M1 - Introduction to manufacturing processes

04 May 2023 02:16

I. Importance of Manufacturing Processes

The term manufacturing refers to the processing of raw materials or parts into finished
goods through the use of tools, human labor, machinery, and chemical processing.
Importance of manufacturing processes:-
• Cost-effectiveness: Proper manufacturing processes can help reduce the costs
associated with producing goods. Streamlined processes can help reduce the cost of
raw materials, labor, and energy, ultimately resulting in lower overall costs.
• Quality control: Manufacturing processes help ensure that products meet certain
quality standards. These processes can involve testing and inspection to catch defects
or errors before they reach customers, improving overall customer satisfaction and
reducing the risk of recalls or returns.
• Consistency: Manufacturing processes can help ensure that products are consistent in
terms of quality and functionality. Consistency is important because it allows customers
to rely on the products they purchase, building trust and loyalty.
• Innovation: Manufacturing processes can drive innovation in product design and
development. By exploring new materials, technologies, and techniques, manufacturers
can create products that are more efficient, effective, and appealing to consumers.
• Job creation: Manufacturing processes can create jobs and stimulate economic growth.
Manufacturing jobs are often skilled and well-paying, making them a critical part of
many economies around the world.

II. Technological and economical definitions of Manufacturing

& Classification
There are two types of working definitions available for manufacturing: as a technical
process and as an economic process.
Technologically: Manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes to
alter the geometry, properties and or appearance of a given starting material to make
parts or product.
Economically: Manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items of greater
value by means of one or more process and or assembly operation.

CLASSIFICATION
1. Primary Shaping Processes
Primary shaping processes are manufacturing of a product from an amorphous
material. Some processes produces finish products or articles into its usual form
whereas others do not, and require further working to finish component to the desired
shape and size. Castings need re-melting of scrap and defective ingots in cupola or in
some other melting furnace and then pouring of the molten metal into sand or metallic
molds to obtain the castings. Thus the intricate shapes can be manufactured.
Some of the important primary shaping processes is: Casting, Powder metallurgy, Gas
cutting, Bending and Forging.
2. Secondary or Machining Processes
As large number of components require further processing after the primary processes.
These components are subjected to one or more number of machining operations in
machine shops, to obtain the desired shape and dimensional accuracy on flat and
cylindrical jobs. Thus, the jobs undergoing these operations are the roughly finished
products received through primary shaping processes. The process of removing the
undesired or unwanted material from the work piece or job or component to produce a
required shape using a cutting tool is known as machining.
This can be done by a manual process or by using a machine called machine tool

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 This can be done by a manual process or by using a machine called machine tool
(traditional machines namely lathe, milling machine, drilling, shaper, planner, slotter).
Lot of material is wasted as scrap in the secondary or machining process.

Some of the common secondary or machining processes are—Turning, Threading,

Milling, Drilling, boring, etc.

3. Metal Forming Processes

Forming processes encompasses a wide variety of techniques, which make use of
suitable force, pressure or stresses, like compression, tension and shear or their
combination to cause a permanent deformation of the raw material to impart required
shape. These processes are also known as mechanical working processes and are mainly
classified into two major categories i.e., hot working processes and cold working
processes. In these processes, no material is removed; however it is deformed and
displaced using suitable stresses like compression, tension, and shear or combined
stresses to cause plastic deformation of the materials to produce required shapes.
Such processes lead to production of directly usable articles which include kitchen
utensils, rods, wires, rails, cold drink bottle caps, collapsible tubes etc. Some of the
important metal forming processes are: forging, rolling, extrusion - (Hot), cold rolling,
cold forging, etc.

4. Joining Processes
Many products observed in day-to-day life, are commonly made by putting many parts
together may be in subassembly. For example, the ball pen consists of a body, refill,
barrel, cap, and refill operating mechanism. All these parts are put together to form the
product as a pen. A complete machine tool may also require to assemble more than 100
parts in various sub assemble or final assembly.

The process of putting the parts together to form the product, which performs the
desired function, is called assembly. An assemblage of parts may require some parts to
be joined together using various joining processes. But assembly should not be
confused with the joining process.
Some of the important and common joining processes are: Welding, soldering,
screwing, fitting, etc.

