CR-UNIT 4

MAC and Network layer design for Cognitive

Radio
 MAC for Cognitive Radios
Medium Access Control (MAC) for CRN, to coordinate multiple
CRs accessing the shared medium in an opportunistic way, as
opposed to simple spectrum utilization for opportunistic
transmission at the link level.
For perfect spectrum sensing, we define the following
indicator function

The probability mass function (pmf) of Bernoulli random

variable at the ith frequency band is
 MAC for Cognitive Radios

For reliable CR operation, spectrum sensing is necessary, so that CR-

Tx can have information about the availability of each frequency
band.
However, for network operations on top of CR links, the strategy
would be highly related to π.
Case 1: π is known.
Case 2: π is unknown.
Case 3: π can be detected or estimated via some CRN sensing or
tomography methods.
 MAC for Cognitive Radios
Traditional CR functions are as follows: At time tn, CR learns the
availability of a selected frequency band sn (typically via spectrum
sensing). If 1sn(n) = 1,information amount B can be successfully
transmitted.
For L time durations, the overall throughput is

When π is known, the spectrum sensing strategy for a CR is simply

to select channel
 Multichannel MAC
Instead of using all the medium, the multichannel MAC protocols
separate the original channel into several sub-divided channels and
use them.
The performance of the multichannel MAC protocol is proved to
outperform a single channel protocol under same radio resource.
With the development of wireless communications, new paradigms
appeared in medium access control. Because of limited radio
transmission ranges, a node (i.e., a wireless device) may not be
accessible to all other nodes.
The design of MAC is a considerably more difficult task in wireless
than in wired networks. This is due to the fact that in the wireless
medium, the signal strength decays (path loss, fading) causing the
medium characteristics to be highly location-dependent.
 Multichannel MAC
Hence, traditional listen-before-transmit mechanisms such as CSMA
do not work very well because the channel state might be different at
the receiver from what is estimated at the transmitter. This gives rise
to the well known hidden terminal problem.
To overcome the problem, random channel access protocols in
wireless LANs often use channel reservation techniques by
exchanging short request-to-send (RTS) and clear-to-send (CTS)
control packets before the data packet is sent.
The above access protocol on a single channel is prone to
inefficiencies at heavy loads, and collisions can occur among the
control packets.
With possible unsynchronized backoff delays, the medium can be
idle if all contending nodes are in backoff.
 Multichannel MAC
The use of multichannel consequently provides performance
advantages.
Multichannel MAC protocols reduce collisions and enable more
concurrent transmissions and thus better bandwidth usage even with
the same aggregate capacity.
Multichannel MAC protocols allow a number of nodes in the same
neighbourhood to transmit concurrently on different channels
without interfering with one another.
Carrier sensing can be coupled with an efficient channel selection
mechanism to pick the clearest channel for transmission.
There are two important factors to demonstrate the advantages of
McMAC:
General Description of Multichannel
MAC
Multichannel MAC in LAN
Generalized multichannel MAC (for
wireless networks)
Generalized multichannel MAC (for
wireless networks)
To transmit a packet successfully, the following conditions
must fit:
1)Transmitter can find the receiver (Access Negotiation);
2)No simultaneous transmission on the same channel
(Collision Avoidance/Resolution);
3)Receiver must on the same channel with transmitter (Access
Negotiation).
A successful transmission of node 3 to K
over channel M
 Multichannel MAC collision
avoidance/resolution &Access Negotiation.

Transmitter and receiver must have a mechanism to find each other, which is
known as Access Negotiation in multichannel MAC.
Consequently, the multichannel MAC consists of
1)Collision Avoidance and Collision Resolution;
2)Access Negotiation.
 Multichannel MAC: Collision
Avoidance/Resolution
Multi-Layer Collision Avoidance/Resolution (MULCAR):
Carrier sensing in generalized form: a device can sense the
channel to be ‘0’ or ‘t’, that is, there exists transmission(s) or not.
Collision resolution in generalized form: a device (mobile or base
station) can teach the channel to be ‘0’, ‘1’ or ‘e’, that is, idle,
success or collision.
Collision avoidance and resolution tree
expansion structure, MULCAR,
Collision Anticipation Tree Expansion (CATE):

