Level 1 Introduction & Readings

LEVEL 1: OVERVIEW / WHAT IS A GAME?

Most fields of study have been around for thousands of years. Game design has
been studied for not much more than ten. We do not have a vast body of work to
draw upon, compared to those in most other arts and sciences.
On the other hand, we are lucky. Within the past few years, we have finally reached
what I see as a critical mass of conceptual writing, formal analysis, and theoretical
and practical understanding to be able to fill a college curriculum… or at least, in this
case, a free online course.
Okay, that isn’t entirely fair. There is actually a huge body of material in the field of
game design, and many books (with more being released at an alarming rate). But
the vast majority of it is either useless, or it is such dense reading that no one in the
field bothers to read it. The readings we’ll have in this course are those that have, for
whatever reason, pervaded the industry; many professional designers are already
familiar with them.
This level, we will discuss the concept (and definition) of 'game'.
Readings

 Don’t Be a Vidiot, by Greg Costikyan

If you want to be a video game designer, this article provides both an incentive to
study board games, and also a starting point for the kinds of games that are out
there beyond Monopoly and RISK.

 The Essence of Euro-style Games (Links to an external site.), by Lewis Pulsipher

Many of the games you will be introduced are Eurogames.  Pulisher attempts to
define Eurogames.

 Pulling the Plug: In Defense of Non-Digital Teaching and Learning  (Links to an

external site.), by Lewis Pulsipher
Pulsipher explains why we should make tabletop games to learn video game
design.

 Tabletop: Analog Game Design, How Settlers of Catan Created An American

Boardgame Revolution, p93, Ian Schreiber
Schreiber analyzes Settler of Catan, a eurogame that opened the floodgates of
modern board game goodness.

 Extra Credits S1 E16 So You Want To Be a Game Designer

Extra Credits (check bottom of linked page) answers the question of skills

needed for a game designer.
Additional Resources
For additional readings on these topics, click HERE. It is a list of resources that is
student generated and regularly updated.

Level 1.0: What is a Game?

What is a Game, Anyway?
Those of you who have read a little into the Challenges for Game Designers (Links
to an external site.) text may think this is obvious. My preferred definition is a play
activity with rules that involves conflict. But the question “what is a game?” is
actually more complicated than that:

 For one thing, that’s my definition. Sure, it was adopted by the IGDA Education
SIG (mostly because no one argued with me about it). There are many other
definitions that disagree with mine. Many of those other definitions were
proposed by people with more game design experience than me. So, you can’t
take this definition (or anything else) for granted, just because Ian Says So.
 For another, that definition tells us nothing about how to design games, so we’ll
be talking about what a game is in terms of its component parts: rules, resources,
actions, story, and so on. I call these things “formal elements” of games, for
reasons that will be discussed later.

Also, it’s important to make distinctions between different games. Consider the game
of Three to Fifteen. Most of you have probably never heard of or played this game.
It has a very simple set of rules:

 Players: 2
 Objective: to collect a set of exactly three numbers that add up to 15.
 Setup: start by writing the numbers 1 through 9 on a sheet of paper. Choose a
player to go first.
 Progression of Play: on your turn, choose a number that has not been chosen by
either player. You now control that number. Cross it off the list of numbers, and
write the number on your side of the paper to show that it is now yours.
 Resolution: if either player collects a set of exactly three numbers that add up to
exactly 15, the game ends, and that player wins. If all nine numbers are collected
and neither player has won, the game is a draw.

Go ahead and play this game, either against yourself or against another player. Do
you recognize it now?
The numbers 1 through 9 can be arranged in a 3×3 grid known as a “magic square”
where every row, column and diagonal adds up to exactly 15:

6 7 2

1 5 9

8 3 4
 
Now you may recognize it. It is the game of Tic-Tac-Toe (or Noughts and
Crosses or several other names, depending on where you live). So, is Tic-Tac-
Toe the same game as Three-to-Fifteen, or are they different games? (The answer
is, it depends on what you mean… which is why it is important to define what a
“game” is!)