5. Surface Finishing Processes

Surface finishing processes are utilized for imparting intended surface finish on the
surface of a job. By imparting a surface finishing process, dimension of part is not
changed functionally; either a very negligible amount of material is removed from the
certain material is added to the surface of the job. These processes should not be
misunderstood as metal removing processes in any case as they are primarily intended
to provide a good surface finish or a decorative or protective coating on to the metal
surface.
Some of the commonly used surface finishing processes are: Polishing, sanding, honing,
anodizing, etc.

6. Processes Effecting Change in Properties

Processes effecting change in properties are generally employed to provide certain
specific properties to the metal work pieces for making them suitable for particular
operations or use. Some important material properties like hardening, softening and
grain refinement are needed to jobs and hence are imparted by heat treatment.
Heat treatments affect the physical properties and also make a marked change in the
internal structure of the metal. Similarly the metal forming processes effect on the
physical properties of work pieces Similarly shot peening process, imparts fatigue
resistance to work pieces.
A few such commonly used processes are given as : Annealing, hardening, tempering,
grain refining, etc.

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III. Foundry Practice
Foundry practice includes all the processes employed in obtaining a casting of a
material. In foundry, metal is first converted to molten form and then cast into specific
shapes as deemed necessary. A place where these activities are carried out is called a
foundry shop. People who carry out the operation are called foundry men.
The essential equipments needed in this shop along with their use are listed below:
Hearth / furnace: to heat the metal to its melting temperature.
Crucible: to hold the metal during heating and pouring.
Casting mold: to pour the molten metal and to get the desired shape.
Pattern: to create a void of desired shape and dimension in the casting mold.

IV. Pattern Making

Pattern making is the process of creating a physical model or prototype of a product,
which serves as a template for producing multiple copies of the same product. The
pattern is typically made of wood, plastic, metal, or other materials, and it is used to
create a mold for casting or shaping the final product.

TYPES
1. Single Piece Pattern: As the name suggests, a single piece pattern is a simple pattern
that is made from a single piece of material. It is generally used for producing a small
quantity of products, and it is relatively easy to make.
2. Split Pattern: A split pattern consists of two or more parts that can be separated to
remove the pattern from the mold. This type of pattern is used when the product has
undercuts or other features that make it difficult to remove the pattern from the mold
in one piece.
3. Match Plate Pattern: A match plate pattern is a split pattern that is mounted on a plate.
The plate helps in positioning the pattern and facilitates its removal. Match plate
patterns are commonly used for producing products with relatively simple shapes and
small to medium production runs.
4. Gated Pattern: A gated pattern is used for producing products that have a gate or
channel. It is generally used for producing parts that are hollow or contain a fluid. The
gate or channel is created by placing a core in the mold, which is then removed after
the casting process is complete.
5. Follow Board Pattern: A follow board pattern is used for producing large and complex
products. It consists of a pattern that is mounted on a board and a follower board that
is used to shape the sand around the pattern. The follower board is placed on top of the
pattern, and sand is poured around the pattern and compacted.

Materials used for Pattern Making

The following are the most common materials used for pattern making:

• Wood: Wood is a popular material for pattern making, as it is easy to work with, readily
available, and relatively inexpensive. Wood patterns can be made from a variety of
wood species, including pine, mahogany, and birch.
• Plastic: Plastic patterns are becoming increasingly popular, as they are lightweight,
durable, and can be easily molded into complex shapes. Common plastic materials used
for pattern making include ABS, polyurethane, and polystyrene.
• Metal: Metal patterns are used for high volume production runs, as they are durable
and can withstand repeated use. Common metals used for pattern making include
aluminum, brass, and steel.
• Plaster: Plaster is a common material used for pattern making in the ceramics and glass
industries. It is relatively inexpensive, easy to work with, and can be molded into
intricate shapes.
• Wax: Wax patterns are used in the investment casting process, where a wax pattern is
coated with a ceramic shell and then melted out to create a mold for casting. Common
wax materials used for pattern making include beeswax, paraffin wax, and

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 wax materials used for pattern making include beeswax, paraffin wax, and
microcrystalline wax.

