What is Quadratic Function?

A quadratic function is a polynomial function with one or more variables in

which the highest exponent of the variable is two. Since the highest degree
term in a quadratic function is of the second degree, therefore it is also
called the polynomial of degree 2. A quadratic function has a minimum of
one term which is of the second degree. It is an algebraic function.
The parent quadratic function is of the form f(x) = x2 and it connects the
points whose coordinates are of the form (number,
number2). Transformations can be applied on this function on which it typically
looks of the form f(x) = a (x - h)2 + k and further it can be converted into the
form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c. Let us study each of these in detail in the upcoming
sections.
Standard Form of a Quadratic Function

The standard form of a quadratic function is of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c,

where a, b, and c are real numbers with a ≠ 0.

Quadratic Function Examples

The quadratic function equation is f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 0. Let us

see a few examples of quadratic functions:
 f(x) = 2x2 + 4x - 5; Here a = 2, b = 4, c = -5
 f(x) = 3x2 - 9; Here a = 3, b = 0, c = -9
  f(x) = x2 - x; Here a = 1, b = -1, c = 0
Now, consider f(x) = 4x-11; Here a = 0, therefore f(x) is NOT a quadratic function.

Vertex of Quadratic Function

The vertex of a quadratic function (which is in U shape) is where

the function has a maximum value or a minimum value. The axis of
symmetry of the quadratic function intersects the function (parabola) at the
vertex.

Quadratic Functions Formula

A quadratic function can always be factorized, but the factorization process

may be difficult if the zeroes of the expression are non-integer real
numbers or non-real numbers. In such cases, we can use the quadratic
formula to determine the zeroes of the expression. The general form of a
quadratic function is given as: f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are real
numbers with a ≠ 0. The roots of the quadratic function f(x) can be calculated
using the formula of the quadratic function which is:
 x = [ -b ± √(b2 - 4ac) ] / 2a
Different Forms of Quadratic Function

A quadratic function can be in different forms: standard form, vertex form, and intercept form.
Here are the general forms of each of them:

 Standard form: f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 0.

 Vertex form: f(x) = a(x - h)2 + k, where a ≠ 0 and (h, k) is the vertex of the
parabola representing the quadratic function.
 Intercept form: f(x) = a(x - p)(x - q), where a ≠ 0 and (p, 0) and (q, 0) are the x-intercepts of
the parabola representing the quadratic function.

The parabola opens upwards or downwards as per the value of 'a' varies:

 If a > 0, then the parabola opens upward.

 If a < 0, then the parabola opens downward.

We can always convert one form to the other form. We can easily convert vertex form or
intercept form into standard form by just simplifying the algebraic expressions. Let us see how
to convert the standard form into each vertex form and intercept form.

Converting Standard Form of Quadratic Function Into Vertex Form

A quadratic function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c can be easily converted into the vertex form f(x) = a (x -
h)2 + k by using the values h = -b/2a and k = f(-b/2a). Here is an example.
Example: Convert the quadratic function f(x) = 2x2 - 8x + 3 into the vertex form.
 Step - 1: By comparing the given function with f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, we get a = 2, b = -8, and
c = 3.
 Step - 2: Find 'h' using the formula: h = -b/2a = -(-8)/2(2) = 2.
 Step - 3: Find 'k' using the formula: k = f(-b/2a) = f(2) = 2(2)2 - 8(2) + 3 = 8 - 16 + 3 = -5.
 Step - 4: Substitute the values into the vertex form: f(x) = 2 (x - 2) 2 - 5.

Converting Standard Form of Quadratic Function Into Intercept Form

A quadratic function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c can be easily converted into the vertex form f(x) = a (x -
p)(x - q) by using the values of p and q (x-intercepts) by solving the quadratic equation ax2 +
bx + c = 0.
Example: Convert the quadratic function f(x) = x2 - 5x + 6 into the intercept form.
 Step - 1: By comparing the given function with f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, we get a = 1.
 Step - 2: Solve the quadratic equation: x2 - 5x + 6 = 0
By factoring the left side part, we get
(x - 3) (x - 2) = 0
x = 3, x = 2
 Step - 3: Substitute the values into the intercept form: f(x) = 1 (x - 3)(x - 2).
Domain and Range of Quadratic Function

The domain of a quadratic function is the set of all x-values that makes the function defined and
the range of a quadratic function is the set of all y-values that the function results in by
substituting different x-values.

