PART 1 LESSON 2 Definition, Role, and Subfields…

PART I
Introduction to the Study of Language

Lesson 1
Definition and Subfields of Linguistics and
Principles of Modern Linguistics
At the end of the lesson, you shall have:
• defined linguistics;
• identified subfields of linguistics; and
• explained the principles of modern linguistics

Now that we have learned a bit about language, we turn at last to the topic of
linguistics. What are all the pieces of a language? How do the pieces combine and
work together to allow for communication to occur? How are languages learned and
transmitted? How do languages influence each other? How do languages change over
time? These are but a small number of the many questions that define the field of
linguistics. In this lesson, you will be introduced to the definition, role, and subfields
of linguistics and the principles of modern linguistics.

Defining Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. By “scientific,” the study is both

empirical (based on observable data) and objective. Empirical data is critical for any
scientific discipline, as it ensures that others can verify or replicate the findings.

In linguistics, empirical data are recordings of spoken or written language collected

into a corpus. The nature of the recordings and how they are collected will depend on
the goals of the study. For example, if one wishes to study the physical properties of
sounds, the best recordings might be those produced in the isolation of a sound booth.
Suppose one wishes to study sentence structures and how they are used. In that case,
the best recordings are likely to be natural conversations or narratives, supplemented
by the comments of native speakers that reflect their intuitions about the structures
and their meanings in that particular context. If one is studying language and society,
one might choose to make video recordings of authentic interactions. In any case,
recorded data, preferably of speech or writing produced in a natural setting, and not
constructed by or for a linguist, are highly empirical and can be verified by subsequent
researchers. This is not to say that this is the only type of valuable data in linguistics.
Speakers’ intuitions about their language, particularly regarding subtle distinctions in
meaning, add a depth to our understanding that we could not possibly obtain
otherwise.

When we say that science is objective, we mean that our analysis is not biased by any
preconceived notions or judgments of “good” and “bad.” Human beings are prone to
prejudice. This can be directed at speakers of languages just as it is directed at
ethnicities, religions, sexualities, styles of dress, or any other characteristic by which
people are subgrouped.

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 PART 1 LESSON 2 Definition, Role, and Subfields…

Fields of Linguistics

The field of linguistics is as broad and multifaceted as language itself. The following
paragraphs provide a very brief orientation to the primary subfields of the discipline.

Phonetics. It is the study of speech sounds. The physical properties of sounds – how
they are articulated and perceived, and the acoustic signatures of the sounds
themselves are the subject in the study of this field.

Phonology. It is the study of the sound system of a language; that is, what sounds
are in a language and what the rules are for combining those sounds into larger units.
Phonology can also refer to the study of the sound systems of all languages, including
universal rules of sound.

Morphology. It is the study of the structure and classification of words and the units
that make up words.

Syntax. It is a level of grammar that specifically refers to the arrangement of words

and morphemes in the construction of sentences.

Semantics. Within linguistics, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic expressions,

such as morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Pragmatics. It is the study of the effect of context on meaning. As the name

suggests, it is about the practical use of language. It includes studying how people use
language to perform speech acts with performative sentences, establish their identities
through social meaning, express their emotions through affective meaning, and carry
on conversations with others.

Sociolinguistics. It is the study of how language and social factors, such as ethnicity,
social class, age, gender, and educational level, are related.

Historical linguistics. It is the field of linguistics that examines how languages

change over time. This historical perspective can be applied to all levels of language:
sounds, words, structures, and meanings. Historical linguists are also interested in
determining which languages are related and how they have descended from a mother
language spoken in the distant past.

Contrastive linguistics. It concentrates upon the differences between languages.

Its findings are often applied in the context of language teaching.

Comparative linguistics. It studies different languages looking for similar

characteristics. These languages may have a common historical origin though the main
emphasis of the analysis is usually placed on the structural correspondences between
languages under investigation.

Applied linguistics. It is concerned with applying linguistic theories and their findings
in solving various language problems, mostly in teaching foreign languages, studying
language disorders, translation, lexicography, and stylistics.

Computational linguistics. It is a field at the intersection of linguistics and computer

science that deals with natural language's statistical or rule-based modeling. It is
concerned with applying methods from artificial intelligence and machine learning to

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 PART 1 LESSON 2 Definition, Role, and Subfields…

problems involving language. The recent acceleration of our technological abilities has
led to a greater application of computational methods to various linguistic questions,
such as how languages are learned.

Developmental linguistics. It is concerned with the study of the acquisition of

language by children, describing the stages and patterns of development and
explaining the typical features and variations.

Anthropological linguistics. It studies language variation and usage concerning

culture. Emphasis is often placed on the analysis of the so-called non-Western
languages

Again, the above list of subfields of linguistics is fairly representative but is certainly
not exhaustive. The rest of the lessons will cover only some of the subfields mentioned
above.

