ANJUMAN

Institute of Technology
and Management
Bhatkal, Karnataka, India

BASIC
ELECTRONICS
(BBEE103/BBEE203)

Mr. Shrishail Bhat

Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Module 5
INTRODUCTION
TO TRANSDUCERS
 SYLLABUS
Introduction to Transducers
Introduction, Resistive Transducers, Inductive Transducers, Capacitive Transducers,
Thermal transducers, Optoelectronic transducer, and Piezoelectric transducers.

3
 Text Book

Electronic
Instrumentation
and Measurements
David A. Bell
Third Edition
Oxford University Press
2013

4
Introduction

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 5

Transducers
• An electrical transducer may be defined as a device that
monitors a quantity and converts it into an electrical signal
for measurement or for controlling an industrial operation.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 6

Classification of Transducers
• Based on quantity monitored:
• Force, pressure, displacement, temperature, humidity, liquid
level, velocity, etc.
• Based on method of operation:
• Resistive, inductive, capacitive, thermal, optical
• Based on energy source
• Active or Passive

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 7

Classification of Transducers
• Active Transducer
• Produces an output without any external electrical supply
• Passive Transducer
• Requires an external energy source to operate
• Most electrical transducers are passive
• Few are active, such as piezoelectric devices and
thermocouples

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 8

Classification of Transducers
• Each transducer may be defined in terms of sensitivity,
range, linearity and accuracy.
• Size and cost are also factors of consideration

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 9

Resistive Transducers

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 10

Potentiometer-Type Transducer
• A straight potentiometer can be used as a
position, or displacement transducer as
shown in the figure.
• A shaft is connected to the potentiometer
moving contact or wiper.
• The potentiometer has a supply voltage
(E), and so the position of the wiper
determines the output voltage (Vo).
• The shaft displacement can be measured
electrically and the measurement can be
displayed or transmitted for further
processing.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 11

Potentiometer-Type Transducer
• Advantages:
• It can be as large or as small as required
• It can be perfectly linear, thus giving linear sensitivity
• Sensitivity – ratio of output voltage to displacement
• Disadvantages:
• Output voltage changes in steps as the wiper is moved
between potentiometer coils
• The transducer resolution depends upon the number of turns on the
potentiometer winding.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 12

Strain Gauges
• A strain gauge uses the resistance change in a wire when it
is strained to measure the physical change that produces
the strain.
• Classified as bonded and unbonded.
• Bonded strain gauge is bonded (glued) on to the physical
quantity under investigation.
• For example, the strain or compression in a metal beam may be
investigated by bonded strain gauge.
• Unbonded strain gauge is normally part of an individual
transducer used to investigate an applied force.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 13

Unbonded Strain Gauges
• Figure shows the construction of one type of
unbonded strain gauge.
• Four nickel alloy wires, typically 25μm in diameter,
are tightly stretched between posts on a metal
frame and movable armature.
• An external force, when applied, causes two of the
wires to be positively strained (increased in length)
and the other two wires to be negatively strained
(shortened).
• The lengthened wires show an increase in
resistance and the shortened wires show a
decreased resistance.
• By connecting the wires into a Wheatstone bridge,
the resistance change can be measured and the
force that produced the change can be calculated.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 14

Bonded Strain Gauges
• Figure shows a bonded strain gauge.
• The resistive material can be either a wire or a
foil bonded on the insulating base, which is then
bonded to the surface of the item to be
investigated.
• In some cases, the resistive material can be a
semiconductor layer diffused into a silicon base.
• The strain gauge must be placed longitudinally
on the investigated item, so that the longest
parts of the conductors are stretched when the
item is stretched, and compressed when the
item is compressed.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 15

Strain Gauges
• Since the resistance changes are very small,
the resistance changes by temperature
effects can introduce measurement errors.
• One way of dealing with this is by connecting
two identical strain gauges into a Wheatstone
bridge.
• Only the active gauge is set up to measure
the strain.
• Any changes due to temperature occur in
both gauges, and they cancel each other.
• Resistance changes due to strain on the
active gauge will cause bridge unbalance and
produce an output voltage.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 16

Strain Gauges
• The equation for the resistance of the wire is
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
Where 𝜌 is the specific resistance of the wire in Ω𝑚
𝑙 is the total length in 𝑚
𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of wire in 𝑚2

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 17

Strain Gauges
• Substituting for 𝐴, we get
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
(𝜋𝑑 2 /4)
Where 𝑑 is the diameter of wire in 𝑚

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 18

Strain Gauges
• When the resistance wire is strained positively, its length is
increased and its diameter is decreased, and as a result,
the wire resistance is increased.
• The new length is 𝑙 + Δ𝑙 , the new diameter is 𝑑 − Δ𝑑
and the increased resistance is 𝑅 + Δ𝑅 .