Collision Anticipation Tree Expansion (CATE): This tree

structure avoids/reduces possible collision, which is the
primary reason prohibiting channel efficiency.
Such a tree expansion provides a number of subsets (leaves) to
split contending users before the transmission or identification
phase.
Collision Resolution Tree Expansion (CRTE):
Collision Resolution Tree Expansion (CRTE): This tree
structure has been well studied in the 1970s and 1980s.
In contrast to CATE, CRTE only generates a tree after the
transmission or identification phase with some collisions being
detected.
The devices wait for channel response and try to resolve the
collisions.
It should be note that the splitting tree may not be a binary
tree.
Multi-Layer Collision Avoidance/Resolution
(MULCAR):
Multi-Layer Collision Avoidance/Resolution (MULCAR):
Considering a generalized and combined version of CATE
and CRTE.
The idea is simple: create several independent ‘urns’
(groups) and then try to avoid/resolve contentions.
MULCAR may consist of the following layers of effective
expansion:
1) Frequency domain expansion;
2) Time domain expansion;
3) Spatial domain expansion;
4) Communication channel/bands;
5) Probability domain as random backoff;
6) Signaling domain.
 Multichannel MAC: Access Negotiation
Multichannel Hidden Terminal Problem
 Access Negotiation Mechanisms

Access negotiation mechanisms in multichannel MAC

protocols fallen into two categories: narrow band approach and
wide band approach.
With a narrowband transmitter and receiver, the frequency
band to be used for transmission can be predetermined, or
dynamically chosen.
With a wideband system, the transmitter can transmit over
multiple frequency bands that are detected to be unoccupied.
In wide band systems, each device may need more than two
radios to achieve the parallel transmissions over multiple
bands/channel, whereas it may require less than two radios in
narrow band systems.
 Narrow Band Access Negotiation Mechanisms
Dedicated Control Channels:
Narrow Band Access Negotiation Mechanisms
This protocol does not need synchronization and can use
multiple channels with little control message overhead.
But it does not perform well in an environment where all
channels have the same bandwidth.
When the number of channels is small, one channel dedicated
for control messages can be costly.
In the case of IEEE 802.11b, only three channels are available,
and so having one control channel results in 33% of the total
bandwidth as the control overhead.
On the other hand, if the number of channels is large, the
control channel can become a bottleneck and prevent data
channels from being fully utilized.
 Common Hopping

The idea of hopping protocols is to use the hopping nature to

separate the traffic into multiple channels/bands.
Hop Reservation Multiple Access is a multichannel protocol
for networks using the slow frequency hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS).
The hosts hop from one channel to another according to a
predefined hopping pattern.
 Split Phase

In this approach, devices use a single radio.

Time is divided into an alternating sequence of control and data
exchange phases.
During a control phase, all devices tune to the control channel
and attempt to make agreements for channels to be used during
the following data exchange phase.
 Hybrid
Hybrid protocols consider the multichannel multi-radio
channel assignment and interfaces assignment in a multi-layer
approach.
Assuming the routing information is widely known, each node
can dynamically build its channel assignment table and inform
the whole network.
In the MAC layer, the approach can be dynamically selected or
in the hybrid version of existing multichannel protocols.
 SSCH
Each node picks multiple sequences and follows them in a
time-multiplexed manner.
When node A wants to talk to node B,Awaits until on the same
channel as B.
If A frequently wants to talk to B, A adopts one or more of B’s
sequences, thereby increasing the time they spend on the same
channel.
For this mechanism to work, the sender learns the receiver’s
current sequences via a seed broadcast mechanism.
 MCMAC