Level 1.1: Critical Vocabulary

Critical Vocabulary
When I say “vocabulary” what I mean is a set of words that allows us to talk about
games. The word “critical” in this case does not mean that we are being critical (i.e.
finding fault with a game), but rather that we are able to analyze games critically (as
in, being able to analyze them carefully by considering all of their parts and how they
fit together, and looking at both the good and the bad).
Vocabulary might not be as fascinating as that game you want to design with robot
laser ninjas, but it is important, because it gives us the means to talk about games.
Otherwise we’ll be stuck gesturing and grunting, and it becomes very hard to learn
anything if we can’t communicate.
One of the most common ways to talk about games is to describe them in terms of
other games. “It’s like Grand Theft Auto meets The Sims meets World of Warcraft.”
But this has two limitations. First, if I haven’t played World of Warcraft, then I won’t
know what you mean; it requires us to both have played the same games. Second,
and more importantly, it does not cover the case of a game that is very different.
How would you describe Katamari Damacy (Links to an external site.) (or the
Windows clone The Wonderful End of the World (Links to an external site.)) in terms
of other games?
Another option, often chosen by those who write textbooks on game design, is to
invent terminology as needed and then use it consistently within the text. I could do
this, and we could at least communicate with each other about fundamental game
design concepts. The problem here is what happens after this course is over; the
jargon from this course would become useless when you were talking to anyone
else. I cannot force or mandate that the game industry adopt my terminology.
One might wonder, if having the words to discuss games is such an important thing,
why hasn’t it been done already? Why hasn’t the game industry settled on a list of
terms? The answer is that it is doing so, but it is a slow process. We’ll see plenty of
this emerging in the readings, and it is a theme we will return to many times during
the first half of this course.

Level 1.2: Games Defined

Games Defined
You might have noticed I never answered the earlier question of what a game is.
This is because the concept is very difficult to define, at least in a way that doesn’t
either leave things out that are obviously games (so the definition is too narrow), or
accept things that are clearly not games (making the definition too broad)… or
sometimes both.
Here are some definitions from various sources:

 A game has “ends and means”: an objective, an outcome, and a set of rules to
get there. (David Parlett)
 A game is an activity involving player decisions, seeking objectives within a
“limiting context” [i.e. rules]. (Clark C. Abt)
 A game has six properties: it is “free” (playing is optional and not obligatory),
“separate” (fixed in space and time, in advance), has an uncertain outcome, is
“unproductive” (in the sense of creating neither goods nor wealth — note that
wagering transfers wealth between players but does not create it), is governed
by rules, and is “make believe” (accompanied by an awareness that the game is
not Real Life, but is some kind of shared separate “reality”). (Roger Callois)
 A game is a “voluntary effort to overcome unnecessary obstacles.” This is a
favorite among my classroom students. It sounds a bit different, but includes a lot
of concepts of former definitions: it is voluntary, it has goals and rules. The bit
about “unnecessary obstacles” implies an inefficiency caused by the rules on
purpose — for example, if the object of Tic Tac Toe is to get three symbols
across, down or diagonally, the easiest way to do that is to simply write three
symbols in a row on your first turn while keeping the paper away from your
opponent. But you don’t do that, because the rules get in the way… and it is from
those rules that the play emerges. (Bernard Suits)
 Games have four properties. They are a “closed, formal system” (this is a fancy
way of saying that they have rules; “formal” in this case means that it can be
defined, not that it involves wearing a suit and tie); they involve interaction; they
involve conflict; and they offer safety… at least compared to what they represent
(for example, American Football is certainly not what one would call perfectly
safe — injuries are common — but as a game it is an abstract representation of
warfare, and it is certainly more safe than being a soldier in the middle of
combat). (Chris Crawford)
 Games are a “form of art in which the participants, termed Players, make
decisions in order to manage resources through game tokens in the pursuit of a
goal.” This definition includes a number of concepts not seen in earlier
definitions: games are art, they involve decisions and resource management, and
they have “tokens” (objects within the game). There is also the familiar concept of
goals. (Greg Costikyan)
 Games are a “system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by
rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome” (“quantifiable” here just means, for
example, that there is a concept of “winning” and “losing”). This definition is from
the book Rules of Playby Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman. That book also lists
the other definitions given above, and I thank the authors for putting them all in
one place for easy reference.
By examining these definitions, we now have a starting point for discussing games.
Some of the elements mentioned that seem to be common to many (if not all) games
include:

 Games are an activity.

