87
Responsibilities 16-15-16 POST-SEISMIC EVENT OPERATION GUIDELINES 9-1-4
Scope 16-15-16 POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES 8-17-34
Variance Analysis 16-15-17 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS 8-17-13,
Introduction 16-15-2 8-17-46
Scope 16-15-2 POST-TENSIONING DUCTS 8-17-13
Long-Term Planning 16-15-6 POST-TENSIONING FORCE 8-26-17
Departmental Responsibilities 16-15-6 POWER 16-3-1
Comparison with Former Plans 16-15-8 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-19
Inventory of Property and Equipment 16-15-6 Diesel-Electric Locomotives 16-3-11
Objectives 16-15-6 General 16-3-11
Project Submissions 16-15-7 Operating Characteristics 16-3-11
Purpose 16-15-6 Dynamic Braking 16-3-13
Scope 16-15-6 Horsepower Ratings 16-3-11
Permanent Data Base 16-15-18 Electric Locomotives 16-3-4
Departmental Responsibility 16-15-18 Electric Braking 16-3-9
Implementation 16-15-19 General 16-3-4
Objectives 16-15-18 Operating Characteristics 16-3-5
Purpose 16-15-18 General 16-3-2
Scope 16-15-18 Adhesion 16-3-3
Strategic Planning 16-15-3 Horsepower 16-3-2
Corporate 16-15-3 Locomotive Capacity 16-3-3
Engineering 16-15-5 Locomotive Classification 16-3-4
Financial 16-15-5 Motive Power, Types 16-3-2
Marketing 16-15-4 Tractive Effort 16-3-3
PLANS 15-4-3 Other Types 16-3-16
for Steel Screw Spikes 5-10-5 Gas Turbine-Electric 16-3-16
Erection, Steel Structure Fabricated by Contractor 15-4-3 Self-Propelled Rail Cars 16-3-16
Erection, Steel Structure Supplied by Company 15-4-3 POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 33-1-5
for Track Tools 5-6-23 POWER EQUIPMENT 15-6-76
PLANS FOR TRACK TOOLS 5-6-23 POWER AND ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT COMPATIBILITY STUDY
PLANS, SPECIFICATIONS AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS 16-7-5 33-6-18
PLANT 15-4-3 POWER GENERATING FACILITIES 33-1-5
PLASTIC CARRIER PIPE CONVEYING NON LIQUID FLAMMABLE POWER OPERATION 15-6-76
SUBSTANCES 1-5-6 POWER PLANTS, ACCOUNT 29 16-12-14
PLATE GIRDERS OR ROLLED BEAMS 15-7-8 POWER REQUIREMENTS AND MACHINERY DESIGN 15-6-19
PLATFORM DESIGN CRITERIA 6-16-4

Index
POWER SUPPLY AND ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS 33-12-1 PREPARATION (CONT)

Electric Traction Systems Considerations 33-12-3 of a Specification for the Cleaning and Coating of Existing Steel
Adopted Electrification System AC or DC 33-12-5 Railway Bridges 15-8-32
Electrification Parameters 33-12-5 of Subgrade 8-10-12
Operational Requirements 33-12-5 of Surfaces for Dampproofing 8-29-29
Systems Selection and Design 33-12-3 of Track 5-5-3
Vehicle Propulsion Types and Performance 33-12-4 Prior to Unloading Continuous Welded Rail 5-5-6
Electrification System Design Characteristics 33-12-7 of Worn Areas 5-5-27
Electrical Characteristics of Running Rail 33-12-22 PREPARATION FOR AN INSPECTION 18-2-10
Grounding and Bonding 33-12-21 PREPARATION FOR WELDING 4-3-54
Harmonics 33-12-23 PREPARATION OF HOLES FOR FIELD FASTENERS 15-3-13
High Voltage Sub-transmission Lines 33-12-17 PREPARATION OF HOLES FOR SHOP FASTENERS 15-3-12
Negative Return Circuit 33-12-21 PREPARATION OF MATERIAL FOR WELDING 15-3-18
Protection and Remote Control/Monitoring 33-12-18 PREPARING A VEGETATION CONTROL PROGRAM 1-9-2
Stray Current Control 33-12-22 PRE-REVENUE OPERATION TESTING 33-6-30
Type of Distribution System – Overhead Contact System or PRESENT PRACTICE 5-5-6
Contact Rail 33-12-10 PRESENTING PUBLISHED CLEARANCES, SUGGESTED METHOD
Type of Substation 33-12-9 28-3-8
Introduction 33-12-2 PRESERVATION
Approach to These Guidelines 33-12-2 of Documents, Bridge Management Programs 10-1-6
References to Other Applicable Chapters 33-12-2 of Track Fixtures 5-5-24
Scope and Definition of Electrification Systems 33-12-3 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF BRIDGE TIES 7-1-3
Special Considerations 33-12-27 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT, SPECIFICATIONS FOR WOOD
Compatibility with Train Control 33-12-27 FENCE POST 1-6-6
Corrosion Control and Protection 33-12-27 PRESERVING EXISTING CLEARANCE DURING MAINTENANCE
Electromagnetic Interference and Compatibility 33-12-28 WORK 28-3-67
Elevated Construction 33-12-28 PRESSURIZATON TIME CALCULATIONS, YARD COMPRESSED AIR
Street Level Running Considerations (LRT) 33-12-27 FACILITIES FOR TRAIN AIR BRAKE SYSTEMS 6-17-12
Testing and Analysis 33-12-28
Maintainability and Reliability 33-12-28
PRESTRESS LOSSES 8-17-21
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 8-17-1
1
Safety 33-12-28 Allowable Stresses 8-17-19
Safety Certification Considerations 33-12-28 Concrete 8-17-19
Start-up and Testing 33-12-28 Prestressing Tendons 8-17-19
System Integration and Interface Management 33-12-28 Application of Loads 8-17-53
Traction Power Equipment 33-12-23 Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle 8-17-56
ETS System 33-12-25 Concrete Strength at Stress Transfer 8-17-45
Supervisory (Central) Control Interface 33-12-23 Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts 8-17-12
POWER SUPPLY AND ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMSTRACTION Development of Prestressing Strand 8-17-14
3
POWER EQUIPMENT 33-12-23 Minimum Concrete Cover 8-17-12
POWER SUPPLY EQUIPMENT 33-4-4 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers 8-17-13
POWER TRANSFER 33-1-5 Post-Tensioning Ducts 8-17-13
POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS, ACCOUNT 31 16-12-14 Protection for Debonded Prestressing Tendon 8-17-13
POWER-PLANT MACHINERY, ACCOUNT 45 16-12-17 Protection for Prestressing Tendons 8-17-13
PRACTICES 5-5-22 Spacing of Tendons and Ducts 8-17-12
PRE-ASSEMBLY AND SHIPPING, MULTI-ROTATIONAL BEARINGS Tendon Anchorage Zones 8-17-13
15-11-21 Deflections 8-17-17 4
PRECAST CONCRETE PILES 8-4-11 Diaphragms 8-17-17
PRECAST/PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS WITH WIDE TOP Ductility Limits 8-17-28
FLANGES 8-17-16 Maximum Prestressing Steel 8-17-28
PRECAST SLABS FOR BRIDGE DECKS OR FLOORS 8-29-6 Minimum Reinforcement 8-17-29
PRECAUTIONS 5-5-28 Effective Flange Width 8-17-16
in Unstable Soils 1-4-77 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with Wide Top Flanges
Vegetation Control 1-9-13 8-17-16
PREDICTING AGGRADATION AND DEGRADATION 1-3-25 Expansion and Contraction 8-17-14
PREDICTING LATERAL MIGRATION 1-3-28 Flange and Web Thickness-Box Girders 8-17-16
PRELIMINARY DATA 8-11-2 Flexural Strength 8-17-26
PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING FOR PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS Flanged Sections 8-17-27
16-7-6 Introduction 8-17-26
PRELIMINARY EXPLORATION 1-1-3 Rectangular Sections 8-17-26
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION Steel Stress 8-17-27
Design, Tunnels 1-8-2 Frams and Continuous Construction 8-17-15
PREPARATION General Analysis 8-17-14
of Defective Areas 5-5-27 General Design 8-17-18
of Foundation 1-4-71 Basic Assumptions 8-17-18

Index
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (CONT) PRESTRESSING STRAND

Composite Flexural Members 8-17-18 Development of 8-17-14
Design Theory and General Considerations 8-17-18 PRESTRESSING TENDONS 8-17-12
General Detailing 8-17-45 Allowable Stresses 8-17-19
Cover ans Spacing of Reinforcement 8-17-45 Debonded, Protection for 8-17-13
Embedment of Prestresses Tendon 8-17-49 Materials 8-17-10
Flange Reinforcement 8-17-45 Protection for 8-17-13
Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers 8-17-46 PRESTRETCHING 15-6-75
General Fabrication 8-17-49 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES 8-17-45
Application and Measurement of Prestressing Force 8-17-53 PRETREATMENT REQUIREMENTS, WATER AND WASTEWATER
Contractor’s Drawings 8-17-49 COMPLIANCE 13-3-10
Curing 8-17-50 PREVENTION OF STREAM EROSION 1-3-48
Erection 8-17-50 PRIMER 8-29-13, 8-29-21
Materials and Fabrication 8-17-49 PRINCIPAL MATERIALS USED IN THE REPAIR OF CONCRETE
Placement of Ducts, Steel, and Anchorage Hardware STRUCTURES 8-14-5
8-17-50 PROCEDURE 5-8-15
Storage and Handling 8-17-50 PROCEDURES, LOCKOUT/TAGOUT (LOTO) DURING
General Requirements and Materials 8-17-4 MAINTENANCE OF ROADWAY MACHINES 27-2-56
Design Loads 8-17-4 PROCEDURES, SPECIFICATION FOR THE QUALITY ASSURANCE OF
Scope 8-17-4 ELECTRIC-FLASH BUTT WELDING OF RAIL 4-3-47
Load Factors 8-17-18 PRODUCE TERMINALS 14-4-59
Required Strength 8-17-18 PRODUCT TESTING, HEAT-TREATED CARBON STEEL TRACK
Loss of Prestress 8-17-21 BOLTS AND CARBON-STEEL NUTS 4-3-21
Prestress Losses 8-17-21 PRODUCTION AND HANDLING 1-2-13, 1-2-24
Materials 8-17-10 PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL 16-6-12
Concrete 8-17-10 PRODUCTION QUALITY CONTROL, ENGINEERED COMPOSITE
Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons 8-17-11 TIES 30-5-11
Non-Prestressed Reinforcement 8-17-11 PROFILES
Prestressing Tendons 8-17-10 Velocity 16-2-12
Rigid Ducts 8-17-12 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT 16-9-2
Materials - Reinforcing Steel 8-17-53 PROGRAM FORMS 16-9-5
Bar Lists and Bending Diagrams 8-17-54 PROGRAM GANGS, ORGANIZATION 16-8-8
Fabrication 8-17-54 PROGRAM MAINTENANCE AND SPOT REPAIRS 17-7-3
General 8-17-53 PROGRAM RAIL 4-5-1
Handling, Storing and Surface Condition of Reinforcement PROGRAMMED TRACK MAINTENANCE, TRACK GEOMETRY
8-17-54 MEASURING VEHICLES 2-1-38, 2-2-16
Placing and Fastening 8-17-54 PROGRAMMING WORK 16-9-1
Splicing of Bars 8-17-54 Control 16-9-15
Mortar and Grout 8-17-52 General 16-9-15
General 8-17-52 Monitoring Results 16-9-15
Materials and Mixing 8-17-52 Performance Standards Data Base 16-9-15
Placing and Curing 8-17-52 Economics 16-9-5
Non-Prestresses Reinforcement 8-17-29 General Considerations 16-9-6
Notations 8-17-5 Introduction 16-9-5
Post-Tensioned Anchorage Zones 8-17-34 Methods of Analysis 16-9-6
Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design of Service Life 16-9-6
Anchorage Zones 8-17-39 Estimating 16-9-12
Approximate Methods 8-17-40 General 16-9-12
Design of the General Zone 8-17-35 Unit Cost 16-9-12
Design of the Local Zone 8-17-43 Introduction 16-9-2
Elastic Stress Analysis 8-17-40 Program Development 16-9-2
General zone and Local Zone 8-17-35 General Considerations 16-9-2
Geometry of Anchorage Zone 8-17-34 Introduction 16-9-2
Pretensioned Anchorage Zones 8-17-45 Methodology 16-9-3
Shear 8-17-30 Program Forms 16-9-5
General 8-17-30 PROGRESS REPORTS, VEGETATION CONTROL 1-9-11
Horizontal Shear Design-Composite Flexural Members PROHIBITED TYPES OF JOINTS AND WELDS 15-1-59
8-17-33 PROJECT COMPLETION AND BILLING 16-7-7
Shear Strength Provided by Concrete 8-17-30 PROJECT DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS
Shear Strength Provided by Web Reinforcement 8-17-32 ENGINEERING 16-6-3
Span Length 8-17-14 PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION,
Terms 8-17-8 PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS 16-7-4

Index
PROJECT MANAGEMENT WITH CROSS-FUNCTIONAL TEAM, PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS AND PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHPS
INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 16-6-3 COSTS AND BENEFITS (CONT)
PROPER USAGE OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF FROGS 5-4-7 Cost and Benefit Analysis 16-7-9
PROPERTIES, PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL, ENGINEERED Costs and Benefits 16-7-9
COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-4 Force Account Project Estimates 16-7-7
PROPERTIES OF AREMA RAIL GRADES 4-2-7 Government Relationship Considerations 16-7-10
PROPERTY ASSET LEDGERS 16-12-25 Introduction 16-7-2
PROPERTY REQUIREMENTS 1-2-10 Plans, Specifications and Special Provisions 16-7-8
PROPERTY TAX (AD VALOREM) 16-14-6 Preliminary Engineering for Public Improvements 16-7-6
PROPERTY VALUE IMPACTS 12-2-13, 17-2-4 Project Completion and Billing 16-7-10
PROPORTION OF TESTS 4-3-30 Public Improvement Agreements 16-7-8
PROPORTIONING Public Improvement Project Development 16-7-2
Concrete 8-1-31 Public Private Partnerships 16-7-2
and Mixing, Specifications for Concrete Fence Posts 1-6-7 PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS 16-7-2
PROPORTIONING GIRDERS AND BEAMS 15-1-51 General 16-7-2
PROPORTIONING OF TRUSS WEB MEMBERS 15-1-36 Keys to Success 16-7-4
PROPOSALS 15-1-6 Objectives 16-7-3
PROPOSALS AND DRAWINGS 15-1-6 Project Development and Implementation 16-7-4
PROPOSALS AND GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 15-6-5 Recent Partnership Project Examples 16-7-3
PROPULSION SYSTEM 11-3-4, 11-6-2, 12-3-6, 17-3-3, 17-6-16 Special Considerations 16-7-5
Electric Traction Power 17-6-16 PUBLIC WORKS PROJECTS, DESIGN 7-2-3
PROPULSION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 11-7-3, PUBLICATIONS, REFERENCES, SANDING FACILITIES 6-6-19
17-7-5 PUBLISHED CLEARANCES, SUGGESTED METHOD OF PRESENTING
General 17-7-5 28-3-8
Normal Inspection Protocol 17-7-5 PUMP PITS FOR SUBWAYS AND BASEMENTS 8-29-6
Severe Weather Inspection Protocol 17-7-5 PURCHASER’S ORDER REQUIREMENTS 33-7-14, 33-7-20,
PROPULSION TECHNOLOGY 12-2-15, 17-2-5 33-7-26
PROTECTING ROADWAY AND BRIDGES FROM SCOUR 1-3-60 PURPOSE
Bridges 1-3-61
Countermeasure Design Guidance 1-3-78
Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines 27-2-62
Guidelines for the Development of Bridge Management
1
Countermeasure Selection 1-3-62 Programs 10-1-1
Embankment 1-3-60 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements 8-1-5
PROTECTION AND REMOTE CONTROL/MONITORING 33-12-18 Recommended Calibration Rails for Rail Flaw Detection System
PROTECTION FOR DEBONDED PRESTRESSING TENDONS 8-17-13 4-4-64
PROTECTION FOR PRESTRESSING TENDONS 8-17-13 Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing
PROTECTION OF PARTS 15-6-106 Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-65
PROTECTION OF PIPE AGAINST PERCOLATION, PIPING AND Specification for Copper Thermite Welded Electrical
SCOUR 1-4-77 Connections 33-7-21
3
PROTECTION OF PIPE CULVERT FROM CONSTRUCTION LOADS Specification for Thermite Type Welded Rail-Head Bonds and
1-4-74 Track Connectors 33-7-17
PROTECTION OF TRAIN OPERATIONS, BRIDGE MANAGEMENT Specification for Welded Type Rail Head U-Bonds and
PROGRAM 10-1-9 Extended Bonds 33-7-11
Deficient Bridge Condition 10-1-9 Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC
PROTECTIVE COVER, MEMBRANE 8-29-26 Electrification Systems 33-6-3
PROTECTIVE DEVICE COORDINATION STUDY 33-6-20 Waterproofing 8-29-4
PROVISION FOR EXPANSION, GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS, PURPOSE OF INSPECTION 18-3-36 4
STEEL STRUCTURES 15-1-14 PYROMETER, SURFACE 6-5-9
PROVISIONAL POST-TENSIONING DUCTS AND ANCHORAGES
8-26-37
PROVISIONS RELATING TO ENFORCEMENT, AIR QUALITY Q
COMPLIANCE 13-4-14
PSYCHROMETER 6-5-9
QUALIFICATION TEST FACILITY 5-9-3
PTFE BEARING SURFACE 15-10-8, 15-11-9
QUALIFICATION TESTING 4-3-34, 4-3-40
PTFE SLIDING BEARING SURFACES 15-10-14, 15-11-9
QUALIFICATIONS
Design 15-10-15
Recommended Qualifications for Operator Performing
Erection 15-11-11
Ultrasonic Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-65
Fabrication 15-11-10
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND ASSESSMENT (AUDIT) OF
General 15-11-9
MAINTENANCE PRACTICES 2-1-40, 2-2-17
Materials 15-10-15, 15-11-9
QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY CONTROL 33-6-29
Scope 15-10-14
QUALITY ASSURANCE OF THERMITE WELDING OF RAIL,
PUBLIC IMPROVEMENT AGREEMENTS 16-7-8
SPECIFICATION FOR 4-2-72
PUBLIC IMPROVEMENT PROJECT DEVELOPMENT 16-7-2
QUALITY CONTROL, ENGINEERED COMPOSITE TIES 30-5-11
PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS AND PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHPS
QUALITY CONTROL REQUIREMENTS 4-3-44
COSTS AND BENEFITS 16-7-1
QUALITY OF WORKMANSHIP 15-3-3

Index
QUALITY, SAMPLING AND TESTING RAIL (CONT)

Cement 8-1-9 Specification for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail
QUANTITATIVE CONSIDERATIONS, VEGETATION CONTROL 4-3-49
1-9-5 Specification for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Bolts and
QUANTITY OF FIELD FASTENERS 15-3-12 Carbon-Steel Nuts 4-3-19
QUENCHED CARBON-STEEL JOINT BARS, MICROALLOYED JOINT Specification for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash Butt
BARS, AND FORGED COMPROMISE JOINT BARS, Welding of Rail 4-3-1
SPECIFICATIONS FOR 4-3-15 Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Welding
of Rail 4-3-55
Specifications for Bonded Insulation Rail Joints 4-3-32
R Specifications for Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail
Joints 4-3-38
Specifications for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars,
RACKS 15-6-101
Microalloyed Joint Bars, and Forged Compromise Joint
RADIATOR WATER RECLAIM SYSTEM 6-4-18
Bars 4-3-15
RAIL 4-i, 5-8-10, 18-2-4, 30-1-8
Specifications for Spring Washers 4-3-29
Anchorage of 15-8-13
Joints 5-5-24
Anchors 5-7-1
Lubrication 16-2-8
Recommended Practices for Rail Anchor Application and
Maintenance of Rail 4-4-1
Maintenance 5-7-5
Beveling or Slotting of Rail Ends 4-4-76
General 5-7-5
Field, Rail Flaw Identification 4-4-3
Specifications for Rail Anchors 5-7-2
Illustrations of Rail Surface Conditions 4-4-57
Acceptance 5-7-4
Recommended Calibration Rails for Rail Flaw Detection
Bagging 5-7-4
System 4-4-64
Bearing Area 5-7-2
Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail
Design 5-7-2
Testing 4-4-60
Dimensions 5-7-3
Recommended Practices for Rail/Wheel Friction Control
Fracture Test 5-7-3
4-4-77
Function 5-7-2
Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in CWR
Identification 5-7-4
4-4-74
Inspection 5-7-4
Reconditioning Rail Ends 4-4-76
Retests and Rejection 5-7-3
Manufacture of Rail 4-2-1
Scope 5-7-2
Specifications for Steel Rails 4-2-3
Shipping Tag 5-7-4
Methods of Extending Life 16-10-8
Slip Test 5-7-2
Methods of Joining and Laying 16-10-7
Tagging 5-7-4
Miscellaneous 4-5-1
Workmanship 5-7-4
Rail Information 4-5-1
Commentaries 4-6-1
Number of Rail Anchors to Resist Rail Creepage 5-5-18
Construction and Maintenance 16-10-3
and Other Track Material, Except Joints 5-5-24
Cutting 5-10-11
Recommended Minimum Performance Guideline for Rail
Design of Rail 4-1-1
Testing 4-4-60
Recommended Rail Sections 4-1-1
Introduction 4-4-60
Drillings, Bar Punchings and Bolts 4-3-13
Measuring Against the Performance Guidelines 4-4-62
Embedded Track 12-8-8
Performance Guideline for Regular Testing 4-4-60
Rail Considerations 12-8-8
Verification of Reliability Ratio for Missed Defects 4-4-63
Standards Organizations and Relevant Standards or
Selection Criteria 16-10-3
Recommended Practices 12-8-14
Support 16-10-9
End Connections 15-6-34
as Supporting Beams 15-8-25
Ends 15-6-17
Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-10
Expansion Joints 15-8-15
RAIL BONDING 33-7-1
Rail Grades, AREMA, Properties of 4-2-7
Method of Determining Rail Bond Sizes - Electric Traction
Head
Joining of Rail 4-3-1
33-7-4
General 33-7-4
Application of Rail Bonds 4-3-31
Specification for Copper Thermite Welded Electrical
Application Procedures 4-3-32
Connections 33-7-21
Application of Propulsion Rail Bonds Using External
Attaching Metal 33-7-26
Heat 4-3-33
Conductors 33-7-24
Introduction 4-3-31
Design 33-7-24
Weld Integrity - Preventing Martensite Formation in
Drawings 33-7-21
Welded or Brazed Applications 4-3-31
Inspection 33-7-27
General Characteristics of a Rail Joint 4-3-4
Marking 33-7-27
Inspection and Classification of Second Hand Rail for
Material and Workmanship 33-7-24
Welding 4-3-53
Packing 33-7-27
Joint Bars and Assemblies 4-3-5
Purchaser’s Order Requirements 33-7-26
Rail Drillings, Bar Punchings and Bolt 4-3-13