Each node picks a seed to generate a different pseudorandom

hopping sequence.
When a node is idle, it follows its ‘home’ hopping sequence.
Each node puts its seed in every packet that it sends, so its
neighbors eventually learn its hopping sequence.
In SSCH, each node selects four different hopping sequences
and time multiplexes them to form a single hopping sequence.
Nodes adapt their hopping sequences over time to the traffic
but are not allowed to deviate from their hopping sequences.
In McMAC, each node has one hopping sequence, which
never changes.
Cognitive Multichannel MAC
 Cognitive Multichannel MAC
Following the idea of cognitive radio, nodes should be able to
sense the environment and reconfigure its structure.
The cognitive multichannel MAC appears as an enhanced
version of McMAC.
Every protocol operating frame is divided into three phases:
the spectrum sensing (SS) phase, the CSMA contention phase
and the data transmission phase.
 Wide Band Access Negotiation Mechanisms
CDMA:
The idea of using the CDMA approach in the multichannel
system is simple.
Instead of using divided bands, these kind of protocols utilize
the orthogonal property of CDMA as ‘multiple channels’.
By different spreading codes, nodes are able to transmit in
different rates, that is, a shorter code represents a larger
bandwidth just like wideband CDMA cellular.
The main drawback of this approach is that it is almost
impossible to have the global codeword information and the
efficiency is low.
 Wide Band Access Negotiation Mechanisms
M-channel selection:
If there are N channels, the protocol assumes that each host
can listen to all N channels concurrently.
A host wanting to transmit a packet searches for an idle
channel and transmits on that idle channel.
Among the idle channels, the one that was used for the last
successful transmission is preferred.
The protocol can be extended to select the best channel based
on the signal power observed at the sender.
These protocols require N transceivers for each host, which
may be a concern.
 Wide Band Access Negotiation Mechanisms
Frequency Coding:
This is an enhanced version of the M-channel selection
protocol.
Within a wideband system, the transmitter can transmit over
multiple frequency bands that are detected to be unoccupied,
i.e., signals/ codewords are sent over several frequencies.
The main drawback of the N-transceiver requirement remains,
as in M-channel selection.
 Wide Band Access Negotiation Mechanisms
Frequency Cooperation (Cooperative Multichannel MAC)
This is a new multichannel MAC protocol combining two
prospective ideas: multichannel and cooperative
communication.
Cooperative communication/networks have been proven that
will improve the throughput performance by repeat/relay of
the information from the transmitter.
The multichannel hidden terminal problem is solved because
every node continuously listens to the same control channel.
 Wide Band Access Negotiation Mechanisms
Multichannel cooperative MAC
Direct transmission in the cooperative multichannel
MAC
Cooperative multichannel MAC (overall time
saved)
Cooperative multichannel MAC (transmitter
accesses node out of its transmission range)
Markov chain of multichannel protocols
Summary of notations
 Markov chain of multichannel protocols

The number of potential channels is set as M.

Xt denoting the number of communicating pairs within CRN at
time t. When Xt= k, there are 2k devices transmitting/receiving
over different channels within the CRN, and other N -2k
devices remain silent and follow their original hopping
sequence.
The state space of Xt is:
 Markov chain of multichannel protocols

Where m is the number of transfers that terminate at time t to t + 1

 Markov chain of multichannel protocols

Also, the probability Tk(j) that i transfers terminate when the

system is in state k is given by the following:

We can have the average utilization as

The system throughput is

Slotted-ALOHA with Rate-Distance Adaptability
consider the distances between nodes as a measure of the received
signal power, rather than the Euclidean distance or the propagation
distance.
Consequently, distance D means a permissible sot of any possible
location point with received signal power as propagation Euclidean
distance D under certain long-term fading.
Rate-distance nature usually comes together with AMC, and we can
observe that high spectral efficiency modulations are generally more
sensitive to interference and noise.
To achieve the spectrum efficiency, after sensing idle radio resources
(in time and/or frequency domain) of the primary user system(s), CR
nodes as the secondary system(s) adapt themselves (both in PHY
and MAC layers) to access optimally the available radio resources.
System Model
 System Model
The base station (BS) and mobile station (MS) in the primary system
are communicating through the primary communication link (PCL).
Due to their effective distance, the low-rate is selected.
Near the boundary of the service area of the BS, there are two
cognitive radio devices wishing to establish a secondary
communication link (SCL) under the region of low-level
interference from the primary system.
high-rate communication might be possible between these two
cognitive radios without affecting the primary system, and
interference from the active primary system nodes to the CRs can be
tolerated.
 CSMA with AMC
The CSMA has been shown to be a simple and effective multiple
access scheme for the CRN to provide a high throughput, without,
however, challenging how to leverage the spatial reuse.
The proposed CSMA-ST therefore generally allows possible
simultaneous/concurrent packet transmissions of CRs during the
transmissions of the PS-Tx without location information.
Concurrent transmissions may imply higher interference, which
induces another critical task of the CRN: to control properly the
interference to the PS.
The multiple access protocol alone is not sufficient to achieve the
optimum protocol capacity and prevent unacceptable interference to
the PS.
Cross-layer design with power control and AMC is therefore needed
to complete the design without the requirement of location
information.
Networking scenario of CSMA-ST in CRN
 CSMA with AMC
Modulation schemes and thus the data rates between the BS and the
mobile stations (MSs) of the PS are based on their received SINR.
Without loss of generalization, consider two rates: high and low.
A high data rate modulation scheme is selected for the MS near to
the BS of the PS and a low data rate modulation scheme is selected
for the MS far from the BS of the PS.
Near the coverage boundary of the BS of the PS, a communication
link of CRs can be established.
A high data rate modulation scheme might be possible between
these two CRs to resist the interference from the transmitter station
(TS) of the PS.
The interference from the CR to the receiver station (RS) of the PS
might also be acceptable for the modulation scheme adopted by the
RSs of the PS.
 Routing
Two main functions performed by a routing algorithm are the
selection of routes for various origin destination pairs and the
delivery of messages to their correct destination once the routes are
selected.
Two primary performance measures that are substantially affected
by the routing algorithm are throughput and average packet delay.
 Flooding and Broadcasting
Broadcasting could be used as a primitive form of routing packets
from a single transmitter to a single receiver or a subset of receivers.
This is generally rather inefficient but may be sensible because it is
simple or when the receivers’ locations within the net are unknown.
Flooding operates as follows. The origin node sends its information
in the form of a packet to its neighbours.
The neighbours relay it to their neighbours until the packet reaches
all nodes in the network.
Two additional rules limit the number of packet transmission:
(i) A node will not relay the packet back to the node from which the
packet was obtained.
(ii)A node will transmit the packet to its neighbours at most once.
 Shortest Path Routing
A shortest path routing algorithm routes each packet along a
minimum length path between origin and destination nodes.
More generally, the length of a link may depend on its transmission
capacity and its projected traffic load.
A shortest path should contain relatively few and uncongested links
and therefore be desirable for routing.
An important distributed algorithm for calculating the shortest paths
to a given destination, known as the Bellman-Ford method, has the
form