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 19

Strain Gauges
• Gauge Factor (GF) is the ratio of Δ𝑅 to 𝑅 divided by the ratio of Δ𝑙 to 𝑙
Δ𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝐹 =
Δ𝑙/𝑙
• Poisson’s Ratio (𝜇) is the ratio of Δ𝑑 to 𝑑 divided by the ratio of Δ𝑙 to 𝑙
Δ𝑑/𝑑
𝜇=
Δ𝑙/𝑙
• The sensitivity (S) of a strain gauge is the ratio of resistance change to
input displacement.
Δ𝑅
𝑆=
Δ𝑙

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 20

Strain Gauges
• The relationship between 𝐺𝐹 and 𝜇 can be shown to be
𝐺𝐹 = 1 + 2𝜇
• Also for increased resistance, we can write
𝜌 𝑙 + Δ𝑙
𝑅 + Δ𝑅 =
𝜋/4 𝑑 − Δ𝑑 2

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 21

Strain Gauges

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 22

Numerical Example 1 (on Strain Gauge)
• A strain gauge with a 40 𝑐𝑚 wire length and a 25 𝜇𝑚 wire
diameter has a resistance of 250 Ω and a gauge factor of
2.5. Calculate the change in wire length and diameter
when the resistance change is measured as 0.5 Ω. Assume
that the complete length of wire is strained positively.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 23

Numerical Example 2 (on Strain Gauge)
• A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is subject to a
0.28 𝑚𝑚 strain. The wire dimensions are 50 𝑐𝑚 length
and 30 𝜇𝑚 diameter, and the unstrained wire resistance is
55 Ω. Calculate the change in wire resistance and diameter
if the entire length of the wire is strained positively.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 24

Inductive Transducers

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 25

Variable Reluctance Transducer
• A variable reluctance transducer uses
the change in reluctance of an air gap
in a magnetic path to measure
displacement.
• It consists of an iron target piece and
a U-shaped iron core with a coil.
• Two air gaps are maintained between
the target and the iron core, and the
target displacement varies the length
of the air gaps, and thus changes the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 26
Variable Reluctance Transducer
• The magnetic path reluctance is given by
𝑙
𝑅𝑚 =
𝜇𝑜 𝐴
Where 𝑙 is the total length of air gap
𝜇𝑜 is the permeability of free space
𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of air gap

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 27

Variable Reluctance Transducer
• The inductance at the coil terminals is inversely
proportional to the reluctance.
𝑁 2 𝑁 2 𝜇𝑜 𝐴
𝐿= =
𝑅𝑚 𝑙
Where 𝑁 is the number of turns on the coil.
• Since 𝑁, 𝜇𝑜 and 𝐴 are all constants, we can write
𝐾
𝐿=
𝑙
Where 𝐾 is a constant
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 28
Variable Reluctance Transducer
• Since the coil inductance is inversely proportional to the air
gap length, the target displacement can be measured by
monitoring the coil inductance.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 29

Numerical Example 1
(on Variable Reluctance Transducer)
• The coil in a variable reluctance transducer has a 1 𝑚𝐻
inductance when the total air gap length is 1 𝑚𝑚. Calculate the
inductance change when the air gap is reduced by 0.2 𝑚𝑚.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 30

Numerical Example 2
(on Variable Reluctance Transducer)
• The coil in a variable reluctance transducer has a 0.5 𝑚𝐻
inductance when the total air gap length is 1.3 𝑚𝑚. The
inductance increases to 0.55 𝑚𝐻 when the target is moved
closer to the core. Calculate the movement of the target.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 31