Domain of Quadratic Function

A quadratic function is a polynomial function that is defined for all real values of x. So, the
domain of a quadratic function is the set of real numbers, that is, R. In interval notation, the
domain of any quadratic function is (-∞, ∞).
Range of Quadratic Function

The range of the quadratic function depends on the graph's opening side and vertex. So, look for
the lowermost and uppermost f(x) values on the graph of the function to determine the range of
the quadratic function. The range of any quadratic function with vertex (h, k) and the equation
f(x) = a(x - h)2 + k is:
 y ≥ k (or) [k, ∞) when a > 0 (as the parabola opens up when a > 0).
 y ≤ k (or) (-∞, k] when a < 0 (as the parabola opens down when a < 0).
Graphing Quadratic Function

The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. i.e., it opens up or down in the U-shape. Here are
the steps for graphing a quadratic function.

 Step - 1: Find the vertex.

 Step - 2: Compute a quadratic function table with two columns x and y with 5 rows (we can
take more rows as well) with vertex to be one of the points and take two random values on
either side of it.
 Step - 3: Find the corresponding values of y by substituting each x value in the given
quadratic function.
 Step - 4: Now, we have two points on either side of the vertex so that by plotting them on
the coordinate plane and joining them by a curve, we can get the perfect shape. Also,
extend the graph on both sides. Here is the quadratic function graph.
Example: Graph the quadratic function f(x) = 2x2 - 8x + 3.

Solution:

By comparing this with f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, we get a = 2, b = -8, and c = 3.

 Step - 1: Let us find the vertex.
x-coordinate of vertex = -b/2a = 8/4 = 2
y-coordinate of vertex = f(-b/2a) = 2(2)2 - 8(2) + 3 = 8 - 16 + 3 = -5.
Therefore, vertex = (2, -5).
 Step - 2: Frame a table with vertex written in the middle row.

x y
 x y

2 -5

 Step - 3: Fill the first column with two random numbers on either side of 2.

x y

2 -5

 Step - 4: Find y by substituting each x-value in the given quadratic function. For example,
when x = 0, y = 2(0)2 - 8(0) + 3 = 3.

x y

0 3

1 -3

2 -5

3 -3

4 3
  Step - 5: Just plot the above points and join them by a smooth curve.

Note: We can plot the x-intercepts and y-intercept of the quadratic function as well to get a
neater shape of the graph.
The graph of quadratic functions can also be obtained using the quadratic functions calculator.
Maxima and Minima of Quadratic Function

Maxima or minima of quadratic functions occur at its vertex. It can also be found by
using differentiation. To understand the concept better, let us consider an example and solve it.
Let's take an example of quadratic function f(x) = 3x2 + 4x + 7.
Differentiating the function,

⇒f'(x) = 6x + 4

Equating it to zero,

⇒6x + 4 = 0

⇒ x = -2/3

Double differentiating the function,

⇒f''(x) = 6 > 0

Since the double derivative of the function is greater than zero, we will have minima at x = -2/3
(by second derivative test), and the parabola is upwards.

Similarly, if the double derivative at the stationary point is less than zero, then the function
would have maxima. Hence, by using differentiation, we can find the minimum or maximum of a
quadratic function.

Important Notes on Quadratic Function:

 The standard form of the quadratic function is f(x) = ax 2+bx+c where a ≠ 0.

 The graph of the quadratic function is in the form of a parabola.
 The quadratic formula is used to solve a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 and is given by x
= [ -b ± √(b2 - 4ac) ] / 2a.
 The discriminant of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by b2-4ac. This is used to
determine the nature of the zeroes of a quadratic function.

Examples of Quadratic Function

 Example 1: Determine the vertex of the quadratic function f(x) = 2(x+3)2 - 2.

Solution: We have f(x) = 2(x+3)2 - 2 which can be written as f(x) = 2(x-(-3))2 + (-2)
Comparing the given quadratic function with the vertex form of quadratic function
f(x) = a(x-h)2 + k, where (h,k) is the vertex of the parabola, we have

h = -3, k = -2

Hence, the vertex of f(x) is (-3,-2)

 Answer: Vertex = (-3,-2)

 Example 2: Find the zeros of the quadratic function f(x) = x2 + 3x - 4 using the
quadratic functions formula.
Solution: The quadratic function f(x) = x2 + 3x - 4. On comparing f(x) with the
general form ax2 + bx + c, we get a = 1, b = 3, c = -4

The zeros of quadratic function are obtained by solving f(x) = 0.