Index
RAIL BONDING (CONT) RAIL DEFECT INFORMATION 4-5-2

Purpose 33-7-21 RAIL END AND PREPARATION REQUIREMENTS 4-3-43
Resistance of Installed Connections 33-7-26 RAIL FASTENERS
Tender 33-7-21 Types for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-15
Tests 33-7-27 RAIL FASTENING REQUIREMENTS
Warranty 33-7-27 For Concrete Slab Track 8-27-14
Specification for Rail-Head Pin-Type Bonds and Track RAIL FIXATION (FASTENING) 12-8-22
Connectors 33-7-15 RAIL GRADES, PROPERTIES OF 4-2-7
Specification for Stud Terminal Copper Rail Bonds 33-7-8 RAIL GRINDING BEST PRACTICE 4-4-82
General 33-7-8 Continuous Improvement 4-4-92
Guarantee 33-7-10 Factors That Influence Preventive Rail Grinding 4-4-85
Inspection and Rejection 33-7-10 Grinding Cycles for Preventive Grinding 4-4-90
Manufacture 33-7-8 Planning and Quality Control of Rail Grinding 4-4-92
Packing 33-7-10 Preventive Grinding Metal Removal Rates 4-4-89
Physical Properties and Tests 33-7-9 Rail Grinding Definition 4-4-82
Standard Dimensions 33-7-9 Reason for Rail Grinding 4-4-82
Terms 33-7-8 Recommended Practices for Switch and Maintenance Grinding
Specification for Thermite Type Welded Rail-Head Bonds and Applications 4-4-108
Track Connectors 33-7-17 Scope 4-4-82
Attaching Metal 33-7-19 Surface Finish Tolerances 4-4-91
Conductors 33-7-18 What is Best Practice Rail Grinding? 4-4-83
Design 33-7-18 RAIL GRINDING DEFINITION 4-4-82
Drawings 33-7-17 RAIL GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT, SPECIFICATIONS FOR 27-2-45
Identification 33-7-19 RAIL INFORMATION 4-5-1
Inspection 33-7-20 Program Rail 4-5-1
Marking 33-7-21 Rail Defect Information 4-5-2
Material and Workmanship 33-7-17 Rail Wear Information 4-5-2
Packing 33-7-20 Program Rail 4-5-1
Purchaser’s Order Requirements 33-7-20
Purpose 33-7-17
Use of Rail Information 4-5-2
RAIL JOINTS 30-1-8
1
Resistance of Installed Bonds 33-7-19 RAIL MEASUREMENTS 2-2-21
Tender 33-7-17 RAIL MEASURING SYSTEMS 2-2-1
Terminals (Sleeve or Other Device Supplied by Definitions 2-2-2
Manufacturer) 33-7-19 Introduction 2-2-2
Tests 33-7-20 Recommeded Practice for Computing Rail Profile Quality
Warranty 33-7-21 Indices 2-2-17
Specification for Welded Type Rail Head U-Bonds and Recommended Practice for Measuring Rail Wear Parameters
Extended Bonds 33-7-11 2-2-21
3
Alternates 33-7-12 System Description 2-2-16
Conductors 33-7-12 Typical Uses of Data 2-2-16
Design 33-7-12 RAIL MOUNTED DETECTOR EQUIPMENT 16-5-9
Drawings 33-7-11 RAIL PROFILE QUALITY INDICES, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
Identification 33-7-13 FOR COMPUTING 2-2-17
Inspection 33-7-14 RAIL REQUIREMENTS, FABRICATION OF CONTINUOUS WELDED
Marking 33-7-15 RAIL 4-3-49
Material and Workmanship 33-7-12 RAIL RESTRAINT 4
Purchaser’s Order Requirements 33-7-14 Lateral 30-4-26
Purpose 33-7-11 Longitudinal 30-4-26
Resistance of Installed Bonds 33-7-13 RAIL SEAT ABRASION 30-4-9
Tender 33-7-12 RAIL SURFACE CONDITION, SECOND HAND RAIL 4-3-53
Terminals 33-7-13 RAIL SYSTEM INVESTMENT ANALYSIS
Tests 33-7-14 Financial Analysis of Investment Projects from the Individual
Warranty 33-7-15 Corporate Perspective, Report No. DOT-P-10-78-34, May
RAIL BONDS, APPLICATION 4-3-31 1978 16-B-2
Application Procedures 4-3-32 RAIL TRANSIT 12-i, 9-1-35
Application of Propulsion Rail Bonds Using External Heat Corridor Planning Considerations 12-2-1
4-3-33 Embedded Track 12-8-1
Introduction 4-3-31 Facilities and Structural Considerations 12-4-1
Weld Integrity - Preventing Martensite Formation in Welded or Introduction 12-1-1
Brazed Applications 4-3-31 Maintenance of Way Considerations 12-7-1
RAIL CARS, SELF-PROPELLED 16-3-16 Signals, Communications, and Propulsion Considerations
RAIL CONSIDERATIONS, EMBEDDED TRACK 12-8-8 12-6-1
RAIL CORRIDOR CRITERIA 12-2-12 Track and Roadway Considerations 12-3-1
RAIL CROSSINGS AND TURNOUTS 18-2-4 Vehicle Considerations 12-5-1

Index
RAIL WEAR PARAMETERS, MEASURING 2-2-21 RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION COMPATIBILITY WITH SIGNAL
RAIL WEAR INFORMATION 4-5-2 SYSTEMS 33-5-1
RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS 33-4-1 Changes from 1981 & 1982 Editions 33-5-2
Catenary Definitions, Standards and Concepts 33-4-3 Discussion 33-5-3
Catenary Support Options 33-4-3 Electrical Effects 33-5-3
Distribution System 33-4-5 Impedance Bond Installation Requirements 33-5-7
Power Supply Equipment 33-4-4 Impedance Bond Connections 33-5-7
Sectionalization Equipment 33-4-7 Impedance Bond Locations 33-5-7
Support Equipment 33-4-5 Impedance Bond Windings 33-5-8
Catenary System Design Criteria 33-4-8 Non-Typical Impedance Bond Configurations 33-5-9
Catenary Pole Criteria 33-4-12 Typical Impedance Bond Circumstances 33-5-9
Catenary Pole Footings/Seatings 33-4-14 Requirements of the Signal and Electrification Systems 33-5-2
Clearance Criteria 33-4-10 Electric Traction 33-5-4
Climatic Conditions 33-4-8 Electrification and Signal System Interface Issues 33-5-4
Construction Tolerances 33-4-11 Signals 33-5-4
Contact Wire Deflections 33-4-11 Scope 33-5-2
Contact Wire Gradients 33-4-12 Use of Impedance Bonds in Railway Electrification 33-5-5
General Introduction 33-4-8 Impedance Bond Descriptions 33-5-5
Contact Wire Ampacity 33-4-21 Impedance Bond Functions 33-5-5
Introduction 33-4-21 Signal Track Circuit Assumptions 33-5-5
Method of Calculating Ampacity 33-4-21 RAILWAY DESIGN AND GEOMETRICS 5-8-6
Overload or Short Time Ampacity Conditions 33-4-24 RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION
Overload or Short Time Ampacity Ratings 33-4-24 Use of Imdepance Bonds in Railway Electrification
Sample Calculation 33-4-23 Impedance Bond Descriptions 33-5-5
Table of Continuous Ampacity Ratings 33-4-24 Impedance Bond Functions 33-5-5
Uniform Rating Parameters 33-4-23 Signal Track Circuit Assumptions 33-5-5
Electrification Feeding and Sectionalizing Arrangements RAILWAY LINE CLEARANCES, METHODS OF MEASURING
33-4-16 28-3-28
Recommendations 33-4-17 RAILWAY LOCATION 16-1-1
Scope 33-4-16 Basic Economic Considerations 16-1-2
Terms 33-4-16 Location 16-1-2
RAILROAD FORCES, TRAINING 16-8-8 Choice of Design and Alignment 16-1-14
RAILS AND OTHER TRACK MATERIAL, ACCOUNT 9 16-12-8 RAILWAY OPERATION 16-4-1, 16-4-20
RAILSEAT ABRASION REPAIR 30-4-56 Introduction 16-4-2
RAILWAY APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS Automatic Equipment Identification 16-4-3
ENGINEERING 16-6-1 Car Distribution 16-4-2
RAILWAY BRIDGES, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-4 Communications 16-4-15
RAILWAY BRIDGES, TIMBER, TYPICAL PLANS 7-4-23 Defect Detection 16-4-16
RAILWAY BUILDINGS, SPECIFICATIONS AND GENERAL DESIGN Dispatching 16-4-10
CRITERIA 6-1-1 Economics of Train Management 16-4-13
Design Criteria 6-1-13 Emergency Communications 16-4-16
Electrical 6-1-14 Essential Communications 16-4-16
Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning 6-1-14 Freight Train Length 16-4-5
Materials 6-1-13 Line Capacity 16-4-17
Overall Considerations 6-1-13 Locomotives 16-4-2
Special Considerations 6-1-13 New Technologies 16-4-16
Structural Considerations 6-1-13 On-Board Communications 16-4-16
General Design Criteria for Railway Buildings 6-1-8 Terminals 16-4-20
General Considerations for Railway Building Design 6-1-10 Train Consist 16-4-4
Scope 6-1-8 Train Management 16-4-10
Site Considerations 6-1-8 Train Movement Systems 16-4-12
Site Work 6-1-9 Trains 16-4-4
Utilities 6-1-10 Work Order Systems 16-4-3
Warning 6-1-8 RAILWAY SIDE TRACKS, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-7
Organization of Bid Documents 6-1-4 RAILWAY TRACK EQUIPMENT OPERATOR SIGHTLINES AND
Bidding Requirements 6-1-4 VISIBILITY GUIDELINE FOR NEW ON-TRACK MACHINERY
Construction Specifications Institute Format 6-1-6 27-2-61
Contract Forms 6-1-4 Definitions 27-2-61
General Conditions 6-1-5 General 27-2-61
Recommended Format 6-1-4 Mirrors and Cameras 27-2-63
Special Conditions 6-1-5 Railway Track Equipment Operator Sighlines and Visibility for
Technical Specifications 6-1-5 "Travel" Mode 27-2-61

Index
RAILWAY TRACK SCALES RAILWAY TRACK SCALES (CONT)

Location, Maintenance, Operation and Testing 1-1 Material 2-10
Manufacture and Installation 2-1 Mounting 2-10
Anti-Friction Points and Plates 2-14 Position 2-11
Clearances 2-14 Support for Projecting Pivots 2-11
Material and Design 2-14 Plans 2-7
Approach Rails 2-18 Assembly Plans 2-7
Alignment 2-18 Drawings 2-7
Anti-Creep Provisions 2-18 Materials 2-7
Approach Weighrails - Joints 2-18 Protection from Corrosion 2-18
Weight of Rails 2-19 Surface Treatment 2-18
Capacities and Sizes 2-6 Scale Levers 2-9
Rated Sectional Capacity 2-6 Leveling Lugs 2-10
Checks 2-14 Marking of Levers 2-10
Design 2-14 Nose Iron Guides 2-10
Number, Type and Kind 2-14 Permanency of Adjustment 2-10
Position 2-14 Quality of Materials 2-9
Strength 2-14 Truss Rods 2-10
Clearances 2-14 Scale Weighbridges 2-15
Dead Rails and Dead Rail Beams 2-19 Bracing 2-17
Dead Rails - When Required 2-19 Diagonal Bracing 2-17
Elevation 2-19 Fabrication and Assembly 2-18
Transverse Beams Supporting Dead Rails 2-19 Stiffeners at Points of Bearing 2-17
Weight of Rails 2-19 Transverse Bracing 2-17
Deck 2-19 Type of Girders 2-15
Clearance 2-19 Weighbridge Bearings 2-15
Construction 2-19 Weighrail Pedestals 2-17
Type 2-19 Weighrails 2-18
Foreign Material and Precipitation 2-20
Exclusion 2-20
Weighbeams and Accessories 2-7
Balance Ball 2-9
1
Interchangeability 2-15 Beam Fulcrum Stand 2-9
Introduction 2-5 Design 2-7
Lever Fulcrum Stands 2-12 Factory Adjustment of Notches 2-9
Anchor Bolt Holes 2-13 Fractional Poises on Registering Weighbeams 2-8
Bases for Lever Stands 2-13 Identification of Parts 2-8
Finish of Tops of Stands 2-13 Poise 2-8
Proportions 2-12 Poise Bearings 2-8
Qualities of Materials 2-12 Printing Level 2-8
3
Tie Bars 2-13 Ratio 2-8
Lighting 2-20 Receptacle for Weigh Ticket 2-8
Pit 2-20 Trig Loop 2-9
Scale House and Surrounding Area 2-20 Type Figures 2-8
Location and Elevation 2-20 Weighbeam Support 2-9
Elevation 2-20 RAILWAY TUNNELS
Location 2-20 Double Track Clearance Diagrams 28-1-6
Shelf Levers and Weighbeam 2-20 Lining 8-11-1 4
Loops and Connections 2-13 Single-Track Clearance Diagrams 28-1-5
Design 2-13 RAILYARD WASTE 13-5-16
Length 2-13 RATE STRUCTURE NEGOTIATION 33-6-29
Locknuts 2-13 RATING 8-19-2, 15-7-13
Material 2-13 of Bridges 15-7-3
Vertical Adjustment 2-13 of Equipment 15-7-3
Mass Flow Meters 8-1 Formulas 8-19-9
Nose Irons 2-12 RATING EXISTING BRIDGES
Design 2-12 Concrete 8-19-1
Marking of Position 2-12 RATIONALE AND SCOPE OF WORK, VEGETATION CONTROL
Retaining Device 2-12 1-9-2
Screws and Bolts 2-12 REACTIONS 15-1-68
Pivots and Bearings 2-10 REAMING AND DRILLING
Design and Manufacture 2-10 After Assembly 15-3-15
Design of Bearings 2-11 Through Templates 15-3-14
Finish of Bearing Steels 2-11 REASON FOR RAIL GRINDING 4-4-82
Fulcrum Distances 2-11 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS, TRAIN RESISTANCE 16-2-5
Interchangeability of Bearing Steels 2-11 RECLAMATION, TRACK MATERIAL 16-10-18

Index
RECOMMENDATIONS 33-4-17, 33-5-4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF SEGMENTAL BRIDGES

for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood 7-1-19 (CONT)
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF SEGMENTAL BRIDGES General 8-26-8
Allowable Stresses 8-26-22 Longitudinal Analysis 8-26-12
Prestressed Concrete 8-26-22 Strut-and-Tie-Models 8-26-8
Prestressing Steel 8-26-22 Transverse Analysis 8-26-11
Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation Saddles Prestress Losses 8-26-23
8-26-34 Provisional Post-Tensioning Ducts and Anchorages 8-26-37
Anchorages Bearing Reaction Force 8-26-36 Bridges with Internal Ducts 8-26-37
Anchorages in Diaphragms 8-26-36 Dead Load or Defection Adjustment 8-26-38
Anchorages in Special Blisters 8-26-36 General 8-26-37
Deviation Saddles 8-26-37 Shear and Torsion 8-26-25
Forces and Reinforcement in General Anchorage Zones Design for Plane Section Type Regions 8-26-28
8-26-35 Diaphragms, Deep Beams, Corbels and Brackets 8-26-32
General 8-26-34 General Requirements 8-26-25
Reinforcement 8-26-35 Scope 8-26-25
Reinforcement Detailing 8-26-35 Shear Transfer at Interfaces 8-26-33
Box Girder Cross Section Dimensions and Details 8-26-42 Strut-and-Tie Truss Model Design for Either Beam Type or
Length of Top Flange Cantilever 8-26-43 Discontinuity Regions 8-26-30
Minimum Flange Thickness 8-26-42 Two-Way Punching Shear 8-26-33
Minimum Web Thickness 8-26-42 RECOMMENDED CALIBRATION RAILS FOR FLAW DETECTION
Overall Cross Section Dimensions 8-26-43 SYSTEMS 4-4-64
Commentary 8-26-43 Calibration Rails 4-4-64
Concrete Cover and Reinforcement Spacing 8-26-42 Manufacture of Calibration Rails 4-4-64
Cover and Spacing 8-26-42 Purpose 4-4-64
Reinforcement Details for Erection Loads 8-26-42 RECOMMENDED CLEARANCE SPECIFICATION TO PROVIDE FOR
Connection of Secondary Beams 8-26-41 OVERHEAD ELECTRIFICATION 33-2-2
Couplers 8-26-40 Altitude Compensation 33-2-12
Design Loads 8-26-12 Clearances from Energized Ancillary Conductors 33-2-12
Creep and Shrinkage 8-26-14 Depth of Construction of the OCS at Supports (D) 33-2-14
Dead Loads 8-26-13 Design and Construction Clearance 33-2-7
Erection Loads 8-26-13 Electrical Clearances from Energized Parts to Grounded Parts
General 8-26-12 (Air Clearances) 33-2-9
Post-Tensioning Force 8-26-17 General 33-2-6
Thermal Effects 8-26-13 Lateral Displacements and Super-Elevation 33-2-15
Duct Details 8-26-38 OCS Clearances Requirement at Overhead Structures (H)
Duct Area 8-26-38 33-2-14
Duct Confinement Reinforcement 8-26-40 Tolerances in the OCS System and Position of Track 33-2-8
Duct Size, Clearance and Detailing 8-26-39 Vertical Clearance 33-2-7
Duct Supports 8-26-39 Vertical Clearance Requirements at Overhead Structures
Material Thickness 8-26-38 33-2-15
Minimum Radius of Curvature 8-26-38 RECOMMENDED COLORS FOR PAINTING MOTOR CARS,
Fatigue Stress Limits 8-26-34 ROADWAY MACHINES, WORK EQUIPMENT AND RAIL GUIDE
Fatigue Stress Limits for Bonded Nonprestressed WHEEL EQUIPMENT 27-1-3
Reinforcement 8-26-34 RECOMMENDED DESIGN STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE RESULTS,
Fatigue Stress Limits for Prestressed Reinforcement 8-26-34 INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 16-6-3
Flexural Strength 8-26-24 RECOMMENDED FORMAT, ORGANIZATION OF BID DOCUMENTS
Center of Gravity Correction for Strand Tendons 8-26-24 6-1-4
General 8-26-24 RECOMMENDED LIMITS OF WEAR FOR TOOLS TO BE RECLAIMED
Strain Compatibility 8-26-24 5-6-17
General Requirements and Material 8-26-4 RECOMMENDED MINIMUM PERFORMANCE GUIDELINE FOR RAIL
Concrete 8-26-8 TESTING 4-4-60
General 8-26-4 Introduction 4-4-60
Notations 8-26-4 Measuring Against the Performance Guidelines 4-4-62
Terms 8-26-7 Performance Guideline for Regular Testing 4-4-60
Inspection Access 8-26-42 Verification of Reliability Ratio for Missed Defects 4-4-63
Load Factors 8-26-17 RECOMMENDED OPEN STANDARD FOR TGMV DATA
Construction Load Combinations, Stresses and Stability INTERCHANGE 2-1-64
8-26-19 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
General 8-26-17 for Computing Rail Profile Quality Indices 2-2-17
Service Load Combinations 8-26-17 for the Manufacture of Two-Piece Steel Doweled Laminated
Strength Reduction Factors 8-26-18 Cross Ties (TPSDLC) 30-3-107
Methods of Analysis 8-26-8 Measurement Frequency for Track Geometry Measuring Vehicle
Effective Flange Width 8-26-8 2-1-75

