My Troubleshooting Textbook

by Max Robinson
Chapter 1 Introduction to Troubleshooting.

Chapter 2 Test Equipment.

2.1 The Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM).

2.2 The Electronic Voltmeter.
2.3 The Digital Multimeter (DMM).
2.4 Choosing The Correct Test Meter.
2.5 Analog Versus Digital Meters.
2.6 The Oscilloscope.
2.7 The Signal Tracer.
2.8 Miscellaneous Test Equipment.
2.9 Instruction Manuals.

Chapter 3 Failure Modes.

3.1 Generalized Failure Modes.

3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors.

Chapter 4 Troubleshooting Techniques.

4.1 Check The Obvious First.

4.2 Do Not Make Modifications.
4.3 The Power Supply Section.
4.4 Half-splitting.
4.5 Signal Tracing.
4.6 Signal Injection.
4.7 Disturbance Testing.
4.8 Static Testing.
4.9 Shotgunning.

Chapter 5 Faults in Power Supplies.

5.1 Rectifier-Filter Circuits.
5.2 Analog Voltage and current Regulator Circuits.
5.3 Switching Mode Power Supplies.

Chapter 6 Faults in Transistor Circuits.

6.1 Common Emitter Amplifier.

6.2 The Emitter-follower's Fatal Flaw.
6.3 AC Coupled Amplifiers.
6.4 DC Coupled Amplifiers.
6.5 Radio Frequency Amplifiers.
6.6 Switching Circuits.

Chapter 7 Transistorized Consumer Equipment.

7.1 Audio Amplifiers.

7.2 Radios and tuners.
7.3 Things you should leave alone.

Chapter 8 Faults in Vacuum Tube Circuits.

8.1 Audio Amplifiers.

8.2 Radio Receivers.

Chapter 9 Antique Equipment.

9.1 Before Turning on the Power.

9.2 Pre 1930 Radios.
9.3 Pre World War Two Radios.
9.4 The All American Five.
9.5 Three Way Portable Radios.
9.6 Phonographs and Record Changers.
9.7 Consoles and High Fi Components.
9.8 Wire and Tape Recorders.
9.9 Why TV Sets Are Not covered.
Chapter 10 Things That Have Never Worked.

10.1 Power Supplies.

10.2 Audio Amplifiers.
10.3 Radio Receivers.
10.4 Simple Test Equipment.

hapter 0 Electrical Fundamentals.

0.1 DC Circuits.
0.2 AC Circuits.
0.3 Power Supplies.
0.4 Bipolar Transistor Fundamentals.
0.5 Bipolar Transistor Circuits.
0.6 Operational Amplifiers.
0.7 Field Effect Transistors.
0.8 FET Circuits.
0.9 Vacuum Tube Fundamentals.
0.10 Vacuum Tube Circuits.

Chapter 0
Review of Fundamentals.
In order to understand the material in this book, the reader
must understand certain fundamentals of electricity and
electronics. The teaching of these fundamentals is far beyond
the scope of this book. This chapter is merely a review. If the
reader is not familiar with any of what is presented in this
chapter, it is strongly urged that he or she supplement his or
her knowledge by studying Electronics for Physicists.

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0.1 DC CIRCUITS.
Kirchhoff's voltage law states that the algebraic sum of all
voltage drops around a closed loop is equal to zero.

Kirchhoff's current law states that the algebraic sum of all

currents flowing into a node is equal to zero.

The consequences of these laws for series circuits are a) the

sum of all voltage rises is equal to the sum of all voltage
drops, and b) the current anywhere in a series circuit is equal
to the current anywhere else in the same circuit.

The consequences of Kirchhoff's laws for parallel circuits are

a) the sum of all upward flowing currents is equal to the sum of
all downward flowing currents, and b) the voltage across any
element in the circuit is equal to the voltage across any other
element in the same circuit.

Ohm's law states the relationship between voltage, current and

resistance in an electric circuit.

V = I x R (Eq. 0.1)

I = V/R (Eq. 0.2)

R = V/I (Eq. 0.3)

where V is voltage in volts, I is current in amperes and R is

resistance in ohms.

To properly apply Ohm's law it is necessary to use the

resistance of a particular resistor, the current through that
same resistor and the voltage across that same resistor.

When resistors are connected in series the total resistance is

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn
for any number of resistors in series.

When resistors are connected in parallel the equivalent

resistance is

1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ... + 1/Rn

for any number of resistors in parallel.

Figure 0.1, Voltage Divider Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

Figure 0.1 is of a voltage divider. RA and RB may be the
equivalent of other resistors in series and/or parallel. The
output voltage Vo is given by
Vo = E RB/(RA + RB) (Eq. 0.4)
Thevenin's theorem states that a network with output terminals
and is of any level of complexity, using resistors, can be
reduced to one ideal voltage source in series with a single
resistance.

The ideal (Thevenin) voltage source is equal to the no- load

output voltage of the original network.

The Thevenin resistance is equal to the resistance looking in at

the terminals of the original network with all voltage sources
replaced by shorts and all current sources replaced by opens.

Example 0.1.

Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the network of

figure 0.2.

Figure 0.2, Circuit for Example 0.1.

For a verbal description click here.

Solution:

With no load connected to the output, there will be no voltage

drop across R3. Therefore, the voltage across R2 will be the
same as the output voltage. R1 and R2 make up a voltage divider.
By equation 0.4 we have

Vo = 48 v x 1 k ohm / (3 k ohm + 1 k ohm ) = 12 volts.

 Figure 0.3, Network of Figure 0.2 with the voltage source
replaced by a short.

For a verbal description click here.

If we replace the battery in figure 0.2 with a short and redraw

the circuit we have the circuit of figure 0.3. The resistance
looking in at the terminals is R1 in parallel with R2 and this
combination in series with R3. R1 in parallel with R2 is R12 = 1/(
1/(1 k ohm ) + 1/(3 k ohm )) = 750 ohm. Now adding R3 in series
we have 750 ohm + 500 ohm = 1250 ohm. The Thevenin equivalent
circuit is shown in figure 0.4.

Figure 0.4, Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit of Figure 0.2.

For a verbal description click here.

There are many other methods of solving electric networks. A few

of these are Norton's theorem, superposition theorem, loop
equations, node equations and Y-delta transformation. If you do
not understand these techniques, it will be necessary to take an
introductory level course in electrical engineering.

RC Time Constant.

If a capacitor C is being charged or discharged through a

resistor R the time constant is given by
T = R x C (Eq. 0.5)
where T is time in seconds, R is resistance in ohms and C is
capacitance in farads.

T is the time required for a charging capacitor to charge up to

63.2 percent of its final voltage or for a discharging capacitor
to discharge to 36.8 percent of its starting voltage.

Theoretically a capacitor will never get fully charged or

discharged. As a matter of practicality a capacitor is
considered to be fully charged or discharged after 5 x T seconds
have elapsed.

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0.2 AC CIRCUITS.
All of the laws and theorems which apply to DC also apply to AC.
In theorems stated in words replace the word "resistance" by the
word "impedance". In equations, replace the symbol R by the
symbol Z where Z = R + jX or Z = Z /_ Theta

A capacitor is an open circuit for DC but has reactance for AC.

The reactance of a capacitor is

XC = 1 / (2 x Pi x f x C) (Eq. 0.6)
where XC is the reactance of the capacitor in ohms, f is the
frequency in hertz and C is the capacitance in farads.

An inductor has a very low resistance for DC (ideally zero) but

has reactance for AC. The reactance is given by

XL = 2 x Pi x f x L (Eq. 0.7)
where XL is the reactance of the inductor in ohms, f is the
frequency in hertz and L is the inductance in henrys.
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0.3 POWER SUPPLIES.

Power supplies serve the purpose of changing the 120 volt AC
line voltage to one or more useful DC voltage(s).

Figure 0.5, Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Power Supply.

For a verbal description click here.

The circuit of a full-wave bridge rectifier is shown in figure

0.5. The no-load output voltage of this circuit is given by
EM = EAC x Square Root (2) (Eq. 0.8)
where EM is the no-load DC output voltage of the circuit and EAC
is the RMS AC voltage across the entire transformer secondary.

Figure 0.6, Full-Wave Center-Tapped Rectifier Power Supply.

For a verbal description click here.

The circuit of a full-wave center-tapped rectifier is shown in
figure 0.6. The no-load voltage of this circuit is given by
EM = EAC x Square Root (2)/2 (Eq. 0.9)
where EM is the no-load DC output voltage of the circuit and EAC
is the RMS AC voltage across the entire transformer secondary.

The ripple output from a full-wave rectifier power Supply

operating on 60 Hz is given by

VR = EM / (200 x RL x C (Eq 0.10)

where VR is the peak to peak ripple voltage of the power supply,
EM is the no-load DC output voltage as given by equation 0.8 or
0.9, RL is the equivalent load resistance on the power supply in
ohms and C is the capacitance of the filter capacitor in farads.

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0.4 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR FUNDAMENTALS.

All of the following discussion assumes the transistors are NPN.
For PNP transistors, just reverse all voltages and currents.