Allowances in Pattern Making

Allowances are the intentional dimensional differences between the pattern and the
final product. They are incorporated into the pattern to account for the dimensional
changes that occur during the casting process. The following are the most common
allowances used in pattern making:

• Shrinkage Allowance: Shrinkage allowance is the amount of additional material added

to the pattern to account for the shrinkage that occurs during the solidification of the
molten metal. The amount of shrinkage allowance depends on the type of metal being
cast and the size of the product.
• Machining Allowance: Machining allowance is the amount of additional material added
to the pattern to allow for machining operations such as turning, drilling, and milling.
The amount of machining allowance depends on the complexity of the product and the
machining operations required.
• Draft Allowance: Draft allowance is the amount of taper or slope given to the pattern to
allow for easy removal from the mold. The amount of draft allowance depends on the
type of metal being cast, the size and shape of the product, and the type of mold used.
• Core Allowance: Core allowance is the amount of additional material added to the
pattern to allow for the placement of cores. Cores are used to create internal cavities or
features in the final product, and the amount of core allowance depends on the
complexity of the product and the number of cores required.
• Pattern Finish Allowance: Pattern finish allowance is the amount of additional material
added to the pattern to allow for the desired surface finish of the final product. The
amount of pattern finish allowance depends on the type of surface finish required and
the capabilities of the casting process.

Core type Materials

In pattern making, cores are used to create internal cavities or features in the final product.
The following are the most common core types and materials used in pattern making:

• Green Sand Cores: Green sand cores are made from a mixture of sand, water, and a
binder such as clay. They are used in the green sand casting process and are relatively
easy to make and handle.
• Dry Sand Cores: Dry sand cores are made from a mixture of sand and a binder such as
resin. They are used in the dry sand casting process and require a curing process to
harden the binder.
• Shell Cores: Shell cores are made from a mixture of sand and a thermosetting resin.
They are used in the shell molding process and produce high-quality, accurate cores
with a smooth surface finish.
• Oil Cores: Oil cores are made from a mixture of silica sand and a binder such as linseed
oil or rosin. They are used in the oil sand casting process and are relatively easy to make
and handle.
• Ceramic Cores: Ceramic cores are made from a mixture of ceramic powder and a binder
such as wax or polyethylene. They are used in the investment casting process and
produce high-quality, accurate cores with a smooth surface finish.

Properties
The properties of pattern making are important considerations in the design and
fabrication of patterns for casting. The following are the most important properties of
pattern making materials:
• Dimensional Stability: Pattern making materials must be dimensionally stable to ensure
that the pattern maintains its shape and size throughout the casting process.
Dimensional stability ensures that the final product meets the desired specifications and
quality standards.
• Wear Resistance: Pattern making materials must be wear-resistant to withstand the

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 • Wear Resistance: Pattern making materials must be wear-resistant to withstand the
repeated use and handling during the casting process. Wear resistance ensures that the
pattern maintains its shape and size and produces consistent results.
• Thermal Conductivity: Pattern making materials must have appropriate thermal
conductivity to ensure that the molten metal cools and solidifies evenly throughout the
casting process. Thermal conductivity ensures that the final product has consistent
mechanical properties and surface finish.
• Machinability: Pattern making materials must be easy to machine and shape to create
the desired features and surface finish. Machinability ensures that the pattern can be
fabricated efficiently and accurately.
• Chemical Resistance: Pattern making materials must be resistant to the chemicals used
in the casting process, including the binders, coatings, and cleaning agents. Chemical
resistance ensures that the pattern maintains its shape and size and produces
consistent results.

V. Mold Making and Casting

Casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known
as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process.
Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or
uneconomical to make by other methods.

TYPESS OF SAND MOULDING

Manufacturing process notes pdf - file:///C:/4th%20SEM%20Books/Manufacturing%
20Process%20Notes.pdf

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
1. Always keep the stressed areas of the part in compression
Cast iron has more compressive strength than its tensile strength. The balanc++ed
sections with equal areas in tension and compression are not suitable for cast iron
components.
The casting should be placed in such a way that they are subjected to compressive
rather than tensile stresses as shown in the below figure

I.

When tensile stresses are unavoidable, a clamping device such as a tie rod or a bearing
cap as shown in figure 2 should be considered. The clamping device relieves the cast
iron components from tensile stresses.

II.

