CDMA2000 is the evolution of the original IS-95 cdmaOne system.

CDMA2000 has a number of evolutions of which the first was CDMA2000 1X, sometimes also called CDMA2000 1XRTT. CDMA2000 1X which is also standardised as IS-2000 supports circuit-switched voice, and has the capability to provide up and sometimes beyond 35 simultaneous call per sector and as such it doubles the capacity of the original IS-95 networks. It also enables the transmission and reception of data at rates up to 153 kbps in both directions. It was recognized by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) as an IMT-2000 standard in November 1999.

CDMA2000 evolution
The aim of the CDMA2000 is to provide a migration path from the original cdmaOne / IS-95 system through the CDMA2000 1X format to further high speed formats. These different standards have all been standardised under the IS-format and a diagram of the migration path is given below:

CDMA2000 Evolution The CDMA2000 1X format is the basic 3G standard, but in what is termed CDMA2000 1xEv, there are further developments. There are basically two routes for the evolution that were initially proposed, only one of which was deployed:

CDMA2000 1X EV-DO: The first of these known as CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (EVolution Data Only or as is becoming more widely known Evolution Data Optimised) is something of a sideline from the main evolutionary development of the standard. It is defined under IS-856 rather than IS-2000, and as the name indicates it only carries data, but at speeds up to 3.1Mbps in the forward direction and 1.8 Mbps in the reverse direction, the speed in the reverse link being upgraded as part of Release A of the standard. The first commercial CDMA2000 1xEV-DO network was deployed by SK Telecom (Korea) in January 2002. CDMA2000 1X EV-DV: The second is CDMA2000 1X EV-DV (Evolution Data and Voice). The idea was that this system would carry both data and voice services. It was never deployed as the EV-DO system was deployed in preference and there was no

requirement for a data and voice service as voice could be carried on DO as either VoIP or by falling back to the CDMA2000 1X format.

CDMA2000 1XRTT and 3XRTT

The CDMA2000 1XRTT and 3XRTT terms refer to what are termed "Radio Transmission Technologies". The original IS-95 and deployments of CDMA2000 utilised the 1.25 MHz channel spacing. This provided what is effectively the first phase of the 3G development and roll out. However to enhance the performance beyond that possible using the technologies such as 1xEV-DO and 1xEV-DV, the channel bandwidth of 1.25 MHz was deemed insufficient for even higher data rates. Accordingly by increasing the bandwidth, higher data rates were possible. The further evolution of the CDMA2000 system involves utilising channel bandwidths of 3 times the standard 1.25 MHz bandwidth under what was termed 3XRTT. Further bandwidth increases to 5X, 7X and so forth could in theory be contemplated. For CDMA2000 1XRTT technology, a Spreading Rate 1 (SR1) was used where the signal was spread to occupy a bandwidth of 1.25 MHz. Here the spread rate was the same as that used for IS-95, i.e. 1.2288 Mcps. For 3XRTT technology, Spreading Rate 3 (SR3) was used. Here the spreading rate was 3.6864 Mcps. It was found that if the spreading rate remained the same but the data rate increased, as happens with video downloads and other 3G applications, the processing gain decreased. Accordingly the coverage and signal strength needed to be improved to match the new conditions. By increasing the spreading rate, the performance could be boosted without the need for improvements in coverage.

CDMA2000 1X overview
There are a number of updates and changes that were introduced to improve the performance of CDMA2000 1X, IS2000 over cdmaOne IS-95. However in all cases backward compatibility is maintained, allowing both IS-95 and CDMA2000 mobiles to access the same base stations. This provided a cost effective upgrade path for both users and operators. For CDMA2000 1X, several new methods of coding and spreading were used and these enabled much higher capacities to be achieved.

Walsh Codes: The first major change in CDMA2000 1X was that the Walsh Codes used were increased from 64 bits for IS-95 to 128 bits for CDMA2000 1X. In addition to this, CDMA2000 1X used more error coding functions as well and used turbo codes rather than the convolutional codes used for IS-95. This enabled higher speed data to be sent. In addition to this interleaving and symbol repetition were used to provide the various data rates. Turbo codes: Turbo codes were introduced into CDMA2000 1X. They were a new class of error correction codes that enabled transfer rates over a noisy channel to approach the "Shannon" limit. The turbo coding principle was first proposed in 1993 by Professors