 Games have rules.
 Games have conflict.
 Games have goals.
 Games involve decision making.
 Games are artificial, they are safe, and they are outside ordinary life. This is
sometimes referred to as the players stepping into the “Magic Circle” or sharing a
“lusory attitude”.
 Games involve no material gain on the part of the players.
 Games are voluntary. If you are held at gunpoint and forced into an activity that
would normally be considered a game, some would say that it is no longer a
game for you. (Something to think about: if you accept this, then an activity that is
voluntary for some players and compulsory for others may or may not be a
game… depending on whose point of view you are looking at.)
 Games have an uncertain outcome.
 Games are a representation or simulation of something real, but they are
themselves make believe.
 Games are inefficient. The rules impose obstacles that prevent the player from
reaching their goal through the most efficient means.
 Games have systems. Usually, it is a closed system, meaning that resources
and information do not flow between the game and the outside world.
 Games are a form of art.

Level 1.3: Weaknesses of

Definitions
Weaknesses of Definitions
Which of the earlier definitions is correct?
None of them are perfect. If you try to come up with your own definition, it will likely
be imperfect as well. Here are a few common edge cases that commonly cause
problems with definitions:

 Puzzles, such as crossword puzzles, Sudoku, Rubik’s Cube, or logic puzzles.

Are these games? It depends on the definition. Salen & Zimmerman say they are
a subset of games where there is a set of correct answers. Costikyan says they
are not games, although they may be contained within a game.
 Role-playing games, such as Dungeons & Dragons. They have the word
“game” right in the title, yet they are often not considered games (for example,
because they often have no final outcome or resolution, no winning or
losing). Furthermore some role-playing games focus heavily on storytelling and
look more like an improvisational theater exercise than a game.
 Choose-your-own-adventure books. These are not generally thought of as
games; you say you are “reading” a book, not “playing” it. And yet, it fits most of
the criteria for most definitions of a game. To make things even more confusing,
if you take one of these books, add a tear-out “character sheet” with some
numeric stats, include “skill checks” on some pages where you roll a die against
a stat, and call it an “adventure module” instead of a “choose-your-own-
adventure book,” we would now call it a game!

Stories. Are games stories? On the one hand, most stories are linear, while games
tend to be more dynamic. On the other hand, most games have some kind of story
or narrative in them; we even have professional story writers that work on
multimillion dollar video game projects. And even beyond that, a player can tell a
story about their game experience (“let me tell you about this Chess game I played
last night, it was awesome”). For now, keep in mind that the concepts
of story and game are related in many ways, and we’ll explore this more thoroughly
later in the course.
Play. Are games a form of play? There are many kinds of play: tossing a ball around,
playing make-believe, and of course games. So, you can think of games as one type
of play. Games are made of many parts, including the rules, story, physical
components, and so on. Play is just one aspect of games. Therefore, you can also
think of play as one part of games. How can two things both be a subset the other? It
seems like a paradox, and it’s something you are welcome to think about on your
own. For our purposes, it doesn’t matter — the point here is that games and play are
concepts that are related.
 