Where Di is the estimated shortest distance of node i to the destination

and dij is the length of link (i, j).
In practice, the Bellman-Ford method can be implemented as an
iterative process.
 Optimal Routing
Shortest path routing has two drawbacks:
It uses only one path per pair, thereby potentially limiting the
throughput of the network.
Its capability to adapt to changing traffic conditions is limited by its
susceptibility to oscillations.
Optimal routing based on the optimisation of an average delay such
as measure of performance can eliminate both by splitting any
origin-destination pair traffic at strategic points and by shifting
traffic gradually between alternative paths.
 Hot Potato (Reflection) Routing
In networks where storage space at each node is limited, it may be
important to modify the routing algorithm so as to minimise buffer
overflow and the attendant loss of packets.
The idea here is for nodes to get rid of their stored packets as
quickly as possible, transmitting them on whatever link happens to
be idle – not necessarily one that brings them closer to their
destination.
 Cut-through Routing
An incentive exists to split a long message into several smaller
packets in order to reduce the delay of the message on multiple link
paths, taking advantage of pipelining.
This leads to cut-through routing, whereby a node can start relaying
any portion of a packet to another node without waiting to receive
the packet in its entirety.
The delay can be reduced by as much as a factor on a path with n
links.
Error detection retransmission must be done on an end-to-end basis.
 Interconnected Network Routing
As networks started to proliferate, it became necessary to
interconnect them using various interface devices.
In the case of WANs, the interfaces are called gateways and usually
perform fairly complicated network layer tasks such as routing.
The devices used for interconnection of LANs at the MAC layer to
perform a primitive form of routing are known as bridges.
LANs can also be connected with each other or with WANs using
more sophisticated devices called routers.
 Network Layer Design
Routing in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks
MANET is considered to be a collection of mobile nodes
communicating over wireless links without infrastructure.
Due to potentially shorter-range radio communications than
network coverage, MANET relies on multi-hop concepts to transport
the packets and each node acts like a router by itself, with the
common assumption of limited resource for routing.
Routing protocols can be generally categorized as proactive or
reactive, depending on whether the protocol continuously updates
the routes or reacts on demand.
Proactive protocols, also known as table-driven protocols,
continuously determine the network connectivity and
already-available routes to forward a packet.
This kind of routing protocol is obviously infeasible to frequently
re-configurable mobile networks such as CRN, due to the extreme
dynamics of links.
 Network Layer Design
Reactive protocols, also known as on-demand protocols, invoke
determination of routes only when it is needed (i.e., on-demand).
Features of Routing in CRN
Link availability:
link available period in the CRN is in the range of milli-seconds,
instead of seconds, minutes, hours or even days, as in its wireless
networking counterparts.
Unidirectional links:
In CRNs, unidirectional links are more likely to be due to the fact
that a CR node may just have an opportunity to transmit in one time
duration and there is no guarantee to allow the opportunity for
transmission from the other direction.
 Network Layer Design
Heterogeneous wireless networks:
In contrast to typical wireless ad-hoc or sensor networks, CRNs are
generally formed by heterogeneous wireless networks (co-existing
primary systems and CR nodes to form ad-hoc networks).
 Dynamic Source Routing in MANET

