Anatomy and Physiology (2) Lower Respiratory Tract – trachea to

alveoli (trachea, bronchi, lungs,

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM alveoli)

 Nose NOSE
 Pharynx
- “button” or “hooked” in shape
 Larynx
- Only externally visible part of the
 Trachea
respiratory system
 Bronchi and their smaller branches - During breathing, air enters the nose
 The lungs containing alveoli by nostril/nares
- Consist of the nasal cavity divided
WHAT
by a midline nasal septum
- Provides oxygen to the body,  Olfactory receptors are for sense of
disposes carbon dioxide, and help smell; located in the mucosa
regulate pH (beneath the ethmoid)
 Respiratory mucosa are mucosa
HOW lining the nasal cavity; located on
thin walled veins that warms the air
- Gas exchange occurs in the air sacs
as it pass
of the lungs in the alveoli
FUNCTION:
WHY
- Sticky mucus are produced to
- Without oxygen, cells will moisten and trap bacteria and foreign
eventually die. Too much carbon debris
dioxide in the blood will cause the - Lysozome enzyme in the mucus
blood pH to become acidic, which destroy the bacteria chemically
will interfere with cellular-function
 Conchae
- Greatly increases the surface area of
Cardiovascular and Respiratory the mucosa exposed to the air
system shares the responsibility for - Increase air turbulence in the nasal
supplying the body with oxygen and cavity
dispose carbon dioxide  Palate
Blood – used for transporting oxygen - Separates the nasal cavity from the
and carbon dioxide oral cavity
- Two parts: Hard palate – support by
TWO PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY
bone; Soft palate – unsupported
SYSTEM
posterior part
(1) Upper Respiratory Tract – nose to  Sinuses
larynx (nose, pharynx, larynx) - Frontal sinuses
 - Ethmoid sinuses (2) Palastine tonsils (2) – located high in
- Sphenoid sinuses the oropharynx
- Maxillary sinuses (3) Lingual tonsils (2) – located at the
base of the tongue
PHAYNX
LARYNX
- “throat”
- Muscular passageway about 13 cm - “voice box”
or 5 inches long - It routes air and food into the proper
- Serves as passageway for food and channels and plays a role in speech
air - Located inferior of the pharynx
- Posterior Nasal Aperture links the - Formed by: eight rigid hyaline
pharynx in to the nasal cavity cartilage and epiglottis – spoon
shaped flap of elastic cartilage
3 REGIONS:
 Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s Apple)
 Nasopharynx – air enters here and - Largest of the hyaline cartilage and
located in the superior portion is shield shaped
 Oropharynx – middle region behind - Protrudes anteriorly
mouth  Epiglottis (guardian of the airway)
 Laryngopharynx – inferior region - Protects the superior opening of the
attached to larynx larynx
- Allows the passage of air into the
lower respiratory passages
 Cough reflex
 Esophagus – food passes here;
- Prevents the substance going to the
posterior to the epiglottis
lungs
 Vocal folds (true vocal cord)
 Pharyngotympanic tubes – drains the
- Vibrate with expelled air
middle ear, open into the
- Allow us to speak
nasopharynx
 Glottis
- Slit-like passageway between vocal
 Tonsils – clusters of lymphatic
cords
tissue; protects the body from
infection; but can cause TRACHEA
inflammation
- “windpipe”
- Located at the level of the fifth
3 TYPES OF TONSILS thoracic vertebra, approximately at