2. Round all external corners

Rounding all external corners has two advantages – it increases the endurance limit of
the component and reduces the formation of brittle chilled edges. When the metal in
the corner cools faster than the metal adjacent to the corner, brittle chilled edges are
formed due to iron carbide.
An appropriately filled radius reduces the concentration.

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 I.

3. Wherever possible section thickness throughout should be held as uniform as

compatible with overall design considerations
Abrupt changes in the cross-section result in a high-stress concentration. If the
thickness is to be varied at all, the change should be gradual as shown in figure

4. Avoid the concentration of metal at the junctions

At the junction, as shown in figure , there is a concentration of metal. Even after the
metal on the surface solidifies, the central portion still remains in the molten stage, with
the result that a shrinkage cavity or blowhole may appear at the center. There are two
ways to avoid the concentration of metal. One is to provide cored opening the webs
and ribs, as shown in figure

5. Avoid very thin sections

In general, if the thickness of a cast iron component is calculated from strength
considerations, it is often too small. In such cases, the thickness should be increased to
certain practical proportions. The minimum section thickness depends upon the process
of casting, such as sand casting, permanent mold casting, or die casting. The minimum
thickness of the grey cast iron component is about 7 mm for parts up to 500 mm long,
which gradually increases to 20 mm for large and heavy castings.

6. Shot blast the parts wherever possible

The shot blasting process improves the endurance limit of the component, particularly
in the case of thin sections.

Molding Machines
Molding machines are used in manufacturing to produce a wide range of products made of
various materials such as plastic, metal, and ceramics. Different molding techniques are used
depending on the material being used and the properties required in the final product.
Here are some common molding machines and their properties:
• Injection molding machines: This type of machine injects molten plastic into a mold to
produce plastic parts. Injection molding offers high precision and repeatability, making
it ideal for producing large quantities of small, complex parts with consistent quality.
• Blow molding machines: This machine uses a hollow tube of molten plastic, which is
blown into a mold to create hollow objects such as bottles, containers, and tanks. Blow
molding is suitable for producing large and lightweight objects.
• Compression molding machines: In this process, a pre-measured amount of raw
material is placed into a heated mold and compressed using a hydraulic press.
Compression molding is commonly used to produce high-strength composite materials
and rubber products.
• Rotational molding machines: Rotational molding, also known as rotomolding, involves
heating a hollow mold and rotating it around two perpendicular axes, causing the
molten material to coat the inner surface of the mold. The process is used for producing
large and complex plastic parts, such as containers, toys, and playground equipment.

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 large and complex plastic parts, such as containers, toys, and playground equipment.
• Die casting machines: Die casting is a process that involves forcing molten metal into a
mold under high pressure to produce parts with high accuracy and surface finish. Die
casting machines are used to produce parts for the automotive, aerospace, and
consumer electronics industries.

VI. Casting Defects

Casting defects are imperfections or irregularities that compromise the quality
specifications of a component. There are various reasons and sources for casting
imperfections, ranging from material failure to casting equipment or non-optimized
procedure.
While some of these defects may be tolerated or neglected, some casting surface
defects result in weak casting, odd shapes, and poor functionality. Therefore, they must
be removed or prevented to ensure better functioning of the end product.
There are various types of casting defects, but they are generally grouped into six
categories, namely:
• Gas Porosity
• Shrinkage Defectswh

• Mold material defects

• Pouring metal defects
• Metallurgical defects
• Casting shape defects
1. Gas Porosity
When cast metal solidifies in a mold, it can’t hold as much gas as it does in liquid form,
so it releases it. That is part of the reason molds are permeable, to allow gas to escape.
Several factors can cause impermeability, which can result in gas bubbles getting
trapped inside the metal. These bubbles can include:
Pinholes
Also known as porosities, pinholes are smaller holes in the upper part of a casting. They’re
usually in groups near or at the casting’s surface and visible to the naked eye.
Blowholes
Blowholes are larger holes that can appear in the inside of a cast piece. Invisible to the
naked eye, interior blowholes are detectable by x-ray, harmonic, ultrasonic, or magnetic
analysis. Blisters, a variant of blowholes, are thinly covered shallow holes.
Open Holes
A type of blowhole, open holes appear at the piece’s surface. These defects are caused by air
getting trapped as metal is poured into the mold. There is also a shallow variant of open holes
called a scar.