Principles of Modern Linguistics: Structuralism

Structuralism is a term used in linguistics referring to a theoretical approach to the

analysis of language that describes linguistic items in terms of structures. The basic
claim of structuralism is that language is a structured system. Ferdinand de Saussure
is known as the father of structuralism. In 1916, his Cours de linguistique générale
(Course in General Linguistics) was published, where the main ideas of structuralism
were formulated. He argued that each element in a language is defined by how it is
related to other elements. He also formulated several principles of linguistic analysis
which have become the tenets of modern linguistics. These principles are presented
with short explanations below.

Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. It means that linguists describe the rules
and facts of language exactly as they find them without making judgments. They do
not try to impose norms of correctness and do not try to change the actual usage of
the language of the native speakers. This contrasts with the previous view of traditional
grammar, which was very strongly prescriptive. The principle of descriptiveness also
reflects the present-day view about language change. Before de Saussure, it was held
that linguistic change involves corruption and should be stopped. Modern linguistics
states that change is a natural process. The task of a linguist is to describe the way
people speak and write, not to tell them how they ought to use language.

Priority of the spoken language. One of the main principles of modern linguistics is
that spoken language is more basic than written language. For a long time, only written
language was studied, and judgements about language were based on these studies'
results. However, spoken language is very different from written texts. There are
significant variations both in grammar and vocabulary choices which the written
language does not reflect. Therefore, for a full understanding of language use, both
spoken and written language should be studied.

Synchronic and diachronic description of language. Two basic principles can be applied
to the study of language: synchronic and diachronic. Diachronic linguistics is the study
of languages from the viewpoint of their historical development. Synchronic linguistics
studies languages at a single point in time. It may be the present-day situation or any
given period in the history of language development. Both ways of describing
languages are important.

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 PART 1 LESSON 2 Definition, Role, and Subfields…

All languages are equal. For a linguist, all languages serve as the data for objective
study. Though it was common earlier to call certain languages “primitive” (with the
cultural and economic development of certain societies), it was determined that every
existing natural language is a highly developed system, and its structure does not
directly correlate with the stage of social development of that speech community.

Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of linguistic units. A linguistic unit enters into
relations of two different kinds which identify it in the language system. It enters into
paradigmatic relations with all the other elements of the same level, which can also be
used in the same context. For example, in the phrase a…of milk; the missing element
could be glass, jar, mug, bottle (all these concrete countable nouns stand in a
paradigmatic relationship). A linguistic unit enters into syntagmatic relations with the
other elements of the same level with which it occurs and which make its context.
Syntagmatic relations for the phrase a glass of milk would be between glass and a, of,
and milk.

Functionalism: The Prague School

Functionalism is represented mostly by the works of the Prague School (established in

1926; the main representatives: V. Mathesius, R. Jakobson, N.Trubbetzkoj). In
linguistics, functionalism is best seen as a movement continuing the tradition of
Saussurean structuralism. The main claim of this approach is that language is a system
of functionally related units. The phonological, grammatical, and semantic structures
of a language are determined by the functions that they have to perform. The main
function of language is the communicative one, i.e. language is used by people to
communicate. Language also has the expressive function – to convey the speaker’s
feelings and attitudes. B. Maliowski introduced the term the phatic function, claiming
that language is often used for maintaining social relations (e.g. greetings, leave-
taking, comments about the weather, etc.). The Prague School also emphasized the
distinction between the phonetic and the phonological analysis of sounds, introducing
the notions of phoneme and distinctive features. Of particular importance is also their
formulation of the theory of functional sentence perspective (FSP) – a theory that
analyses utterances in terms of the information they express.

Generativism (Generative Grammar)

The term is used to refer to the theory of language developed by Noam Chomsky. His
language theory revolutionized linguistics in 1957 when his book Syntactic Structures
was published. He distinguishes linguistic competence and performance. A
speaker’s linguistic competence is that part of his knowledge of the native language
system, which enables him to make an infinite number of sentences. Performance is
linguistic behavior determined by the speaker’s linguistic competence and various non-
linguistic factors, such as social conventions, emotional attitudes, etc. Chomsky claims
that human language is innate: a child is born with a biological predisposition to learn
language. This feature is species-specific, that is, it discriminates humans and other
living creatures. Chomsky was amazed at how rapidly a little child acquires language.
Overall, he emphasized the role of language as a basic means to investigate the human
mind.

©2021 Caraga State Universityl Department of Communication and Humanities EL 100 (Introduction to Linguistics) 13
 PART 1 LESSON 2 Definition, Role, and Subfields…

References

Genetti, C. (2019). How languages work: an introduction language and linguistics.

Cambridge University Press.

Masaitiene, D. (2009). Introduction to linguistics: a teaching guide. Vytauto Didziojo

Universitetas.

Rowe, B. M. & Levine, D. P. (2018). A concise introduction to linguistics. Routledge.

©2021 Caraga State Universityl Department of Communication and Humanities EL 100 (Introduction to Linguistics) 14