Index
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE (CONT) RECOMMENDED VOLTAGES 33-3-1

for Rail Anchor Application and Maintenance 5-7-5 Definitions 33-3-2
for Switch Point and Stock Rail Changeout 5-5-28 Contingency Minimum Vehicle Operating Voltage 33-3-2
for Use of Abrasive Wheels 5-10-6 Maximum No-Load Substation Voltage 33-3-2
for Using, Redressing, Sharpening and Replacing Handles in Maximum Vehicle Operating Voltage 33-3-2
Track Tools 5-6-57 Minimum Vehicle Operating Voltage 33-3-2
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR IDENTIFYING AND LOCATING Nominal Operating Voltage 33-3-2
TRACK GEOMETRY PRIORITY DEFECTS DETECTED BY A Design Criteria 33-3-2
TRACK GEOMETRY MEASURING VEHICLE 2-1-11 Introduction 33-3-1
Description of the Measured Geometry Parameters 2-1-19 General 33-3-1
Description of the Priority Defect Report 2-1-19 Recommended Voltages for New Construction 33-3-3
Description of a Strip Chart 2-1-12 RECOMMENDED VOLTAGES FOR NEW CONSTRUCTION 33-3-3
General 2-1-11 RECONDITIONING RAIL ENDS 4-4-76
Identification of Track Geometry Priority Defects Using the RECONDITIONING, SECOND HAND RAIL 4-3-53
TGMV’s Reports 2-1-22 RECORD COLLECTION 6-5-7
Location and Verification of Track Geometry Priority Defects in RECORDS 8-20-3, 8-22-7, 8-2
the Track 2-1-28 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS 8-17-26
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR RAIL/WHEEL FRICTION RECYCLABLE MATERIALS 13-5-17
CONTROL 4-4-77 REDRESSING OF TOOLS 5-6-58
Friction Measurement Systems 4-4-79 REFERENCES
General 4-4-77 Buildings and Support Facilities 6-R-1
Lubricants and/or Friction Modifiers 4-4-80 Concrete Structures and Foundations 8-R-1
Measuring Friction Control Effectiveness 4-4-77 Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations 16-R-1
Scope 4-4-77 High Speed Rail Systems 17-R-1
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR THE RENEWAL OF TRACK TIES Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment 27-R-1
5-5-31 Roadway and Ballast 1-R-1
Scope 5-5-31 Sanding Facilities 6-6-18
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR ROAD CROSSING FOUNDATIONS Codes 6-6-18
1-1-69
Ballast 1-1-76
Publications 6-6-19
Seismic Design for Railway Structures 9-R-1
1
Design Loads 1-1-75 Steel Structures 15-R-1
Drainage 1-1-69 Ties 30-R-1
General 1-1-69 Timber Structures 7-R-1
Maintenance 1-1-76 Yards and Terminals 14-R-1
Roadway Geomtrics and Crossing Surface 1-1-76 REFERENCES IN 2002 AREMA COMMUNICATIONS & SIGNALS
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR SHIPPING, HANDLING, MANUAL OF RECOMMENDED PRACTICE, VOLUME 2, PART 5
APPLICATION AND USE 30-4-44 DEFECT DETECTION SYSTEMS 16-5-14
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR SWITCH AND MAINTENANCE REFERENCES FOR SECTION 3.2, WATERWAY OPENINGS 1-3-26
3
GRINDING APPLICATIONS 4-4-108 REFERENCES FOR SECTION 3.3, HYDRAULIC CAPACITY OF
RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES FOR OPERATOR PERFORMING STRUCTURES 1-3-47
ULTRASONIC TESTING OF RAIL OR TRACK COMPONENTS REFERENCES FOR SECTION 3.4 1-3-24
4-4-68 REFERENCES FOR SECTION 3.5 1-3-59
Calibration of Test Equipment 4-4-69 REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Evaluation 4-4-69 27-1-15
Inspection Procedures 4-4-69 REFLECTORIZED MATERIALS, ROADWAY SIGNS 1-7-4
Recommended Procedures 4-4-68 REFRIGERATED AIR DRYERS 6-17-17 4
Recommended Record Maintenance 4-4-70 REFUGE NICHES 8-11-6
Reports 4-4-69 REGIONAL TRANSPORTATION INTERFACES 12-2-19
Ultrasonic Test (UT) Written Procedure Requirements 4-4-68 REGULATORY CITATIONS, WATER AND WASTEWATER
RECOMMENDED QUALIFICATIONS FOR OPERATOR PERFORMING COMPLIANCE 13-3-3, 13-3-5, 13-3-7, 13-3-9, 13-3-11
ULTRASONIC TESTING OF RAIL OR TRACK COMPONENTS REGULATORY CITATIONS, WASTE MANAGEMENT 13-5-4,
4-4-65 13-5-9, 13-5-13
Examination of Personnel 4-4-67 REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS 11-3-4, 11-3-5, 11-3-11,
NDT Level III or Program Administrator Requirements 4-4-66 12-3-6, 12-3-8, 12-3-13, 12-4-26, 17-3-3, 17-3-4,
Personnel 4-4-67 17-4-3, 17-4-4, 17-7-4
Purpose 4-4-65 REHABILITATION/UPGRADE OF TRACK AND STRUCTURES FOR
Qualifications 4-4-65 HANDLING 286,000-LB CARS 18-5-1
RECOMMENDED RAIL SECTIONS 4-1-1 Bridges 18-5-4
RECOMMENDED RECORD MAINTENANCE 4-4-70 Track 18-5-1
RECOMMENDED REPAIR OF DEFECTIVE OR BROKEN RAIL IN REHEARING 4-3-19
CWR 4-2-74 REHEAT TREATMENT 4-3-24, 4-3-30
General 4-2-74
Scope 4-2-74

Index
REINFORCED CONCRETE REINFORCED CONCRETE (CONT)

Box Culverts Spacing 8-2-21
Design Principles Types 8-2-21
Live Load 8-16-20 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement 8-2-23
Culvert Pipe 8-10-1 Spacing of Reinforcement 8-2-18
Design 8-10-4 Development and Splices of Reinforcement 8-2-23
Alternate Design Procedure 8-10-12 Anchorage of Shear Reinforcement 8-2-29
Bedding Factors 8-10-6 Development
Factor of Safety 8-10-12 Standard Hooks in Tension 8-2-27
General 8-10-4 Welded Wire Fabric in Tension 8-2-28
Loads 8-10-4 Deformed Wire Fabric 8-2-28
Minimum Pipe Strength 8-10-12 Smooth Wire Fabric 8-2-29
Pipe Strength 8-10-12 Development Length
References 8-10-4 Bundled Bars 8-2-26
General 8-10-2 Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension 8-2-25
Definitions 8-10-2 Deformed Bars in Compression 8-2-26
Scope 8-10-2 Development Requirements 8-2-23
Installation 8-10-12 General 8-2-23
Backfill and Embankment 8-10-14 Negative Moment Reinforcement 8-2-24
Pipe Installation 8-10-13 Positive Moment Reinforcement 8-2-24
Preparation of Subgrade 8-10-12 Special Members 8-2-25
Materials 8-10-3 Mechanical Anchorage 8-2-29
Acid Resistant Coatings 8-10-4 Splices of Reinforcement 8-2-31
Manholes 8-10-3 Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension 8-2-31
Pipe 8-10-3 Deformed Bars in Compression 8-2-32
Rubber Gaskets 8-10-4 End Bearing Splices 8-2-32
Design 8-2-1 Lap Splices 8-2-31
Analysis and Design 8-2-33 Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension 8-2-33
Analysis Methods 8-2-33 Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension 8-2-33
Bearings 8-2-35 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections 8-2-31
Box-Girder Construction 8-2-37 General 8-2-5
Composite Concrete Flexural Members 8-2-35 Buildings 8-2-6
Computation of Deflections 8-2-34 Design Methods 8-2-5
Expansion and Contraction 8-2-33 Highway Bridges 8-2-6
General 8-2-33 Pier Protection 8-2-6
Modulus of Elasticity 8-2-34 Scope 8-2-5
Shrinkage Coefficient 8-2-34 Skewed Concrete Bridges 8-2-6
Span Length 8-2-34 SuperStructure Protection 8-2-6
Stiffness 8-2-34 Load Factor Design 8-2-48
T-Girder Construction 8-2-36 Compression Members With or Without Flexure 8-2-52
Thermal Coefficient 8-2-34 Biaxial Loading 8-2-53
Design Methods 8-2-38 General Requirements 8-2-52
Commentary 8-2-65, 8-14-25 Strengths 8-2-52
General 8-2-65 Control of Deflections 8-2-65
Pier Protection 8-2-65 General 8-2-65
Details of Reinforcement 8-2-17 Superstructure Depth Limitations 8-2-65
Concrete Protection for Reinforcement 8-2-18 Design Assumptions 8-2-49
Concrete Cover for Bar Bundles 8-2-19 Strength Design 8-2-49
Concrete Cover for Corrosive and Marine Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement 8-2-64
Environments 8-2-19 Fatigue Stress Limit for Reinforcement 8-2-64
Corrosion Protection 8-2-19 Flexure 8-2-49
Minimum Concrete Cover 8-2-18 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members
Hooks and Bends 8-2-17 8-2-49
Minimum Bend Diameter 8-2-17 Other Cross Sections 8-2-51
Standard Hooks 8-2-17 Rectangular Sections With Compression
Limits for Reinforcement of Compression Members Reinforcement 8-2-51
8-2-21 Rectangular Sections With Tension Reinforcement
Lateral Reinforcement 8-2-21 Only 8-2-50
Longitudinal Reinforcement 8-2-21 T-and T-Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only
Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members 8-2-19 8-2-50
Distribution of Reinforcement 8-2-19 Permissible Bearing Stress 8-2-63
Lateral Reinforcement 8-2-20 Serviceability Requirements 8-2-63
Shear Reinforcement 8-2-20 Application 8-2-63
Minimum 8-2-20 Service Load Stresses 8-2-63

Index
REINFORCED CONCRETE (CONT) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEASURED TGMV DATA AND

Shear 8-2-56 TRACK/VEHICLE INTERACTION 2-1-74
Horizontal Design for Composite Concrete Flexural RELAY RACKS AND COMPUTER EQUIPMENT 6-11-4
Members 8-2-60 RELIABILITY 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3, 27-2-18
Reinforcement Design 8-2-58 RELIABILITY UNDER ADVERSE WEATHER CONDITIONS 17-7-3
Shear-Friction 8-2-58 RELINING MATERIALS 1-4-79
Special Provisions REMODELING/EXPANSION, PASSENGER RAIL
Brackets and Corbels 8-2-62 (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND
Slabs and Footings 8-2-61 SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-3
Strength 8-2-56 REMOTE CONTROL LOCOMOTIVES (RCL), YARD DESIGN
Stress, Permissible 8-2-56 14-2-33
Slenderness Effects in Compression Members 8-2-54 REMOVAL OF FORMS 8-1-24, 8-11-6
Approximate Evaluation 8-2-54 REMOVAL OF OLD STRUCTURE AND FALSEWORK, AND CLEANUP
General Requirements 8-2-54 15-4-8
Strength Requirements 8-2-48 REMOVING AND REPLACING TRACK 5-8-10
Design Strength 8-2-48 REPAIR 16-8-4
Required Strength 8-2-48 Methods for Prestressed Members 8-14-22
Materials 8-2-16 and Modification of Bridges 10-1-15
Concrete 8-2-16 Design of 10-1-15
Reinforcement 8-2-16 and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures 8-14-1
Notations, Definitions and Design Loads 8-2-7 and Replacement Criteria for Switch Points and Stock Rails (for
Design Loads 8-2-11 Main Line Operations) 5-5-30
Loading Combination 8-2-15 REPAIR PARTS AND SERVICE 27-2-37
Service Load Design 8-2-38 REPAIR, STRENGTHENING AND RETROFITTING 15-7-5
Allowable Service Load Stresses 8-2-38 REPEATED LOAD TEST 5-9-6
Compression Members With or Without Flexure REPLACEMENT AND CLEANING, BALLAST 16-10-14
8-2-40 REPLACEMENT OF BALLAST AND IN TRACK CLEANING 1-2-15
Concrete 8-2-38 REPLACING HANDLES 5-6-60
Flexure 8-2-40
Reinforcement 8-2-39
REPORT INFORMATION, EXCESSIVE LOADS 28-3-11
REPORTING
1
Shear 8-2-41 Additions or Modifications to Clearances 28-3-57
Design of Shear Reinforcement 8-2-43 Measurements, Excess Dimension Loads 28-3-49
Horizontal Shear Design for Concrete Flexural REPORTING OF DEFECTS 8-21-2
Members 8-2-45 REPORTS, INSPECTION 6-15-5
Permissible Stress 8-2-41 Recommended Procedures for Operator Performing Ultrasonic
Shear-Friction 8-2-43 Testing of Rail or Track Components 4-4-69
Special Provisions REQUIRED STRENGTH 8-17-18
Brackets and Corbels 8-2-47 REQUIREMENTS OF THE SIGNAL AND ELECTRIFICATION
3
Slabs and Footings 8-2-46 SYSTEMS 33-5-2
Stress 8-2-41 REQUIREMENTS, CLEARANCE, LEGAL 28-3-19
General Requirements 8-2-38 REQUIREMENTS, DIMENSIONAL, ENGINEERED COMPOSITE TIES
REINFORCEMENT 8-1-23, 8-1-55, 8-3-14 30-5-5
Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation Saddles REQUIREMENTS, PERFORMANCE, ENGINEERED COMPOSITE TIES
8-26-35 30-5-5
Concrete 8-1-17, 8-2-16 REQUIREMENTS, LOCKOUT/TAGOUT (LOTO) DURING
Concrete Protection for 8-1-28, 8-2-18 MAINTENANCE OF ROADWAY MACHINES 27-2-56 4
Construction for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-10 REQUIREMENTS, SPECIFICATION FOR THE QUALITY ASSURANCE
Detailing, Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation OF ELECTRIC-FLASH BUTT WELDING OF RAIL 4-3-46
Saddles 8-26-35 REQUIREMENTS WHEN USING SILICA FUME IN CONCRETE
Details of 8-1-25 8-1-38
of Members 15-4-5 RESERVE OIL 6-17-4
Negative Moment 8-2-24 RESISTANCE
Placing of 8-1-26 Against Sliding 8-5-6
Positive Moment 8-2-24 Curve 16-2-7
Segmental Bridges 8-26-8 Grade 16-2-8
Spacing of 8-1-27 to Movement 16-2-3
Splices 8-14-21 Starting 16-2-7
Surface Conditions of 8-1-25 Wind 16-2-8
REINFORCING PLATES AT PIN HOLES 15-1-62 RESISTANCE OF INSTALLED BONDS 33-7-13, 33-7-19
REINFORCING STEEL 8-19-6 RESISTANCE OF INSTALLED CONNECTIONS 33-7-26
REJECTION 4-3-18 RESPONSIBILITY, TEMPORARY STRUCTURES FOR
RELATED FILTER MATERIALS CONSTRUCTION 8-28-2
Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100 RETAINING WALLS 8-21-4, 8-21-23, 9-1-33, 12-4-44
RELATED TRACK GEOMETRY TERMINOLOGY 2-1-9

Index
RETAINING WALLS, ABUTMENTS AND PIERS 8-5-1 ROADBED 1-1-1

Commentary 8-5-13 Construction 1-1-38
Computation of Applied Forces 8-5-5 Contract Documents 1-1-38
Backfill Pressure 8-5-6 General 1-1-38
Loads Exclusive of Earth Pressure 8-5-5 Design 1-1-12
Definitions 8-5-2 Cuts 1-1-13
Scour 8-2-3 Drainage 1-1-25
Types 8-5-2 Fills 1-1-20
Design of Backfill 8-5-8 General 1-1-12
Compaction 8-5-8 Exploration and Testing 1-1-3
Drainage 8-5-8 Maintenance 1-1-48
Designing Bridges to Resist Scour Drainage and Erosion Control 1-1-62
Design Coniderations 8-5-9 Maintenance of Earth Slopes 1-1-58
Design Philosophy and Concepts 8-5-9 Maintenance of Roadbed 1-1-48
Design Procedure 8-5-9 Maintenance of Rock Slopes 1-1-56
Details of Design and Construction for Abutments and Retaining Methods of Opening Snow Blockades 1-1-64
Walls 8-5-11 Widening of Cuts 1-1-60
Cantilever Walls 8-5-11 Recommended Practices for Road Crossing Foundations 1-1-69
Counterfort and Buttress Walls 8-5-11 Ballast 1-1-76
General 8-5-11 Design Loads 1-1-75
Details of Design and Construction for Bridge Piers 8-5-12 Drainage 1-1-69
Bearings and Anchorage 8-5-13 General 1-1-69
Caissons 8-5-13 Maintenance 1-1-76
Pier Shafts 8-5-12 Roadway Geomtrics and Crossing Surface 1-1-76
Pier Spacing, Orientation and Type 8-5-12 ROADWAY 1-3-32, 16-10-20
Piers in Navigable Streams 8-5-13 and Ballast 1-i
Information Required 8-5-4 Buildings, Account 17 16-12-9
Character of Foundation 8-5-5 Machines, Account 37 16-12-15
Controlling Dimensions 8-5-4 Material Reclamation
Field Survey 8-5-4 and Fabrication Facilities, Design of 6-17-4
Loads 8-5-4 Plant 6-17-4
Subsurface Exploration 8-5-3 Signs 1-7-1
Type of Backfill 8-5-4 Classification 1-7-2
Stability Computation 8-5-7 Location 1-7-2
Point of Intersection of Resultant Force and Base 8-5-7 Maintenance-of-Way 1-7-2
Resistance Against Sliding 8-5-7 Transportation 1-7-2
Settlement and Tilting 8-5-8 Design 1-7-4
Soil Pressure 8-5-8 Dimensions 1-7-4
RETESTS 4-3-17, 5-1-4, 5-2-3 Legends 1-7-4
and Rejection 5-7-3 Placement 1-7-4
RETIRED FACILITIES 9-1-35 Roadway Signs 1-7-4
REVETMENTS 1-3-29 Shapes 1-7-4
REVISION OF DEPTHS OF FOOTINGS 8-3-7 Materials 1-7-4
RIDE QUALITY 17-7-4 Concrete 1-7-4
RIGHT OF WAY DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONSIDERATIONS Metals 1-7-4
12-3-9, 17-3-4 Reflectorized Materials 1-7-4
At Grade Crossings 11-3-6, 12-3-10 Wood 1-7-4
Drainage 11-3-6, 12-3-10, 17-3-4 ROADWAY APPROACH REHABILITATION AND MAINTENANCE
Environmental 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4 5-8-7
General 11-3-5, 12-3-9, 17-3-4 ROADWAY COMPLETION REPORTS 16-12-24
Grade Crossings (USA) 17-3-5 ROADWAY DESIGN AND GEOMETRICS 5-8-4
Third Party Occupancy 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4 ROADWAY GEOMETRICS AND CROSSING SURFACE 1-1-76
Vegetation Control 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4 ROADWAY MACHINES 27-2-1
RIGHT OF WAY MAINTENANCE 11-7-2, 17-7-3 Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines 27-2-62
Maintenance of Way Equipment 17-7-3 Purpose 27-2-62
RIGID DUCTS 8-17-12 Scope 27-2-62
RIGID FRAME STRUCTURES 15-1-60 Axle, Wheel and Hub Specifications 27-2-40
RIVETED AND BOLTED CONSTRUCTION 15-1-57, 15-9-33 Electrical Systems 27-2-43
RIVETED FIELD CONNECTIONS 15-4-6 Electrical Apparatus Cabinets 27-2-43
RIVETS General 27-2-43
and Riveting 15-3-9 Introduction 27-2-43
Motor Control Apparatus Overload Relays 27-2-44
Hydraulic Systems 27-2-40

Index
ROADWAY MACHINES (CONT) ROADWAY MACHINES (CONT)