Claude Berrou and Alain Glaxieux. Originally their claims that the codes could double throughput for a given power were treated with scepticism, but their findings were eventually proved to be true. Turbo coders use powerful interleavers that reduce the susceptibility of a data stream to random and impulsive noise. By working on "soft" bits from a radio receiver, the Turbo codes enable the decoder to extract the maximum level of data from the noisy signals. Turbo codes require two encoders and two decoders per link. These blocks operate in parallel and work synergistically. They also used an iterative process to reduce the amount of processing required, but despite this they still require more processing power than previous coding systems such as convolutional codes. Spectrum efficiency: Apart from the improvements in the spreading and channel generation, there were also changes in the air interface itself. The IS-95 forward link used a form of QPSK where the data on both the I and Q channels are the same. However for CDMA2000 1X the I and Q channels were different, and this gave the advantage that half the bandwidth could be used for the same number of chips, or twice the number of chips can be sent in the same bandwidth. While this did make the reception more sensitive to phase errors, other improvements included an improved system of forward power control and forward transmit diversity. Reverse link upgrades: Similarly there were significant changes on the reverse link where several new channels were added. These included a pilot channel as well as supplemental data channels and a control channel for signalling. Additionally, similar to the forward link the reverse link used Walsh Codes to differentiate between the different channels. A further change was that the format of the carrier modulation was changed. With the reverse link now transmitting multiple channels the use of OQPSK would not prevent zero crossings. To achieve this, the modulation format was changed to a scheme known as Orthogonal Complex Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (OCQPSK). This form of modulation required a number of stages. First the channels to be transmitted were split so that some take the I path and others take the Q path. Next they were scrambled along with the Walsh code spreading. In the scrambling process the probability of zero crossings was identified and using a scheme known as Orthogonal Variable Spreading Function (OVSF) the probability of zero crossings was reduced. Accordingly the channels were spread with a Walsh Code sequence and summed with the correct gain to produce the I and Q sequences. These were then further spread by a long PN code with its mobile specific long mask to identify the mobile and these I and Q sequences were modulated onto the carrier. Although particularly complicated, this form of modulation did have fewer zero crossings and the power amplifier in the mobile did not have to be run in a linear mode, thereby saving battery power.

CDMA2000 1X Channels
There is several new CDMA2000 channels that are used within the CDMA2000 1X system. CDMA2000 builds on IS-95 cdmaOne, and as a result it utilises many of the channels that were found on the original system. However to provide the additional functionality and performance a number of new CDMA2000 channels have been incorporated.

As with IS-95, the CDMA2000 channels are different between the forward and reverse links.

CDMA2000 channels in the forward link

The new CDMA2000 channels used iont he system are outlined below.

Forward pilot channel (F-PICH : This CDMA2000 channel is the same as it was on IS-95. It carries no data, and uses Walsh Code 0. As the Walsh code 0 is used, this is all zeros and therefore its length is immaterial and it therefore retains compatibility with IS95. Forward Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel (F-TDPICH): While the F-PICH channel remains the primary pilot channel, this CDMA2000 channel is used to provide a pilot for transmit diversity when two antennas are used. It provides a timing reference for the second antenna diversity signals. As F-PICH is the primary channel, this one is normally set at a power level below it. Forward Dedicated Auxiliary Pilot Channel (F-APICH): This channel is used when smart antennas are used. Under these circumstances a sector can be further divided into smaller sector beams and this can be used to reduce the levels of interference. When this is implemented, each of these beams forms a new sector and needs its own pilot channel. Forward Auxiliary Transmit Diversity Pilot Channel (F-ATDPICH): This CDMA2000 channel is required when transmitting diversity in each beam when using a smart antenna system. Forward Sync Channel (F-SYNCH): This channel provides the same functionality and operates in the same fashion as for IS-95. The timing of this CDMA2000 channel is also aligned with that of the pilot channel and as a result the mobile is able to easily decode the sync channel messages. Some additional information does need to be transmitted on this channel. For example it is necessary to inform the mobile whether the base station is 1X or 3X compatible. Forward Paging Channel (F-PCH): This paging channel retains the same structure as that used for IS-95, but a number of enhancements have been introduced for CDMA2000. Forward Quick Paging Channel (F-QPCH): This channel provides information to the mobile so that it can use slotted reception for its sleep mode. For IS-95 the mobile awoke at specific times to check the paging channel which also carried other information. The Forward Quick Paging Channel is dedicated to this function and is able to perform it more effectively. Using the Paging Channel in IS-95 the receiver had to wake up and receive a 96 mS slot, whereas using the F-QPCH it only needs to wake up and receive a 5 mS slot. This gives a significant reduction in the time the receiver needs to be awake, and considerably extends the standby battery life. Forward Common Control Channel (F-CCCH): The F-CCCH is a forward link CDMA2000 channel that transmits control information to a specific mobile. The frame sizes for this channel may be one of the following lengths: 5, 10, or 20 mS which provide data rates of 9.6, 19.2, and 38.4 kbps respectively. When not on a call, mobile specific messages can be sent on the F-CCCH.