A transistor has three terminals. They are called emitter, base

and collector. Internally the transistor is made up of three
alternating layers of semiconductor material, for example, NPN.
The emitter is one of the N layers, the base is the P layer and
the collector is the other N layer. This means that there are
two P-N junctions, one between the emitter and base and the
other between the collector and base.

The normal way of biasing a transistor is to forward bias the

base-emitter junction and reverse bias the collector-base
junction. For an NPN transistor this means to connect a current
source between emitter and base so as to run current into the
base, and connect a Thevenin circuit between emitter and
collector such that the collector is positive and the Thevenin
voltage source is greater than 0.6 volts. Figure 0.7 shows the
biasing circuit.
 Figure 0.7, Ideal Biasing Circuit for an NPN Transistor.

For a verbal description click here.

The voltage between emitter and base VBE is about 0.65 volts.
Some authors round this up to 0.7 while others round it down to
0.6 volts. Depending on the magnitude of the collector current
the voltage between collector and emitter VCE will be anywhere
between 0.1 volts and VTH.

If VCE = 0.1 volts, the transistor is said to be in saturation.

If VCE = VTH the transistor is said to be in cutoff. If 0.1 volts
< VCE < VTH is true, the transistor is said to be in linear
operation.

When the transistor is in linear operation the collector current

is controlled by the base current. If the base current is zero,
the collector current is zero because the collector base
junction is reversed biased. As base current increases, the
collector current increases. The current gain of the transistor
is defined as follows.

Beta = IC / IB (Eq. 0.11)

Therefore,
IC = Beta x IB (Eq. 0.12)
The emitter current is the sum of base and collector currents.
IE = IB + IC (Eq. 0.13)
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0.5 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS.

Figure 0.8 gives a practical biasing circuit for an NPN
transistor. It will be easier to analyze this circuit if we
reduce the voltage divider in the base circuit to its Thevenin
equivalent circuit. This has been done in figure 0.9.

Figure 0.8, Transistor with Constant Voltage Biasing.

For a verbal description click here.

VBB = VCC x R2 / (R1 + R2)

And
RB = (R1 x R2) / (R1 + R2).
 Figure 0.9, Constant Voltage Biasing Circuit with a
Thevenin's equivalent circuit replacing the
voltage divider in the base circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

If we write a loop equation around the base loop and substitute

equations 0.12 and 0.13 we get this equation for the collector
current.
Exact form IC = Beta (VBB - VBE) / (RB + RE (Beta + 1))
(Eq. 0.14)
If Beta is large or guessed at, and it is usually both, the
collector current becomes
First approximation IC = (VBB - VBE) / ((RB/Beta) + RE)
Eq. 0.15
If RB / Beta << RE, as it sometimes is, the collector current
becomes,
Second approximation IC = (VBB - VBE) / RE
(Eq. 0.16)
There are three ways of injecting and recovering signals in a
transistor amplifier. These are common emitter, common collector
(emitter follower) and common base.

Common Emitter Amplifier.

A common emitter amplifier is shown in figure 0.10. The common

sides of the input and output are connected to the circuit
ground. The emitter of the transistor is also connected to
signal ground through a capacitor. The emitter is common to both
input and output. The resistor on the right labeled RFS is the
input resistance of the Following Stage. The voltage gain of
this circuit is
AV = - Beta x RL / hie (Eq. 0.17)
where AV is the voltage gain, Beta is as defined above, RL is the
parallel combination of all resistances connected to the
collector of the transistor and hie is the input resistance of
the transistor. hie is never given in transistor manuals. It can
be found in manufacturers' data sheets but it varies quite a lot
from one unit to the next, even of the same type number. As a
very rough approximation hie = (1 volt) / IC, this approximation
is not good enough to get an equation number.

Figure 0.10, Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

The input impedance is equal to hie in parallel with the parallel

combination of R1 and R2, The output impedance is equal to RC.

If the emitter bypass capacitor is removed the gain becomes

AV = - RL / RE (Eq. 0.18)
where RL is as defined above and RE is the emitter resistor.

The input resistance is Rin in parallel with RB. Rin is given by

 Rin = hie + Beta x RE (Eq. 0.19)
The term Beta x RE is usually much greater than hie so the
equation becomes
Rin = Beta x RE (Eq. 0.20)
The output impedance remains equal to RC.

The upper frequency limit of an amplifier is considered to be

the frequency at which the output is 3 db down from the output
at medium frequencies. This is variously known as the upper
frequency limit, the upper 3 db frequency, the upper corner
frequency, the upper cutoff frequency or the bandwidth. We will
symbolize this frequency by fC.

fC = 1 / (2 x Pi x Rl x C) (Eq. 0.21)
where RL is the parallel combination of RC and all other
resistances connected to the collector in ohms and C is the
total capacitance from collector to ground in farads.

The Miller effect causes the input capacitance of an inverting

amplifier to be much larger than the stray wiring capacitance.
The Miller capacitance is given by

CM = CBC x (1 - AV) (Eq. 0.22)

where CM is the Miller capacitance and CBC is the capacitance
between collector and base of the transistor including wiring
capacitance. Remember that in an inverting amplifier AV is a
negative number.

Common Collector (Emitter-Follower) Amplifiers.

The circuit of a common collector amplifier is shown in figure

0.11. Equations 0.14 through 0.16 may be used to calculate the
collector current of this circuit.
 Figure 0.11, Common Collector (Emitter-Follower) Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

The voltage gain of this circuit is approximately equal to

unity.

The input impedance of this circuit is the parallel combination

of Rin in parallel with both R1 and R2.

Rin = Beta x RL (Eq. 0.23)

where RL is the parallel combination of all resistors connected
to the emitter of the transistor.

The output impedance of this circuit is RE in parallel with ROUT.

ROUT = RS / Beta (Eq. 0.24)

where RS is the parallel combination of R1, R2 and Rg, the
generator output resistance.

Because the voltage gain is very close to + 1, equation 0.22

tells us that the Miller capacitance CM is essentially zero. Do
not get the mistaken impression that the input capacitance is
zero. There is always stray wiring capacitance.

Common Base Amplifier.

The circuit of a common base amplifier is shown in figure 0.12.
The voltage gain is given by equation 0.17. The input resistance
is approximately equal to hie / Beta. The output impedance is
equal to RC.

Figure 0.12, Common Base Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

The base of a transistor is physically between the emitter and

collector. When the base is grounded (for AC), the base becomes
an electrostatic shield between the emitter (input) and
collector (output). Through careful circuit layout CEC the
capacitance between emitter and collector can be made very small
(of the order of 0.1 pf).

A common base amplifier is noninverting. Equation 0.22 would

actually give a negative input capacitance. This negative Miller
capacitance will cancel with positive (real) stray circuit
capacitance and it is possible to achieve a net zero input
capacitance. Such an amplifier can have a very wide bandwidth.

Common base amplifiers are used as amplifiers in VHF and UHF

receivers and as wide-band amplifiers in the vertical channel of
oscilloscopes. When used in this application the power supplies
are arranged so the base is at DC as well as AC ground. This
permits a low impedance ground connection.
Feedback.

When feedback is applied to transistor amplifiers, the equations

are derived in such a way as to allow for positive or negative
feedback. To avoid contradictions with the Electronics for
Physicists book the equation given here will not be the same as
seen in other books but will be the same as in the afore
mentioned book. The gain of an amplifier with feedback A' is
given by
A' = A / (1 + A B) (Eq. 0.25)
where A is the gain of the amplifier without feedback and B is
that fraction of the output signal which is fed back to the
input.

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0.6 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS.

An operational amplifier is an amplifier with a differential
input and a very high gain. The frequency response of the
amplifier has been tailored to prevent oscillation when negative
feedback is applied to reduce the gain to unity.

A differential input consists of two inputs with respect to

ground. If the same signal is applied to both inputs, the
difference between the two inputs will be zero and the output of
the amplifier will be zero, theoretically. There will be some
small output. If two signals which are similar but not identical
are applied, the amplifier will amplify the difference between
the two signals.

If one input is grounded and a signal put into the other input,
the amplifier will amplify that signal. If the signal is put
into the noninverting input, the output will be of the same sign
as the input signal. If the signal is put into the inverting
input, the output will be of the opposite sign as the input
signal.

If the inverting input is more positive than the noninverting

input, the output will go negative. If the noninverting input is
more positive than the inverting input, the output will go
positive.
When we analyze operational amplifier circuits, the feedback is
always assumed to be negative. The equation which results is

A' = A / (1 + A x B) (Eq. 0.26)

The open loop gain A is entered as a positive number.

Equation 0.26 is seldom seen in connection with op amps because

the open loop gain A is so large. The limit as A approaches
infinity is,

A' = 1 / B (Eq. 0.27)

where B is that fraction of the output signal which is fed back
to the input.

Equation 0.27 is based on the assumption that A x B is much

greater than one. A x B may not always be much greater than one,
especially at high frequencies.