General 27-2-41 Operational Requirements 27-2-18
Introduction 27-2-40 Optional Equipment 27-2-21
Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) During Maintenance of Roadway Paint 27-2-21
Machines 27-2-56 Standard Equipment 27-2-20
Definitions 27-2-56 Stenciling 27-2-21
General 27-2-56 Suspension 27-2-20
Procedures 27-2-58 Specifications for Track Motor Cars 27-2-4
Requirements 27-2-57 Brake Systems 27-2-10
Railway Track Equipment Operator Sightlines and Visibility Cab 27-2-11
Guideline for New On-Track Machinery 27-2-57 Engine 27-2-5
Definitions 27-2-57 Frame, Wheels, Axles and Bearings 27-2-6
Specifications for On-Track Roadway Machines 27-2-23 Fuel Tank 27-2-7
Additional Specifications 27-2-38 General 27-2-17
Body or Cab Top 27-2-34 General Description 27-2-4
Brakes 27-2-24 Hydraulic System 27-2-8
Clearance and Safety 27-2-35 Maintenance of Way - Work Equipment Bulletin 27-2-21
Controls 27-2-34 Miscellaneous 27-2-14
Delivery 27-2-39 Operational Requirements 27-2-4
Electrical System 27-2-31 Optional Equipment 27-2-16
Engine and Power Train 27-2-26 Paint 27-2-15
Exhaust System 27-2-27 Pneumatic System 27-2-9
Fuel Tank 27-2-27 Reliability 27-2-18
General 27-2-23 Standard Equipment 27-2-13
Hydraulic System 27-2-27 Stenciling 27-2-16
Initial Preparation and Servicing 27-2-35 Suspension 27-2-7
Insulation 27-2-26 Travel Speed and Performance 27-2-11
Material 27-2-24 ROCK
Noise Exposure 27-2-39
Non-Compliance 27-2-39
Cores 8-22-7
ROCKERS OR ROLLERS 15-1-64
1
Paint 27-2-36 ROLLER BEARINGS FOR HEAVY LOADS 15-6-36
Pneumatic System 27-2-33 ROLLING STOCK 11-5-2, 17-5-9
Repair Parts and Service 27-2-37 Brakes 17-5-10
Shipping 27-2-37 Car Body Exterior 17-5-11
Travel Speed 27-2-34 Car Body Interior and Environment 17-5-11
Wheels, Axles and Bearings Crashworthiness 17-5-11
Frame and Suspension 27-2-25 Current Collection and Primary Power System 17-5-10
Specifications for Rail Guide Wheel Equipment 27-2-45 General Description 17-5-9
3
Additional Options 27-2-54 Train Control and Communication Systems 17-5-11
Brakes 27-2-46 Trucks and Suspension 17-5-10
Clearance and Safety 27-2-52 ROLLING STOCK DETECTORS 16-5-2, 16-5-9
Controls 27-2-52 Site Considerations 16-5-6
Delivery 27-2-55 ROLLING STOCK REQUIREMENTS 12-2-13
Electrical System 27-2-50 ROOF COATING SYSTEMS, LIQUID 6-14-10
General 27-2-45 ROOFING
Hydraulic System 27-2-47 Conclusions 6-14-29 4
Initial Preparation and Servicing 27-2-53 General 6-14-29
Insulation 27-2-47 Introduction 6-14-2
Material 27-2-46 Cost and Energy Concerns 6-14-3
Mounting of Rail Guide Wheel Equipment to Vehicle Developments in Roofing 6-14-2
27-2-55 Roofing Systems 6-14-4
Non-Compliance 27-2-56 Built-up Roofing Systems (BUR) 6-14-5
Paint 27-2-53 General Comments 6-14-4
Parts and Instruction Books 27-2-54 Liquid Roof Coating Systems 6-14-18
Pneumatic System 27-2-51 Metal Roofing Systems 6-14-19
Repair Parts and Service 27-2-54 Shingle Roofing Systems 6-14-22
Setup and Alignment 27-2-55 Single-Ply Roofing Systems 6-14-13
Shipping 27-2-54 Tile Roofing System 6-14-26
Wheels, Axles and Bearings 27-2-47 Selecting a System 6-14-3
Specifications for Railway Push Cars 27-2-18 General Design Considerations 6-14-3
Frame, Wheels, Axles and Bearings 27-2-19 Roof Insulation Considerations 6-14-4
General 27-2-22 Wind Design Considerations 6-14-4
General Description 27-2-18 ROOFS 6-3-5
Miscellaneous 27-2-20 Hot Asphalt and Coal Tar Pitch 6-14-3

Index
ROOM FINISHES, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CTC CENTERS 6-11-6 SAFETY/SECURITY TECHNOLOGY 12-2-16, 17-2-5
ROPE LENGTH 15-6-75 SAFETY AND SYSTEM ASSURANCE 17-5-6
ROTATIONAL RESTRAINT 5-9-8 SALES AND USE TAX 16-14-7
ROUND SECTIONS 7-2-38 SAMPLE CALCULATION 33-4-23
ROUTE IDENTIFICATION 12-2-12 SAMPLING 5-9-3, 8-22-6
ROUTE TECHNICAL CONSTRAINTS 12-2-17 and Testing 1-2-14
RUBBER GASKETS 8-10-4 SAND COCKS, SAND FACILITY 6-6-15
RUBBERIZED ASPHALT SANDING COMPONENTS 6-6-12
with Plastic Film or Preformed Board Membrane 8-29-16 Air Dryers 6-6-14
RULES 4-2 Air Supply System 6-6-12
for Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-3-2 Automation and Instrumentation 6-6-16
RULES FOR THE MANUFACTURE, INSTALLATION, LOCATION, Electrical 6-6-16
OPERATION AND TESTING OF RAILWAY MASTER TRACK Lighting 6-6-16
SCALE 4-1 Nozzles 6-6-15
Rules 4-2 Piping System 6-6-15
Field Calibration of Track Scale Test Weight Cars 4-4 Sand Cocks 6-6-15
Housekeeping 4-3 SANDING FACILITIES 6-6-3, 14-5-5
Length 4-2 SCALE PIT 4-2
Location 4-2 SCALE PITS AND OTHER SIMILAR STRUCTURES BELOW GRADE
Maintenance and Repairs 4-3 8-29-7
Manufacture and Installation 4-2 SCHEDULING OF BRIDGE INSPECTIONS 10-1-11
Scale Pit 4-2 Increased Frequency of Inspections 10-1-11
Testing and Calibration 4-3 Inspection Frequency 10-1-11
RUN THROUGH TRAIN Out of Service Bridges 10-1-12
Characteristics of 14-2-29 Underwater Inspections 10-1-12
Design Objectives 14-2-30 SCHEDULING OF WORK, VEGETATION CONTROL 1-9-6
Facility, Design Features 14-2-31 SCOPE 1-2-9, 8-19-2, 8-14-25
Operation 14-2-30 Access Systems for Maintenance of Way Machines 27-2-62
RUNNING RAIL, UNSUPPORTED 15-8-25 Accounting 16-12-4
RURAL STATIONS 17-2-5 Audit Survey Instrumentation 6-5-8
Ballast, Concrete Ties 30-4-45
Bridges, New 9-1-17
S Cantilever Bulkheads 8-20-15
Cantilever Poles 8-12-2
Concrete Jointing 8-1-28
SAFETY 1-4-77
Construction of Tunnel Using Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-90
Devices 15-6-46
Crib Walls 8-6-2
Factors 8-3-8
Design Considerations for Future Expansion 12-3-34
Forms 8-1-21
Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-3
Planning, Corridor Planning Considerations 12-2-7
Electrification Feeding and Sectionalizing Arrangements
Provisions 1-4-75
33-4-16
Roadway Signs 1-7-3
Field, Rail Flaw Identification 4-4-3
SAFETY CERTIFICATION CONSIDERATIONS 33-12-28
Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads 8-20-2
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-4
General, Design Criteria for Railway Buildings 6-1-8
SAFETY DURING ELECTRICAL FAULT, PROPULSION SYSTEMS
General, Pile Foundations 8-4-2
11-6-7 General, Spring Washers 4-3-29
SAFETY DURING MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS, PROPULSION
General, Temporary Structures for Construction 8-28-2
SYSTEMS 11-6-8
General Requirements and Materials, Prestressed Concrete
SAFETY DURING SWITCHING OPERATIONS, PROPULSION
8-17-4
SYSTEMS 11-6-8
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation 8-22-2
SAFETY PROVISIONS
Highway/Railway Grade Crossings 5-8-2
Inspection and Classification of Second Hand Rail for Welding
SAFETY/SECURITY
4-3-52
Corridor Evaluation 12-2-13
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements 8-1-5
Introduction
Multi-Rotational Bearings 15-9-56, 15-10-29
Commuter and Intercity Rail Systems 11-1-1
Natural Waterways 1-3-3
Rail Transit 12-1-1
Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-38
Safety 12-1-3
Other Facilities and Infrastructure 9-1-32, 9-2-23
Security 12-1-3
Prestressed Concrete 8-17-4
System Design Criteria 11-3-2, 12-3-4
PTFE Sliding Bearing Surfaces 15-10-14
Track and Roadbed Considerations 11-3-15
Rail Grinding Best Practice 4-4-82
Track and Roadway 12-3-13
Rail Information 4-5-1
Yards and Shops 12-4-31
Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted
SAFETY/SECURITY, HIGH SPEED RAIL SYSTEMS 17-1-1, 17-2-3,
Wood 7-1-19
17-2-5, 17-3-3, 17-3-4, 17-4-3, 17-4-4, 17-7-3

Index
SCOPE (CONT) SECTION OF RAILS 4-2-12

Recommended Practice for Use of Abrasive Wheels 5-10-6 SECTIONALIZATION EQUIPMENT 33-4-7
Recommended Practices for Rail/Wheel Friction Control 4-4-77 SECTIONALIZING DIAGRAM, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-3
Recommended Practices for Switch Point and Stock Rail SECURITY 14-4-54
Changeout 5-5-28 Automobile and Truck Loading/Unloading Facilities
Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in CWR 14-4-39
4-4-74 Requirements, Yards and Terminals 14-1-3
Records 8-22-7 SEGMENTAL BRIDGES
Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 8-10-2 Design Loads 8-26-12
Reinforced Concrete Design 8-2-5 Effective Flange Width 8-26-8
Rules for Rating Existing Concrete Bridges 8-19-2 Flexural Strength 8-26-24
Safe Movement of Excess Dimension Loads on Foreign Prestress Losses 8-26-23
Trackage/Joint Tracks 28-3-62 SEGMENTAL BRIDGES, DESIGN
Shear and Torsion 8-26-25 General Requirements and Material 8-26-4
Slurry Wall Construction 8-25-2 SEGMENTAL BRIDGES, RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF
Specification for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash Butt 8-26-1
Welding of Rail 4-3-46 SEGMENTAL GIRDER GUIDEWAYS 12-4-97
Specification for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Welding of Design 12-4-97
Rail 4-2-72 Introduction 12-4-97
Specifications SEISMIC DESIGN FOR RAILWAY STRUCTURES 9-i, 9-1-1
for Bonded Insulation Rail Joints 4-3-32 Analysis Procedures 9-1-23
for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail 4-3-49 Basic Concepts and Nomenclature
for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Bolts and Carbon-Steel Base Acceleration Coefficient Maps 9-1-11
Nuts 4-3-19 Detailing Provisions 9-1-25, 9-2-18
for Laying Rail 5-5-3 Existing Bridges 9-1-30, 9-2-22
for Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-38 Assessment and Retrofit 9-1-30
for Pipelines History 9-1-30, 9-2-22
Conveying Flammable Substances 1-5-3 Inventory 9-1-30, 9-2-22
Conveying Non-Flammable Substances 1-5-22
for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash Butt Welding of
Scope 9-1-30
General Requirements 9-1-7
1
Rail 4-3-55 Ground Motion Levels 9-1-8
for the Quality Assurance of Thermite Welding of Rail Introduction 9-1-3
4-3-55 New Bridges 9-1-17, 9-2-8
for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Microalloyed Joint General 9-1-17
Bars, and Forged Compromise Joint Bars 4-3-15 Other Facilities and Infrastructure 9-1-32, 9-2-23
for Rail Anchors 5-7-2 Buildings and Support Facilities 9-1-34, 9-2-23
for Soft-Steel Track Spikes 5-2-2 Culverts 9-1-33
for Steel Screw Spikes 5-10-2 Rail Transit 9-1-35
3
for Steel Rails 4-2-3 Retaining Walls 9-1-33
for Steel Tie Plates 5-1-2 Scope 9-1-32
for Track Construction 5-4-1 Track and Roadbed 9-1-32, 9-2-23
for Uncased Gas Pipelines within the Railway Right-of-Way Tunnels and Track Protection Sheds 9-1-34, 9-2-23
1-5-10 Utilities, Signal and Communication Facilities 9-1-34
Specifications for Bonded Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-32 Performance Criteris 9-1-19
String Lining of Curves by the Chord Method 5-3-6 Post-Seismic Event Operation Guidelines 9-1-4
Traction Power Supply Requirements for Railroad AC Structure Response 9-1-21 4
Electrification Systems 33-6-3 SEISMIC LOADING, PROVISIONS FOR 8-1-25
Unloading Pits 15-8-17 SELECTION OF ROUTE WITHIN CORRIDOR 12-2-11, 17-2-4
Waterproofing 8-29-4 SELF-PROPELLED RAIL CARS 16-3-16
Welding of Manganese Steel Castings in Special Trackwork SENSITIVITY ISSUES
5-5-26 Hydraulic Capacity of Structures 1-3-44
SCOPE AND PURPOSE Waterway Openings 1-3-25
Design Criteria for a Locomotive Washing Facility 6-12-2 SEPARATION CONSIDERATIONS
Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Equipment Geogrid Specifications for Ballast and Sub-Ballast
Repair Shops 6-9-2 Reinforcement 1-10-28
SCOUR 1-3-20, 8-4-5 SEPARATION, RECOVERY OR DISPOSAL OF OIL 6-3-8
SCREW GEARING AND CAMS 15-6-43 SERVICE
SEALING 15-1-45 Facilities, Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-25
Compounds for Joints and Edges 8-29-20 Life 16-9-6
SEAM STRENGTH Load
of Structural Plate Pipes 1-4-65 Design 8-2-38
SECONDARY STRESSES 15-1-36 Stresses 8-2-63
SECTION 404 PERMITS 13-3-12 Allowable 8-2-38
SECTION AT PIN HOLES 15-1-62 Spaces 6-11-4

Index
SERVICE CONDITIONS 33-6-22 SHORT SINGLE - SPAN ARCHES AND BOX CULVERTS 8-29-6
SERVICE EQUIPMENT (SUPPORT AREA) 6-12-6 SHOTCRETE 8-11-7
SERVICE LEVEL AND LINE CHANGES 2-1-42, 2-2-17 SHOTCRETING 8-1-38
SERVICE LOAD COMBINATIONS 8-26-17 SHOULDER REPLACEMENT OR REPAIR 30-4-55
SERVICEABILITY, SHIPPING, HANDLING, APPLICATION AND USE, SHRINKAGE COEFFICIENT 8-2-34
CONCRETE TIES 30-4-48 SI METRICATION M-1
SERVICES PROVIDED, MAIN LINE FUELING FACILITIES 6-16-4 Conversion M-3
SERVICES REQUIRED 6-4-25 Introduction to SI Units M-2
SERVICING FACILITIES 14-5-5 Metric Measurement Units M-2
SET SCREWS 15-6-45 Numerals M-3
SETTLEMENT AND TILTING 8-5-7 Prefixes for SI Unit Multiples M-2
SEVERE WEATHER INSPECTION PROTOCOL 17-7-4, 17-7-5 Quantity Symbols vs. Unit Symbols M-4
SEWERS 6-3-8 References M-4
SHAFT COUPLINGS 15-6-40 SI Writing Style M-3
SHAFTS 15-6-31, 15-6-39, 15-6-101 Significant Digits M-3
SHAPES 1-4-14 SIDE TRACKS, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-7
Class I and Class II 1-4-23 SIDEWALLS AND ARCH 8-11-3
Roadway Signs 1-7-4 SIGNAL AND COMMUNICATIONS MAINTENANCE 33-1-8
SHARED RIGHT OF WAY 12-2-13, 17-2-4 SIGNAL CONSIDERATIONS 11-3-22, 12-3-23, 17-3-6
SHARED TRACKAGE 12-2-13, 17-2-4 SIGNAL MODIFICATION 33-1-6
SHARPENING OF TOOLS 5-6-59 SIGNAL POWER GENERATING SYSTEM 33-6-27
SHEAR 8-2-41, 8-2-56, 8-17-30 SIGNAL SYSTEMS 11-3-4, 11-6-2, 12-3-6, 17-3-3
General 8-17-30 SIGNAL TECHNOLOGY 12-2-15, 17-2-5
Horizontal 7-2-30, 8-17-33 SIGNAL TRACK CIRCUIT ASSUMPTIONS 33-5-5
Horizontal Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members SIGNALS 33-5-2
8-2-60 SIGNALS AND COMMUNICATIONS MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS
Reinforcement 8-2-20 11-7-3, 17-7-4
Anchorage 8-2-29 General 17-7-4
Spacing 8-2-21 Normal Inspection Protocol 17-7-4
Types 8-2-21 Regulatory Requirements 17-7-4
Reinforcement Design 8-2-43, 8-2-58 Severe Weather Inspection Protocol 17-7-4
Special Provisions SIGNALS AND COMMUNICATIONS PLANS AND RECORDS 18-1-6
Brackets and Corbels 8-2-62 SIGNALS, COMMUNICATIONS, AND PROPULSION
Slabs and Footings 8-2-61 CONSIDERATIONS 17-6-1
Strength 8-2-56, 8-17-30, 8-17-32 Communication Systems 11-6-2, 17-6-16
Stress 8-2-41 General Information 11-6-1, 17-6-2
Permissible 8-2-41 Operations Centers 11-6-1, 17-6-2
Stress, Permissible 8-2-56 Propulsion Systems 11-6-2, 17-6-16
SHEAR AND TORSION 8-26-25 Signals Systems 11-6-2, 17-6-2
Design for Plane Section Type Regions 8-26-28 SIGNALS, INSPECTION, EVALUATION, AND PLANNING 17-7-3
SHEAR TRANSFER AT INTERFACES 8-26-33 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS, ACCOUNT 27 16-12-13
SHEAR, HORIZONTAL 7-2-30 SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING 15-6-7
SHEAR, TWO-WAY PUNCHING 8-26-33 SIGNALS SYSTEMS 17-6-2
SHEAR-FRICTION 8-2-43, 8-2-58 Automatic Train Control (ATC) System 17-6-4
SHEARING STRESS 7-2-31 Communications 17-6-7
SHELLING 4-4-66 Control System - Propulsion System Electromagnetic
SHIPMENT Compatibility 17-6-7
Of Timber Bridge Ties 7-1-17 General Definitions and Objective 17-6-2
SHIPMENT AND PAY WEIGHT 15-3-21 Hazard Detection and Surveillance 17-6-9
SHIPPING 15-6-76, 27-2-37 Interlocking System 17-6-7
Tag 5-7-4 SILICA FUME IN CONCRETE, REQUIREMENTS WHEN USING
SHOES AND PEDESTALS 15-1-63 8-1-38
SHOP BUILDING AND APPURTENANCES 14-5-7 SINGLE-TRACK RAILWAY TUNNELS, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS
SHOP DRAWINGS 15-1-6 28-1-5
For Construction of Bridge Bearings 15-11-2 SITE
SHOP DRAWINGS, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-6 Considerations
SHOP EQUIPMENT REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE 6-9-6 Design Criteria for Diesel Repair Facilities 6-4-13
SHOP MACHINERY, ACCOUNT 44 16-12-16 Design Criteria for Observation Towers 6-10-2
SHOP PAINTING 15-3-19 Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-3
of Machined Surfaces 15-3-19 Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-3
of Structural Steel 15-3-19 Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair
SHOPS AND ENGINEHOUSES, ACCOUNT 20 16-12-11 and Servicing Facilities 6-13-1
SHORING SYSTEMS, DESIGN OF 8-28-5 Design Criteria for Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-2
SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY 33-6-20 Design Criteria for Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-4