2. Shrinkage Defects
Shrinkage defects appear because metal alloys shrink as they cool. It is normal for an
alloy piece to shrink as it solidifies (which should be included in calculations when
designing the mold). However, defects occur when the metal shrinks unevenly, causing
it to either distort the shape of the final product or create interior holes. This can also
stress the metal.
Open Shrinkage Defects
Open shrinkage shows up on the surface of a cast product either as a dip (also known as a
caved surface) or a hole (also known as a pipe). When metal shrinks unevenly, it draws air
inside the mold in that area to create these types of defects.
Closed Shrinkage Defects
Closed shrinkage appears in the form of holes inside of a casting, generally where a part
of the liquid metal was hotter than the rest of the material. It can appear in macro or
micro form. Micro shrinkage, also called shrinkage porosity, looks to the naked eye like
jagged marks or lines. The holes, which look angular, can only be seen with a
microscope.
Warping

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Warping
Warping can happen either during the metal’s solidification or afterward, changing the
casting’s dimensions and shape. This stresses the metal and causes curving, especially in large
and flat sections of castings.

3. Mold Material Defects

As suggested by the name, mold material defects are caused by the mold material, but
they can also be caused by mold design problems. This makes up the largest category of
casting defects, with seven basic types.
Cuts and Washes
Cuts and washes are caused when the liquid metal erodes away part of the mold when
pouring in and the sand doesn’t have enough heat strength to resist it. Washes and cuts show
up as low bulges along a surface of the finished product, tilted toward one end where the
molten metal had more force as it flowed in.
Swells
Swells show up as a swollen area on the finished piece. These defects happen when the
mold is too soft, so that the weight of the liquid metal pushes the sand outward.
Drops
Drops show up as irregular bumps on the tops of castings. They’re caused when the mold is
weak and sand falls into the liquid metal. Drops also make the metal surface dirty.
Runout
Runout happens when the mold leaks, leaving an inadequate amount of metal to form
the desired casting.
Fusion
Fusion shows up as a glassy looking crust on the surface of a cast piece. It happens when
some of the sand in the mold melts and fuses with the casting.
Metal Penetration
When sand grains are both loose and large, molten metal can penetrate into the mold,
creating a rough surface in the casting.
Rat Tails
Rat tails, also known as veins, are irregular lines along a casting’s surface caused when the
heat of the molten metal makes the sand expand. Buckles are more extreme versions of rat
tails.

4. Pouring Metal Defects

As opposed to many of the other defects in this guide, these defects appear when
temperatures are too low during the pouring process. They fall into three categories:
Cold Shot
Cold shot is balls or drops loosely attached to the casting, left over from splatters of molten
metal as it was being poured. Since they’re smaller, the splatters cool before the rest of the
casting and become embedded or attached.
Cold Shut
Cold shuts occur when metal flows into a mold from two or more points, but it’s too
cold to merge into a seamless piece. That’s when it creates a crack through the middle
with rounded edges, which becomes a weak spot in the casting.
Misruns
Misruns, the close relatives of cold shuts, happen when the metal is so cool it solidifies before
it can fill the entire mold. Misruns show up as castings with parts missing.

5. Metallurgical Defects
Metallurgical defects show up when there are problems in the metal of a casting. There
are three types, which include:
Slag Inclusion
Slag inclusion happens when metal isn’t properly cleared of slag before being poured. It
simply means the finished casting will have impurities or foreign material embedded in it.
When the inclusion is dirt, castings will have a honeycomb or spongy look.
Hot Tears
Hot tears, also known as hot cracks, show up when the cooling metal contracts. In this

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 Hot tears, also known as hot cracks, show up when the cooling metal contracts. In this
state, when the metal is still weak, residual stress in the metal or poor mold design can
cause the metal to pull apart, resulting in branching, irregular cracks. Sometimes these
are difficult to see with the naked eye.
Hot Spots
Also known as hard spots, these defects occur when certain parts of a casting cool off faster
than the areas around them, creating harder parts of the casting. These can wear out tools
and interfere in the machining process.