Level 1.4: Let's Make a Game

Let's Make a Game!
You might be wondering how all of this is going to help you make games. It isn’t,
directly… but we need to at least take some steps towards a shared vocabulary so
that we can talk about games in a meaningful way.
Here’s a thing about games. I hear a lot from students that they’re afraid they won’t
be able to make a game. They don’t have the creativity, or the skills, or whatever.
This is nonsense, and it is time to get that out of our systems now.
If you have never made a game before, it is time to get over your fear. You are going
to make a game now. Take out a pencil and paper (or load up a drawing program
like Microsoft Paint). This will take all of 15 minutes and it will be fun and painless, I
promise.
I mean it, get ready. Okay?
We are going to make what is referred to as a race-to-the-end board game. You
have probably played a lot of these; the object is to get your token from one area of a
game board to another. Common examples include Candyland, Chutes & Ladders,
and Parcheesi. They are the easiest kind of game to design, and you’re going to
make one now.
First, draw some kind of path. It can be straight or curved. All it takes is drawing a
line. Now divide the path into spaces. You have now completed the first step out of
four. See how easy this is?
Second, come up with a theme or objective. The players need to get from one end of
the path to the other; why? You are either running towards something or running
away from something. What are the players represented as in the game? What is
their goal? In the design of many games, it is often helpful to start by asking what the
objective is, and a lot of rules will fall into place just from that. You should be able to
come up with something (even if it is extremely silly) in just a few minutes. You’re
now half way done!
Third, you need a set of rules to allow the players to travel from space to space. How
do you move? The simplest way, which you’re probably familiar with, is to roll a die
on your turn and move that many spaces forward. You also need to decide exactly
how the game ends: do you have to land on the final space by exact count, or does
the game end as soon as a player reaches or passes it?
You now have something that has all the elements of a game, although it is missing
one element common to many games: conflict. Games tend to be more interesting if
you can affect your opponents, either by helping them or harming them. Think of
ways to interact with your opponents. Does something happen when you land on the
same space as them? Are there spaces you land on that let you do things to your
opponents, such as move them forward or back? Can you move your opponents
through other means on your turn (such as if you roll a certain result on the die)?
Add at least one way to modify the standing of your opponents when it is your turn.
Congratulations! You have now made a game. It may not be a
particularly good game (as that is something we will cover later in this course), but it
is a functional game that can be played, and you made it in just a few minutes, with
no tools other than a simple pencil and paper.
[Credit for developing this exercise goes to my friend and co-author, Brenda
Brathwaite (Links to an external site.), who noticed that there is this invisible
barrier (Links to an external site.) between a lot of people and game design, and
created this as a way to get her students over their initial fear that they might not be
able to design anything.]
If you take away nothing else from this little activity, realize that you can have a
playable game in minutes. It does not take programming skill. It does not require a
great deal of creativity. It does not require lots of money, resources, or special
materials. It does not take months or years of time. Making a good game may
require some or all of these things, but the process of just starting out with a simple
idea is something that can be done in a very short period of time with nothing more
than a few slips of paper.
Remember this as we move forward in this course. When we talk about iteration and
rapid prototyping, many people are afraid to commit to a design, to
actually build their idea. They are afraid it will take too long, or that the idea will not
turn out to be as good as it seems in their head. Part of the process involves killing
weak ideas and making them stronger, by actually making and playing your game.
The faster you can have something up and running, and the more times that you can
play it, the better a game you can make. If it takes you more than a few minutes to
make your first prototype of a new idea, it is taking too long.

Level 2 Introduction & Readings

LEVEL 2: GAME DESIGN / ITERATION & RAPID PROTOTYPING
In Level 1 we asked the question: what is a game? In Level 2 we will look into a
related question: what, exactly, is game design? Last time, we made a simple game.
This time, we will look into the process of how games are made in general. While it is
possible to make a race-to-the-end board game in 15 minutes, you will need to take
a little longer if you are looking to make the next Settlers of Catan or World of
Warcraft.
Readings

 Challenges for Game Designers, Chapter 1 (Basics).

This is just a short introduction to the text.

 I Have No Words and I Must Design, by Greg Costikyan.

To me [Schreiber] (and I’m sure others will disagree), this essay is the turning
point when game design started to become its own field of study. Since it all
started here, for me at least, I think it only fitting to introduce it at the start of this
course. (There is a newer version here [PDF] if you are interested, but I prefer
the original for its historical importance.)

 So You're Going To Make A Game For The Very First Time?  (Links to an
external site.), by Lewis Pulsipher
Pulisher give practical advice on creating your first game.

 Understanding Games 1, Understanding Games 2, Understanding Games

3, Understanding Games 4.
These are not readings, but playings. They are a series of short Flash games that
attempt to explain some basic concepts of games in the form of a game. The
name is a reference to Understanding Comics, a comic book that explains about
comic books. Each one takes about five minutes.

 Extra Credits S2 E2 Playing Like a Designer (part 1) & S2 E3 Playing Like a

Designer (part 2)
Extra Credits share on how designers should play games.  Similar skills apply to
playing tabletop games as well.

 
 
Additional Resources
For additional readings on these topics, click HERE. It is a list of resources that is
student generated and regularly updated.