For this, we use the quadratic formula: x = [ -b ± √(b2 - 4ac) ] / 2a

x = [ -3 ± √{32 - 4(1)(-4)}] / 2(1) = [ -3 ± √(9 + 16) ] / 2 = [ -3 ± √25 ] / 2,

x = [ -3 + 5 ] / 2, [ -3 - 5 ] / 2

= 1, -4

Answer: Roots of f(x) = x2 + 3x - 4 are 1 and -4

 Example 3: Write the quadratic function f(x) = (x-12)(x+3) in the general form ax2 +
bx + c.
Solution: We have the quadratic function f(x) = (x-12)(x+3). We will just expand
(multiply the binomials) it to write it in the general form.

f(x) = (x-12)(x+3)

= x(x+3) - 12(x+3)

= x2 + 3x - 12x - 36
= x2 - 9x - 36
Answer: x2 - 9x - 36

What Is Factoring Quadratics?

Factoring quadratics is a method of expressing the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 as a product of its linear

factors as (x - k)(x - h), where h, k are the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. This method is also

is called the method of factorization of quadratic equations. Factorization of quadratic equations can be done

using different methods such as splitting the middle term, using the quadratic formula, completing the squares,

etc.
Factoring Quadratics Meaning

The factor theorem relates the linear factors and the zeros of any polynomial. Every quadratic equation has two

roots, say αα and ββ. They are the zeros of the quadratic equation. Consider a quadratic equation f(x) = 0,

where f(x) is a polynomial of degree 2. Suppose that x = αα is one root of this equation. This means that x

= αα is a zero of the quadratic expression f(x). Thus, (x - αα) should be a factor of f(x).

Similarly, if x = ββ is the second root of f(x) = 0, then x = ββ is a zero of f(x). Thus, (x - ββ) should be a factor

of f(x). Hence, factoring quadratics is a method of expressing the quadratic equations as a product of its linear

factors, that is, f(x) = (x - αα)(x - ββ). Let us go through some examples of factoring quadratics:

Examples of Factoring Quadratics

1. Consider the quadratic equation x2 + 5x + 6 = 0

-3 and -2 are the roots of the equation. Verify by substituting the roots in the given equation and check if the

value equals 0.

Factor 1: (x + 3)

LHS = x2 + 5x + 6 = (-3)2 + 5 × -3 + 6 = 9 -15 + 6 = 0 = RHS

Factor 2: (x + 2)

LHS = x2 + 5x + 6 = (-2)2 + 5 × -2 + 6 = 4 -10 + 6 = 0 = RHS

Thus the equation has 2 factors (x + 3) and (x + 2)

2. Consider x2 - 9 = 0

3 and -3 are the two roots of the equation. Verify by substituting the roots in the given equation and check if

the value equals 0.

32 - 9 = 9 - 9 = 0

(-3)2 - 9 = 9 - 9 = 0

Thus the equation has 2 factors (x+3) and (x-3)

Methods of Factoring Quadratics

Factoring quadratics gives us the roots of the quadratic equation. There are different methods that can be used

for factoring quadratic equations. Factoring quadratics is done in 4 ways:

 Factoring out the GCD

 Splitting the middle term

 Using Algebraic Identities (Completing the Squares)

 Using Quadratic formula

Factoring Quadratics by Taking Out The GCD

Factoring quadratics can be done by finding the common numeric factor and the algebraic factors shared by the

terms in the quadratic equation and then take them out. Let us solve an example to understand the factoring

quadratic equations by taking the GCD out.

Consider this quadratic equation: 3x2 + 6x = 0

 The numerical factor is 3 (coefficient of x2) in both terms.

 The algebraic common factor is x in both terms.

 The common factors are 3 and x. Hence we take them out.

 Thus 3x2 + 6x = 0 is factorized as 3x(x + 2) = 0

Splitting the Middle Term for Factoring Quadratics

 The sum of the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by α+βα+β = -b/a

 The product of the roots in the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by αβαβ = c/a

We split the middle term b of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 when we try to factorize quadratic

equations. We determine the factor pairs of the product of a and c such that their sum is equal to b.