Linear Variable Differential Transducer
(LVDT)
• A linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) is a transformer
with one primary winding, two secondary windings and an
adjustable iron core.
• The secondary output voltages 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are equal in magnitude
when the movable core is situated with equal sections of core
opposite to each secondary winding.
• Output 𝑣1 is in phase with the primary input 𝑣𝑖 and 𝑣2 is in
antiphase to 𝑣𝑖 .
• The secondary windings are connected in series, so that the
voltages cancel to produce zero output when they are equal and in
antiphase.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 32
Linear Variable Differential Transducer
(LVDT)

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 33

Linear Variable Differential Transducer
(LVDT)
• When the LVDT core is displace upward,
there is an increase in the flux from the
primary linking to secondary 𝑁1 and a
decrease in that linking to 𝑁2 .
• This causes an increase in the amplitude of
𝑣1 and a decrease in 𝑣2 , thus producing a
difference output voltage 𝑣𝑜 .
• Similarly, when the core is displaced in a
downward direction, 𝑣2 increases and 𝑣1
decreases.
• In this case, 𝑣𝑜 increases but with a 180°
phase shift from the input.
• So the output voltage amplitude and phase
give a measure of the core displacement
and direction of motion.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 34

Linear Variable Differential Transducer
(LVDT)
• The graph of the output
voltage 𝑣𝑜 versus the core
displacement 𝑑 is mostly
linear, but becomes nonlinear
at large displacements.
• Also the output voltage
cannot be reduced
completely to zero.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 35

Linear Variable Differential Transducer
(LVDT)
• Advantages of LVDT
• Ruggedness
• High sensitivity
𝑣𝑜
• (Sensitivity=ratio of output voltage to displacement, 𝑆 = )
𝑑
• Good linearity
• Infinite resolution
• Low power consumption

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 36

Linear Variable Differential Transducer
(LVDT)
• Disadvantages of LVDT
• Relatively large core movements are required to produce a
measurable output
• The core mass limits its dynamic response

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 37

Numerical Example 1 (on LVDT)
• A 50 𝑚𝑉 output is produced by an LVDT when the core
displacement is 10 𝑚𝑚 from its zero position. Calculate the
core displacement when the output is 35 𝑚𝑉.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 38

Numerical Example 2 (on LVDT)
• An LVDT with 0.5 𝑉/𝑚𝑚 sensitivity has its output amplified
by a factor of 50 and applied to a meter which can display a
minimum of 1 𝑚𝑉. Calculate the overall sensitivity of the
system, and determine the minimum detectable core
displacement.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 39

Capacitive Transducers

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 40

Capacitive Displacement Transducers
• Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Where 𝜀𝑜 is the permittivity of free space (8.84 × 10−12 )
𝜀𝑟 is the relative permittivity of the dielectric
𝐴 is the area of the plates
𝑑 is the distance between the plates

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 41

Capacitive Displacement Transducers
• Figure shows several
parallel-plate capacitors
and illustrates how they
might be adjusted when
used in a displacement
transducer.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 42

Capacitive Displacement Transducers
a) Adjustment of the
distance 𝑑 between the
plates gives a
capacitance variation
(∆𝐶) inversely
proportional to ∆𝑑.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 43

Capacitive Displacement Transducers
b) Adjustment of the facing
plate area 𝐴 gives a
capacitance variation
(∆𝐶) proportional to
∆𝐴.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 44

Capacitive Displacement Transducers
c) This shows a movable
dielectric between the
plates. This gives two
separate plate areas: 𝐴1
with an air dielectric,
and 𝐴2 with a solid
dielectric. There are two
different capacitances in
parallel, and increasing
the area of one reduces
the area of the other.
∆𝐶 is proportional to
∆𝐴.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 45
Capacitive Displacement Transducers
d) This shows an air
dielectric capacitor
constructed of half-disc
shaped plates. The
movable plates may be
rotated, thus adjusting
the facing plate area,
and giving a capacitance
variation (∆𝐶)
proportional to ∆𝐴.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 46

Capacitive Displacement Transducers
• In the case of a capacitive displacement transducer which
varies the distance between the plates (∆𝑑), the sensitivity
is ∆𝐶/∆𝑑, possibly expressed in 𝑝𝐹/𝜇𝑚.
• For a transducer which varies the capacitor area, the sensitivity
is ∆𝐶/∆𝐴, and this can be further reduced to ∆𝐶/∆𝑙.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 47