The gain of an op amp falls off as frequency increases at the

rate of 20 db per decade. The unity gain frequency of an op amp
is given in its specifications. The gain A at any frequency f is
given by

A = fG / f (Eq. 0.28)
where fG is the unity gain frequency of the op amp. If equation
0.28 gives a value greater than the specified DC gain, the DC
gain is the gain at that frequency, not the result of equation
0.28.

In the case of a 741 op amp which has a unity gain bandwidth of

1 megahertz, the gain at 20 kilohertz is only 50. Common emitter
amplifiers often have more gain than this.

If the gain is low due to frequency effects, equation 0.26

should be used instead of equation 0.27.

Figure 0.13 is the circuit of an inverting amplifier. For this

circuit the value of B is given by

Inverting Amplifier. B = R 1 / R2 (Eq. 0.29)

This equation gives the value of B to be used in equation 0.26
or 0.27. For best temperature stability R3 should be equal to the
parallel combination of R1 and R2.
Figure 0.13, Inverting Amplifier with Op Amp.

For a verbal description click here.

Figure 0.14, Noninverting Amplifier.

 For a verbal description click here.

Figure 0.14 is the circuit of a noninverting amplifier. For this

circuit the value of B is given by
Noninverting Amplifier. B = R1 / (R1 + R2)
(Eq. 0.30)
This equation gives the value of B to be used in equation 0.26
or 0.27. For best temperature stability R3 should be equal to the
parallel combination of R1 and R2.

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0.7 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS.

Junction FET.

A field effect transistor (FET) consist of a P-N junction on the

side of a bar of silicon. The bar is known as the channel. One
end of the channel is the Source, the other end is the Drain,
and the other side of the P-N junction is the Gate. If the
channel is N type semiconductor, the Gate is P type.

When the P-N junction of the Gate and channel is reversed biased
a depletion region in the channel reduces its effective cross
section area. This restricts current flow between the Source and
Drain. The larger the reverse bias, the more the channel is
restricted and the smaller the current between Source and Drain.
The JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor) is almost never used
with the Gate to channel junction forward biased.

Note: In oscillators and class C amplifiers the gate is

purposefully driven positive which causes rectification. The
rectified voltage is negative which provides proper bias for an
N channel FET. When a MOSFET is used, see below, a diode is
connected from Gate to Source to accomplish the necessary
rectification.

Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET).

Since the P-N junction is not normally forward biased, there is

no need to have an actual P-N junction to create the depletion
region. All that is needed is an electric field which can be
created by a metallic plate. A small spot on the N type
semiconductor is exposed to oxygen which creates a thin layer of
silicon dioxide, hence the name. This thin glass layer is coated
with metal which forms the gate. In operation an MOSFET acts
almost the same as a JFET except that the gate can be driven
positive for even higher conduction. Like its junction brother,
the MOS FET is rarely operated in this condition. When used in
an oscillator or a class C amplifier a diode is connected from
Gate to Source to provide the necessary bias rectification. For
convenience an N channel MOSFET is constructed on a P type
substraight. This substraight is either internally connected to
the Source, or is brought out to its own lead and the user must
connect it to the most negative part of the circuit. This
configuration is known as a depletion mode MOSFET.

The MOSFET can be made in another configuration. A lightly doped

P region, part of the substraight, is placed between the Source
and Drain. This does not allow conduction between them. When the
Gate is biased positively the holes in the region between Source
and Drain are repelled deeper into the substraight leaving
electrons behind. This effectively turns this region from P to N
type semiconductor which allows conduction. The more positive
the Gate the more conduction there is between Source and Drain.
This is known as an enhancement mode MOSFET.

In 1987 MOSFETs were used primarily for switching in logic

circuits. They are still used for that but a new generation of
MOSFETs has been developed which will stand up to very high
voltage and power. In that respect they are as close to silicon
tubes as can be.

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0.8 FET Circuits.

The junction FET is used most often as a source follower,
analogous to the emitter follower, for a high impedance input
and a low impedance output. The input impedance is the resistor
from gate to ground and the capacitance is a very few pf. The
output impedance is 1 over the transductance in parallel with
the source resistor.

A special type of JFET known as a GASFET (Gallium Arsenide) is

used as the low noise amplifier in satellite receivers.
High voltage MOSFETs are used in both analog and switching
modes. The former includes but not limited to, * pass
transistors in constant voltage and constant current power
supplies, and output transistors in audio and servo amplifiers.
The latter includes * switching power supplies, and variable
speed drives for industrial electric motors.

* Have you ever read one of those terms of use things on the
internet?

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0.9 Vacuum Tube Fundamentals.

A vacuum tube is constructed inside a glass envelope which is
evacuated to a very high level. The envelope is usually
cylindrical which is the reason for the name. The internal
structure is usually cylindrical as well. The filament or heater
runs down the center. If the tube is a filamentary type it
serves as the cathode which emits electrons when heated. If the
tube is a heater/cathode type the cylindrical cathode surrounds
the heater but is electrically insulated from it. Next out is
the control grid. If there are additional grids they surround
the control grid. Everything is surrounded by the plate or anode
and is coaxial.

Filament type tubes are the oldest type. In the golden age of
tubes, 1950s, filament types were only used for very low power,
used in portable radios, or high power, in radio transmitters.
The heater/cathode type is by far the most common. They were
used in radios, TV sets, audio amplifiers and a wide range of
measurement and industrial equipment.

The minimum tube is a diode which consists of a cathode and

anode. This is used primarily as a rectifier in power supplies
and radio detectors.

Next higher is the triode, 3 element tube. (Note: The heater

does not count when elements inside a tube are counted.) It
consists of the cathode, control grid, and plate or anode. This
type is favored by audio enthusiasts. Like the FET, the grid
usually operates negative with respect to the cathode while the
plate is positive.
Next higher on the totem pole is the tetrode which has two
grids. The one closest to the cathode is the control grid and
the outer one is known as the screen grid. The additional grid
was added to serve as an electrostatic shield between the grid
and plate. The control grid to plate capacitance caused RF
amplifiers to oscillate and a means was needed to reduce this
capacitance. The screen grid is made positive usually about
equal to the plate or occasionally even higher. This type of
tube has problems and very few true tetrodes were ever
manufactured. There is a form of the tetrode in which a beam
forming element was added between the screen grid and plate. It
was connected to the cathode within the tube. This was done
initially to avoid infringing on a patent but turned out to
produce one of the best tubes ever made, the 6L6 and its many
derivatives. The beam forming element suppressed secondary
emission of electrons from the plate.

The pentode inserts a third grid between the screen grid and
plate. This is also a method of suppressing secondary emission
of electrons from the plate. It is called the suppressor grid.
It is often brought out to a pin and the designer has to tie it
to the cathode, or rarely, ground.

Toward the end of the golden age of tubes when there began to be
significant competition from transistors, a type of tube was
developed for use in car radios that would operate with no more
than 12 volts on the plate. It was known as a space charge tube
and was a pentode, but the control grid and screen grid were
interchanged. The grid closest to the cathode was operated at 12
volts to get the electrons moving and the second grid was the
control grid. The third grid served as a shield between the
plate and control grid to prevent oscillation when the tube was
used as a radio frequency amplifier.

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0.10 Tube Circuits.

The only circuits to be reviewed here are the resistance coupled
amplifiers. Remember, this is only a refresher of knowledge you
should already possess.
 Figure 0.15 (a) Triode resistance coupled amplifier and (b)
Pentode Resistance Coupled Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

The notation used is consistant with that used in resistance

coupled amplifier tables found in the back of most tube manuals.

Figure 0.15a is a triode resistance coupled amplifier. The

current flowing through Rk produces a voltage drop which makes
the cathode positive with respect to ground. The grid is held at
ground potential by Rc so the grid is negative with respect to
the cathode. This is an audio frequency amplifier. Ck filters the
AC component from the cathode voltage which if present would
reduce the gain of the amplifier. Note: Sometimes Ck is
deliberately omitted which reduces distortion along with
reducing the gain.

The output of this amplifier circuit appears across Rcf. Rcf is

the grid resistor of the following stage. It is assumed that
this amplifier stage is sending its signal to another amplifier
stage.
Figure 0.15b is a pentode amplifier stage. Pentode circuits give
higher gain than triodes but have a higher parts count. Biasing
works the same way as in the triode circuit. Cc2 prevents
reduction of the gain which would occur if AC signals were
allowed to appear at the screen grid. This capacitor is never
omitted. However, if the cathode bypass capacitor is omitted the
screen grid bypass capacitor must be returned to the cathode
instead of ground. Gain is higher and distortion lower than with
Cc2 returned to ground.
 Chapter 1
Introduction to Troubleshooting.
using this book.

This text assumes you are on a first name basis with the material in
the book "Electronics for Physicists". You should at the very least
study through chapter 5 and preferably through chapter 6.

I can't force you to take my advice. All I can do is give and

hope. If you run into trouble as you work your way through this
book you may find that you need to stop and study "Electronics
for Physicists". There is nothing wrong with parallel study of
the two books but if you skim through the other book you may
occasionally find you have missed some point and need to go back
for more study. In the final analysis it's up to you. However
you decide to do it I wish you luck.