6. Casting Shape Defects

Defects in the shape of a casting appear as either mismatches or flash. Shape defects
are some of the easiest to fix, since they generally involve readjusting existing molds.
Mismatches
Mismatches, also known as shifts, are when different parts of a casting come out misaligned
with each other, usually horizontally. Similarly, core shift (also known as vertical
displacement) happens with misaligned cores.
Flash
Also called casting fins or burrs, flash shows up as extra material attached to the
casting, usually as a thin sheet that forms where parts of a mold meet. Flash is one of
the most common casting defects.

Investment Casting
A. Creating The Pattern
It utilizes a pattern with the same details as the finished part, except that there is an
allowance for thermal contraction (i.e. shrinking).
Patterns are typically made of wax using a metal injection die.
B. Mounting The Wax Patterns And Creating The Tree
Once a wax pattern is produced, it is assembled with other wax components to form the gate
and runner metal delivery system.
Depending on the size and configuration of the desired finish component, multiple wax
patterns may be processed using a single tree.
C. Creating The Mold Shell
The entire wax pattern assembly is dipped in a ceramic slurry, covered with sand stucco, and
allowed to dry.
Cycles of wet dipping and subsequent stuccoing are repeated until a shell of the desired
thickness is created. That thickness is partly dictated by product size and configuration.
Once the ceramic shell has dried, it becomes sufficiently strong to retain the molten metal
during casting.
D. Wax Removal
The entire assembly is placed in a steam autoclave to melt away most of the wax.
Any remaining wax soaked into the ceramic shell is burned out in a furnace. At this point, the
residual wax pattern and gating material have been completely removed and the ceramic
mold remains with a cavity in the shape of the desired cast part.
This high-temperature operation also increases the strength and stability of the ceramic
material. In addition, it helps to minimize the reaction of the shell and metal during pouring.
E. Melt And Cast
The mold is preheated to a specific temperature and filled with molten metal, creating the
metal casting.
Nearly any alloy can be produced using this process. Either air melting or vacuum melting may
be employed as dictated by the alloy chemistry. Vacuum melting is utilized mainly when
reactive elements are present in the alloy.
F. Final Operations
Once the casting has cooled sufficiently, the mold shell is broken away from the casting in a
knockout operation.
The gates and runners are cut from the casting, and if necessary, final post-processing
sandblasting, grinding, and machining is performed to finish the casting dimensionally.
Non-destructive testing may include fluorescent penetrant, magnetic particle, radiographic, or

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Non-destructive testing may include fluorescent penetrant, magnetic particle, radiographic, or
other inspections. Final dimensional inspections, alloy test results, and NDT are verified prior
to shipment.

Centrifugal Casting
The centrifugal casting process steps begin with molten metal being poured into a preheated,
spinning die. The die may be oriented either on a vertical or horizontal axis depending on the
configuration of the desired part.
By spinning a mold while the molten metal is poured into it, centrifugal force acts to distribute
the molten metal in the mold at pressures approaching 100 times the force of gravity. The
combination of this applied pressure and the engineering mechanics of controlled
solidification and secondary refining produces components of superior quality.

Types Of Centrifugal Casting

There are two types of centrifugal casting processes – vertical and horizontal. In addition,
some manufacturers offer near-net shaping which combines the benefits of centrifugal
casting with O.D shaping, perhaps even with the finished detail of an investment casting.

Vertical Centrifugal Casting

Some manufacturers produce centrifugal components, including some with O.D shaping, in
dies rotating about the vertical axis. These vertical castings may achieve that O.D. shaping by
inserting graphite, sand, or ceramic molds into the die – resulting in significantly reduced
post-processing, like machining or fabrication.
Details on the outside surface of the casting may be modified from the true circular shape by
the introduction of flanges or bosses to the inner diameter of the mold. The finished part
need not be symmetrical but, in some cases, the casting mold does to maintain balance while
spinning.
The inside diameter and therefore the wall thickness of the casting are functions of the
amount of metal poured into the rotating mold and the quantity machined away. When
casting vertically, the height of the casting will typically be less than twice the width.