Numerical Example 1 (on Capacitive
Displacement Transducers)
• A parallel plate capacitive transducer has a plate area
(𝑙 𝑥 𝑤) = (40𝑚𝑚 𝑥 40𝑚𝑚) and plate spacing 𝑑 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚.
Calculate the device capacitance and displacement (∆𝑑)
that causes the capacitance to change by 5 𝑝𝐹. Also
determine the transducer sensitivity.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 48

Numerical Example 2 (on Capacitive
Displacement Transducers)
• For the capacitive transducer in the previous example,
calculate the change in length (∆𝑙) that produces the same
(5 𝑝𝐹) capacitance change. Also, determine the new
transducer sensitivity.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 49

Numerical Example 3 (on Capacitive
Displacement Transducers)
• A capacitive transducer is constructed of two half-disc
plates. The plates are 2 𝑚𝑚 apart, and each has an area of
1.4 × 10−3 𝑚2 . Calculate the maximum capacitance, and
the transducer sensitivity in pF/degree.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 50

Capacitive Pressure Transducers
• Figure shows the cross section
of a pressure transducer which
consists of a flat fixed plate and
a plastic diaphragm with a
metal film as a movable plate.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 51

Capacitive Pressure Transducers
• This is a capacitive microphone designed to receive sound
waves as a pressure variation on its diaphragm.
• The gap between the plates changes when the diaphragm
is pressured, consequently, the transducer capacitor
changes.
• The capacitance becomes charged to the level of the
supply voltage 𝑒𝐶 = 𝐸 , so that, in the absence of a pressure
variation, there is no current flow and no resistor voltage drop
(𝑒𝑅 ).
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 52
Capacitive Pressure Transducers
• The capacitor charge equation is 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐸 .
• So as 𝐶 varies with the varying pressure, the charge on 𝐶 must
also vary, and this produces a varying current (𝑖) from the
supply.
• The current causes a varying voltage drop across 𝑅 which can
be amplified and further processed.
• The frequency range of this transducer is 40 𝐻𝑧 to 15 𝑘𝐻𝑧,
which approximately matches the human hearing range.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 53

Capacitive Pressure Transducers
• Capacitive transducers can be used for measurement of
very small displacements, and they can be much more
sensitive than other transducer types.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 54

Thermal Transducers

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 55

Resistance Thermometer
• The resistance temperature coefficient 𝛼 of a metal defines how
the resistance changes with temperature change.
• All pure metals have positive temperature coefficient.
• Their resistance increases as the temperature increases.
• Some materials, like semiconductors, have negative temperature
coefficient.
• Their resistance decreases as the temperature increases.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 56

Resistance Thermometer
• For a resistance of 𝑅1 Ω, the resistance change Δ𝑅 for a given
temperature change Δ𝑇 is
Δ𝑅 = 𝑅1 × 𝛼 × ∆𝑇
And the new resistance value is
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 + Δ𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅1 𝛼∆𝑇
Or
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 57

Resistance Thermometer
• The figure shows the basic
construction of a resistance
thermometer, also known as a
resistance temperature detector
(RTD).

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 58

Resistance Thermometer
• The resistive temperature-sensing element, often very pure platinum, is
in the form of a coiled wire held in position inside a protective sheath.
• The sheath may be glass or stainless steel, or any other suitable material.
• The sensing element wire is wound on a mica former.
• Insulated connecting leads are provided, and these must have a much
lower resistance than the sensing element.
• An RTD is usually connected into a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
• This allows for detection of very small changes in the resistance of the
sensing element, and the meter M used to measure the bridge
unbalance voltage can be calibrated to indicate temperature.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 59

Resistance Thermometer

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 60

Resistance Thermometer
• Errors can be introduced by the connecting lead resistances 𝑅𝐶1
and 𝑅𝐶2 as they are in series with the element resistance 𝑅𝑆 .
• A three-wire connection arrangement can be used to deal with this,
wherein, a third connecting lead is added to the circuit.
• Resistance 𝑅𝐶3 is in series with 𝑅1 in the bridge circuit, and 𝑅𝐶2 is in
series with 𝑅𝑆 , so that 𝑅𝐶2 and 𝑅𝐶3 balance out.
• Resistance 𝑅𝐶1 is part of the voltage measuring circuit, and is not
involved in the bridge balance.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 61