Troubleshooting.
When people think of electronics troubleshooting, they may think of
the TV repair person. However, the steadily increasing level of
technology in consumer electronics and use of surface mount components
and proprietary integrated circuits have made the cost of repairing TV
sets and audio equipment so high that it is no longer economically
feasible to repair failed units. This has turned us into a throw away
society. "If it stops working just send it to the land fill and buy a
new one".

Electronic troubleshooting in the modern world has moved from

consumer electronics to other fields. these are:

1. Maintaining laboratory equipment used in industrial research and

development laboratories.
2. Maintaining automated production equipment.
3. Working for a manufacturer to perform field service of laboratory
or industrial equipment manufactured by the company.
4. Troubleshooting prototype equipment in an R and D lab.
5. Troubleshooting production equipment at the end of an assembly
line.
6. Troubleshooting research and teaching laboratory equipment at a
university, college, or secondary school system.
7. Individuals, who are most likely to be retired, who restore and
repair antique electronic equipment for themselves and others.
 8. DIYers and hams who build their own equipment from kits or
scratch.

Number 6 was essentially half of the job I did for the

university. The other half was teaching.

Engineering technologists are not necessarily overqualified for

these positions.

Finding troubles in an electronic circuit is rather like

figuring out "Who done it?" You are Sherlock Holmes. You have a
number of seemingly unrelated clues and you have to figure out
which part is defective.

In every defective circuit there are symptoms and causes. The

most obvious symptom is "it doesn't work". When you open up the
box, you may see a burned resistor. "Aha!" you will say, and you
replace the resistor. When you turn the power on, the newly
replaced resistor begins to get hot, smoke and burn up. The
burned resistor was just another symptom, not a cause. There is
another defect which caused the resistor to burn out.

A burned out transistor may be a cause or a symptom. The odds

are in favor of it being a symptom.

Often the clues are more subtle than a scorched resistor. Nine
times out of ten, there are no visible defects. When this
happens it is necessary to make tests on the circuit.

At first, every part is suspect. As you make more tests, some

parts are eliminated as suspects. As you gather more clues, the
number of suspects is narrowed down until only one is left.

Holmes' first rule: When all other suspects have been

eliminated, the one which remains, no matter how improbable, is
the correct one. When you apply this rule, be sure that you have
eliminated all other suspects.

Probability plays a very large role in troubleshooting. If you

have narrowed down the suspects to two parts, and they are
equally difficult to replace, replace the one which has the
highest probability of being defective.

Ease of replacement will override the probability rule. If in

the above situation one of the two parts is difficult to
replace, and the other is easy, than replace the easiest one
first. If that one is the trouble, you have saved yourself a lot
of work. If the easy one is not the trouble, you haven't wasted
very much work and you now know for sure that the "hard to
replace" one is bad.

The first law of troubleshooting is check the easy things first.

It is possible to gain a reputation as a miracle worker by
always using this law.

You may be called in to "look at" a major piece of equipment for

which there is no documentation. The thing to do is to check the
power supply. If you are lucky, the supply will be a simple
circuit consisting of a transformer, a rectifier and a filter
capacitor. If the fault is in the supply, you can "do the
impossible" and fix it.

The difficulty of any given troubleshooting job depends on the

amount of documentation you have for the particular piece of
equipment. The less documentation you have, the more difficult
the task.

Troubleshooting a piece of equipment which has no documentation

can be a formidable task at best. There are times when you can
"give it a try" and times when it is best to just walk away. For
example, the six-transistor radio uses a somewhat standard
circuit. Regardless of the manufacturer or even the country of
origin, the circuits used vary only slightly. If you are
familiar with this circuit, don't hesitate to "have a go at it".
The same applies to the standard 5 tube radio. On the other
hand, if someone asks you to work on a video cassette recorder
or a computer, check the line cord, the fuses and the power
supply. If the simple things are all right, forget it! For cases
in between these two extremes you will have to way the
complexity of the device against your skills and make your own
decision.

A situation which is frequently encountered is to have a

detailed schematic diagram but no normal voltages or wave-forms.
In this case you must deduce what the normal voltages will be,
based on your knowledge of electronics.

Those problems which seemed so theoretical in the early courses

will now come down to earth and take on reality. You will use
Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's laws and all you have learned about
transistors and operational amplifiers to figure out what normal
voltages are.
Another way to get a reputation as a miracle worker is to
overestimate the amount of time required to solve the problem.
That one comes from Star Trek's Scotty.

There are two distinct kinds of troubleshooting. One is in a

piece of equipment that has worked but suddenly stopped working.
The other is less familiar and is in a piece of equipment that
has never worked. This could be something produced in a research
and development laboratory or something you built yourself. It
is definitely harder to troubleshoot something that has never
worked. The reason is that all the parts may be good but a
design flaw is keeping it from performing its intended
operation. In such a case you may or may not have the
cooperation of the design engineers. They have egos which are
wrapped up in the design. They are likely to be unwilling to
admit that they have made a mistake.
Chapter 2 Test Equipment.
2.1 The Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM).
2.2 The Electronic Voltmeter.
2.3 The Digital Multimeter (DMM).
2.4 Choosing The Correct Test Meter.
2.5 Analog Versus Digital Meters.
2.6 The Oscilloscope.
2.7 The Signal Tracer.
2.8 Miscellaneous Test Equipment.
2.9 Instruction Manuals.

Chapter 2
Test Equipment.
Troubleshooting is impossible unless you have test equipment and
know how to use it. In actual fact, someone who is very skilled
can do more with a simple voltmeter than someone who has little
skill and a workbench full of test equipment.

It is every bit as important to choose the right test instrument

as it is to operate it correctly. If you try to use a VOM (volt-
ohm-milliammeter) to measure voltages in high impedance circuits
or an electronic multimeter to test a logic circuit, you will
get nowhere fast. This chapter will discuss several of the most
common pieces of test equipment and explain what they can and
cannot do.

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2.1 The Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM).

The volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) has been around longer than any
other test instrument. In spite of this it remains very popular.
The reasons for its popularity are: reliability, portability,
ruggedness and low cost.
By definition a VOM has no amplifying devices in it. It contains
only resistors, a few diodes, perhaps one capacitor, some
batteries and, of course, the meter movement.

As the name implies the VOM can measure voltage, current and
resistance. Most VOMs will measure both AC and DC voltage while
the current ranges are DC only. The internal batteries are used
in measuring resistance. A VOM will not measure the reactance of
an inductor or a capacitor.

Ranges and scales.

There is a great amount of confusion about the correct usage of

the terms range and scale. They are NOT interchangeable and
should never be used as such. The range expresses the limits or
extent over which the meter can measure with a given setting of
the controls. The scale refers to the graduations which the
pointer moves across.

It is NOT correct to say "the meter is set to the 10 volt

scale". It is correct to say "the meter is set to the 10 volt
range".

It is correct to say "the scale reading is 5.3". Notice that

there are no units given. The units and the power of ten by
which the scale reading must be multiplied come from the setting
of the range switch.

Reading the meter.

Even a very high-quality VOM will not give useful results if the
operator does not interpret the reading correctly.

A typical VOM may have 8 voltage ranges, 6 current ranges and 5

resistance ranges. There are never separate scales for each
range. It is necessary to multiply the scale reading by the
correct power of ten to obtain the correct reading.

Example 2.1.

A VOM is set to the 2.5 volt range. There is no 0 to 2.5 scale

but there is a 0 to 250 scale. The reading on this scale is 195.
What is the voltage being indicated?

Solution:
The range switch is set to the 2.5 volt range (given), which
means that the meter can measure voltages anywhere in the range
of 0 to 2.5 volts. It is therefore impossible for the reading to
be 195 volts. If the meter were indicating full scale (all the
way to the right), it would be indicating 2.5 volts. Also, the
pointer would be over the 250 mark on the scale. It is necessary
to divide the scale reading by 100 to obtain the correct voltage
reading. 195/100 = 1.95 volts, which is the correct reading.

Example 2.2.

A VOM is set to the 500 milliampere range and the scale

indication is 27 on a 0 to 50 scale. What is the meter
indicating?

Solution:

The 0 to 50 scale corresponds to the 0 to 500 milliampere range;

therefore, the scale indication must be multiplied by 10 to
obtain the correct reading. 27 times 10 = 270 milliamperes.

Notice that you do not multiply the range switch setting by the
scale reading. You choose the scale which is related to the
range switch setting by a power of 10 and multiply the scale
reading by that power of 10 to obtain the reading.

Most experienced VOM users simply look at the scale, mentally

put the decimal point in the right place and take the reading.
As so often happens, the marvelous computer called the human
mind makes all of these calculations without even thinking about
them.

AC voltage.

All VOMs have AC voltage ranges. Because the meter movement will
respond to DC only, two or more diodes are used to change the AC
to DC. Because of the nonlinear voltage - current characteristic
of a diode, the meter indication is not directly proportional to
voltage. This nonlinearity is compensated for by the meter
manufacturer printing nonlinear scales on the meter face. These
special scales are almost always in red and clearly marked AC.
These special scales only apply to the lowest one or two AC
ranges of the meter. Be extra careful to always read the correct
scale.