Index
SITE (CONT) SMALL SCALE COGENERATIONAL SYSTEM 6-5-5

Selection, Material Reclamation and Fabrication Facilities SMOKING AREA 6-11-4
6-17-8 SMOOTH WIRE FABRIC 8-2-29
Work 6-1-9 SNOW AND ICE REMOVAL 17-7-5
SITE CONSIDERATIONS 6-1-8, 12-4-35, 17-4-4 SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE 12-2-6, 17-2-3
For Materials Management Facilities 6-7-2 SOCKETS 15-6-75
Passenger Facilities 17-4-3 SOIL
Rolling Stock Detectors 16-5-6 Investigation 8-20-3, 8-28-4
Wayside Condition Detectors 16-5-7 Pressure 8-5-6
SITE CONSIDERATIONS, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CTC CENTERS Properties 8-28-5
6-11-2 SOLID SAWN TIMBER TIES 30-3-1
SITE LOCATION OF YARD COMPRESSED AIR FACILITIES 6-17-22 Handling of Ties from the Tree into the Track 30-3-23
SITE SELECTION 14-4-63 Recommended Practices for the Manufacture of Two-Piece Steel
SITE SELECTION Doweled Laminated Cross Ties (TPSDLC) 30-3-107
Of Rail/Water Facilities 14-4-3 Specifications for Timber Industrial Grade Cross Ties 30-3-111
SIZE Specifications for Treatment 30-3-63
Facility 6-16-4 Substitute Timber Ties 30-3-21
and Length of Pipe 1-4-76 Tie Tests and the Economics of Service Life 30-3-17
Space Requirements 6-3-5 Timber Cross Ties 30-3-5
and Workmanship of Holes 15-3-12 Timber Switch Ties 30-3-14
SIZES OF FASTENERS IN ANGLES 15-1-58 Wood Preserving 30-3-32
SIZING FOOTINGS 8-3-7 SOLID WASTE 13-5-3
SKEW BRIDGES 15-1-15 Management of Solid Waste 13-5-4
SKEWED CONCRETE BRIDGES 8-2-6 What is Solid Waste? 13-5-3
SLAB TRACK. SEE ALSO CONCRETE SLAB TRACK SOUND CONTROL, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY OFFICE
SLABS AND BEAMS 8-21-4, 8-21-24 BUILDINGS 6-2-14
SLENDERNESS EFFECTS SOUNDINGS 8-1-43
Approximate Evauation 8-2-54 SPACE REQUIRED FOR AISLES 6-2-8
In Compression Members 8-2-54
SLENDERNESS RATIO 15-1-42
SPACE REQUIREMENTS, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SPOT CAR
REPAIR SHOPS 6-3-5
1
SLIP TEST 5-7-2 SPACING
SLUMP 8-1-35 Concrete Reinforcement 8-2-18
SLURRY 8-25-7 of Piles 8-4-4
Material 8-25-11 of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts 8-17-12
SLURRY WALL CONSTRUCTION 8-25-1 of Tendons and Ducts 8-17-12
Construction 8-25-10 SPACING OF TRUSSES, GIRDERS, AND STRINGERS 15-1-12
General 8-25-10 SPALLING 4-4-64
Inspection 8-25-13 SPANS
3
Slurry Material 8-25-11 Length 8-2-34, 8-17-14
Trench Excavation 8-25-10 Required 1-4-6
Wall 8-25-12 SPECIAL AREAS, SPACE REQUIREMENTS 6-3-6
Design 8-25-3 SPECIAL BRIDGE INSPECTIONS 10-1-7
Construction Phase 8-25-3 Special Detail Inspections 10-1-13
Final Condition 8-25-6 Special Flood Inspections 10-1-12
General 8-25-3 Special Load Rating Inspections 10-1-13
Methods of Increasing Stability 8-25-6 Special Underwater Inspections 10-1-12 4
Qualifications 8-25-3 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Subsurface Investigation 8-25-3 Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-8
General 8-25-2 For Concrete Slab Track 8-27-17
Purpose 8-25-2 For Design Criteria of Railway Buildings 6-1-13
References 8-25-3 For Projects that Propose, Initiate, or Expand Passenger Rail
Scope 8-25-2 Service Using an Existing Privately Owned Freight
Terms 8-25-3 Railroad Corrider 16-7-5
Materials 8-25-7 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT 33-6-27
Additives 8-25-8 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT, PASSENGER RAIL (COACH)/LOCOMOTIVE
Backfill 8-25-8 MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND SERVICING FACILITIES 6-13-9
Bentonite 8-25-7 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR
Cement 8-25-8 RAILWAY OFFICE BUILDINGS 6-2-5
Permanent Joint Beams 8-25-9 SPECIAL FABRICATION FOR END, CORNER, AND GATE POSTS
Precast Panels 8-25-9 1-6-11
Quality Control 8-25-9 SPECIAL FABRICATION FOR LINE POSTS 1-6-11
Slurry 8-25-7 SPECIAL FEATURES, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR OBSERVATION
Tremie Concrete 8-25-9 TOWERS 6-10-5
Water 8-25-8 SPECIAL INSPECTIONS 15-7-23

Index
SPECIAL MEMBERS 8-2-25 SPECIFICATIONS (CONT)

SPECIAL PROVISIONS for Corrugated Structural Aluminum Alloy Plate Pipe,
for Bascule Bridges 15-6-24, 15-6-49, 15-6-104 Pipe-arches, and Arches 1-4-26
struction of Tunnels 1-8-3 for Corrugated Structural Steel Plate Pipe, Pipe-arches, and
for Swing Bridges 15-6-23, 15-6-46, 15-6-103 Arches 1-4-24
for Vertical Lift Bridges 15-6-25, 15-6-50, 15-6-105 for Engineered Wood Products 7-1-3
SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BASCULE BRIDGES 15-6-104 for Fabrication of Continuous Welded Rail 4-3-49
SPECIAL PROVISIONS WHEN USING CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS Inspection Requirements 4-3-51
OTHER THAN PORTLAND CEMENT 8-1-34 Manufacturing Requirements 4-3-49
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS Rail Requirements 4-3-49
Coach Shop 6-13-5 Scope 4-3-49
Combined Coach Locomotive Shop 6-13-7 for Fiber Optic "Route" Construction on Railroad Right of Way
Support Areas 6-9-9 1-5-29
for Timber Piles Abbreviations 1-5-42
First-Class 7-1-11 Appendix 1-5-43
Second-Class 7-1-12 Construction 1-5-35
SPECIAL ROOM ALLOWANCE 6-2-8 Definitions 1-5-39
SPECIAL TRACKWORK, EMBEDDED TRACK 12-8-22 Design 1-5-30
SPECIAL TRACKWORK COMPONENTS 12-3-27 Documentation 1-5-37
SPECIAL USE STATIONS 17-2-5 Maintenance 1-5-39
SPECIAL WASTE 13-5-12 Planning 1-5-29
Other Miscellaneous 13-5-14 Scope 1-5-29
SPECIFIC APPLICATION, WATERPROOFING 8-29-5 for Heat-Treated Carbon Steel Track Bolts and Carbon-Steel
SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED 12-3-36 Nuts 4-3-19
Design Considerations for Future Expansion 12-3-34 Check Analysis 4-3-20
SPECIFICATION FOR COPPER THERMITE WELDED ELECTRICAL Chemical Composition 4-3-19
CONNECTIONS 33-7-21 Finish 4-3-25
SPECIFICATION FOR FABRICATION OF CONTINUOUS WELDED Heading 4-3-25
RAIL 4-3-49 Ladle Analysis 4-3-20
SPECIFICATION FOR THE QUALITY ASSURANCE OF Marking 4-3-25
ELECTRIC-FLASH BUTT WELDING OF RAIL 4-3-46 Mechanical Requirements 4-3-20
SPECIFICATION FOR THE QUALITY ASSURANCE OF THERMITE Packaging 4-3-26
WELDING OF RAIL 4-3-55 Product Testing 4-3-21
SPECIFICATION FOR RAIL-HEAD PIN-TYPE BONDS AND TRACK Re-Heat Treatment 4-3-24
CONNECTORS 33-7-15 Scope 4-3-19
SPECIFICATION FOR STUD TERMINAL COPPER RAIL BONDS Threads and Thread Fit 4-3-25
33-7-8 Tolerances 4-3-24
SPECIFICATION FOR THERMITE TYPE WELDED RAIL-HEAD for Laying Rail 5-5-3
BONDS AND TRACK CONNECTORS 33-7-17 for Metal Crib Walls 8-6-5
SPECIFICATION FOR TRACK TOOLS for Metal Fence Posts 1-6-10
General 5-6-4 for Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-38
SPECIFICATION FOR WELDED TYPE RAIL HEAD U-BONDS AND Acceptance 4-3-42
EXTENDED BONDS 33-7-11 Appendix 1 - Method of Slow Bend Test 4-3-42
SPECIFICATIONS Engineering Drawings 4-3-38
for Ash and Hickory Handles for Track Tools 5-6-13 Inspection 4-3-38
for Bituminous Coated Galvanized Steel Pipe and Pipe Arches Marking 4-3-42
1-4-17 Materials 4-3-39
for Bonded Insulation Rail Joints 4-3-32 Packaging and Handling 4-3-42
Acceptance 4-3-37 Qualification Testing (Only) 4-3-40
Dimensional Tolerance 4-3-34 Scope 4-3-38
Engineering Drawings 4-3-32 Workmanship 4-3-39
Inspection 4-3-32 Other Cementitious Materials 8-1-9
Marking 4-3-38 for Overhead Pipelines Crossings 1-5-26
Materials 4-3-32 General Conditions 1-5-27
Packaging and Handling 4-3-38 General Design Requirements 1-5-27
Qualification Testing 4-3-34 Inspection and Maintenance 1-5-29
Scope 4-3-32 Scope 1-5-26
Workmanship 4-3-33 Structural Elements 1-5-27
Cement 8-1-7 for Pipelines
Cementitious Materials, Other 8-1-9 Conveying Flammable Substances 1-5-3
for Clearing and Mowing Vegetation 1-6-23 Conveying Non-Flammable Substances 1-5-22
for Coated Corrugated Steel Pipe and Arches 1-4-17 for Placement of Bungalows and Other Structures 1-6-23
for Concrete Fence Posts 1-6-6 for Placement of Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 1-4-9

Index
SPECIFICATIONS (CONT) SPECIFICATIONS (CONT)

for Polymeric Coated Corrugated Galvanized Steel Pipe or Pipe Loading 4-2-24
Arches 1-4-17 Manufacture 4-2-3
for Prefabricated Corrugated Steel Pipe and Pipe-arches for Markings 4-2-24
Culverts and Storm Drains, and Underdrains 1-4-10 Mechanical Properties 4-2-4
for the Quality Assurance of Electric-Flash Butt Welding of Rail Rail Grades 4-2-7
4-3-46 Scope 4-2-3
Procedures 4-3-47 Section 4-2-12
Requirements 4-3-46 Supplementary Requirements 4-2-24
Scope 4-3-46 Surface Classification 4-2-18
for Quenched Carbon-Steel Joint Bars, Microalloyed Joint Bars, Ultrasonic Testing 4-2-14
and Forged Compromise Joint Bars 4-3-15 Workmanship 4-2-20
Bending Properties 4-3-16 for Steel Tie Plates 5-1-2
Chemical Composition 4-3-15 for Steel Tunnel Liner Plates 1-4-82
Finish 4-3-18 Thermite Welding, Specification for the Quality Assurance of
Inspection 4-3-18 4-2-72
Manufacture 4-3-15 Frequency of Testing 4-2-74
Marking and Stamping 4-3-18 Manuafacture 4-2-72
Number of Tests 4-3-17 Scope 4-2-72
Rehearing 4-3-19 Weld Integrity Requirements 4-2-72
Rejection 4-3-18 Weld Integrity Test Procedures 4-2-73
Retests 4-3-17 for Tie Plugs and Synthetic Tie Plugging Materials 30-3-9
Scope 4-3-15 for Timber Crib Walls 8-6-6
Tensile Properties 4-3-16 for Timber Industrial Grade Cross Ties 30-3-111
Test Specimens 4-3-17 for Timber Piles 7-1-6
Workmanship 4-3-18 for Track Construction 5-4-1
for Rail Anchors 5-7-2 for Track Tools 5-6-4
Recommended Repair of Defective or Broken Rail in CWR for Treatment 30-3-63
4-4-74
General 4-4-74
for Uncased Gas Pipelines within the Railway Right-of-Way
1-5-10
1
Scope 4-4-74 for Wood Fence Posts 1-6-4
for Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls 8-6-3 SPECIFICATIONS FOR ON-TRACK ROADWAY MACHINES 27-2-23
Reinforcement, Concrete 8-1-18 SPECIFICATIONS FOR OVERHEAD PIPELINES CROSSINGS 1-5-28
for Right-of-way Fences 1-6-13 General Conditions 1-5-28
for Roadbed Geometry 1-6-22 General Design Requirements 1-5-29
for Snow Fences 1-6-24 Inspection and Maintenance 1-5-31
for Soft-steel Track Spikes 5-2-2 Scope 1-5-28
for Spring Washers 4-3-29 Structural Elements 1-5-29
3
Access to Works 4-3-31 SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAIL GUIDE WHEEL EQUIPMENT 27-2-45
Branding 4-3-31 SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILWAY PUSH CARS 27-2-18
Defect Found After Delivery 4-3-31 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF LOW
Finish 4-3-30 PROFILE, PITLESS, AND INSTRUMENTED RAILWAY TRACK
General Scope 4-3-29 SCALES 3-1
Material 4-3-29 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF
Mechanical Strength and Ductility 4-3-29 LOW PROFILE, PITLESS, AND INSTRUMENTED
Method of Testing 4-3-29 RAILWAY TRACK SCALES 4
Packing 4-3-30 General 3-2
Permanent Set 4-3-30 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER BRIDGE TIES 7-1-2
Place of Tests 4-3-31 Bridge Tie Installation 7-1-17
Proportion of Tests 4-3-30 Dapping or Sizing Bridge Ties 7-1-17
Reheat Treatment 4-3-30 Delivery 7-1-17
Uniformity of Stock 4-3-30 Design 7-1-16
for Steel Screw Spikes 5-10-2 End Splitting Control Devices 7-1-19
for Steel Rails 4-2-3 Inspection 7-1-16
Acceptance 4-2-23 Material 7-1-15
Appendix 1 4-2-26 Physical Requirements 7-1-15
Appendix 2 4-2-26 Preservative Treatment of Bridge Ties 7-1-19
Appendix 3 4-2-26 Shipment 7-1-17
Branding and Stamping 4-2-13 Spike or Bolt Holes 7-1-19
Chemical Composition 4-2-4 Tie Branding 7-1-19
Drilling 4-2-19 Tie Plugs 7-1-19
Hydrogen Elimination 4-2-14 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TRACK MOTOR CARS 27-2-4
Interior Condition/Macroetch Standards 4-2-15 SPECIMEN LIMITS 5-6-7
Length 4-2-19 SPEED REDUCERS 15-6-37

Index
SPEED-TIME-DISTANCE RELATIONS 16-2-10 STABILITY (CONT)

SPEEDS 11-3-3, 12-3-4, 17-3-3 of Spans and Towers 15-1-23
SPEEDS OF TRAINS THROUGH LEVEL TURNOUTS 5-3-13 STAFF AND ADMINISTRATION FACILITIES 6-13-5
SPHERICAL BEARINGS 15-10-33 STAIRWAYS, WALKS, AND ELEVATORS 15-6-16
SPIKE OR BOLT HOLES 7-1-19 STAKING SPIRALS
SPILL PREVENTION, CONTROL AND COUNTERMEASURE PLAN by Deflections 5-3-5
13-3-7 by Offsets 5-3-6
SPIRAL CURVE 5-3-3 STAMPING AND MARKING 4-3-18
SPIRALS 5-3-2 STANDARD DIMENSIONS 33-7-9
SPLICES 15-6-72 STANDARD EQUIPMENT 27-2-13, 27-2-20
Deformed Bars in Compression 8-2-32 STANDARD HOOKS 8-2-17
Deformed Bars in Tension 8-2-31 Development in Tension 8-2-27
Deformed Wire in Tension 8-2-31 STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR CORRUGATED ALUMINUM
End Bearing 8-2-32 ALLOY PIPE 1-4-17
in Flexural Members 15-1-72 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS, DEPOSITING CONCRETE UNDER
of Reinforcement 8-2-31 WATER 8-1-42
Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension 8-2-33 STANDARDS, CODES, AND REGULATIONS 33-6-22
Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension 8-2-33 STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS AND RELEVANT STANDARDS OR
SPLICING OF BARS 8-17-54 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES, EMBEDDED TRACK 12-8-14
SPOT MAINTENANCE AND OPERATIONAL SAFETY ASSURANCE, STANDBY POWER 15-6-15
TRACK GEOMETRY MEASURING VEHICLES 2-1-31, 2-2-16 STARTING RESISTANCE 16-2-7
SPREAD FOOTING FOUNDATIONS 8-3-1 STATE FRANCHISE TAXES 16-14-7
Combined Footings 8-3-15 STATE INCOME TAX 16-14-5
Allowable Soil Pressures 8-3-15 STATION AND OFFICE BUILDINGS, ACCOUNT 16 16-12-9
Column Loads 8-3-16 STATION AND PLATFORM 6-8-22, 6-4-13
Sizing 8-3-16 STATION ENVIRONMENT 14-6-3
Uses and Types 8-3-15 STATIONARY SOURCES, AIR QUALITY COMPLIANCE 13-4-6
Definitions 8-3-2 STATIONS AND FACILITIES 12-2-17, 17-2-5
Classification 8-3-2 STATIONS, STOPS, PASSENGER ACCESS & SAFETY 12-8-22
General 8-3-2 STAY PLATES 15-1-47
Depth of Base of Footings 8-3-7 STEEL
Revision 8-3-7 Bridges, Anchorage of Decks and Rails on 15-8-13
Selection of Tentative Depths 8-3-7 Bridges, Cleaning and Coating 15-8-32
Field Conditions 8-3-14 Fabrication, Welding and Sheet Metal Shop 6-9-8
Drainage 8-3-14 High Strength 15-8-30
Footings at Varying Levels 8-3-14 Inner Guard Rails and Guard Timbers 15-1-15
Information on Drawings 8-3-15 Piles 8-4-10
Modification of Design 8-3-14 Structures 15-i, 15-8-1
Reinforcement 8-3-14 Anchorage of Decks and Rails on Steel Bridges 15-8-13
Stresses 8-3-15 Anchorage of Decks to Bridge Spans 15-8-13
Treatment of Bottom of Excavation 8-3-15 Open Deck Bridges 15-8-13
Footing Stresses 8-3-14 Anchorage of Rail 15-8-13
Loads Eccentric in Two Directions 8-3-14 Foreword 15-8-13
Footings With Eccentric Loads 8-3-12 Maintenance of Bridges with Continuous Welded Rail
In One Direction 8-3-12 15-8-16
In Two Directions 8-3-13 Rail Expansion Joints 15-8-15
Sizing 8-3-13 Commentary 15-9-1
Information Required 8-3-4 Welding Index 15-9-48
Character of Subsurface Materials 8-3-5 Foreword 15-8-1
Controlling Dimensions 8-3-4 Guidelines for Evaluating Fire Damaged Steel Railway
Field Survey 8-3-4 Bridges 15-8-28
Loads 8-3-4 Conclusion 15-8-32
Sizing of Footings 8-3-7 Evaluation of Bridge 15-8-31
Definitions 8-3-7 Fasteners 15-8-30
Footings on Non-Homogeneous Deposits 8-3-11 High Strength Steels 15-8-30
Footings on Soils with Cohesion and Friction 8-3-12 Introduction 15-8-28
Footings on Unsaturated Silts and Clays 8-3-11 References 15-8-32
Safety Factors 8-3-8 Temperature Effects 15-8-29
Shallow Footings on Granular Material 8-3-8 Types of Fires 15-8-29
Shallow Footings on Saturated Clay 8-3-10 Method of Shortening of Eyebars to Equalize the Stress
SPRINGS 15-6-46 15-8-9
STABILITY 8-20-10, 8-28-5 General 15-8-9
Calculations 8-20-10 Turntables 15-8-3
Computation 8-5-6 Basic Allowable Stresses and Deflections 15-8-6

Index
STEEL (CONT) STORES (CONT)

General Details 15-8-6 Types of 6-17-2
General Features of Design 15-8-3 STORM WATER DISCHARGE - CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
Loads and Stresses 15-8-4 13-3-5
Unloading Pits 15-8-17 Best Management Practices 13-3-6
Applicant’s Responsibilities 15-8-26 General 13-3-5
Concrete Pit 15-8-26 Implementing Agency 13-3-6
Construction Drawings 15-8-26 Regulatory Citations 13-3-5
General 15-8-17 Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plans 13-3-6
Loads 15-8-17 STORM WATER DISCHARGE - INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES 13-3-3
Operating Limitations 15-8-17 Best Management Practices 13-3-4
Rail as Supporting Beams 15-8-25 General 13-3-3
Scope and Purpose 15-8-17 Implementing Agency 13-3-4
Structural Supporting Beams 15-8-25 Regulatory Citations 13-3-3
Unsupported Running Rail 15-8-25 Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plans 13-3-4
Walkways and Handrails on Bridges 15-8-27 STORM WATER POLLUTION PREVENTION PLANS 13-3-4, 13-3-6
Clearanceas and Minimum Dimensions 15-8-27 STRAIGHTENING MATERIAL 15-3-3
Loads 15-8-27 STRAIN COMPATIBILITY 8-26-24
Locations 15-8-27 STRATEGIES AND ECONOMICS, ENERGY CONSERVATION AND
Materials 15-8-28 AUDITS 6-5-4
STEEL BEARING COMPONENTS 15-10-8 STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES, INDUSTRIAL & SYSTEMS
STEEL CARRIER PIPE 1-5-5, 1-5-24 ENGINEERING 16-6-4
STEEL RAILS STRAY CURRENT CONTROL 33-12-22
Length 4-2-19 STRAY CURRENT EFFECTS 12-4-44
STEEL SPECIFICATIONS 2-15 STREET LEVEL RUNNING CONSIDERATIONS 33-12-27
STEEL STRESS 8-17-27 STRENGTH DESIGN 8-2-49
STEEL STRUCTURE FABRICATED BY CONTRACTOR 15-4-3 STRENGTH OF GEAR TEETH 15-6-41
STEEL STRUCTURE SUPPLIED BY COMPANY 15-4-3 STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS 8-26-18
STEEL SWITCH TIES, STEEL GRADE CROSSINGTIES & OTHER
SPECIALTY STEEL TIES 30-6-2
STRESS TRANSFER, CONCRETE STRENGTH AT 8-17-45
STRESS GRADED LUMBER, ALLOWABLE UNIT STRESSES FOR
1
STEEL TIE IDENTIFICATION, MARKING OF TIE, INSPECTION AND 7-2-20
QUALITY CONTROL 30-6-3 STRESSES 5-5-27, 8-3-15, 15-7-16
STEEL TIES 30-6-1 Allowable for Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-20
Ballast & Sub-Grade Requirement for Steel Ties 30-6-2 Axial and Bending Loads 7-2-29
General Considerations 30-6-1 Bearing 7-2-21
Physical & Mechanical Properties 30-6-1 Bearing at Angle to Grain 7-2-29
Steel Switch Ties, Steel Grade CrossingTies & Other Specialty Bearing on Bolts 7-2-31
Steel Ties 30-6-2 Combined 7-2-29
3
Steel Tie Identification, Marking of Tie, Inspection and Quality Compression Allowable for Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-21
Control 30-6-3 Computation of 8-19-3
Tamping & Compaction of Ballast in Steel Tie Track & Switches Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-3-2
30-6-3 Footing 8-3-14
STEEL, PRESTRESSING 8-26-22 Horizontal Shear 7-2-30
STENCILING 27-2-16, 27-2-21 Shearing 7-2-31
STEP BEARINGS 15-6-36 Unit 7-3-4
STIFFENERS Working Unit Stresses for Stress-Graded Lumber 7-2-20 4
at Points of Bearing 15-1-54 STRING LINING OF CURVES BY THE CHORD METHOD 5-3-6
STIFFNESS 8-2-34 STRINGERS 7-2-5
STOCK GUARDS 1-6-20 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
STORAGE 5-10-7, 6-17-3 Perforated Pipe Drains 1-4-100
Facilities 6-17-10 STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 6-1-13
and Handling 8-17-50 STRUCTURAL FENCES 1-6-24
of Material 15-3-3 STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER - GLULAM 7-1-3
and Service Tanks, Sanding Facility 6-6-5 STRUCTURAL GRADES OF SOFTWOOD LUMBER AND TIMBER
Sanding Facility 6-6-4 7-1-3
Warehouses, Account 22 16-12-11 STRUCTURAL LUMBER, TIMBER AND ENGINEERED WOOD
STORAGE SPACES 6-2-8 PRODUCTS, ORDERING 7-1-5
STORAGE, EXTERIOR, IN MATERIALS MANAGEMENT FACILITIES Inquiry or Purchase Order 7-1-6
6-7-6 STRUCTURAL PARTS 15-6-28
STORAGE TANKS, DIESEL REPAIR FACILITIES 6-4-37 STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS 6-3-5
STORE ROOM 6-4-16 Design Criteria for Railway Office Buildings 6-2-10
STORES 6-17-2 Passenger Rail (Coach)/Locomotive Maintenance, Repair and
Buildings and Structures 6-17-3 Servicing Facilities 6-13-9
Special Requirements - Coach Shop 6-13-6