Horizontal Centrifugal Casting

Some centrifugal casters produce only horizontal castings where the die rotates about the
horizontal axis. This is a cost-effective method for producing high-quality tubular components.
This process is especially suited for long cylindrical parts where the casting length is
significantly longer than its outside diameter. This includes straight tube sections, long
cylinders with end flanges, or short parts such as rings or flanges where multiple parts can be
machined effectively from a straight cylinder.
A long steel casting mold is spun at high speed while positioned horizontally. The rotational
speed of the mold is high, to offset gravitational forces. Covers are fixed at each end of the
mold to contain the molten metal and a pour funnel is used to deliver a specified weight of
metal inside the mold.
Just as in vertical casting, the interior dimension of the mold determines the O.D. size of the
part, while the amount of metal poured into the mold determines the I.D. size.

Vacuum Centrifugal Casting

Centrifugally casting in a vacuum is used when part detail and control of exposure to the
atmosphere is critical since some alloys, including nickel-cobalt super alloys, are reactive to
oxygen. In addition to the advantages of casting in a vacuum, the inherent high metal integrity
delivered by centrifugal casting is realized, including directional solidification, absence of
porosity, and net-shaping. Vacuum centrifugal casting provides products with very high
reliability, often used in aerospace and military applications.

Shell Molding
Shell mould casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is
poured into an expendable sand-based mould. However, in shell mould casting, the mould is a

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poured into an expendable sand-based mould. However, in shell mould casting, the mould is a
thin-walled shell created by applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a
metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple shell moulds. A
reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while the disposable moulds enable
complex geometries to be cast.
Compared to sand casting, this process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity
rate, and lower labour requirements. It is often used for small to medium parts that require
high precision. Shell mould casting is used for both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
PROCESS
• A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the desired part, typically from iron
or steel. Other materials are sometimes used, such as aluminum for low volume
production or graphite for casting reactive materials.
• Mould creation: Each pattern half is heated to 175-370 °C (350-700 °F) and coated with
a lubricant to facilitate removal. The heated pattern is clamped to a dump box, which
contains a mixture of fine silica sand and a thermosetting phenolic resin binder. The
dump box is inverted, allowing this sand-resin mixture to coat the pattern. The heated
pattern partially cures the mixture, which forms a shell around the pattern. Depending
on the time and temperature of the pattern, the thickness of the shell is 10 to 20 mm.
Each pattern half and surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven giving it a
tensile strength of 350 to 450 psi (2.4 to 3.1 MPa), and then the shell is ejected from the
pattern.
• Mould assembly: The two shell halves are joined together and securely clamped to
form the complete shell mould. If any cores are required, they are inserted prior to
closing the mould.
• The shell mould is then placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.
• Pouring: The mould is securely clamped together while molten metal is poured from a
ladle into the gating system to fill the mould cavity.
• Cooling: After the mould has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and
solidify into the shape of the final casting.
• Casting removal: After the molten metal has cooled, the mould can be broken and the
casting removed. Trimming and cleaning processes are required to remove any excess
metal from the feed system and any sand remaining from the mould.

CO2 Molding
CO2 Casting is a kind of sand casting process. In this process the sand molding mixture is
hardened by blowing gas over the mold. This process is favoured by hobby metal casters
because a lot of cost cutting can be done. In addition, one can be sure of getting
dimensionally accurate castings with fine surface finish. But, this process is not economical
than green sand casting process.
Process:
The Mold for CO2 Casting is made of a mixture of sand and liquid silicate binder which is
hardened by passing CO2 gas over the mold. The equipment of the molding process includes
CO2 cylinder, regulator, hoses and hand held applicator gun or nozzle. Carbon di oxide
molding delivers great accuracy in production. Any existing pattern can be used for the
molding purpose which can be placed in the mold before the mold is hardened. This method
helps in producing strong mold and cores that can be used for high end applications. If the
process is carefully executed then casting can be as precise as produced by the shell casting
method.
Carbon di oxide casting is favored both by the commercial foundry men and hobbyist for a
number of reasons. In commercial operations, foundry men can assure customers of
affordable castings which require less machining. The molding process which can be fully
automated is generally used for casting process that require speed, high production runs and
flexibility. In home foundries this is one of the simplest process that improves the casting
quality.