Input resistance.
A VOM does not have a fixed input resistance. It depends on the
setting of the range switch. All VOMs have a sensitivity rating
which is stated in ohms/volt (ohms per volt). To obtain the
input resistance of a VOM, it is necessary to multiply the
sensitivity by the setting of the range switch. The DC
sensitivity of a Simpson 260 is 20,000 ohms/volt.

Example 2.3.

A Simpson 260 is set to the ten volt range and is indicating 5.1
volts. The sensitivity is 20,000 ohms/volt. What is the input
resistance of the meter when set to this range?

Solution:

The voltage being indicated is extraneous information. The input

resistance is the product of the range switch setting and the
sensitivity. 10 volts times 20,000 ohms/volt = 200,000 ohms or
200 k ohms.

Example 2.4.

A Simpson 260 is set to the 10 volt AC range. The stated AC

sensitivity is 5,000 ohms/volt. What is the input resistance?

Solution:

10 volts times 5,000 ohms/volt = 50,000 ohms or 50 k ohms.

It is a common mistake to multiply the scale reading by the

sensitivity instead of the range switch setting. If that were
so, the meter's resistance would be zero when its pointer was
sitting on zero. The voltmeter would be a dead short and it
would be impossible for a voltage to appear across it.

Voltage measurement and loading effect.

Whenever a voltmeter is connected to a circuit, the voltmeter

draws current from the circuit and perturbs it. As you remember
from fundamental circuit theory, every circuit can be reduced to
a Thevenin equivalent. Figure 2.1 shows a voltmeter connected to
such a circuit. A practical approximation for the percent error
of a measurement is given by
% error = 100 % x RTh / RM (2.1)
where RTh is the Thevenin resistance of the circuit under test
and RM is the resistance of the meter as calculated in examples
2.3 and 2.4 above. This is simple enough to be estimated by a
mental calculation as opposed to needing a calculator to work it
out.

Figure 2.1 Voltmeter measuring output voltage of Thevenin

circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

Typical accuracy for a VOM is approximately 2% of full scale. If

we do not wish to perturb the voltage under test by any more
than 2%, equation 2-1 tells us that RTH must be 0.02RM. For the
conditions of example 2.3 RTH must be no larger than 4,000 ohms
or 4 k ohms.

Example 2.5.

A Simpson 260 is set to the 10 volt AC range and is being used

to measure voltages in a circuit. What is the maximum value the
Thevenin resistance can have if the meter is to perturb the
voltage by no more than 2 percent?

Solution:

Referring to example 2.4, the resistance of the meter is 50 k

ohms. Solving equation 2-1 for RTH yields

RTh = RM x 0.02 = 50 k ohms x 0.02 = 1 k ohm

A Simpson VOM which is set to the 10 volt AC range can only be
used to measure voltage in circuits with Thevenin resistances
from 0 to 1 k ohm.

Example 2.6.

A Simpson 260 is set to the 2.5 volt DC range and is being used
to measure voltage in a circuit which has a Thevenin resistance
of 5 k ohms. The DC sensitivity is 20 K ohms/volt. What is the
percent by which the meter will perturb the measurement?

Solution:

The resistance of the meter on the 2.5 volt DC range is 2.5 V x

20 k ohms/V = 50 k ohms. From equation 2-1

% error = 100% x (5 k ohms)/(50 k ohms) = 10%

As you can see, a VOM can only be used to measure voltage in

very low impedance circuits. In spite of this it remains a very
popular test instrument.

Resistance measurement.

Measuring resistance with a VOM requires an extra step and a

different method of interpreting the readings. Most people
prefer to use a digital meter to measure resistance. If a VOM is
the only meter available, you should know how to use it to
measure resistance.

The scale for measuring resistance is not the same as the

voltage and current scales. First of all, the zero is at the
wrong end of the scale. There is a very good reason for that.
The scale is also very nonlinear. This scale is always at the
top of the meter and is clearly labeled "OHMS".

The circuitry within a VOM applies a voltage from a battery to

the resistor under test and measures the current. Ohm's law
tells us that I=V/R. This is a nonlinear function, which is the
reason why the OHMS scale on the VOM is nonlinear.

The range switch is not marked the same for resistance ranges,
as it is for voltage and current ranges. A typical set of
resistance ranges are as found on the Simpson model 260 VOM.
These ranges are RX1, RX100 and RX10,000. These are read
"Resistance times one", "Resistance times one hundred", and
"Resistance times ten thousand".

This indicates that the scale reading is to be multiplied by the

range switch setting.

Example 2.7.

A VOM is set to the RX1 range and the ohms scale is reading
12.5. What is the resistance being measured?

Solution:

To obtain the resistance, multiply the range switch setting by

the scale reading. 12.5 times 1 = 12.5 ohms.

Example 2.8.

A VOM is set to the RX10,000 range and the scale is reading 1.6.
What is the resistance being measured?

Solution:

1.6 multiplied by 10,000 = 16,000 ohms or 16 k ohms.

Adjusting the ohmmeter.

To make a resistance measurement, follow this procedure.

1. Set the range switch to the range you intend to use.

2. Clip the two test leads together.
3. Adjust the ZERO ADJUST knob on the VOM to bring the
pointer over the zero mark on the ohms scale.
4. Unclip the leads from each other and clip them to the
resistor to be tested.
5. Read the scale and multiply by the range switch
setting.
6. If the pointer is far to the right or left of the
scale, the reading will not be very accurate.
7. Every time you change ranges you must repeat steps 2
through 5.

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2.2 The Electronic Voltmeter.
An electronic voltmeter or electronic multimeter contains an
amplifier circuit between the input terminals and the readout
device. This amplifier has a very high input impedance and
enables the meter to be used to measure voltages in much higher
impedance circuits than a VOM can measure.

The first form of electronic voltmeter was the vacuum tube

voltmeter VTVM. For several decades the VTVM was the most common
instrument to be found on the test bench.

When the age of the semiconductor came upon us, the vacuum tubes
in the VTVM were replaced by field effect transistors. The name
FETVM was too clumsy to catch on. TVM (Transistor Voltmeter)
never caught on either. The name EVM (Electronic Voltmeter) was
never tried. Heath company tried SSVM for Solid State Voltmeter.
I don't really know if that one caught on with other
manufacturers. In this text we will use EVM as a generic term
for an analog meter containing vacuum tubes or transistors.

The input resistance of an EVM (electronic voltmeter) is

typically 10 megohms. More costly units have an input resistance
of 100 or even 1000 megohms. unlike the VOM the input resistance
is the same for AC and DC. Also, the resistance is constant on
all ranges. An EVM loads the circuit under test in exactly the
same way as any other meter. The only difference is that the
circuit resistance can be higher before the error becomes
significant.

One reads the EVM in exactly the same manner as the VOM. The
terms "range" and "scale" have the same meanings and should be
used the same. Remember, the range is the setting of the range
switch and the scale is the set of markings on the meter face.

The resistance ranges may operate differently than on a VOM. If

you are using an EVM you should consult the instruction manual
for that meter to determine how to adjust and read the meter on
the resistance ranges.

The AC Voltmeter.

Some EVMs are especially designed to measure AC with good

accuracy over a wide range of frequencies. The lowest range on
these meters is usually 1 millivolt. Such meters are clearly
labeled as AC Voltmeters and will not give any reading if used
to measure DC.

This is the only area where analog EVMs are still extensively
used. A typical frequency range for an analog AC Voltmeter (AC
only) is from 5 hertz to 4 megahertz. These meters are AC only,
If you try to measure DC you will get no reading or one which
makes no sense.

The input impedance of such a voltmeter is typically 10 megohms

in parallel with 100 picofarads.

An AC Voltmeter is used in trouble shooting wide band amplifiers

such as video amplifiers where frequencies exist to which VOMs,
other EVMs and even DMMs (digital multimeters) cannot respond.
The AC Voltmeter will also find uses in low-level audio
equipment where signal levels are too low for other meters to
indicate.

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2.3 The Digital Multimeter (DMM).

Except for AC-only models, the analog EVM has largely been
replaced by the Digital Multimeter (DMM). The low cost and small
size of digital circuitry and digital readouts have just about
put the EVM out of business.

Digital Multimeters are smaller, lighter, cheaper and more

accurate than their analog counterparts. It is no wonder why you
almost never see an analog EVM anymore. The only area where DMMs
are behind is in measuring AC over a wide range of frequencies.
A typical frequency range for a DMM is 40 to 5,000 hertz
although more expensive models will usually read accurately out
to 20,000 hertz. A typical analog AC Voltmeter (AC only) may
have a frequency range of 5 hertz to 4 megahertz. But when it
comes to DC voltage, current and resistance, the DMM is
unsurpassed.

Little thought is required to use a DMM. The measurement units V

(volts), mV (millivolts), k ohms (kilohms), M ohms (megohms),
etc. are usually indicated in the display window. The decimal
point is always put in the right place. If the display window
contains 1.364 k ohms or 103.8 uA, you have the measurement.
What you see is what you get. Some DMMs even select the correct
range automatically, removing almost all operator intervention
in their operation.