Resistance Thermometer
• Advantages:
• Can be employed over a wide temperature range
• From −200 ℃ to over +650 ℃
• Tough
• Extremely accurate
• Disadvantages
• More expensive
• They need a power supply and bridge

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 62

Numerical Example 1
(on Resistance Thermometer)
• The resistance of a coil of nickel wire is 25 Ω at 20 ℃. This rises to
37 Ω when the coil has been submerged in a liquid for some time.
Calculate the temperature of the liquid.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 63

Numerical Example 2
(on Resistance Thermometer)
• A resistance thermometer has a temperature coefficient of 0.0039
at 20 ℃ and a resistance of 130 Ω. Calculate the temperature when
its resistance measures 175 Ω.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 64

Thermistor
• A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor.
• It is a resistor with important thermal characteristics.
• Most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient, but
some have positive temperature coefficient.
• Thermistors are widely used in measurement and control of
temperature, liquid level, etc.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 65

Thermistor
• In the manufacturing of thermistors,
various mixtures of metallic oxides
are pressed into the desired shapes
and sintered (baked) at a high
temperature.
• Electric wire contact leads are usually
included during the shaping process,
or else metallic film contacts are
deposited after sintering.
• Thermistors are produced in the
shape of beads, probes, discs,
washers, etc.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 66

Thermistor
• The figure shows the typical
thermistor
resistance/temperature
characteristics.
• The device resistance (𝑅)
decreases substantially when its
temperature increases.
• At 0 ℃, 𝑅 ≈ 1.5 𝑘Ω and at
60 ℃, 𝑅 ≈ 70 Ω.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 67

Thermistor
• The equation that relates resistance values at different
temperatures is given by
𝑅1 1 1
ln =𝛽 −
𝑅2 𝑇1 𝑇2
where 𝑅1 is the resistance at temperature 𝑇1
𝑅2 is the resistance at temperature 𝑇2
𝑇1 and 𝑇2 are absolute temperatures (in Kelvin)
𝛽 is a constant which defines the resistance change with
temperature
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 68
Thermistor

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 69

Thermistor
• Zero power resistance at 25 ℃ is the value of resistance for which
there must be effectively zero power dissipation in the thermistor.
• The dissipation constant is the device power dissipation that can
raise its temperature through 1 ℃.
• The resistance ratio at 25℃/125℃ gives an indication of how
much the thermistor resistance changes when temperature
changes from 25℃ to 125℃.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 70

Thermistor
• Advantages:
• Quick response
• Good sensitivity
• High resistance
• Less errors
• Low cost
• Small size
• Disdvantages:
• Smaller range
• Non-linear
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 71
Numerical Example 1 (on Thermistor)
• Calculate the resistance of the 300 Ω thermistor at temperatures of
20 ℃ and 30 ℃.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 72

Numerical Example 2 (on Thermistor)
• Calculate the resistance of the 30 𝑘Ω thermistor at 50 ℃.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 73

Thermocouple Thermometer
• A thermocouple consists of the junction of
two dissimilar metal wires welded to a
heating wire which carries the current to be
measured.
• It is based on Seebeck effect, which states that
a junction of two dissimilar metals develops
an emf when heated.
• Instead of using a current to heat the
thermocouple junction, the junction might be
placed in a situation where it is heated
directly by the environment, like boiling water.
• The displayed output can then be calibrated
to indicate the temperature of the junction.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 74
Thermocouple Thermometer
• Advantages:
• Ruggedness
• Relatively inexpensive
• Usable over a wide range of temperature (from −200℃ to +2800℃)
• Disadvantages:
• Low-level output (requires amplification)
• Lower accuracy

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 75

Semiconductor Temperature Sensor
• Integrated circuit precision temperature sensors are available that
produce a stable output voltage with a predictable temperature
coefficient.
• The LM135 manufactured by National Semiconductor is one such IC.
• With a typical output of 2.98 𝑉, it operates with a supply current ranging
from 400 𝜇𝐴 to 5 𝑚𝐴, and it has a +10 𝑚𝑉/℃ temperature coefficient.
• Since the LM135 behaves like a Zener diode, a modified Zener diode
symbol is used to represent it.
• An additional adjustment (adj) terminal allows the temperature
coefficient to be calibrated at a convenient temperature.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 76
Semiconductor Temperature Sensor