Forward Broadcast Control Channel (F-BCCH): This CDMA2000 channel is used to broadcast messages to all mobiles within the coverage area of the cell. These messages may include advertisements of news as well as static paging messages. The channel transmits data at 4.8, 9.6, or 19.2 kbps. Forward Common Power Control Channel (F-CPCCH): Power control is an important element for any CDMA system as all mobiles should be received at around the same strength by the base station. To achieve this, the base station regulates the power of each mobile. Even when it is not involved in a call the mobile still needs to receive bits for its power control. Each mobile therefore monitors a particular bit in this CDMA2000 channel to enable it to adjust its power up or down by one increment. To ensure the maximum speed, this information is not encoded. If any data errors are introduced, the error is quickly corrected by the next bit. Forward Fundamental Channel (F-FCH): This CDMA2000 1X channel is still the main channel to carry the voice and data payload. The Forward Fundamental Channel uses a fixed amount of spreading and the variable data rates are achieved by using symbol repetition. Forward Supplemental Code Channel (F-SCCH): The Forward Supplemental Code Channels are retained from IS-95 and contained within a traffic channel, and they are used to carry voice or data, but may only be used with RC1 and RC2. For RC1 the frame size is 20 mS and the data rate is 9.6 kbps, whereas for RC2 the data rate is 14.4 kbps. Forward Supplemental Channel (F-SCH): This CDMA2000 channel is contained within the traffic channel and can only be used with Radio Configurations 3 to 5 for 1X and 6 to 9 for 3X. The channel can use variable length Walsh Codes to provide a constant spreading rate. It provides for a wide range of data rates from 1200 bps right up to 1036800 bps. Forward Dedicated Control Channel (F-DCCH): This channel carries information from the base station to the mobile. For IS-95 systems the control information was sent on the forward traffic channel along with the voice data during a call. The introduction of this CDMA2000 channel removes the requirement for the traffic channel to carry control information. This frees the traffic channel to carry the payload data for which it was primarily intended and this improves the efficiency of this CDMA2000 channel.

CDMA2000 reverse channels

Similar to the forward link there are many changes to the reverse link and the CDMA channels that are used to provide the improved performance and capabilities.

Reverse Pilot Channel (R-PICH): This new channel for CDMA2000 provides a reference for base stations to gain initial access to a system and channel recovery. The channel also carries power control information for the forward link. Although the addition of this channel results in increased battery consumption, it provides significant advantages and has therefore been incorporated into the system.

Reverse Access Channel (R-ACH): This channel operates in the same manner as that used for IS-95 and it provides backward compatibility. It is used by the mobile to transmit random bursts when it attempts to access the system. Reverse Enhanced Access Channel (R-EACH): The Reverse Enhanced Access Channel performs the same functions as R-ACH does in IS-95. It has been enhanced to provide improved access. There are two modes in which it can operate:
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The first is a basic access mode where the channel carries access messages in a similar manner to that used on IS-95. The second mode is termed a reservation access mode and it is used to reserve radio resources like Internet access etc.

In both of these modes the CDMA2000 channel is only used to establish the communications access. It can have frame sizes of 5, 10, and 20 mS and it provides data transmission at speeds of 9.6, 19.2, and 38.4 kbps.

Reverse Common Control Channel (R-CCCH): This CDMA2000 channel is an access channel that enables CDMA2000 to provide improved packet access. It provides much faster access and the lower latency times required for packet access. It offers a 20 mS 9.6 kbps channel and in addition to this there are new 5 and 10mS frames that offer data rates of 19.2 and 38.4 kbps. As power levels are important, this CDMA2000 channel is controlled by a closed loop power control system. Reverse Dedicated Control Channel (R-DCCH): This CDMA2000 channel is similar to the F-DCCH. It is used to carry signalling and user information in a call for data traffic and as a result it is only present if there is data to be transmitted. Reverse Fundamental Channel (R-FCH): This is the channel in the reverse link that is used to carry the voice and data payload. It allows for either 5 or 20 mS frames, the shorter frames are used to give lower latency, i.e. the phone gets the data it needs in 5 ms rather than 20 ms. Reverse Supplemental Code Channel (R-SCCH): This channel is the equivalent of the F-SCCH and it is used with Radio Configurations 1 and 2. Again the timing of this channel is offset from the fundamental channel by 1.25 mS. There can be up to seven used per traffic channel. Reverse Supplemental Channel (R-SCH): The reverse supplemental channel provides user data rates that vary from as low as 1200 bps, up to 230.4 kbps (and 103.68 kbps for 3X). To accomplish this, the channel uses variable length Walsh codes. This channel only applies to Radio Configurations 3 and 4 for 1X and 5 and 6 for 3X.