The input resistance of most low cost DMMs is 10 megohms. Higher

cost instruments may have input resistances of 100 or even 1000
megohms. DMMs load the circuit under test as do all voltmeters.
Equation 2-1 applies.

Example 2.9.

A DMM which has an input resistance of 10 megohms is being used

to measure voltage in a circuit where the Thevenin resistance is
100 kilohms. What is the percent error introduced by the meter
loading the circuit?

Solution:

From equation 2-1

% error = (100 k ohms)/(10 M ohms) x 100% = 1%

Although 1% error is small by analog standards, it is large by

digital standards. If you are making a measurement under the
conditions of example 2.9, the meter will give you 3 or 4
significant digits, but you must remember that the reading is 1%
low.

Correcting Measurements.

Digital meters give so many significant digits that most users

will read the display and take it as absolutely correct. This is
a very bad habit to get into. The meter reading should be
mathematically corrected if the error given by equation 2-1 is
greater than 1%.

Referring to figure 2.1 the Thevenin resistance of the circuit

and the resistance of the meter make up a voltage divider. If we
rearrange the voltage divider equation we have

VTh = VM ((RM + RTh)/RM) (2.2)

where RM is the resistance of the meter, RTh is the Thevenin

resistance of the circuit, VM is the voltage being read on the
meter and VTh is the voltage across the terminals when the
voltmeter is not present.

Example 2.10.

A DMM with an input resistance of 10 M ohms is being used to

measure the voltage in a circuit where the Thevenin resistance
is 220 k ohms. The meter reads 12.52 volts. What was the voltage
before the meter was connected?

Solution:

Using equation 2.2 we have

VTh = 12.52 v ((10 M ohms + 220 k ohms)/10 M ohms) = 12.80 volts.

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2.4 Choosing The Correct Test Meter.

It is important to use the correct meter for a given job. Using
an inappropriate meter can at best give readings which are in
error and at worst give nonsensical readings or even damage the
meter.

Strong Electromagnetic Fields.

Making measurements in the presence of strong electromagnetic

fields is a special but important case. Such fields are found
around radio, television and radar transmitters, electrical
substations and large electric generators or motors.

Modern day DMMs are housed in plastic cases. Plastic does not
shield against electromagnetic fields. Many instruments have a
shield consisting of a layer of metal foil which is coated with
plastic to prevent shorting out the circuit board. This meager
shield is totally inadequate to the job of preventing
electromagnetic fields from entering the circuitry of the
instrument.

Electromagnetic fields can so totally jam the circuits in a

digital meter as to prevent it from working. Even if the meter
appears to work, its readings will not be reliable. The circuits
in an electronic analog meter (EVM) can be adversely affected by
strong electromagnetic fields. Only the VOM has no internal
devices which can be affected by these fields.

Meter Characteristics.

Table 2-1 summarizes the characteristics of the various types of

meters.

The ranges listed in the table refer to full-scale ranges, not

minimum measurement capability. For example, the VOM is listed
as having DC current ranges from 50 microamps to 10 amps. That
does not mean that 50 uA is the smallest current that can be
measured; it means that the lowest range is 0 to 50 uA. The
smallest current which can be measured with any reasonable
accuracy is 5 uA.

Table 2.1.

Summary of Test Meter Characteristics.

Characteristic VOM EVM DMM

DC Voltage 2.5 to 1.0 to 200 mV to

Ranges 5000 V 1000 V 1000 V

DC Current 50 uA to 200 uA to
None
Ranges 10 Amps 2 Amps

AC Voltage 2.5 to 1.0 to 200 mV to

Ranges 5000 V 1000 V 1000 V

* 1 mV to
300 V

AC Current 200 uA to
None None
Ranges 2 Amps

Frequency 20 Hz to 20 Hz to 40 Hz to
Ranges 20,000 Hz 20,000 Hz 5,000 Hz

* 5 Hz to
4 MHz
 DC Input 20,000 11 10
Resistance Ohms/Volt Megohms Megohms

AC Input 5,000 10 10
Resistance Ohms/Volt Megohms Megohms

Resistance RX1 to RX1 to 200 ohms to

Ranges RX10,000 RX1M 20 M ohms

Accuracy 2% 2% 0.05%

Susceptibility Not Very Somewhat Very

to EMI Susceptible Susceptible Susceptible

EMI = Electromagnetic Interference.

* Data for AC-only electronic voltmeter.

When an EVM is set to the DC voltage range a 1 Megohm resistor

is connected in series with the input at the probe tip. This is
done either by using a special probe only for DC voltage or by a
switch on the probe tip. The purpose for this resistor is to
filter out AC including RF that might be present on the measured
voltage or picked up by the leads. Many EVMs use a shielded lead
after the resistor.

A few examples will give you some practice in choosing the

correct meter for a given task.

Example 2.11.

You need to measure voltage, current and resistance in a

laboratory and the accuracy needs to be as good as possible.
What kind of meter would you use?

Solution:

EMI (electromagnetic interference) is not likely to be a problem

in a laboratory setting. The need for accuracy indicates the use
of a DMM (Digital Multimeter).

Example 2.12.

You need to measure AC voltages over a range of 2 to 10 volts

and a frequency range of 20 to 20,000 hertz. The Thevenin
resistance of the sources can be as high as 5 k ohms. There are
no nearby sources of EMI. Which meter would you use?

Solution:

The frequency range of 20 to 20,000 hertz eliminates the DMM

from consideration. A VOM set to the 10 volt AC range will have
an input resistance of 5 k ohms/V x 10 v = 50 k ohms. The
circuit resistance of 5 k ohms gives an error of (5 k ohms/50 k
ohms) x 100% = 10%. The VOM is eliminated. That leaves us with
some kind of EVM. An AC-only model would be preferable but an
electronic multimeter would serve the purpose.

Example 2.13.

You need to measure AC voltage in the neighborhood of 2500

volts. Which meter would you use?

Solution:

The only meter with ranges above 1000 volts is the VOM.

Example 2.14.

You need to make measurements on an operating microwave oven.

Which meter would you use?

Solution:

A microwave oven with its service covers removed is likely to be

a strong source of EMI. The old reliable VOM is the instrument
of choice here.

Example 2.15.

You need to measure voltages in the range of 0.5 to 3 volts at

frequencies from 100 kHz to 1 MHz. Which meter would you use?

Solution:

While the voltage range might be accommodated by other meters,

the frequency range dictates the use of an AC- only EVM.

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2.5 Analog Versus Digital Meters.

There are some who might say that the analog meter is on its way
out, but they would be wrong. As mentioned earlier, the analog
meter is almost immune to EMI (electromagnetic interference). In
addition to this it is very good for showing changes in
electrical quantities.

There are many cases in which an adjustment must be made for

maximum or minimum current or voltage. While it is possible to
use a digital readout for such an adjustment, an analog meter
makes it much easier.

Suppose you are adjusting a control for a minimum current. When

using an analog meter you do not actually read the scale of the
meter. You watch the pointer moving to the left as you turn the
control. When the pointer starts moving to the right, you
reverse direction on the control and bring the pointer back to
its left-most position. It is a matter of eye-hand coordination.

On the other, hand if you are using a digital readout to make

the same adjustment, you do have to read the number on the
display. As you make the adjustment you continuously read the
number and do a comparison to the previous one. It's no longer a
matter of eye-hand coordination; now the mind must remember a
number and do calculations of sorts: "Is this number larger than
or smaller than the other one?" This remembering and calculating
takes more time and requires more mental effort than does eye-
hand coordination.

"But wait a minute" I hear some of you saying. "What about bar
graph displays?" Bar graph displays usually have ten elements
which gives only 10% resolution. In tuning the output circuit of
a radio transmitter the capacitor is adjusted for minimum
amplifier current. This setting gives maximum power output and
maximum efficiency of the amplifier. If a bar graph were used
for this purpose the amplifier current would have to change by
10% of full-scale before any change could be detected by the
operator. If a transmitter's output stage is operated 10% "off
the dip" the output could be down by as much as 30% and the
output amplifier could even be damaged.
This is but one example; there are many others in the field of
electronics. It can be argued that there is no reason why a bar
graph must be limited to ten elements. There is a reason, money.
To match the resolution of an analog meter a bar graph would
have to have at least 50 elements and 100 would be preferred. At
the present state of the art, a 50 or 100 element bar graph
readout is so costly as to be unfeasible. And don't forget that
matter of EMI. Analog meter readouts will be with us for many
years to come.

In service work there are many service adjustments which require

making an adjustment for zero, minimum or maximum voltage or
current. That is one of the strongest arguments for keeping a
VOM on the service bench.

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2.6 The Oscilloscope.

Until the 1950s an oscilloscope was considered by many to be
just a high tech toy. It was possible to look at the shape of
electrical waves, but it was not possible to make any
measurements. Looking at the waves is useful in some
circumstances but, unless it is possible to measure the voltage
and period of the wave, an oscilloscope is just a technical
television set.