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Slush Casting
Slush casting is a variation of permanent mold casting that is used to produce hollow parts. In
this method neither the strength of the part nor its internal geometry can be controlled
accurately. This metal casting process is used primarily to manufacture toys and parts that are
ornamental in nature, such as lamp bases and statues.
PROCESS
• When producing a cast part using the slush casting method, a permanent mold is
employed and set up. See basic permanent mold casting . The mold is clamped together
and prepared for pouring.
• After pouring the mold will set, as solidification begins to take place.
• The main principle of this casting process relies on the fact that when a metal casting
hardens in a mold, it will solidify from the mold wall towards the inside of the casting. In
other words a metal skin forms first, (as the external geometry of the part). This skin
thickens as more of the metal casting's material converts to a solid state.
• In slush mold casting, during the solidification of the material, when the solid-liquid
boundary has reached a certain point, the mold is turned over and the remaining liquid
metal from the casting is poured out.
• This will leave only the solidified skin with the exterior geometry of the metal cast part
and a hollow interior. The longer the metal casting was allowed to solidify before
pouring out the excess metal, the greater the casting's wall thickness will be.
• The cast part is then removed from the die and allowed to cool.
Properties And Considerations Of Manufacturing By Slush Casting
• Slush casting is a type of permanent mold casting, therefore many of the basic
principles of a permanent mold process will apply.
• Slush casting is mainly suited to lower melting point materials, zinc, tin, or aluminum
alloys are commonly slush cast in manufacturing industry.
• With this process you need to have a mechanical means of turning over the mold in
order to pour out the molten metal from the cast part.
• When manufacturing by slush casting it is difficult to accurately control the metal
casting's strength and other mechanical properties.
• The casting's internal geometry cannot be effectively controlled with this process.
• The hollow metal castings manufactured by this process are lighter than solid parts and
save on material.
• Good surface finish and accurate exterior geometry are possible with the slush casting
manufacturing process.

Die Casting
The die casting process involves injecting molten metal with low melting points such as zinc
and aluminum into the die casting mold and allowing it to cool. Depending on the melting
point, it occurs under two different mechanisms (hot and cold chamber casting), and it is
suitable for making simple and complex sheet metal parts.
Die casting is a process that involves melting low melting point metals and injecting them into
already made mold known as die casting mold. A mold or tools come from steel fabricated for
a single project using manufacturing processes such as CNC machining. Consequently, sheet
metal parts fabricated by die casting have high accuracy, precision, and repeatability.

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metal parts fabricated by die casting have high accuracy, precision, and repeatability.
Steps of Die Casting Process
Whether hot or cold chamber die casting, the standard process involves injecting molten
metal into a die mold under high pressure. Below are the intricate die casting process steps:
· Clamping
The first step in die casting is clamping. However, before then, clean the die to remove any
impurities and lubricate the die for better injection and removal of the solidified product.
After cleaning and lubrication, clamp and close the die with high pressure.
· Injection
Melt the metal you want to inject and pour it into the shot chamber. The procedure depends
on the process you are using. For example, the shot chamber is cold in the cold chamber die
casting, while it is hot in the hot chamber die casting. After that, inject the metal into the die
under high pressure generated by a hydraulic system.
· Cooling
While clamped, allow the metal to cool for solidification. The solidified material will have a
shape similar to the design of the mold.
· Ejection
After unclamping the die mold, an ejection mechanism will push the solid casting out of the
die. Ensure proper solidification before ejecting the final product.
· Trimming
This is the final step, and it involves the removal of the excess metal in the sprue and runner
found on the finished product. Trimming is achievable using a trim die, saw, or other
procedures. The removed metal parts are recyclable and reusable in the process.

TYPES
Hot Chamber Die Casting
The hot chamber die casting process is the perfect method for working with low melting point
materials such as zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium alloys. It is not suitable for alloys with a
higher melting point as it would damage the pump as the pump would directly contact the
metal. It involves melting the metal and injecting it into the die using pressure from a
hydraulic system.

Cold Chamber Die Casting

The cold chamber die casting is the perfect method for working with high melting point
materials such as aluminum. This process is ideal for such metals as the high temperature
needed to melt the material can damage the pumping system.
The process involves ladling the melted material into a cold chamber before injection into the
die. The hydraulic system used in a cold chamber process is similar to that of the hot chamber
process. However, it might require a larger pressure ranging from 2000 to 20000 psi.

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