Index
STRUCTURAL STEEL SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

Rivets, Bolts and Pins 15-1-37 (SCADA) 33-6-27
STRUCTURAL STEEL, BOLTS AND PINS 15-10-7 SUPERVISORY OFFICES 6-11-4
STRUCTURAL SUPPORTING BEAMS 15-8-25 SUPPLEMENTARY REQUIREMENTS, STEEL RAILS 4-2-24
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 6-3-5, 17-4-3 SUPPORT
STRUCTURAL TYPES OF BUILDING SYSTEMS 6-8-17 Beams, Structural 15-8-25
STRUCTURE RESPONSE 9-1-21 Lateral 8-4-6
STRUCTURE SERVICEABILITY CRITERIA 12-4-40 Rail 16-10-9
STRUCTURES 6-17-10 Systems, Design Criteria for CTC Centers 6-11-4
Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning 17-7-3 SUPPORT AREAS
Miscellaneous, Account 35 16-12-15 Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance-of-Way Equipment
Temporary 8-28-1 Repair Shops 6-9-9
STRUCTURES, MAINTENANCE AND CONSTRUCTION 10-i SUPPORT EQUIPMENT 33-4-5
Guidelines for the Development of Bridge Management SUPPORT STRUCTURE, EMBEDDED TRACK 12-8-22
Programs 10-1-1 SURFACE
STRUCTURES MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 11-7-2, 17-7-4 Classification 4-2-18
General 17-7-4 Finish Tolerances, Rail Grinding 4-4-91
Normal Inspection Protocol 17-7-4 Preparation, Cleaning and Coating of Existing Steel Railway
Regulatory Requirements 17-7-4 Bridges 15-8-33
Severe Weather Inspection Protocol 17-7-4 Preparation, Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins
STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS TO THE DESIGN OF ANCHARAGE 8-1-58
ZONES, APPLICATION OF 8-17-39 Repairs Using Polymer Concretes and Polymer Portland Cement
STRUT-AND-TIE TRUSS MODEL DESIGN FOR EITHER BEAM TYPE Concretes 8-14-12
OR DISCONTINUITY REGIONS 8-26-30 Repairs Using Portland Cement Materials 8-14-6
STRUT-AND-TIE-MODELS 8-26-8 SURFACES OF BEARING PLATES AND PEDESTALS 15-3-8
SUB-BALLAST SURVEY OF EXISTING STRUCTURES 1-4-78
and Ballast 18-2-2 SUSPENSION 27-2-7, 27-2-20
Specifications 1-2-19 SWITCH AND MAINTENANCE GRINDING APPLICATIONS,
SUBBASE RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR 4-4-108
Design for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-9 SWITCH TIES AND CROSSTIES 18-2-4
For Concrete Slab Track 8-27-23 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION, ELECTRIFICATION 33-6-15
SUBGRADE SYSTEM DESCRIPTION, RAIL MEASURING SYSTEMS 2-2-16
Construction for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-10 SYSTEM DESIGN 33-6-20
Design for Concrete Slab Track 8-27-9 Environmental Considerations 33-6-22
Track Components and Design 18-2-2 Equipment Design 33-6-23
Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-9 Functional Requirements 33-6-20
SUBMITTALS 5-9-3 High (Primary) Voltage Circuit Breakers and Disconnect
SUBSTATION AND FEEDING AND SUPPLY LOCATIONS, Switches 33-6-23
PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-4 Medium (Secondary) Voltage Switchgear 33-6-25
SUBSTATION SPACING 33-6-16 Service Conditions 33-6-22
SUBSTATIONS 33-1-5 Signal Power Generating System 33-6-27
SUBSTATIONS AND TRANSMISSION LINE MAINTENANCE 33-1-8 Special Equipment 33-6-27
SUBSTITUTE TIMBER TIES 30-3-21 Standards, Codes, and Regulations 33-6-21
SUBSTRUCTURE Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA)
Constructed by Company 15-4-4 System Protection 33-6-26
Constructed by Contractor 15-4-4 Traction Power Transformers 33-6-24
SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION 8-4-5, 8-25-3 SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA 11-3-2, 12-3-3, 17-3-3
SUBSURFACE MATERIALS, CHARACTER 8-3-5 Environmental 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3
SUBURBAN STATIONS 17-2-5 Flange Bearing Wheels 12-3-10
SUITABLE SUPPORT AND MAINTENANCE AREAS 12-2-12, 17-2-4 General 11-3-2, 12-3-3, 17-3-3
SUMMARY Mixed Passenger Transit and Freight 11-3-2, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
Design Criteria for Spot Car Repair Shops 6-3-12 Passenger Comfort 11-3-4, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
Economics and Location of Defect Detector Systems 16-5-14 Propulsion System 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3
Fire Prevention in Yards 14-1-6 Regulatory Requirements 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3
Of Railway Applications, Industrial & Systems Engineering Reliability 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3
16-6-17 Safety/Security 11-3-2, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
Sub-ballast Specifications 1-2-26 Signal Systems 11-3-4, 12-3-6, 17-3-3
SUPERELEVATION DEFICIENCY 11-3-3, 12-3-4, 17-3-3 Speeds 11-3-3, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
SUPERSTRUCTURE DEPTH LIMITATIONS 8-2-65 Superelevation Deficiency 11-3-3, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
SUPERSTRUCTURE PROTECTION, REINFORCED CONCRETE Track and Roadway Considerations 11-3-2
DESIGN 8-2-6 Vehicle/Track Interaction 11-3-4, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
SUPERVISORS, ORGANIZATION 16-8-6 SYSTEM FEATURES AND ARRANGEMENTS, PROPULSION SYSTEMS
11-6-5

Index
SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND INTERFACE MANAGEMENT TAXES (CONT)

33-12-28 Non-Operating Property 16-14-7
SYSTEM MAINTENANCE, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-6 Operating Property 16-14-7
SYSTEM OPERATION 33-1-2 Reporting 16-14-6
SYSTEM PROTECTION 33-6-26 Sales and Use Tax 16-14-7
SYSTEM QUALITY ASSURANCE, GAGE RESTRAINT MEASURING General 16-14-7
SYSTEMS (GRMS) 2-3-5 State Franchise Taxes 16-14-7
SYSTEM STUDIES 33-6-18 State Income Tax 16-14-5
Arc-Flash Hazard Study 33-6-20 General 16-14-5
Atmospheric Corrosion Control Study 33-6-20 TECHNICAL NOTES 33-2-14
Distribution System Conductor Temperature Study 33-6-18 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS 5-6-18
General 33-6-18 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS 6-1-5
Geotechnical Study 33-6-20 TELEVISION, CLOSED CIRCUIT 6-8-20
Harmonic Distortion and System Resonsance Study 33-6-19 TELEVISION SYSTEM, DIESEL REPAIR FACILITIES 6-4-36
Insulation Coordination Study 33-6-20 TEMPERATURE
Phase Unbalance Study 33-6-19 of Dampproofing 8-29-29
Power and Electronic Circuit Compatibility Study 33-6-18 Effects 15-8-29
Protective Device Coordination Study 33-6-20 Expansion for Laying Rails 5-5-18
Short Circuit Study 33-6-20 Measuring Systems 6-5-9
Train Operation Simulation and Load-Flow Study 33-6-18 Reinforcement 8-2-23
Voltage Flicker Study 33-6-19 TEMPLATES FOR REAMING AND DRILLING 15-3-14
SYSTEM SUB-ASSEMBLIES, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-6 TEMPORARY CONTROL MEASURES 1-6-23
SYSTEM TYPES, LOCOMOTIVE SANDING FACILITIES 6-6-6 TEMPORARY OPENINGS, WALL FORMS 8-1-24
Gantry Crane Systems 6-6-8 TEMPORARY CASING MATERIAL 8-24-9
Gravity Overhead Systems 6-6-6 TEMPORARY STRUCTURES, TIMBER STRUCTURES 7-A2-1
Pneumatic Conveying Systems 6-6-9 TEMPORARY STRUCTURES, RAILWAY BRIDGES AND TRESTLES
SYSTEM-WIDE INTEGRATION TESTING 33-6-30 7-2-148
TEMPORARY STRUCTURES FOR CONSTRUCTION 8-28-1
Commentary 8-28-20
Computation of Lateral Forces 8-28-5
1
T Design of Falsework Systems 8-28-14
Design of Shoring Systems 8-28-5
General 8-28-2
TABLE OF CONTINUOUS AMPACITY RATINGS 33-4-24
Information Required 8-28-4
TABLES, EQUATED MILEAGE PARAMETERS 16-11-3
Stability 8-28-5
TACK WELDS 15-3-19
Types of 8-28-3
TAGGING 5-7-4
TENDER 33-7-12, 33-7-17, 33-7-21
TAMPING 5-5-23
TENDON ANCHORAGE ZONES 8-17-13
3
Tools 5-5-23
TENSILE PROPERTIES, QUENCHED CARBON-STEEL JOINT BARS,
TAMPING & COMPACTION OF BALLAST IN STEEL TIE TRACK &
MICROALLOYED JOINT BARS, AND FORGED COMPROMISE
SWITCHES 30-6-3
JOINT BARS 4-3-16
TANGENT TRACK, LEVEL 16-2-3
TENSION MEMBERS
TAPPED HOLES 15-6-45
Effective Area, Fatigue 15-1-50, 15-9-29
TAXES 33-1-8, 16-14-1
Effective Net Area, Strength 15-1-48, 15-9-29
Federal Income Tax 16-14-2
TENTATIVE DEPTHS, SELECTION 8-3-7
Depreciation Groupings 16-14-2
TERMINAL CONFIGURATION 14-4-55 4
Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS) 16-14-3
TERMINAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR RUN THROUGH
Class Life Asset Depreciation Range System (ADR)
TRAINS 14-2-29
16-14-3 TERMINAL MAINTENANCE
Class Life System 16-14-3
Of Waterfront Facilities 14-4-12
Guideline Depreciation 16-14-3
TERMINALS 33-7-13
Original 1942 Submission 16-14-2
Planning 14-6-2
Section 94 (Technical Correction as of 1956) 16-14-2
TERMINALS (SLEEVE OR OTHER DEVICE SUPPLIED BY
Tax Reform Act of 1986 16-14-4
MANUFACTURER) 33-7-19
Gains and Losses 16-14-5
TERMINOLOGY, TRACK STRUCTURE ASSESSMENT MEASURING
General 16-14-2
SYSTEMS 2-3-1
IRS Submissions 16-14-5
TERMS 8-24-3, 33-4-16, 33-7-8
Retention of Documents 16-14-5
Concrete 8-2-10
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements 8-1-6
Scope 16-14-2
Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams
Investment Tax Credit (ITC) 16-14-6
8-23-2
General 16-14-6
Prestressed Concrete 8-17-8
Property Tax (Ad Valorem) 16-14-6
Slurry Wall Construction 8-25-3
Assessment 16-14-7
Waterproofing 8-29-8

Index
TEST 1A: BENDING - RAILSEAT POSITIVE 30-2-3 TIE PERFORMANCE TEST DESCRIPTIONS 30-2-3
TEST 1B: BENDING - RAILSEAT NEGATIVE 30-2-4 TIE PLATES 5-1-1
TEST 1C: BENDING - CENTER NEGATIVE 30-2-5 Design of Tie Plate for Use with Area Rail Sections 5-1-7
TEST 1D: FLEXURAL FATIGUE 30-2-7 Specifications for Steel Tie Plates 5-1-2
TEST 2: RAIL/PLATE AREA COMPRESSION 30-2-1 Bending Properties 5-1-3
TEST 3B: SPIKE LATERAL RESTRAINT 30-2-9 Chemical Composition 5-1-3
TEST 4A: TIE PAD TEST 30-2-10 Composition 5-1-3
TEST 4B: TIE PAD ATTENUATION TEST 30-2-10 Finish and Permissible Variation in Dimensions 5-1-4
TEST 5A: FASTENER UPLIFT 30-2-11 Inspection 5-1-5
TEST 5B: FASTENER LONGITUDINAL RESTRAINT 30-2-13 Manufacture 5-1-2
TEST 5C: FASTENER REPEATED LOAD 30-2-14 Marking 5-1-5
TEST 5D: FASTENER LATERAL LOAD RESTRAINT 30-2-15 Number of Tests 5-1-4
TEST 5E: FASTENER ASSEMBLY ROTATION 30-2-16 Rejection 5-1-5
TEST 6: WEAR/ABRASION 30-2-17 Retests 5-1-4
TEST 7: FASTENER ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE TEST 30-2-19 Scope 5-1-2
TEST 8: SINGLE TIE LATERAL PUSH 30-2-20 Test Specimens 5-1-4
TEST BAY 6-9-8 TIE PLATES, SPIKES, ANCHORS 5-8-10
TEST CONFIGURATION 5-9-3 TIE PLUG COMPOUND, SPECIAL WASTE 13-5-17
TEST CRITERIA TIE PLUGS 7-1-19
For Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-15 TIE SPACING 30-1-4
TEST OF MATERIALS, CONCRETE 8-1-7 TIE TESTS AND THE ECONOMICS OF SERVICE LIFE 30-3-17
TEST PITS 8-22-5 TIES 5-8-10, 30-i, 7-1-15
TEST SEQUENCE 5-9-4 Account 8 16-12-7
TEST SPECIMENS 4-3-17, 5-1-4 Concrete 30-4-1
TEST WEIGHTS 8-2 Concrete, and Resistance to Movement 16-2-9
TESTING 1-2-24, 15-6-108, 16-8-3 General Considerations 30-1-1
and Documentation of ASTM A325 and A490 Bolts 15-3-15 Solid Sawn Timber Ties 30-3-1
Drilled Shaft Foundations 8-24-12 Track Structure as Crossing Foundation 5-8-10
Capacity 8-24-12 TIES FOR GRADE CROSSING PANELS 30-4-53
Integrity 8-24-12 TIES FOR TURNOUTS 30-4-45
Material 8-24-12 TILTING, SETTLEMENT AND 8-5-7
Frequency of 4-2-74 TIMBER BRIDGE TIES 15-1-41
of Monoblock Ties 30-4-26 TIMBER BRIDGE TIES. SEE SPECIFICATIONS FOR
of Two-Block Ties 30-4-39 TIMBER CROSS TIES 30-3-5
TESTING ANCHOR INSERTS, CONCRETE SLAB TRACK 8-27-13 TIMBER FRAMING 7-4-4
TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE 15-11-19 TIMBER PILE TRESTLES, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CAP AND/OR
TESTING AND CALIBRATION 4-3 SILL FOR 8-17-56
TESTING AND TOLERANCES 8-2 TIMBER PILES 8-4-9
TESTING, FIRE-RETARDANT COATING FOR CREOSOTED WOOD Specifications for 7-1-6
7-1-22 Classification of Piles 7-1-7
TESTS 33-7-14, 33-7-20, 33-7-27 General Provisions 7-1-6
Dynamometer or Test Cars, Field Testing 16-2-19 General Requirements for All Piles 7-1-10
T-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION 8-2-36 Inquiries and Purchase Orders 7-1-12
TGMV DATA INTERCHANGE, RECOMMENDED OPEN STANDARD Special Requirements
FOR 2-1-64 First-Class Piles 7-1-11
THEFT AND VANDALISM, YARDS AND TERMINALS 14-1-3 Second-Class Piles 7-1-12
THERMAL COEFFICIENT 8-2-34 TIMBER RAILWAY BRIDGES, TYPICAL PLANS 7-4-23
THERMAL EFFECTS 8-26-13 TIMBER STRUCTURES 7-i
THERMITE WELDING, SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE QUALITY Construction and Maintenance 7-4-1
ASSURANCE OF 4-2-72 Framing of Timber 7-4-4
THICKNESS Upgrading and Rehabilitating Timber Structures 7-4-2
of Material 15-1-42 Handling of Material 7-4-3
of Web Plates 15-1-52 Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles 7-4-18
THIRD PARTY OCCUPANCY 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4 Coatings 7-4-19
THIRD-RAIL ARRANGEMENTS 33-2-3 Fire Alarm Systems 7-4-19
Design, Construction and Maintenance Issues 33-2-4 Fire Barriers 7-4-19
General 33-2-3 Foreword 7-4-18
THREADS AND THREAD FIT 4-3-25 Housekeeping 7-4-19
TIE BRANDING 7-1-19 Impregnation 7-4-19
TIE DIMENSIONS, CONFIGURATION AND WEIGHT 30-4-16 Metal Protection 7-4-18
TIE IDENTIFICATION AND RECORDS 30-5-12 Storage of Material 7-4-3
TIE PAD 30-2-10 Substructure 7-4-5
Test 4A: Tie Pad Test 30-2-10 Driving Timber Piles 7-4-7
Test 4B: Tie Pad Attenuation Test 30-2-10

Index
TIMBER STRUCTURES (CONT) TRACK (CONT)