The technicians of those days had an oscilloscope calibrator of

a sort. It was a source of square-wave voltage with "calibrated"
dials on it for voltage and frequency. The idea was to switch
from the wave being observed to the calibrator, match the
voltage and frequency to that of the original wave and read the
dials on the calibrator.

Enter the Tektronix company. Their first models had the

calibrator built in and a convenient switch to select the input
wave or the calibrator wave. Then one of their engineers asked
the question, "Why not calibrate the scope the same way a
voltmeter is calibrated, with ranges?" The rest, as they say, is
history.
Today we take the calibrated oscilloscope for granted. I wonder
how many students know that the scope began life as described
above.

The instrument is known by several different names:

"oscilloscope", "o'scope", "'scope", "scope" and one author
referred to it as the "CRO" (cathode ray oscilloscope). Whatever
else you may call it, call it the most useful instrument on the
service bench.

What an Oscilloscope Can Do.

In addition to giving us a pretty picture show, an oscilloscope

can measure voltage and time interval. A clever technician armed
only with a scope and a decade resistance box can measure
current and resistance as well.

The modern-day oscilloscope is very accurately calibrated in

volts per division on the vertical axis and in seconds per
division on the horizontal axis. The display is a visual display
of instantaneous voltage versus time. Such displays can give
information not available using any other instrument.

For example, ripple in a power supply can render circuits

inoperative but may not show up on any test meter. The problem
will be readily apparent on an oscilloscope.

The following is not intended as a thorough tutorial on "how to

use an oscilloscope". That can only be done if the tutorial is
written for a particular make and model of oscilloscope. It is
assumed that the student is familiar with oscilloscope controls
and operating procedure. This section should bring together all
of the fragments of knowledge you have acquired in the past few
years.

Reading An Oscilloscope.

It is as important to know how to read an oscilloscope as it is

to know how to read any other test instrument.

To obtain the voltage between two points on a wave, it is

necessary to perform the following steps: a) Measure the
vertical distance between the two points (in divisions and
fractions of a division). b) Multiply the distance by the
setting of the volts/division range switch. c) If a times ten
probe is being used, multiply the voltage by ten.
Example 2.16.

For a wave on the screen of a scope the distance between the

positive peak and the negative peak is 5.6 divisions. The
setting of the vertical range switch is 100 mv/div. A times one
probe is being used. What is the peak to peak voltage of the
wave?

Solution:

The peak to peak distance has been given as 5.6 divisions. 5.6
divisions times 100 mv/division = 560 millivolts or 0.56 volts.
The use of a times one probe means that the voltage must be
multiplied by one.

To obtain the time between two points on a wave, it is necessary

to perform the following steps: a) Measure the horizontal
distance between the two points (in divisions and fractions of a
division). b) Multiply the distance by the setting of the
time/division sweep range switch.

Example 2.17.

For a wave on the screen of a scope the distance between two

successive positive going zero crossings is 8.3 divisions. The
setting of the sweep range switch is 0.5 ms/div. A times ten
probe is being used. What is the period of the wave?

Solution:

The fact that a times ten probe is being used has no effect on
the time reading. The wavelength has been given as 8.3
divisions. 8.3 divisions times 0.5 ms/division = 4.15
milliseconds.

The Times Ten Probe.

The input impedance of almost all oscilloscopes is one megohm of

resistance in parallel with 30 picofarads of capacitance. That
presents problems.

The resistance portion means that if we want plus or minus 2%

accuracy the highest Thevenin resistance a circuit could have is
20 k ohms. That would considerably restrict the use of a scope
but that's not all.
Capacitance added in parallel with a circuit presents a load at
higher frequencies and slows down the rise time of square-waves
and pulses. In most cases, calculation of this effect is too
complex to be worth the effort. The best approach is to make the
capacitance as small as physically possible.

The input capacitance of the scope by itself would not be so bad

but there is more.

If you have ever touched the input terminal of a scope, or

connected an unshielded wire to the input of a scope, you know
that there are signals in the air which can be picked up by the
wire (or your body) and displayed on the scope. If you are
trying to look at a 130 kHz triangular wave, you don't want 60
Hz mixed with it. That is what you can have if you don't use
shielded cables to connect circuits under test to the input of
an oscilloscope.

Shielded cable consists of two conductors separated by an

insulator, the definition of a capacitor. Typical cable
capacitance is 30 picofarads per foot of cable. Typical cable
length is 4 feet. The input capacitance now becomes 4 ft. x (30
pf/ft.) + 30 pf = 150 pf.

150 picofarads has a reactance of 20 kilohms at a frequency of

53.1 kilohertz. That says that 150 pf is much too much to have
in parallel with a test instrument.
 Figure 2.2 Schematic of X10 Probe.

For a verbal description click here.

It is possible to increase the input resistance and decrease the

input capacitance of a scope by giving up some sensitivity.
Figure 2.2(a) shows a drawing of a times ten probe and 2.2(b)
the schematic diagram. The scope is presumed to have an input
impedance of 1 M ohms resistor in parallel with a 30 pf
capacitor. The variable capacitor in parallel with the 9 Megohm
resistor would be physically inside the probe.

The frequency response of the circuit will be flat if

R1 C1 = R2 C2 (2.3)
is satisfied. Where R1 is the 9 Megohm resistor in the probe
tip, C1 is the variable capacitor in the probe tip, R2 is the 1
M ohms resistor which represents the input resistance of the
scope and C2 is the sum of the cable capacitance and the input
capacitance of the scope 150 pf. If we solve equation 2.3 for C1
and plug in all known values, we have C1 = (1 M ohms x 150
pf)/(9 M ohms) = 16.7 pf. The effective input capacitance is C1
in series with C2 which is 15 pf. That's a lot better.

The effective input resistance is R1 in series with R2 which is

10 M ohms. That's also a lot better.

To sum it all up, by using a times ten probe the input

resistance goes up by a factor of ten and the input capacitance
goes down by a factor of ten. The voltage applied to the input
of the scope is 1/10 of that applied to the probe tip.

Example 2.18.

The following information is obtained using an oscilloscope.

Peak to peak voltage is 125 millivolts and period is 22
milliseconds. A times ten probe is being used. What are the
actual voltage and period.

Solution:

The voltage is ten times what is measured, 125 mv x 10 = 1.25

volts. The times ten probe has no effect on the period
measurement.

Adjusting the Times Ten Probe.

Before a times ten probe is used it must be adjusted to match

the particular scope that is in use. As indicated in figure 2.2
the variable capacitor is in the probe tip but in some probes
the adjustment is at the scope end of the probe cable. This is
accomplished by making the capacitor at the probe tip a fixed
value and a little larger than the theoretical value and placing
a variable capacitor in parallel with the scope and cable
capacitance, C2, placing it more conveniently at the scope end.
Wherever it is it must be adjusted.

All oscilloscopes have a square-wave output which has been put

there for exactly this purpose. If the probe has a switch to
select X1 (times one) or X10 (times ten), be sure it is in the
X10 position. Connect the probe tip to the square-wave output
and adjust the controls on the scope to obtain a stable display
of the square-wave.

Figure 2.3 Square-wave for (a) undercompensated probe

(b) properly compensated probe and
(c) overcompensated probe.

For a verbal description click here.

If a screwdriver is required to adjust the probe, use a plastic

one. Refer to figure 2.3. Figure 2.3a shows the condition of not
enough capacitance, under compensation, while figure 2.3c shows
the condition of too much capacitance, overcompensation. Figure
2.3b is just right, correct compensation. If it is not readily
apparent how to adjust the probe, consult the instruction
manual.

AC, DC and Ground.

All but the least expensive scopes have a switch located near
the input connector which is labeled "AC DC GND" for AC, DC and
ground.

When this switch is set to the AC position, a capacitor is

connected in series with the input to the scope. This capacitor
will block DC from the input but will pass AC. The size of the
capacitor is usually chosen so that the low frequency limit will
be about 2 hertz. The upper frequency limit is set by the
amplifiers in the scope and is uneffected by the setting of the
switch.

In the DC position the scope responds to both AC and DC. The

capacitor mentioned above is shorted out. The response of the
scope is from DC (zero frequency) to the upper frequency limit
of the scope. This makes it possible to use the scope to measure
DC voltage the same as you would with a voltmeter.

When the switch is set to the GND (ground) position the input to
the vertical amplifier is grounded. The input resistance (as
"seen" by the circuit under test) is not affected so that the
circuit under test will not be damaged. In many measurements,
especially those involving DC, it is essential to know where the
trace would be if the input voltage to the scope were zero.
Instead of disconnecting the probe, all that is necessary is to
flip the input switch to the GND position, note the position of
the trace (or use the positioning control to put it where you
want it) and then flip the input switch back to DC or AC.

Example 2.19.