DSR is an on-demand ad-hoc routing protocol that uses a route

discovery cycle to search routes.
DSR uses source routing and each node maintains a complete topology
of routes in its route cache.
Conceptual data structure of (a) RREQ and (b)
RREP of DSR
Basic DSR route discovery mechanism
Basic Route Maintenance
Two reasons for link breaks
non-duplicated RREQ forwarding scheme
Node List checking scheme
Benefit of non-disjoint routes for packet
forwarding
Benefit of non-disjoint routes for packet
forwarding
 Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)
AODV is an on-demand ad-hoc routing protocol and routes are
discovered by a route discovery cycle.
AODV uses hop-by-hop routing, which means routing information
is distributed over network nodes.
Basic Route Discovery:
When a source node has data packets to send to a certain destination
but does not have a route in its routing table, it initiates a route
discovery procedure.
The source node creates a Route Request (RREQ) packet which
contains its own IP address and sequence number, the destination’s
IP address and sequence number, and a hop count that is initialized
to zero.
 Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)
Basic Route Discovery:
When a node receives the RREQ, it increments the hop count value
by one and creates a reverse route entry in its routing table.
The reverse route entry contains the source node and the node from
which it received the RREQ.
This entry can be used when replying a Route Reply (RREP) to the
node on the reverse route to the source.
Routing table of hop-by-hop routing scheme
 Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)
Basic Route Maintenance
The route maintenance mechanism is used to repair active routes when
they break.
When a node detects that a link break occurs, the upstream node of the
link invalidates all routes to those destinations that become unreachable
due to the link break.
It then creates a Route Error (RERR) message which contains each of
those lost destinations.
It then sends the RERR to all previous hops (so-called precursors) that
were using the link to destinations.
When a node receives the RERR, it checks whether it really has routes
to those destinations in the RERR. If so, it eliminates all routes to these
destinations and resends this RERR to all of its precursors.
Finally when the source receives the RERR, it also invalidates all routes
in the RERR.
If there is a need for these destinations, it initiates another route
discovery procedure.
Basic AODV route discovery mechanism:
 Routing in Cognitive Radio Networks
Trusted Cognitive Radio Networking
CRN nodes are classified into three categories:
Secure: The node has executed a security check that is good
throughout the entire heterogeneous wireless networks, such as
through a public key infrastructure (PKI) check.The packets and
messages from this node can go all the way in CRN as secure
clearance.
Trusted: The level of security for ‘trusted’ is not as effective as
‘secure’. As a CR is generally not able to complete a security check
of several rounds of the handshaking protocol within the timing
window of an available link (i.e.,CR to CR, or CRto PS node).we
create a security level of trusted that enables packet transmission
over available opportunistic unidirectional links.
 Routing in Cognitive Radio Networks
Lure: ACR node is neither secure nor trusted by its target receiving
node, and it is classified as ‘lure’. The major reason to be rated as
lure shall be from bad historical actions, such as spreading virus,
wasting bandwidth in a wireless network, attacking wireless
network, selfish behaviors, etc. Such a lure node actually loses its
cognitive radio capability in practice of CRN operation.
 critical issues of the CRN network
The CRN consists of CRs and nodes from various co-existing
primary systems, which may operate using different communication
parameters, in different frequency bands and in different
geographical locations.
SDR inside a CR is capable of reconfigurable realization for
multiple systems operating at multiple frequency bands.
The CR source node (initiation point of traffic) and CR destination
(termination point of traffic) node should conduct their own
end-to-end security beyond trust level by employing CRN nodes to
complete bidirectional verification.
CRN nodes are assumed to conduct only AF or DF cooperative
relaying, under the trust domain of CRN.
 critical issues of the CRN network
Nodes in the secure domain may reject relays from trusted nodes,
which suggests that such links are not available in trusted multi-hop
packet radio network routing. Similarly, nodes in trusted domain
(i.e., typical nodes in CRN) may reject connection requests from
lure nodes.
Any packet from a CR source node, once getting into a primary
system or infrastructure, follows the operation of the primary system
or infrastructure, to enjoy the benefits from existing systems and
networks.
Routing packets in the CRN
 Routing packets in the CRN