Pile Posting, or Replacing Defective Portions of Piles Design 6-17-10
7-4-5 Inspection, Evaluation, and Planning 17-7-3
Superstructure 7-4-14 Level Tangent 16-2-3
Support, Repair, Preserve, or Replace Damaged Portions of Maintenance 5-5-1
the Structure 7-4-14 Gage 5-5-22
Control Moisture 7-4-18 General 5-5-22
Field Application of Preservative Chemicals 7-4-18 Laying and Maintenance of Continuous Welded Rail 5-5-6
Typical Plans for Timber Railway Bridges 7-4-23 Construction of a New Line of Railroad with Continuous
General Notes 7-4-24 Welded Rail (CWR) 5-5-12
Plans 7-4-23 Handling and Transporting Continuous Welded Rail
Use of Guard Rails and Guard Timbers 7-4-23 5-5-7
Combined Use of Guard Timbers and Guard Rails 7-4-23 Index of Continuous Welded Rail Manual Material
Field Side Guard or Spacer Timbers 7-4-23 5-5-16
Metal Gage Side Guard Rails 7-4-23 Inspection of Continuous Welded Rail in Track 5-5-13
Workmanship for Construction and Maintenance of Pile and Laying Procedure for Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) on
Framed Trestles 7-4-3 Existing Track 5-5-8
Contemporary Designs and Design Aids 7-A1-1 Maintenance of Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) in Track
Legacy Designs 7-A3-1 5-5-14
Temporary Structures 7-A2-1 Preparation of Track Prior to Unloading Continuous
TIMBER SWITCH TIES 30-3-14 Welded Rail 5-5-6
TIMBER TRESTLE RAILWAY BRIDGES, INSTRUCTIONS FOR Present Practice 5-5-6
INSPECTION 7-3-13 Transposing Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) 5-5-16
TIMBER TRESTLES, SPECIFICATIONS OF FASTENERS 7-1-13 Preservation of Track Fixtures 5-5-24
Material 7-1-13 Rail and Other Track Material, Except Joints 5-5-24
Types of Fasteners 7-1-13 Rail Joints 5-5-24
Use of Protective Coatings for Steel Fasteners on Timber Bridges Rail Anchor Patterns Number of Rail Anchors to Resist Rail
7-1-15 Creepage 5-5-18
TIMBER, GLUED LAMINATED, DESIGN VALUES FOR GLULAM
7-2-11
Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) 5-5-19
General 5-5-18
1
TIME Jointed Track and Where Temperature Expansion is
of Opening 15-6-6 Provided 5-5-19
TOFC/COFC TERMINALS, ACCOUNT 25 16-12-12 Open-Deck Bridges 5-5-21
TOILET FACILITIES 6-9-10 Turnouts 5-5-21
TOLERANCES 4-3-24 Recommended Practices for the Renewal of Track Ties
For Elastomeric Bridge Bearings 15-11-13 5-5-31
TOLERANCES IN THE CATENARY SYSTEM AND POSITION OF Scope 5-5-31
TRACK 33-2-13 Recommended Practices for Switch Point and Stock Rail
3
TOOL DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE 5-6-57 Changeout 5-5-28
TOOL ROOM 6-9-10 General Information 5-5-31
TOOLS REQUIRED 5-3-7 Scope 5-5-28
TOPOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS DETERMINING ANGLE, GRADIENT, Underlying Conditions Which May Cause Premature
AND LENGTH OF STRUCTURE 1-4-7 Wear Degradation or Improper Fit of Switch Points
TOTAL SCOUR 1-3-24 and Stock Rails 5-5-29
TOTAL SCOUR CALCULATION PROBLEM 1-3-53 Specifications for Laying Rail 5-5-3
TOWERS 6-10-6 Completion of Work 5-5-5 4
Construction 6-10-3 Laying 5-5-4
Furnishings 6-10-6 Preparation of Track 5-5-3
Roof Overhang 6-10-5 Scope 5-5-3
Size 6-10-5 Unloading 5-5-3
TOXIC/HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS 13-4-12 Tamping 5-5-23
Harzardous Air Pollutants 13-4-12 Methods 5-5-23
TPC 16-2-14 Tools 5-5-23
TRACK 5-i Temperature Expansion for Laying Rails 5-5-18
Arrangement, Freight Yards and Freight Terminals 14-2-4 General 5-5-18
Construction 5-4-1 Track Bolt Tension Practice 5-5-21
Proper Usage of the Various Type of Frogs 5-4-7 Practices 5-5-22
Specifications 5-4-1 Purpose 5-5-21
Appendix 1 - Where Track is Constructed with Wayside Lubrication of Rail on Curves 5-5-25
Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) 5-4-6 General 5-5-25
Appendix II - Minimum Specifications for Industrial Welding of Manganese Steel Castings in Special Trackwork
Track Construction 5-4-6 5-5-26
Scope 5-4-1 Electrodes 5-5-26
Construction and Maintenance 16-10-19 Finishing 5-5-28

Index
TRACK (CONT) TRACK AND ROADWAY (CONT)

Low Heat Input 5-5-26 Vertical Geometry 12-3-22
Precautions 5-5-28 TRACK AND ROADWAY CONSIDERATIONS 11-3-1, 11-3-6,
Preparation 12-3-1, 17-3-1, 17-3-4
of Defective Areas 5-5-27 Clearances 11-3-5, 12-3-7, 17-3-3
of Worn Areas 5-5-27 Design Considerations for Future Expansion 12-3-34
Scope 5-5-26 Gage 11-3-15, 17-3-4
Stresses 5-5-27 General 11-3-6
Welding Methods 5-5-26 General Information 11-3-2, 12-3-2, 17-3-3, 17-3-4
Material, Other 16-10-15 Grounding 11-3-22, 17-3-6
Measuring System 2-i Horizontal Alignment 17-3-6
Automated Track Component Evaluation 2-5-1 Horizontal Geometry 11-3-15
Other Track Measuring Systems 2-6-1 Maintenance Philosophy 11-3-13, 17-3-4
Rail Measuring Systems 2-2-1 Regulatory Requirements 11-3-11, 17-3-4
Track Clearance Measuring Systems 2-4-1 Right of Way Design Criteria and Considerations 11-3-5,
Track Geometry Measuring Systems 2-1-1 12-3-9, 17-3-4
Track Structure Assessment Measuring Systems 2-3-1 Safety/Security 11-3-15, 17-3-4
Quality Signal Considerations 11-3-22, 17-3-6
and Resistance to Movement 16-2-9 Systems Design Criteria 11-3-2, 12-3-3, 17-3-3
Substructure Track and Roadway 12-3-11
Design 1-2-5 Track Structure 11-3-15, 17-3-4
TRACK BALLAST, SPECIAL WASTE 13-5-16 Turnout & Special Trackwork 11-3-22, 17-3-6
TRACK AND CROSSING SURFACE REHABILITATION AND Vertical Geometry 11-3-20, 17-3-6
MAINTENANCE 5-8-8 TRACK AND ROADWAY REHABILITATION 18-2-16
TRACK GEOMETRY MEASURING SYSTEMS 2-1-1 TRACK BOLTS
Definitions of Various Track Geometry Parameters and Related Tension Practice 5-5-21
Elements Used to Describe Track Geometry 2-1-3 TRACK CLEARANCE MEASURING SYSTEMS 2-4-1
Description of a Generic Track Geometry Measuring Vehicle Definitions 2-4-2
(TGMV) 2-1-9 Description 2-4-2
Introduction 2-1-3 Introduction 2-4-2
Recommended Practice for Identifying and Locating Track Measurement Frequency 2-4-2
Geometry Priority Defects Detected by a Track Geometry Recommended Practices 2-4-2
Measuring Vehicle 2-1-11 Typical Uses of Data 2-4-2
Recommended Practice - Measurement Frequency for Track TRACK COMPONENTS AND DESIGN 18-2-10
Geometry Measuring Vehicles 2-1-75 TRACK DRIP COLLECTION 6-4-38
Typical Uses of Data Collected by Track Geometry Measuring TRACK GEOMETRY IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE 2-1-3
Vehicles 2-1-30 TRACK GEOMETRY IN THE LONGITUDINAL PLANE 2-1-5
TRACK GEOMETRY MEASURING VEHICLE (TGMV), TRACK GEOMETRY IN THE TRACK PLANE 2-1-7
DESCRIPION OF A GENERIC 2-1-9 TRACK GEOMETRY IN THE TRANSVERSE VERTICAL PLANE 2-1-6
TRACK MAINTENANCE LIMITS 11-7-2, 17-7-3 TRACK INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 18-2-10
Component Wear Limits 17-7-4 TRACK MODULUS AND RESISTANCE TO MOVEMENT 16-2-9
Gage Limits 17-7-4 TRACK QUALITY INDICES (TQI) GENERATED FROM TGMV
General 17-7-3 DATA, DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF 2-1-43
Horizontal Deviation and Variations 17-7-4 TRACK RENEWAL (CAPITAL PLANNING), TRACK GEOMETRY
Regulatory Requirements 17-7-4 MEASURING VEHICLES 2-1-39, 2-2-16
Ride Quality 17-7-4 TRACK SPIKES 5-2-1
Vertical Deviations and Variations 17-7-4 Design of Track Cut Spike 5-2-5
TRACK MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 11-7-2, 17-7-4 Specifications for Soft-Steel Track Spikes 5-2-2
General 17-7-4 Bending Properties 5-2-3
Normal Inspection Protocol 17-7-4 Chemical Composition 5-2-2
Severe Weather Inspection Protocol 17-7-4 Finish 5-2-4
TRACK AND ROADBED 9-1-32, 9-2-2 Impact Properties 5-2-3
TRACK AND ROADWAY 12-3-11 Inspection 5-2-4
Gage 12-3-13 Ladle Analysis 5-2-2
General 12-3-11 Marking 5-2-4
Grounding/Stray Current 12-3-24 Number of Tests 5-2-3
Horizontal Geometry 12-3-19 Permissible Variations in Dimensions 5-2-3
Maintenance Philosophy 12-3-13 Process 5-2-2
Regulatory Requirements 12-3-13 Rejection 5-2-4
Safety/Security 12-3-13 Retests 5-2-3
Signal Considerations 12-3-23 Scope 5-2-2
Special Trackwork Components 12-3-27 Tensile Properties 5-2-3
Track Structure 12-3-13 TRACK STRUCTURE 11-3-15, 12-3-13, 17-3-6
Turnouts and Special Trackwork 12-3-25

Index
TRACK STRUCTURE ASSESSMENT MEASURING SYSTEMS 2-3-1 TRACTION POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS FOR RAILROAD AC
Definitions 2-3-2 ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS (CONT)
Description of Gage Restraint Measuring Systems (GRMS) Electrification System Selection 33-6-15
2-3-2 Achieving Cost Effective Electrification System Design
TRACK STRUCTURE AS CROSSING FOUNDATION 5-8-8 Electrification Voltage 33-6-16
TRACK TECHNOLOGY 12-2-15, 17-2-5 Electromagnetic Interference 33-6-16
TRACK TOOLS, SPECIFICATIONS AND PLANS 5-6-1 Substation Spacing 33-6-16
Contour Blending of Corners 5-6-56 System Configuration 33-6-15
General 5-6-18 Utility Power Availability 33-6-16
Inspection and Shipment 5-6-22 Voltage Rise Along the Return System 33-6-17
Inspection and Use 5-6-22 General 33-6-3
Technical Requirements 5-6-18 Purpose 33-6-3
Method for Establishing the Corner Contour of Hand Tool Scope 33-6-3
Striking Faces 5-6-54 System Design 33-6-20
3/4" Stock and Over 5-6-55 Environmental Considerations 33-6-22
Plans for Track Tools 5-6-23 Equipment Design 33-6-23
General 5-6-23 Functional Requirements 33-6-20
Recommended Practices for Using, Redressing, Sharpening and High (Primary) Voltage Circuit Breakers and Disconnect
Replacing Handles in Track Tools 5-6-57 Switches 33-6-23
Introduction 5-6-57 Medium (Secondary) Voltage Switchgear 33-6-25
Redressing of Tools 5-6-58 Service Conditions 33-6-22
Replacing Handles 5-6-60 Signal Power Generating System 33-6-27
Sharpening of Tools 5-6-59 Special Equipment 33-6-27
Tool Design and Manufacture 5-6-57 Standards, Codes, and Regulations 33-6-21
Specification for Track Tools 5-6-4 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA)
Specifications for Ash and Hickory Handles for Track Tools 33-6-27
5-6-13, 5-6-17 System Protection 33-6-26
Delivery 5-6-15
Design 5-6-14
Traction Power Transformers 33-6-24
System Studies 33-6-18
1
Grade Classification 5-6-15 Arc-Flash Hazard Study 33-6-20
Inspection 5-6-14 Atmospheric Corrosion Control Study 33-6-20
Manufacture 5-6-14 Distribution System Conductor Temperature Study 33-6-18
Material 5-6-13 General 33-6-18
Physical Requirements 5-6-14 Geotechnical Study 33-6-20
Types of Blemishes and Defects 5-6-15 Harmonic Distortion and System Resonsance Study 33-6-19
Use Classification 5-6-17 Insulation Coordination Study 33-6-20
TRACK TRANSITION PROBLEM 30-1-12 Phase Unbalance Study 33-6-19
3
TRACK TRANSITION REMEDIES AND PRACTICES 30-1-13 Power and Electronic Circuit Compatibility Study 33-6-18
TRACKAGE, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SPOT CAR REPAIR SHOPS Protective Device Coordination Study 33-6-20
6-3-4 Short Circuit Study 33-6-20
TRACKS, INDUSTRIAL, CLEARANCE DIAGRAMS 28-1-7 Train Operation Simulation and Load-Flow Study 33-6-18
TRACTION MOTOR OIL 6-4-26 Voltage Flicker Study 33-6-19
TRACTION POWER 17-7-3 Utility Metering 33-6-28
TRACTION POWER DEMAND 33-6-3 Billing Concepts 33-6-28
TRACTION POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 33-6-7 Location of Metering Equipment 33-6-28 4
TRACTION POWER EQUIPMENT 33-12-23 Rate Structure Negotiation 33-6-29
TRACTION POWER RETURN SYSTEM 33-6-14 Typical Rate Structure 33-6-28
TRACTION POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS FOR RAILROAD AC TRACTION POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM 33-6-6
ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS 33-6-1 TRACTION POWER SYSTEM, PROPULSION SYSTEMS 11-6-3
AC Electrification System Configuration 33-6-5 TRACTION POWER TRANSFORMERS 33-6-24
General 33-6-5 TRACTIVE EFFORT 16-3-3
Normal and Contigency Operation 33-6-14 TRAFFIC 33-1-3
Traction Power Distribution System 33-6-7 Handling 16-10-27
Traction Power Return System 33-6-14 TRAFFIC IMPACT STUDIES 5-8-11
Traction Power Supply System 33-6-6 TRAFFIC PROJECTION 33-1-3
Construction 33-6-29 TRAFFIC SOURCES AND CORRIDOR DEFINITION 12-2-12
Installation Verification Testing 33-6-29 TRAIN CONFIGURATIONS 6-13-3
Pre-Revenue Operation Testing 33-6-30 TRAIN CONTROL AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 17-5-11
Quality Assurance/Quality Control 33-6-29 TRAIN CREW WAGES 33-1-7
System-Wide Integration Testing 33-6-30 TRAIN INFORMATION SYSTEMS 6-8-19
Electrification System Load 33-6-3 TRAIN OPERATION SIMULATION AND LOAD-FLOW STUDY
General 33-6-3 33-6-18
Traction Power Demand 33-6-3 TRAIN SCHEDULES 33-1-4

Index
TRAIN SIZE AND SPEED 33-1-3 TUNNELS 1-8-1, 11-4-15, 12-4-89, 17-4-4
TRAIN SYSTEMS Construction 1-8-3, 12-4-96
Information 6-8-19 Excavation 1-8-4
TRAINING 16-8-8 Special Provisions 1-8-3
TRAINS Construction and Maintenance 16-10-23
High-Speed Passenger 16-2-10 Design 1-8-2, 12-4-89
Performance 16-2-1 Interior Dimensions 1-8-2
Energy Consumption 16-2-20 Preliminary Investigation 1-8-2
Analytical Procedure 16-2-20 Functional Analysis 12-4-89
Other Freight Railway Procedures 16-2-22 Increasing Clearances In Existing Tunnel 1-8-7
Resistance to Movement 16-2-3 Increasing Clearances in Existing Tunnels
Articulated Cars 16-2-9 General 1-8-7
Concrete Ties 16-2-9 Introduction 12-4-89
Curve Resistance and Radial Trucks 16-2-7 Lining 1-8-6
Davis Formula 16-2-4 Maintenance 12-4-97
Empty Cars 16-2-10 Measurement and Payment 1-8-6
Four-Wheel Cars 16-2-10 Railway
Grade Resistance 16-2-8 Double-Track Clearance Diagrams 28-1-6
High-Speed Passenger Trains 16-2-10 Lining 8-11-1
Level Tangent Track 16-2-3 Single-Track Clearance Diagrams 28-1-5
Other Factors 16-2-10 and Resistance to Movement 16-2-8
Rail Lubrication 16-2-8 Scope 1-8-2
Recent Developments 16-2-5 and Subways, Account 5 16-12-6
Starting Resistance 16-2-7 Ventilation 1-8-6
Track Modulus 16-2-9 TUNNELS AND TRACK PROTECTING SHEDS 9-1-34, 9-2-23
Track Quality 16-2-9 TURNOUTS 5-5-21
Tunnels 16-2-8 and Rail Crossings 18-2-4
Wind Resistance 16-2-8 and Special Trackwork 11-3-22, 12-3-25, 17-3-6
Train Performance Calculations 16-2-10 and Track Panel Fabrication Facility 6-17-7
Dynamometer or Test Cars, Field Testing 16-2-19 TURNTABLES 15-8-3
Speed-Time-Distance Relations 16-2-10 TYPE OF BACKFILL 8-5-4
Using a Computer 16-2-14 TYPES
Velocity Profiles 16-2-12 of Blemishes and Defects 5-6-15
TRANSFER FROM STORAGE TO SERVICING TANKS of Bridges 15-6-14
Sand Facility 6-6-5 of Defect Detector Systems 16-5-2
TRANSFER OF LOAD FROM THE DRILLED SHAFT TO THE ROCK of Energy Audits 6-5-6
OR SOIL BEARING STRATA 8-24-5 of Fasteners for Timber Trestles 7-1-13
TRANSIT SYSTEM LOADS 12-4-36 of Fires 15-8-29
TRANSITION AREAS of Flexible Bulkheads 8-20-2
For concrete Slab Track 8-27-17 of Fueling Facilities 14-5-9
TRANSITION OF THICKNESS OR WIDTHS IN WELDED BUTT of Interfaces 17-2-5
JOINTS 15-1-59 of Main Line Fueling Facilities 6-16-3
TRANSLOADING FACILITIES (OTHER THAN BULK) 14-4-75 of Motive Power 16-3-2
TRANSPORTATION DEMAND DATA 11-2-7, 12-2-11, 17-2-3 of Pipe Suitable for Jacking 1-4-76
TRANSPORTATION, ROADWAY SIGNS 1-7-2 of Railway Passenger Stations 6-8-3
TRANSPOSING CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL (CWR) 5-5-16 of Retaining Walls and Abutments 8-5-2
TRANSVERSE ANALYSIS 8-26-11 of Waterproofing 8-29-13
TRAVEL SPEED 27-2-34 TYPES OF BRIDGES 15-1-12
TRAVEL SPEED AND PERFORMANCE 27-2-11 TYPES OF INTERFACES 12-2-23
TREATMENT TYPES OF STRAND CONSTRUCTION 27-1-8
of Bottom of Excavation 8-3-15 TYPES OF TRACTION MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUITS 33-8-2
TREE AND SHRUB PLANTINGS 1-6-39 TYPICAL FACILITY ARRANGEMENT, WASHING FACILITY 6-12-3
TREMIE TYPICAL FACILITY ARRANGEMENTS 6-9-11
Concrete 8-25-9 TYPICAL IMPEDANCE BOND CONFIGURATIONS 33-5-6
TRENCH EXCAVATION 8-25-10 TYPICAL PLANS
TRESTLES, PILE AND FRAMED, WORKMANSHIP FOR for Timber Railway Bridges 7-4-23
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 7-4-3 TYPICAL RATE STRUCTURE, UTILITY METERING 33-6-28
TRUCK CHASSIS LOADING/UNLOADING 14-4-37 TYPICAL STATION INTERFACES 12-2-19
TRUCK AND TRACTION MOTOR REPAIR AND OVERHAUL 6-4-23 TYPICAL TRACK DIAGRAM AND GRADIENT PROFILE LADDER
TRUCKS AND SUSPENSION 17-5-10 TRACK YARD WITH CAR SPEED CONTROL 14-2-29
TRUSSES 15-7-10 TYPICAL USES OF DATA, RAIL MEASURING SYSTEMS 2-2-16
Composite 7-3-5 Claims 2-2-17
TUCKPOINTING 8-14-12 Engineering Analysis 2-2-17
Programmed Track Maintenance 2-2-16