midchest
(1) Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoid) –
- Lined with ciliated mucosa which is
located high in the nasopharynx
produced by goblet cells
  Hyaline cartilage – provides fairly  Pleural space
rigidity because it walls are - More of a potential space than an
reinforced with C-shaped rings actual one
- Structure: Rigid but can expand
BRONCHIAL TREE
Main Bronchi
- The main bronchi subdivides into
- Right and left (primary) bronchi smaller and smaller branches
- Formed by the division of trachea - Bronchioles – smallest passageways
- Right main (primary) bronchi is - Also referred as
wider, shorter, and straighter than the bronchial/respiratory tree
left - Terminal bronchioles lead into
- Each main bronchus runs obliquely respiratory zone structures and lead
before it plunges into the medial to the end in alveoli
depression (helium)  Respiratory Zone
- Respiratory membrane
LUNGS - Alveolar ducts
- Fairy large organs - Alveolar sacs
- Occupy the entire thoracic cavity - Alveoli (only site for gas exchange)
except for the most area of the
mediastinum  Conducting Zone structure
 Mediastinum - Serves as conduits to and from the
- Houses the heart, blood vessel, respiratory zone
bronchi, esophagus, and other organs  Stroma
 Apex - Balance of lung tissue
- Narrow superior portion of each lung - Mainly elastic connective tissue
- Deep to the cavicle - Allows the lungs to stretch and recoil
 Base  Alveolar pores
- Broad lung area resting on the - Connect neighboring air sacs and
diaphragm provide alternative route for air to
 Pulmonary pleaura reach the alveoli
- Surface of each lung is covered with  Respiratory Membrane (air-blood
its own visceral serosa barrier)
 Parietal pleaura - Has gas (air) flowing past on one
- Lined the walls of the thoracic cavity side and blood flowing past on one
side and blood flowing past on the
 Pleural fluid
other
- Produced by pleaural membrane
- Gas exchange occur through
- Allows the lungs to glide easily for
diffusion in the alveoli
breathing
- Cause the 2 pleural layers to cling  Alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
together
 - Picks up bacteria, debris, and carbon - Air leaving the lungs
particle
Muscles of Respiration
 Surfactant
- Lipid (fat) molecules; coats the gas (1) Diaphragm
exposed alveolar surfaces and very (2) External intercostals
important in lung function (3) Internal intercostals
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
(PHYSIOLOGY)
 Inspiration (Inhalation)
4 Events of Respiration - Diaphragm and external intercostal
(1) Pulmonary Ventilation muscles contract
- Moving if air in and out of the lungs - Intrapulmonary volume increases
(commonly called breathing) - Gas pressure decreases
- Functions: supply body with oxygen - Air flows into the lungs until
and dispose of carbon dioxide intrapulmonary pressure equal to the
(2) External Respiration atmospheric pressure
- Gas exchange between pulmonary  Expiration (exhalation)
blood and alveoli - Largely a passive process that
(3) Gas Transport depends on natural lung elasticity
- Transport of oxygen and carbon - Intrapulmonary volume decreases
dioxide via blood stream - Gas pressure increases
(4) Internal Respiration - Gas passively flow out to equalize
- Gas exchange between pulmonary pressure
capillary and tissue cells