The CR transmitter and CR receiver form a CR link, typically using

dynamic spectrum access.
The CR receiver may be a CR or a node in PS.
The CR source node and CR destination node form a virtual link like
a session in CRN.
The CR destination node can be a CR or any node in PS. When the
CR destination node is a CR, we may call it a CR sink.
 Routing of Dynamic and Unidirectional CR
Links in CRN
Each CR link is modeled by a 2-state Markov chain, independent of
other CR links.
Without knowing the specific PS, all links in the PS are assumed to
be bidirectional and can support our routing protocol. As a matter of
fact, the entire behavior inside a PS can be treated as a ‘link’ by the
queuing model of this PS if we just follow the PS operation.
Typical MANET routing algorithms are trying to isolate
unidirectional links, because they are likely to be very localized.
However, unidirectional links are inevitable in CRN. Fortunately, we
may assume the depth (i.e., number of hops) from CR to PS to be
within D hops, due to their roles in wireless access to the
infrastructure or purely ad-hoc.
 Routing of Dynamic and Unidirectional CR
Links in CRN
The fact of CR links being unidirectional is usually true at one
instant. At the next instant, this CR link might be still unidirectional
but reverse its direction depending on network situations.
By introducing the trust mechanism, the CRN would function pretty
much like an ad-hoc network with ‘temporary’ unidirectional links.
 Routing issues
Since CR does not interfere with the PS(s), we should avoid the
global or periodic advertisement of any CR node, though such
advertisement is common in ad-hoc network routing.
For a CR link that is the link with the CR as transmitter, we will
avoid acknowledgement over the link, because there might not be
enough opportunistic time window to execute this
acknowledgement.
For the same reasons as the above two points, we will not use hello
packets in common ad-hoc network routing.
CRN routing must be able to detect and to minimize the possibility
of any loop or any dead-end, where dead-end means ‘no way to
forward the packet further within a reasonable amount of time’, and
loop means ‘the packet that was forwarded to another route will
come back in a repeated way’.
 The routing message
CR destination node IP;
CR source node IP;
Message ID (i.e., msg_id);
CR relay node IP (cr_relay_ip);
CR transmitter IP (cr_tx_ip) and its radio-type (cr_tx_type) for the
received packet/frame;
CR receiver IP (cr_rx_ip) and its radio-type (cr_rx_type) for the
forwarding packet/frame;
Sequence number seq_count associated with the path (cr_tx_ip,
cr_relay_ip, cr_rx_ip), starting from 0, and adding 1 for each same
path;
Time counter at CR relay node, time_counter, starting from 0 and
adding 1 for a new time slot duration.
 CRNO routing phases
Sensing Phase
The CR node listens to the radio environments, that is, spectrum
sensing of multiple co-existing systems (and even possibly different
frequency bands), to update its forward-path table.
The forward-path table records information regarding each potential
CR receiver, history, estimate of its trust on the CR node and
communication parameters to adjust the SDR.
Path Discovery Phase
Once the CR node originates a packet/frame to the destination or
receives a packet/frame for relay, it checks the backward-path table
for any violation.
In the case of no violation from the checking, the CR node selects
another CR node from the forward-path table to relay the
packet/frame.
The selection is based on the availability of CR links and the
forward-path table.
 CRNO routing phases
Table Update Phase
In addition to link selection to complete the routing, a
backward-path route associated with this relay has to update as a
part of the backward-path table.
Each backward-path route consists of parameters msg_id, cr_rx_ip,
cr_rx_type, cr_tx_ip, cr_tx_type and seq_count.
Both cr_rx_type and cr_tx_type are to specify the operation of
co-existing multi-radio systems (or overlay wireless
systems/networks) in the CRN.
CRNO routing
Flow Control of CRN
 Flow Control of CRN
The traffic flow can be categorised as follows:
 End-to-End Error Control in CRN
The conventional network layer requires an extremely low
packet error rate, which is warranted by physical layer FEC,
CRC check and data link control.
For the CRN, data link control may or may not exist, and error
control between the CR source node and sink node is needed,
while re-transmissions will be minimised due to a much higher
price than common (wireless) networks.
We can immediately borrow the idea from hybrid automatic
request (HARQ) to conduct the CRN network layer error
control, to significantly reduce the error control traffic
significantly between the CR source node and CR destination
node.