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 77

Semiconductor Temperature Sensor
• The output voltage at any temperature (𝑇2 ) can be calculated from
𝑇2
𝑉𝑜(𝑇2) = 𝑉𝑜(𝑇1) ×
𝑇1
Where 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 are in Kelvin
𝑇1 is the reference temperature
𝑉𝑜(𝑇1) is the output voltage at the reference temperature

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 78

Semiconductor Temperature Sensor
• For calibration, a potentiometer is connected in parallel with the output,
and its moving contact is connected to the adj terminal.
• The use of a constant current source also helps ensure a stable
temperature coefficient.
• The LM139 (𝑍1 ) is a Zener diode providing a constant voltage to 𝑅2 ,
regardless of supply voltage variations.
• Thus, there is a constant voltage drop across 𝑅2 , resulting in a constant
current through LM135 (𝑍2 ).

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 79

Semiconductor Temperature Sensor
• The LM135 operates over a temperature range of −55℃ to +150℃.
• Its output voltage can be processed to indicate the temperature of its
environment.
• It can also be used together with a voltage level detector, to control a
heater.
• For example, by switching it ON when air temperature drops below a given
point, and switching OFF again when the temperature rises to the desired
level.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 80

Optoelectronic
Transducers

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 81

Light Units
• The total light energy output, or
luminous flux (𝜙𝑠 ), from a source can
be measured in milliwatts (𝑚𝑊) or in
lumens (𝑙𝑚).
• 1 𝑙𝑚 = 1.496 𝑚𝑊
• The luminous intensity (𝐸𝑠 ), or
illuminance of a light source is defined
as the luminous flux density per unit
solid angle emitting from the source.
• It is measured in candelas (𝑐𝑑), where one
candela is equal to one lumen per unit solid
angle (assuming a point source that emits
light evenly in all directions).
𝜙𝑠
𝐸𝑠 =
4𝜋
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 82
Light Units
• The light intensity (𝐸𝐴 ) on an area at a given distance from the source is
determined from the surface area of a sphere surrounding the source.
• At a 2distance of 𝑟 meters, the luminous flux is spread over a spherical area of
4𝜋𝑟 square meters.
• Therefore,
𝜙𝑠
𝐸𝐴 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
• When the total flux is expressed in lumens, this
2
equation gives the luminous
intensity in lumens per square meters (𝑙𝑚/𝑚 ), also termed lux (𝑙𝑥)
• The luminous intensity2
can also be measured in milliwatts2 per square
centimeter (𝑚𝑊/𝑐𝑚 ) or lumens per square foot (𝑙𝑚/𝑓𝑡 ), also known as a
foot candle (𝑓𝑐)
• 1 𝑓𝑐 = 10.764 𝑙𝑥

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 83

Light Units
• Light energy is electromagnetic radiation.
• It is in the form of electromagnetic wave.
• So it can be defined in terms of frequency and wavelength, as well as
intensity.
• Wavelength, frequency and velocity are related by the equation
𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆
where 𝑐 = velocity = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 for electromagnetic waves
𝑓 = frequency in 𝐻𝑧
𝜆 = wavelength in 𝑚
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 84
Numerical Example on Light Units
• Calculate the light intensity 3 𝑚 from a lamp that emits 25 𝑊 of light
energy. Determine the total luminous flux striking an area of 0.25 𝑚2 at
3 𝑚 from the lamp.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 85

Photoconductive Cell
• A photoconductive cell is based on the
photoconductive effect:
• Light striking the surface of a material can
provide sufficient energy to cause electrons
within the material to break away from their
atoms.
• Thus, free electrons and holes are created
within the materials, and its resistance is
reduced.
• The construction of a typical
photoconductive cell is as shown in the
figure.
• Light-sensitive material is arranged in the
form of a long strip zigzagged across a disc-
shaped base.
• The connecting terminals are fitted to the
conducting material on each side of the strip.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 86

Photoconductive Cell
• Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) are the two
materials normally used in photoconductive cells.
• Both respond slowly to changes in light intensity.
• The response time (𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 ) for cadmium selenide is about 10 𝑚𝑠 and
for cadmium sulfide, it is about 100 𝑚𝑠.
• Cadmium selenide has larger temperature sensitivity compared to
cadmium sulfide.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 87