MECHANICS OF BREATHING - As air passageways of the lungs

 Pulmonary Ventilation become smaller, the lining of walls
- Mechanical process that depends on also changes
volume changes in thoracic cavity - As air passageways beyond terminal
- Volume changes lead to pressure bronchioles become smaller, their
changes, which lead to the flow of walls become thinner
gases to equalize pressure - The elastic fiber surrounding the
alveoli allow them to expand during
2 Phases inspiration and recoil during
expiration
(1) Inspiration - Lungs are elastic
- Inhalation - Specialized secretory cells within the
- Flow of air into the lungs walls of alveoli secrete a chemical
(2) Expiration called surfactant that reduces the
- Exhalation tendency of alveoli to recoil
  Intra-pleural pressure - Usually around 3,100ml
- Pressure within is always negative  Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
 Surfactant - Amount of air that can be taken out
- Mixture of lipoprotein moleculesby forcibly over the tidal volume
secretory cells of the alveolar - 1, 200ml
epithelium  Residual volume
- Reduces surface tension - Air remaining in lungs after
 Pressure in pleural cavity expiration
- Decrease pleural pressure – increase - Allows gas exchange to go on
alveolar pressure = alveoli expand continuously even between breaths
and helps to keep the alveoli open
(inflated)
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION - 1, 200ml
Relax External intercostals
 Vital capacity
muscles and
diaphragm - Total amount of exchangeable air
Internal intercostals Relax - VC = TV + IRV +ERV
muscles - 4, 800ml in men; 3, 100ml in female
Contract Internal intercostal  Dead space volume
muscles - Air remains in the conducting zone
External intercostals Contracts and never reaches the alveoli
muscles and
- 150ml
diaphragm
 Functional volume
- Air that reaches the respiratory zone
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND - 350ml
CAPACITIES  Spirometer – measure respiratory
capacity
 Factors affecting respiratory capacity
 Spirometry – diagnostic test
- Size
- Age NONRESPIRATORY AIR
- Physical condition MOVEMENTS
- Sex
- Can be caused by reflex or voluntary
 Tidal volume (TV) actions
- Inhale and exhale - Examples
- Normal quiet breathing  Cough and sneezes – clear
- 500ml of air is moved in and out of lungs of debris
lungs with each breath  Crying and laughing –
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) inspiration followed by
- Amount of air that can be taken in release of air in number of
forcibly over the tidal volume short expiration
  Hiccups – sudden inspiration - Small amount is carried inside red
resulting from spasms of blood cells on hemoglobin, but a
diaphragm different binding sites from those
 Yawn – very deep inspiration oxygen
 For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of
RESPIRATORY SOUNDS blood into alveoli, it must be
- Sounds are monitored with a released from its bicarbonate form
stethoscope - Bicarbonate ions enter RBC
- 2 recognizable sounds can be heard - Combine with hydrogen ions to form
with stethoscope carbonic acid
(1) Bronchial sounds - Carbonic acid splits to form water
- Produce by air rushing through large and carbon dioxide
passageways such as trachea and  Internal Respiration
bronchi  Exchange of gases between blood
(2) Vesicular breathing sounds and tissue cells
- Soft sounds of air filling the alveoli  An opposite reaction from what
 External Respiration occur in lungs
 Oxygen is loaded into blood - Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue
- Oxygen diffuses from oxygen-rich cells to blood (called loading)
air of alveoli to the oxygen-poor - Oxygen diffuses from blood into
bloodof pulmonary capillaries tissue (called unloading)
 Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of  Systemic capillary gas exchange
the blood  Carbonic anhydrase – special
- Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood enzyme that speeds up reaction
of pulmonary capillaries to alveoli between carbon dioxide and water to
 Pulmonary gas exchange form carbonic acid
 Gas Transport in Blood RESPIRATORY AREAS IN BRAIN
 Oxygen transport in blood
- Most oxygen travels attached to  Medullary Respiratory Center
hemoglobin and forms - Medulla – sets basic rhythm of the
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) lungs
- A small dissolved amount is carried (1) Dorsal Respiratory group
in the plasma  Responsible for contraction
- Not all oxygen will attach to of diaphragm
hemoglobin but some go to the (2) Ventral Respiratory Group
plasma  Responsible for stimulating
 Carbon dioxide transport in blood external intercostals, internal
- Most carbon dioxide is transported in intercostals, and abdominal
plasma as bicarbonate ion muscles
  Pontine Respiratory Group DEVELOPMENTAL
- Collection of neurons in the pons
- Inspiration and expiration  Newborn: 40-80 rr/min
 Infants: 30 rr/min
CONTROL OF RESPIRATION  Age 5: 25 rr/min
 Adult:12-18 rr/min
 Eupnea (normal respiratory rate) –
12 – 15 rr/minute  Rate often increases during old age
 Hyperpnea – increased respiratory AGING EFFECT
rate, often due to extra oxygen
 Dyspnea – unlabored breathing or  Elasticity of lungs decreases
difficulty of breathing  Vital capacity decreases
 Tachypnea – fast breathing; more  Blood oxygen levels
than 20 breaths/min  Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
 Bradypnea – slow breathing decreases
 Orthopnea – difficulty of breathing  Elderly often has hypoxic and sleep
while lying down apnea
 Cheyne Stoke – irregular breathing  More rules of respiratory tract
with seasons of apnea infection
 Apnea – sensation of breathing;
breathing stops

NON-NEURAL FACTORS
INFLUENCING RESPIRATORY RATE
AND DEPTH

 Physical factors
- Increased body temperature
- Exercise
- Talking
- Coughing
 Volition (conscious control)
 Emotional factors such as fear,
anger, and excitement
 Chemical factors
- Body rid itself with of carbon
dioxide
- Increased level of carbon dioxide in
blood increase the rate and depth of
breathing
- Changes in carbon dioxide