Index
TYPICAL USES OF DATA, RAIL MEASURING SYSTEMS (CONT) USE OF PROTECTIVE COATINGS FOR STEEL FASTENERS AND
Quality Assurance and Assessment of Track Maintenance TIMBER BRIDGES 7-1-15
Practices (Audit) 2-2-17 USE OF RAIL INFORMATION 4-5-2
Service and Line Change 2-2-17 USED OIL 13-5-12
Spot Maintenance and Operational Safety Assurance 2-2-16 USED OIL FILTERS 6-4-17
Track Renewal (Capital Planning) 2-2-16 USED OIL AND OIL FILTER MANAGEMENT 13-5-13
TYPICAL USES OF DATA COLLECTED BY TRACK GEOMETRY USED RAGS AND SHOP TOWELS, SPECIAL WASTE 13-5-14
MEASURING VEHICLES 2-1-30 USER NEEDS 12-2-5, 17-2-3
Claims 2-1-42 USES AND TYPES, COMBINED FOOTINGS 8-3-15
Development and Use of Track Quality Indices (TQI) Generated UTILITIES 6-1-11, 12-4-44
from TGMV Data 2-1-43 UTILITIES, PASSENGER FACILITIES 14-6-13
Engineering Analysis (Trends, Derailment Analysis, etc.) UTILITIES, SIGNAL AND COMMUNICATION FACILITIES 9-1-34
2-1-41 UTILITY CONSIDERATIONS 12-4-35, 17-4-4
Gage Restraint Measuring Systems (GRMS) 2-3-11 UTILITY METERING 33-6-28
Introduction 2-1-30 Billing Concepts 33-6-28
Programmed Track Maintenance 2-1-38 Location of Metering Equipment 33-6-28
Quality Assurance and Assessment (Audit) of Maintenance Rate Structure Negotiation 33-6-29
Practices 2-1-40 Typical Rate Structure 33-6-28
Recommended Open Standard for TGMV Data Interchange UTILITY MONITORING AND REPORTING OPERATIONS 6-5-5
2-1-64 UTILITY POWER AVAILABILITY 33-6-16
Relationship Between Measured TGMV Data and Track/Vehicle
Interaction 2-1-74
Service Level and Line Change 2-1-42 V
Spot Maintenance and Operaitonal Safety Assurance 2-1-31
Track Renewal (Capital Planning) 2-1-39
VALVES AND ACCESSORIES 6-17-20
VEGETATION CONTROL 1-9-1, 11-3-6, 12-3-11, 17-3-4
U Evaluating Results of a Vegetation Control Program 1-9-14
Economic Analysis 1-9-15
Executing a Vegetation Control Program 1-9-11 1
ULTIMATE STRENGTH 15-6-74 Precautions 1-9-13
ULTRASONIC TESTING 4-2-14 Progress Reports 1-9-11
ULTRASONIC TEST (UT) WRITTEN PROCEDURE REQUIREMENTS Techniques of Chemical Control 1-9-12
4-4-68 Preparing a Vegetation Control Program 1-9-2
UNDERGROUND COMPRESSED AIR CONNECTION AND ISOLATION Chemical Control-Selection of Herbicides 1-9-7
PITS 6-17-22 Degree of Control 1-9-4
UNDERLYING CONDITIONS WHICH MAY CAUSE PREMATURE Equipment Selection 1-9-10
WEAR, DEGRADATION OR IMPROPER FIT OF SWITCH Quantitative Considerations 1-9-5 3
POINTS AND STOCK RAILS 5-5-29 Scheduling of Work 1-9-6
UNDERWATER INSPECTIONS 8-21-3, 8-21-23 Vegetation Control Methods 1-9-2
UNIFORM RATING PARAMETERS 33-4-23 Rationale and Scope of Work 1-9-2
UNIFORMITY OF STOCK 4-3-30 Commentary 1-9-19
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD TO TOP OF BOX 8-16-8 General 1-9-2
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY 6-11-5, 33-12-25 Lead Agencies 1-9-16
UNIT COST 16-9-12 VEHICLE CONSIDERATIONS 11-5-1, 17-5-1
UNIT OF PROPERTY, DEFINITION OF 16-12-5 Design Considerations 11-5-1, 17-5-3 4
UNIT STRESSES 7-3-4 General Considerations 11-5-1, 17-5-2
UNIVERSAL WASTE 13-5-9 General Information 11-5-1, 17-5-1
UNIVERSAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 13-5-10 Rolling Stock 11-5-2, 17-5-9
UNLOADING 5-5-3 VEHICLE SCALES 5-1
Sanding Facility 6-6-5 VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY (ROLLING STOCK) 17-2-5
UNLOADING PITS 15-8-17 VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY TYPES 12-2-14
UNSUPPORTED RUNNING RAIL 15-8-25 VEHICLE/TRACK INTERACTION 11-3-4, 12-3-4, 17-3-3
UPGRADING AND REHABILITATING TIMBER STRUCTURES 7-4-2 VELOCITY PROFILES 16-2-12
UPLIFT VENTILATING 6-4-20
Continuous and Cantilever Steel Structures 15-1-70 VENTILATION 6-3-8
on Piles 8-4-3 Tunnels 1-8-6
Test 5-9-4 VERIFICATION
UPS AND BATTERY ROOM 6-11-6 of Reliability Ratio for Missed Defects 4-4-63
URBAN STATIONS 17-2-5 VERTICAL CLEARANCE 33-2-12
USE OF CHAPTER 12 12-1-2 VERTICAL CURVES 5-3-15
USE CLASSIFICATION 5-6-17 VERTICAL DEVIATIONS AND VARIATIONS 17-7-4
USE OF GUARD RAILS AND TIMBERS 7-4-23 VERTICAL GEOMETRY 11-3-20, 12-3-22, 17-3-6
USE OF IMPEDANCE BONDS IN RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION
33-5-5

Index
VERTICAL LOADS 30-1-4 WATER AND WASTEWATER COMPLIANCE (CONT)

Ballast and Ballast Pressure 30-1-6 Wastewater Pretreatment and Discharges 13-3-9
Ballast and Subgrade 30-1-5 Water Body and Wetlands Permits 13-3-11
Cross Tie Dimensions 30-1-5 WATERFRONT 14-4-3
Engineered Composite Ties 30-5-3 WATERFRONT FACILITIES
Impact Factors 30-1-5 Commodity Specific Considerations 14-4-6
Load Distribution 30-1-5 General Design 14-4-5
Tie Spacing 30-1-4 Site Selection 14-4-3
VOLTAGE FLICKER STUDY 33-6-19 Terminal Maintenance 14-4-12
VOLTAGE RISE ALONG THE RETURN SYSTEM 33-6-17 WATERPROOFING 8-29-1
Application of Damproofing 8-29-29
Method of Application 8-29-29
W Preparation of Surfaces 8-29-29
Temperature 8-29-29
Anti-Bonding Paper 8-29-20
WALKWAYS
Applicable ASTM Designations 8-29-8
and Handrails on Bridges 15-8-27
ASTM D41 8-29-8
Yard Design for Remote Control Locomotives (RCL) 14-2-35
ASTM D43 8-29-8
WALL AND CEILING FINISHES 6-2-12
ASTM D173 8-29-8
WALLS 6-3-9
ASTM D226 8-29-8
Cantilever 8-5-8
ASTM D227 8-29-9
ASTM D312 8-29-9
Counterfort and Buttress 8-5-8
ASTM D449 8-29-9
and Floors of Buildings, Waterproofing 8-29-7
ASTM D450 8-29-10
and Roof 6-4-19
ASTM D517 8-29-10
WARNING LIGHTS 15-6-7
ASTM D692 8-29-10
WARRANTY 33-7-15, 33-7-21, 33-7-27
ASTM D946 8-29-10
WASH BAY 6-9-8
ASTM D1187 8-29-10
WASHER BUILDING 6-12-5
ASTM D1190 8-29-11
WASHING FACILITY, LOCOMOTIVE 6-12-3
ASTM D1227 8-29-11
WASHING SYSTEM 6-12-3
ASTM D1327 8-29-11
WASTE MANAGEMENT 13-5-1
ASTM D1668 8-29-11
Hazardous Waste 13-5-4
ASTM D2178 8-29-11
Introduction 13-5-2
ASTM D2823 8-29-11
Other Miscellaneous Special Wastes 13-5-14
ASTM D3515 8-29-12
Recyclable Materials 13-5-17
ASTM D4215 8-29-12
Special Waste 13-5-12
ASTM D4479 8-29-12
Solid Waste 13-5-3
ASTM D4586 8-29-12
Universal Waste 13-5-9
ASTM D6134 8-29-12
WASTE SAND, SANDING FACILITIES 6-6-17
General 8-29-87
WASTEWATER PRETREATMENT AND DISCHARGES 13-3-9
Effluent Discharge Limits 13-3-10
General 8-29-20
General 13-3-9
Membrane 8-29-21
Primer 8-29-21
Operator Requirements 13-3-10
Protective Cover 8-29-26
Pretreatment Requirements 13-3-10
Dampproofing 8-29-5
General Practices 8-29-12
WATER 8-25-8
Design 8-29-12
Concrete 8-1-17
Types 8-29-13
Containers 8-29-6
General Principles 8-29-4
Gain 8-1-41
Purpose 8-29-4
Stations, Account 18 16-12-10
Scope 8-29-4
Supply Systems (Service and Treated) 6-4-18
Inspection and Tests 8-29-20
WATER BODY AND WETLANDS PERMITS 13-3-11
Introduction to Damproofing 8-29-28
General 13-3-11
Damproofing Scope 8-29-28
Materials for Damproofing 8-29-28
Mitigation Requirements 13-3-13
Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coating 8-29-29
Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coatings 8-29-29
Section 404 Permits 13-3-12
Asphalt 8-29-28
WATER-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL RATIO 8-1-31
Asphalt Primer 8-29-28
WATER AND WASTEWATER COMPLIANCE 13-3-1
Coal-Tar Pitch 8-29-28
Introduction 13-3-2
Coal-Tar Saturated Organic Felt 8-29-28
Oil Pollution Prevention 13-3-7
Creosote Primer 8-29-28
Storm Water Discharges - Construction Activities 13-3-5
Emulsified Asphalt Coatings 8-29-28
Storm Water Discharges - Industrial Activities 13-3-3

Index
WATERPROOFING (CONT) WELDED WIRE FABRIC, DEVELOPMENT IN TENSION 8-2-28

Emulsified Asphalt Protective Coatings 8-29-28 WELDER AND WELDING OPERATOR QUALIFICATIONS 15-3-19
Inspection and Tests 8-29-29 WELDING 8-1-17, 15-1-11
Woven Cotton Fabrics 8-29-28 Index 15-9-48
Membrane Protection 8-29-17 of Manganese Steel Castings in Special Trackwork 5-5-26
Asphalt Plank 8-29-17 Methods 5-5-26
Asphaltic Panels 8-29-17 WELDING KITS AND FLARES 13-5-16
Portland Cement Concrete 8-29-17 WHARVES AND DOCKS, ACCOUNT 23 16-12-11
Membranes 8-29-14 WHAT IS BEST PRACTICE RAIL GRINDING? 4-4-83
Adhesive 8-29-15 WHAT IS HAZARDOUS WASTE? 13-5-4
Asphalt for Mopping 8-29-14 WHAT IS SOLID WASTE? 13-5-3
Butyl Gum Tape 8-29-15 WHAT IS UNIVERSAL WASTE? 13-5-9
Butyl Rubber or EPDM 8-29-14 WHAT IS USED OIL? 13-5-13
Cement 8-29-15 WHEEL RAIL INTERFACE , EMBEDDED TRACK 12-8-8
Coal-Tar Pitch for Mopping 8-29-14 WHITE GOODS, SPECIAL WASTE 13-5-17
Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane 8-29-16 WIDENING OF CUTS 1-1-60
Fabric 8-29-14 WIDTH
Felt 8-29-14 of Crossing 5-8-11
Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board WIND FORCE ON LOADED BRIDGE 15-1-20
Membrane 8-29-16 WIND FORCE ON UNLOADED BRIDGE 15-1-20
Primers 8-29-13 WIND FORCES
General 8-29-13 and Ice Load 15-6-18
Primer 8-29-13 WIND RESISTANCE 16-2-8
Sealing Compounds for Joints and Edges of Membrane WIDTH OF CROSSING 5-8-11
Protection 8-29-20 WINDOWS AND SKYLIGHTS 6-3-9
Specific Application 8-29-5 WINGWALLS 1-4-69
Abutments and Retaining Walls 8-29-5 WIRE
Arches - Long Single-Span and Multiple-Span with Spandrel Physical Properties 15-6-72
Fill 8-29-6
Cast-in-Place Concrete Bridge Decks or Floors 8-29-6
WIRE ROPE CONNECTIONS 27-1-15
WIRE ROPE LAYS 27-1-11
1
Grain Elevator Pits and Similar Underground Structures WIRE ROPES
8-29-7 and Sockets 15-6-71
Pedestrian Subways 8-29-6 WIRING DIAGRAMS, OPERATOR’S INSTRUCTIONS, ELECTRICAL,
Pipe Manholes and Pipe Tunnels 8-29-6 HYDRAULIC AND MECHANICAL DATA BOOKLETS, AND
Platforms, Walkways and Roadways 8-29-7 LUBRICATION CHARTS 15-6-8
Precast Slabs for Bridge Decks and Floors 8-29-6 WIRING SPACES, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CTC CENTERS 6-11-5
Pump Pits for Subways and Basements 8-29-6 WITH 5-3-15
Scale Pits and Other Similar Structures Below Grade 8-29-7 WOOD BRIDGES AND TRESTLES
3
Short Single - Span Arches and Box Culverts 8-29-6 Methods of Fireproofing 7-4-18
Walls and Floors of Buildings 8-29-7 Rules for Rating Existing 7-3-2
Water Containers 8-29-6 WOOD PRESERVING 30-3-32
Terms 8-29-8 WOOD PRODUCTS, ENGINEERED, DESIGNING FOR 7-2-11
Waterproofing 8-29-4 WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES AND TRESTLES. SEE ALSO DESIGN OF
WAYSIDE CONDITION DETECTORS 16-5-4, 16-5-10 WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES, DESIGN 7-2-1
Site Considerations 16-5-7 Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber 7-2-20
WAYSIDE LUBRICATION OF RAIL ON CURVES 5-5-25 Bearing 7-2-61 4
WAYSIDE/STANDBY POWER SYSTEMS 33-9-1 Bearing at Angle to Grain 7-2-69
Background 33-9-1 Bearing on Bolts 7-2-72
Current Practice 33-9-1 Combined Axial and Bending Loads 7-2-70
Design Factors to be Considered 33-9-2 Compression Parallel to Grain or Centrally Loaded Columns
WEB SPLICES 15-1-54 7-2-60
WEIGHT AND CENTER OF GRAVITY 15-6-7 Connectors 7-2-79
WEIGHTS AND SHAPES 1-6-11 Horizontal Shear 7-2-71
WELD INTEGRITY - PREVENTING MARTENSITE FORMATION IN Round Sections 7-2-79
WELDED OR BRAZED APPLICATIONS 4-3-31 Shearing Stress 7-2-71
WELD INTEGRITY REQUIREMENTS 4-3-55 Working Unit Stresses 7-2-60
WELD INTEGRITY TEST PROCEDURES 4-3-56 Design for Engineered Wood Products 7-2-11
WELD METAL 15-1-41 Design Values for Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam)
WELD PARAMETER AND PROCESS REQUIREMENTS 4-3-43 7-2-55
WELDED ATTACHMENTS 15-1-60 Design Equations 7-2-17
WELDED CLOSED BOX MEMBERS 15-1-45 Details of Design 7-2-38
WELDED CONSTRUCTION 15-1-59, 15-3-18 Bolted Connections 7-2-38
WELDED GASES 6-4-29 General 7-2-38
WELDED SPLICES 8-2-31 Net Section 7-2-38

Index
WOOD RAILWAY BRIDGES, DESIGN (CONT) YARD, COMPRESSED AIR FACILITIES FOR TRAIN AIR BRAKE
Notched Beams 7-2-38 SYSTEMS, DESIGN OF (CONT)
Design of Public Works Projects 7-2-3 Air Compressors and Controllers 6-17-15
General 7-2-3 Air Receiver Tanks 6-17-19
General Features of Design 7-2-4 Coalescing Filters 6-17-18
Bents 7-2-6 Compressed Air Facility Enclosures 6-17-11
Clearances 7-2-4 General 6-17-10
Materials 7-2-4 Pressurization Time Calculations 6-17-12
Piles and Post Footings 7-2-7 Refrigerated Air Dryers 6-17-17
Stringers 7-2-5 Site Location of Yard Compressed Air Facilities 6-17-22
Temporary Structures 7-2-7 Underground Compressed Air Connection and Isolation Pits
Ties 7-2-6 6-17-22
Loads, Forces and Stresses 7-2-7 Valves and Accessories 6-17-20
Centrifugal Force 7-2-8 Yard Air Distribution Lines 6-17-19
Dead Load 7-2-7 YARD ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS, PASSENGER TRAIN YARDS 6-8-37
Live Load 7-2-7 YARD MECHANCIAL SYSTEMS, PASSENGER TRAIN YARDS 6-8-36
Loads and Forces 7-2-7 YARD SITE CONSIDERATIONS, PASSENGER TRAIN YARDS 6-8-33
Other Lateral Forces 7-2-9 YARD AND TERMINAL FACILITIES, OTHER 6-17-1
WOOD, ROADWAY SIGNS 1-7-4 Design of Roadway Material Reclamation and Fabrication
WORK EQUIPMENT, ACCOUNT 57 16-12-20 Facilities 6-17-4
WORK SEQUENCE CONSIDERATIONS, DESIGN CRITERIA FOR Bridge Fabrication Shop 6-17-6
RAILWAY OFFICE BUILDINGS 6-2-4 Frog Shop 6-17-5
WORK TRAIN SERVICE 15-4-9 Grading, Drainage, Site Preparation 6-17-9
WORK, PROGRAMMING 16-9-1 Introduction 6-17-4
WORKABILITY, CONCRETE 8-1-35 Roadway Material Reclamation Plant 6-17-4
WORKING UNIT STRESSES, STRESS GRADED LUMBER 7-2-20 Site Selection 6-17-8
WORKMANSHIP 1-4-16, 1-6-10, 4-2-20, 4-3-18, 5-7-4, Storage Facilities 6-17-10
15-6-101 Structures 6-17-10
Bonded Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-33 Track Design 6-17-10
for Construction and Maintenance of Pile and Framed Trestles Turnout and Track Panel Fabrication Facility 6-17-7
7-4-3 Design of Yard Compressed Air Facilities for Train Air Brake
Non-Bonded Encapsulated Insulated Rail Joints 4-3-39 Systems 6-17-10
WORM GEARING 15-6-43 Above Ground Oil Water Separator and Equipment Drainage
WORMS AND WORM WHEELS 15-6-102 6-17-19
WOVEN COTTON FABRICS 8-29-28 Acceptance Tests and Commissioning 6-17-23
WRENCHES 15-6-8 Air Compressors and Controllers 6-17-15
Air Receiver Tanks 6-17-19
Coalescing Filters 6-17-18
Y Compressed Air Facility Enclosures 6-17-11
General 6-17-10
Pressurization Time Calculations 6-17-12
YARD
Refrigerated Air Dryers 6-17-17
Classification 14-2-4
Site Location of Yard Compressed Air Facilities 6-17-22
Components 14-2-4
Underground Compressed Air Connection and Isolation Pits
Departure 14-2-5
6-17-22
Facility Functions 14-2-30
Valves and Accessories 6-17-20
Local 14-2-6
Yard Air Distribution Lines 6-17-19
Receiving 14-2-4
Storage 6-17-3
Repair 14-2-6
Lumber and Timber Yards 6-17-3
Tracks
Material Yards 6-17-3
and Facilities, Miscellaneous 14-2-6
Reserve Oil 6-17-4
YARD ACTIVITIES, PASSENGER TRAIN YARDS 6-8-35
Stores 6-17-2
YARD AIR DISTRIBUTION LINES 6-17-19
Buildings and Structures 6-17-3
YARD DESIGN FOR REMOTE CONTROL LOCOMOTIVES (RCL)
General 6-17-2
14-2-33 Types 6-17-2
Characteristics of Remote Control Locomotives 14-2-33
YARDS
General Yard Design or Redesign 14-2-34
Lumber and Timber 6-17-3
Isolation of RCL Operations 14-2-35
Material 6-17-3
Lighting 14-2-35
and Terminals 14-i
Walkways 14-2-35
YARDS AND SHOPS 11-4-10, 12-4-11
YARD, COMPRESSED AIR FACILITIES FOR TRAIN AIR BRAKE
Car Shops 11-4-13, 12-4-31
SYSTEMS, DESIGN OF 6-17-10
Engine Shops 11-4-13, 12-4-31
Above Ground Oil Water Separator and Equipment Drainage
Environmental Requirements 11-4-12, 12-4-29
6-17-19 Functional Requirements 11-4-11, 12-4-26
Acceptance Tests and Commissioning 6-17-23

Index
YARDS AND SHOPS (CONT)

General 11-4-10, 12-4-11
Layover Yards 12-4-34
Maintenance Philosophy 11-4-10, 12-4-18
Maintenance-of-Way Shops 11-4-13, 12-4-34
Material Yards 11-4-13, 12-4-35
Regulatory Requirements 12-4-26
Safety/Security 11-4-12, 12-4-31
Site Considerations 11-4-13, 12-4-35
Utility Considerations 11-4-13, 12-4-35
Z
ZONING DATA 11-2-7, 12-2-9, 17-2-3

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2012

Manual for Railway Engineering

Infrastructure and Passenger

Chapter 6 Buildings and Support Facilities

Chapter 12 Rail Transit

Chapter 14 Yards and Terminals

Chapter 17 High Speed Rail Systems

Chapter 18 Light Density and Short Line Railways

Chapter 27 Maintenance-of-Way Work Equipment

Chapter 33 Electrical Energy Utilization

General Subject Index

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY ASSOCIATION

All rights reserved

ISSN 1542-8036 - Print Version

ISSN 1543-2254 - CD-ROM Version

COMMUTER, TRANSIT AND

Part/Section Description Page

1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.0 Corridor Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.2 Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.3 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.4 Corridor Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii

2.5 Corridor Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv

© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association i

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)

Part/Section Description Page

2.5.9 Suitable Support and Maintenance Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi

2.6 Identification of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

2.7 Regional Transportation Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii

2.8 Corridor Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv

© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

2.0 CORRIDOR PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

2.3 DATA COLLECTION

2.3.2 Demographic Data

2.3.3 Attitude Surveys

2.3.3.1 Stakeholder Surveys

The attitude surveys and observations must answer a number of questions:

© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

b. Is there resistance to transportation system changes? If so, what are they?

2.3.3.2 Stated Preference Surveys

c. What is the population's perceived value of their time?

d. What modes are acceptable?

2.3.4 Zoning Data

2.3.4.1 Existing and Future Land Use

a. Adjacent land uses.

b. Recent trends in land use density and land use classification.

c. Apparent reasons for change.

d. Probable life cycles of present and future land use developments.

2.3.4.2 Available Land for Facilities

© 2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

2.3.5 Environmental Data

Environmental investigations can include:

d. Floodplains/Beach & Shorelines

h. Hazardous substances (site cleanup)

j. Public nuisances (noise, lighting, odor, vibration)

k. Public convenience (transit times, detours, delays, accessibility)

l. Rerouting of utilities and traffic

n. Construction limits (duration, time of day, work sites)

p. Impact on commercial establishments

q. Impact on property values