Photoconductive Cell
• Typical illumination characteristics
for a photoconductive cell are
shown in the figure.
• When the cell is not illuminated,
its resistance can be greater than
100 𝑘Ω.
• This is known as the dark
resistance of the cell.
• When the cell is illuminated, its
resistance may fall to a few
hundred ohms.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 88

Photoconductive Cell
• Figure shows the circuit of a
photoconductive cell used for relay
control.
• When the cell is illuminated, its
resistance is low and the relay current
is at its maximum.
• Thus the relay is energized.
• When the cell is dark, its high
resistance keeps the current too low.
• So the relay is not energized.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 89

Photodiodes
• Photodiodes are diodes designed to
be sensitive to illumination.
• When a pn-junction is reverse biased,
there is a small reverse current due
to minority charge carriers.
• When light energy is incident on the
junction, more electron-hole pairs
are generated, and so the reverse
current is increased.
• Increasing the junction illumination
increases the reverse current flow.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 90

Photodiodes
• Figure shows the typical
photodiode illumination
characteristics.
• The left side of the characteristics
shows reverse current (𝐼𝑅 ) plotted
against reverse voltage (𝑉𝑅 ).
• At an illumination level (𝐻) of
5 𝑚𝑊/𝑐𝑚2 , 𝐼𝑅 is approximately
2.2 𝑚𝐴 and at 𝐻 = 20 𝑚𝑊/𝑐𝑚2 , 𝐼𝑅
is 10 𝑚𝐴.
• Increasing 𝑉𝑅 does not increase 𝐼𝑅
significantly.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 91

Photodiodes
• Figure shows a simple photodiode
circuit.
• When the reverse-bias voltage,
reduced to zero, the reverse
current continues to flow while
the diode is illuminated.
• This means that the device is
behaving as a voltage cell.
• So the photodiode is a
photovoltaic device as well as
photoconductive device.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 92

Photodiodes
• Figure shows the cross-section of a diffused
photodiode.
• A thin, heavily doped p-type layer is situated at
the top, where it is exposed to incident light.
• The junction depletion region deeply penetrates
into the lightly doped n-type layer.
• This is in contact with a lower, heavily doped n-
type layer, which connects to a metal film
contact.
• A ring-shaped contact is provided at the top of
the p-type layer.
• Low-current photodiodes are usually contained
in a TO-type can with a lens at the top.
• Just like photodiodes, phototransistors are also
available in the form of BJTs and FETs.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 93

Photomultiplier
• A photomultiplier tube consists of an evacuated glass cylinder containing
a photocathode, an anode, and several additional electrodes known as
dynodes.
• The cathode and anode are at opposite ends of the tube and the anode
is at a very high positive voltage with respect to the cathode.
• The dynodes are biased to voltage levels distributed between the
cathode and anode voltages.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 94

Photomultiplier

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 95

Photomultiplier
• Radiation striking the photocathode imparts energy to electrons within
the cathode surface material, causing them to be emitted.
• The positive voltage on the dynode 1 accelerates the electrons from the
cathode toward the dynode.
• The dynode surface material facilitates secondary emission and the
number of secondary electrons exceeds the number of primary electrons
from the cathode.
• The secondary electrons emitted from dynode 1 are accelerated toward
the more positive dynode 2, where further increased secondary emission
is produced.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 96

Photomultiplier
• The process of increasing levels of secondary emission continues
between successive dynodes until the electrons arrive at the anode,
where they are collected.
• The number of electrons arriving at the anode far exceeds the number
emitted from the cathode.
• So, the original electrons have been multiplied, or in other words the
photoemission current has been amplified.
• Current amplifications of the range of 107 are possible depending on the
number of dynodes and the applied voltage levels.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 97

Photomultiplier
• The typical photomultiplier tube
characteristics in the figure shows anode
currents ranging approximately from 1
mA to 4 mA for incident light levels of 25
to 100 microlumens.
• The dark current occurs when the
cathode is not illuminated.
• The anode current is directly
proportional to the incident illumination
level.
• The phototomultiplier tube is extremely
sensitive and are appropriate for the
detection of fast, low-level occurrences.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 98