Example: f(x) = x2 + 8x + 12

Split the middle term 8x in such a way that the factors of the product of 1 and 12 add up to make 8. Factor

pairs of 12 are (1, 12), (2, 6), (3, 4). Now, we can see that the factor pair (2, 6) satisfies our purpose as the sum

of 6 and 2 is 8 and the product is 12. Hence, we split the middle term and write the quadratic equation as:

x2 + 8x + 12 = 0

⇒ x2 + 6x + 2x + 12 = 0

Now, club the terms in pairs as:

(x2 + 6x) + (2x + 12) = 0

⇒ x(x + 6) + 2(x + 6) = 0

Taking the common factor (x + 6) out, we have

(x + 2) (x + 6) = 0

Thus, (x + 2) and (x + 6) are the factors of x2 + 8x + 12 = 0

Identities for Factoring Quadratics

The process of factoring quadratics can be done by completing the squares which require the use of algebraic

identities. The main algebraic identities which are used for completing the squares are:

 (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

 (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2

Steps to factorize quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 using completeing the squares method are:

 Step 1: Divide both the sides of quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 by a. Now, the obtained

equation is x2 + (b/a) x + c/a = 0

 Step 2: Subtract c/a from both the sides of quadratic equation x2 + (b/a) x + c/a = 0. Obtained

equation is x2 + (b/a) x = -c/a

  Step 3: Add the square of (b/2a) to both the sides of quadratic equation x2 + (b/a) x = -c/a.

Obtained equation is x2 + (b/a) x + (b/2a)2 = -c/a + (b/2a)2

 Step 4: Now the LHS of the quadratic equation x2 + (b/a) x + (b/2a)2 = -c/a + (b/2a)2 can be

written as a complete square and simplify the RHS, if necessary. Obtained equation is (x +

b/2a)2 = -c/a + (b/2a)2

 Step 5: The roots of the given quadratic equation can be obtained and hence, we can form the

factors of the equation.

Another algebraic identity which is used for factoring quadratics is a 2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b). Let us see an

example to understand.

Example 1: f(x) = 9x2 - 4 (difference of 2 perfect squares)

9x2 - 4 = (3x)2 - 22

We notice that this is of the form, a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b)

Hence we factorize the equation 9x2 - 4 = 0 as (3x+2) (3x-2)

9x2 - 4 = (3x+2) (3x-2)

Example 2: f(x) = 4x2 + 12x + 9

4x2 + 12x + 9 = (2x)2 + 2(2x)(3) + (3)2

We notice that this is of the form (a+b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

(2x)2 + 2(2x)(3) + (3)2 = (2x + 3)2

Hence we have (2x + 3), (2x + 3) as the linear factors of f(x) = 4x2 + 12x + 9
Formula for Factoring Quadratics

Factoring quadratics is also done by using a formula that gives us the roots of the quadratic equation and

hence, the factors of the equation. If ax2 + bx + c = 0 is a quadratic equation, a is the coefficient of x2, b is the

coefficient of x and c is the constant term. Then we find the value of x by using the formula:

x=−b±√b2−4ac2ax=−b±b2−4ac2a

Consider, the quadratic equation x2 + 5x + 4 = 0. It is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0. Here a =1, b = 5, c = 4

Substituting the values of a, b and c in the quadratic formula formula, we get

x=−b±√b2−4ac2ax=−5±√52−4×1×42×1=−5±√25−162=−5±√92=−5±32=−5+32 and −5−32=−22 and −82x=(−

1) and(−4)x=−b±b2−4ac2ax=−5±52−4×1×42×1=−5±25−162=−5±92=−5±32=−5+32 and −5−32=−22 and −82

x=(−1) and(−4)

Thus, the factors are (x + 1) and (x + 4).

Important Notes on Factoring Quadratics

 Linear factors are of the form ax + b and they cannot be factored further.

 A quadratic polynomial is a polynomial of degree 2.

 The sum of the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by α+βα+β = -b/a

 The product of the roots in the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by αβαβ = c/a

Factoring Quadratics Examples

 Example 1: Verify if (2x+3) and (x+3) are the linear factors of the quadratic equation f(x) = 2x 2 +

9x + 9.

Solution: To verify if (2x+3) and (x+3) are the linear factors of the quadratic equation f(x) = 2x2 +

9x + 9, we will multiply the factors.

(2x + 3)(x + 3) = 2x2 + 3x + 6x + 9 = 2x2 + 9x + 9.

Answer: Hence, (2x+3) and (x+3) are the linear factors of the quadratic equation f(x) = 2x2 + 9x +

9.

 Example 2: Find the factors of the quadratic equation x2 + x - 12 = 0 using the factoring

quadratics method.

Solution: We will split the middle term of the quadratic equation x2 + x - 12 = 0 to determine its

factors.

x2 + x - 12 = 0

⇒ x2 + 4x - 3x - 12 = 0

⇒ x(x + 4) - 3(x + 4) = 0

⇒ (x - 3)(x + 4) = 0

Answer: Hence the factors of x2 + x - 12 = 0 are (x - 3) and (x + 4).