CDMA2000 1X Advanced
CDMA2000 1X Advanced provides operators with a simple incremental upgrade that provides a fourfold increase in capacity increase over the standard CDMA 2000 1X networks.

The CDMA2000 1X Advanced is provided by a software/channel card upgrade. Techniques including interference cancellation and radio link enhancements are used to increase voice capacity on existing or new CDMA2000 1X networks. The CDMA2000 1X advanced system has been adopted by a number of carriers to provide a cost effective method of increasing capacity and also prolonging the life of existing CDMA2000 1X networks. In addition to this, a further upgrade known as SVDO has been introduced at the same time. Although standard independent, it provides additional flexibility for users of 1X / EV-DO capability.

CDMA2000 1X Advanced techniques

The CDMA2000 1X Advanced system utilizes some simple upgrades to enable a significant increase in capacity to be provided. The full improvement is gained when both cellular base-station and the handset are compatible with the new standard, but significant improvements can still be made when only the base station has been upgraded. Even this upgrade is straightforward and does not entail significant cost to the operator. The improvements for CDMA2000 1X Advanced are gained primarily by adopting some new techniques:

Utilisation of a new codec New interference cancellation techniques Mobile receiver diversity More efficient power control Smart Blanking of 1/8th rate frames Early Termination Quasi Orthogonal Function

These techniques are detailed more fully below:

Interference cancellation for CDMA2000 1X Advanced

One of the key limiting factors in any cellular telecommunications system is the attainable signal to noise ratio. As interference levels rise, so power levels have to increase and modulation formats, change (if adaptive modulation is available). Also higher levels of error coding are required which puts a further load on the air interface for the network. Additionally an increased

number of re-sends may be required. As a result the lower the signal to noise ratio, the lower the data throughput. The methodology for the interference cancellation has been understood for many years, but it has not been able to implemented because of the high levels of processing and memory needed. Now developments in semiconductor technology have enabled it to be implemented. The interference cancellation can be utilised in both the reverse link and the forward link of the CDMA2000 1X Advanced system. The interference cancellation is performed at the basestation, BTS for the reverse link where it is sometimes referred to as RLIC (Reverse Link Interference cancellation), and within the handset or user equipment for the forward link.

Mobile receive diversity

Mobile receiver diversity, MRD used within CDMA2000 1X Advanced provides increased capacity through the use of two receiver chains and two antennas.

Power control
Power control is an essential element of any cellular system these days. It is particularly needed for CDMA systems to reduce the near-far problem where mobiles close to the base station could mask mobiles further away because signal strength reduces the greater the distance from the base station. In order to overcome this the base station controls the power of the mobile or handset. However this requires signalling over the link and can reduce the capacity. By improving the efficiency of the power control, data required for this control can be reduced thereby reducing the data being carried over the link.

Smart blanking
Smart blanking of 1/8th rate frames provides advantages reduces resource utilization during quiet periods in speech .

Early termination

The use early termination within CDMA2000 1X Advanced exploits the times when the device is in good RF conditions.

Quasi orthogonal function

The quasi-orthogonal function is used to increase the number of simultaneous calls supported.

SVDO
SVDO, Simultaneous active 1X Voice and EV-DO data, is a new device feature, in addition to IX Advanced that significantly enhances the performance without affecting the infrastructure side. Current systems allow, a handset or mobile to be paged to receive 1X voice calls while in an EV-DO data session. However no data connectivity is possible while the mobile remains in the voice call because separate receivers and transmitters are needed, i.e. two receivers and transmitters would be needed within the mobile. The new SVDO feature allows separate voice and data sessions to be established using separate transmit and receive chain The SVDO feature provides greater flexibility for the user allowing scenarios such as sending emails or accessing the Internet while voice calls are onging.