Photomultiplier

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 99

Piezoelectric Transducers

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 100

Piezoelectric Transducers
• If a mechanical stress is applied to a wafer of quartz crystal, a voltage
proportional to the stress appears at the surfaces of the crystal.
• When the stress is removed, the voltage disappears.
• The crystal also vibrates, or resonates, when an alternating voltage with
the natural resonance frequency of the crystal is applied to its surfaces.
• The materials that exhibit this behaviour are called piezoelectric
materials.
• Since the crystal resonance frequency is extremely stable, piezoelectric
crystals are widely used to stabilize the frequency of oscillators.
• They are also used in pressure transducers.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 101
Piezoelectric Transducers

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 102

Piezoelectric Transducers
• Piezoelectric wafers cut from quartz and other natural materials are
limited in shape and thus limited in applications.
• Synthetic piezoelectric devices can be manufactured in almost any
desired shape.
• The manufacture of synthetic piezoelectric devices involves pressing
powdered ceramic material, such as barium titanate, into require
shapes, the firing it at high temperatures while subjected to a high direct
electric field.
• The high voltage aligns the atomic structure of the material into a shape
that can produce the piezoelectric effect.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 103

Piezoelectric Transducers
• Figure shows a cylinder-shaped synthetic
piezoelectric device with electrical contact
plates on each end.
• One application of this is as a pressure
transducer for listening to sea noises.
• With a preamplifier inserted inside, the
cylinder ends are sealed, and the device is
suspended at the end of a long cable from a
boat or a buoy.
• The pressure variations (due to ship engine
noise for example) generate electrical
signals at the transducer terminals.
• These are amplified and fed to the surface
for processing.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 104

Piezoelectric Transducers
• Figure shows a ceramic device known
as bimorph.
• When supported at one end, electrical
signals are generated at the internal
and external electrodes by vibrations
applied to the other end.
• This is used in record player cartridge.
• The minute vibrations generated as the
stylus moves in a record track are
converted into electrical signals which
are then amplified and applied to
speakers.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 105

Piezoelectric Transducers
• A piezoelectric transducer is basically a layer
of crystal material between two metal plates.
• Since the crystal material is a dielectric, the
device has a capacitance that can be
calculated from its dimensions and relative
permittivity.
• When a force is applied to distort the crystal,
a charge is accumulated on the electrodes.
• The charge can be calculated from
𝑄 = 𝑑𝐹
where 𝑄 is charge in coulombs
𝑑 is charge sensitivity in 𝐶/𝑁
𝐹 is the force in newtons

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 106

Piezoelectric Transducers
• An equation for charge can also be written as
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑇 𝑉𝑜
where 𝐶𝑇 is the transducer capacitance.
• The equation for capacitance is
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑡
where 𝜀𝑟 is the dielectric relative permittivity
𝜀𝑜 is the permittivity of free space
𝐴 is the plate area
𝑡 is the dielectric thickness

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 107

Piezoelectric Transducers
• So,
𝑄 𝑑𝐹
𝑉𝑜 = =
𝐶𝑇 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐴/𝑡

𝑑𝑡𝑃
𝑉𝑜 =
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
where 𝑃 is the pressure (𝐹/𝐴)
• This gives
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑔𝑡𝑃
𝑑
where 𝑔 = is a constant called voltage sensitivity (in 𝑉𝑚/𝑁)
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 108

Numerical Example 1
(on Piezoelectric Transducers)
• A piezoelectric transducer has plate dimensions of 5 𝑚𝑚 × 4 𝑚𝑚.
The crystal material has a 3 𝑚𝑚 thickness and a relative
permittivity of 800. The voltage sensitivity is 0.04 𝑉𝑚/𝑁. Calculate
the transducer charge sensitivity, the charge, and the output
voltage when the applied force is 8 𝑁.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 109

Numerical Example 2
(on Piezoelectric Transducers)
• A piezoelectric transducer has a crystal material with a 2 𝑚𝑚
thickness and a relative permittivity of 5. The voltage sensitivity is
0.045 𝑉𝑚/𝑁. Calculate the transducer charge sensitivity and the
output voltage when the applied pressure is 0.5 × 106 𝑁/𝑚2 .

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 110

References
• David A. Bell, “Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements”, 3rd
Edition, Oxford University Press, 2013

111