Figure 2.4 represents the display of a DC + AC voltage on an

oscilloscope. When the input switch is set to ground, the trace
is positioned one division up from the bottom of the screen, or
at Y = -3 divisions. In figure 2.4a the scope operator has used
the horizontal positioning control to set the most positive peak
on the line of hash marks. In figure 2.4b the horizontal
positioning control has been adjusted to put the least positive
peak on the line of hash marks. This is what you would do if you
were in a laboratory instead of reading a book. The settings of
the scope controls are as follows: input switch to DC, Vertical
range to 0.2 v/div and sweep range to 5 ms/div. A times ten
probe is being used. What is: (a) the peak to peak voltage; (b)
the voltage of the most positive peak; (c) the voltage of the
least positive peak; and (d) the period of the wave?
 Figure 2.4 Scope screens for Example 2.19.

For a verbal description click here.

Solution:

The only difference between figures 2.4a and 2.4b is that the
horizontal positioning control has been changed. Figure 2.4a
reveals that the most positive peak is 3.4 divisions above the
center line and figure 2.4b reveals that the least positive peak
is 0.6 divisions below the center line.

(a) The peak to peak distance of 3.4 div - (-0.6 div) = 4

divisions. 4 div x 0.2 v/div x 10 = 8 volts peak to peak.

(b) The voltage of the most positive peak is measured from the
zero voltage line. As given, the zero volt line is one division
up from the bottom of the screen or 3 divisions below the center
line. The distance between zero volts and the most positive peak
is 3.4 div - (-3 div) = 6.4 divisions. 6.4 div x 0.2 v/div x 10
= 12.8 volts.

(c) The distance between zero volts and the least positive peak
is -0.6 div -(-3 div) = 2.4 divisions. 2.4 div x 0.2 v/div x 10
= 4.8 volts.

(d) We must use center line crossings in order to have the hash
marks to read. Selecting two successive positive going center
line crossings we have the wavelength as 4 divisions. The period
is 4 div x 5 ms/div = 20 ms. The times ten probe has no effect
on the time measurement.

Getting Best Accuracy.

Using modern oscilloscopes with some care it is possible to

obtain accuracy equivalent to that of an analog meter. There are
certain things you can do to maximize the accuracy of the
measurement.

For voltage and period measurements keep the vertical deflection

large. The large divisions are subdivided by the hash marks into
5 subdivisions. It is possible to mentally insert 4 sub-
subdivisions between the hash marks. That means that the best
resolution is 1/20 of a large division. That is the ideal case.
In actual practice it is more likely that the best resolution is
1/10 of a large division.
If you only have a vertical deflection of one large division,
the typical accuracy is about (0.1 div)/(1 div) x 100% = 10%. If
the vertical deflection is about 6 large divisions the typical
accuracy is about (0.1 div)/(6 div) x 100% = 1.7%. 2% accuracy
is about the best to be expected.

For period measurements have several cycles on the screen. Also,

measure from zero crossing to zero crossing, not peak to peak.
The horizontal position of the rounded peak of a sine wave
cannot be determined with any accuracy.

If the vertical deflection is large and there are several cycles

on the screen, the zero-crossings will be almost vertical.
Suppose you tried to measure the period from one positive peak
to the next. You would be trying to determine the exact point of
tangency of the curved peak of the wave to the scale, not an
easy thing to do. When an almost vertical line crosses a
horizontal scale it is easier to determine the exact point where
the crossing takes place.

If you measure the time for four or five cycles, the accuracy of
the measurement will be improved. If you measure the period of
just one cycle, the distance will be rather small and the same
argument will apply as for the vertical deflection. Measuring
over several cycles increases the distance of the measurement
and increases the accuracy.

Trigger Modes.

In olden days the horizontal sweep was generated by an

oscillator with a sawtooth wave form. To get a stationary
pattern on the screen it was necessary to synchronize the sweep
oscillator with the input signal. Today's scopes use a triggered
sweep instead of a synchronized sawtooth oscillator.

The key difference is that an oscillator keeps on running at

approximately the same frequency even in the absence of an input
signal. A triggered sweep begins when a trigger pulse is
received, completes one cycle and then waits for the next
trigger pulse before beginning the next cycle. If the trigger
pulses stop, the sweep stops.

The "auto" mode is to keep a visible trace on the screen in the

absence of an input signal. If you put the input switch in the
GND position, you want the trace to be on the screen so you can
see where it is. A special circuit senses that there are no
trigger pulses and generates artificial trigger pulses. These
pulses are removed when real pulses are present. Like any other
automatic circuit it can sometimes get confused and cause the
pattern on the screen to be unstable. When this happens, you
should switch out of the auto mode. If you want to use the GND
position on the input switch, you will have to put the trigger
back into the auto mode. Someday it will occur to some engineer
(who can do something about it) to cause the trigger circuits to
go into the auto mode whenever the input switch is placed in the
GND position.

The Slope switch selects whether the sweep will trigger on the
positive going or negative going slope of the input wave.

The level control sets the voltage level at which the sweep will
begin.

Trigger coupling modes come in a wide variety of shapes and

sizes. A few of them are DC, AC slow, AC fast, AC lf, AC lf rej,
(reject), TV, TVh, TVv, TVl and TVf. DC is a full spectrum
coupling. It is used for slowly changing, infrequently occurring
or DC restored video signals. AC slow and AC lf are for low
frequency sine or sine like waves. AC fast and AC lf rej are for
square-waves, pulses or high frequency sine waves. TV is a
general television trigger mode. In some scopes the horizontal
or vertical sync pulses are selected depending on the setting of
the sweep range switch. TV h (horizontal) and TV l (line) select
the horizontal sync pulses from the TV signal to be fed to the
trigger circuits. TV v (vertical) and TV f (frame of field)
select the vertical sync pulses.

For complete information you should consult the instruction

manual for the particular scope you are using.

Measuring Current and Resistance Using a Scope.

Earlier it was mentioned in passing that it is possible to

measure current and resistance using a scope. How is that
possible? A decade resistance box would come in handy but all
you really need are a few precision resistors.

Measuring current is easy and maybe some of you have figured

that one out already. Simply place a resistor, say one ohm, in
parallel with the input of the scope. The ranges on the vertical
range switch become current ranges. For example, using a 1 ohm
resistor the 100 mV/div range becomes 100 mA/div. The resistor
should have sufficient wattage rating to carry the current being
measured. Also remember that if the voltage drop becomes too
great, you will perturb the circuit under test and the current
measurement will be in error.

Measuring resistance requires a bit more ingenuity. All scopes

have a square-wave signal output for compensating the probe.
This output is used in the circuit of figure 2.5. Since one side
of the circuit is connected to the scope's own ground it is not
possible to measure the voltage across each resistor
individually. Measure the voltage across the reference resistor
RR and then measure the voltage across the series combination of
RR and RX. This last voltage is of course the output voltage of
the square-wave output. For best accuracy the voltage across the
reference resistor should be about half of the square-wave
output. The unknown resistance is given by

RX = RR (VS - VR)/VR (2.4)

where RX is the unknown resistance, RR is a known reference

resistor, VS is the voltage of the square-wave source and VR is
the measured voltage across the reference resistor.

Figure 2.5 Resistance Measurement with an Oscilloscope.

For a verbal description click here.

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2.7 The Signal Tracer.

A signal tracer is an old instrument that was used primarily to
troubleshoot radios back in the tube era. If you are interested
in restoring Antique radios I strongly recommend that you buy or
build one. The basic instrument was an audio amplifier and a
speaker built into an instrument box. Some units such as the
Heathkit T-4 also contained an eye tube. This seems to me to be
just to dress up the instrument and serves little practical
purpose. They are old enough to be considered antiques and if
you buy one off eBay you will likely pay too much. Even if you
have to buy all new parts you will likely pay less to build your
own. Below is a practical circuit.

Figure 2.6 Signal Tracer.

 For a verbal description click here.

The output transformer is a standard 5 k ohm to voice coil and

may be scavenged from an all American 5 if desired. The power
transformer has a higher current rating than needed but one just
above it on the AES page which had a lower current range costs a
dollar more. If desired you could use the extra current capacity
to power experimental circuits.

If you prefer you can substitute a 6AQ5 for the 6V6. No

component changes are necessary to change the tube. Remember
that the pin numbers are different.

Oscillation.

It is very likely that this circuit will oscillate when there is

nothing connected to the input and the volume control is turned
up all the way. The 470 pf cap from the grid of the 6V6 to
ground is meant to help but it won't prevent it completely. It
will insure that it will be audible. My Heathkit T-4 and the
amplifier in the combo power supply and amplifier do. It can be
prevented by using a lot of shielding between the output tube
and transformer and the 12AX7. It really doesn't hurt anything
though.

As you can see this is nothing more than an audio amplifier with
a whole lot of gain. It is useful for tracing signals through
the audio section of a radio. A shielded probe should be used
and a scope probe is a very good choice. Get one that has a
times 1/times 10 switch on it. Of course you will have to mount
a BNC connector on the tracer to make use of a scope probe.

Radio Frequencies and Intermediate Frequencies.

So how does one trace signals through the RF and IF stages of a

radio? Here is how.
 Figure 2.7 RF Probe for Signal Tracer.

For a verbal description click here.

You can use 1N4149 diodes if you want but performance will be
much improved if you use germanium diodes instead. If you can
get them or their equivalents 1N270 or 1N933 diodes will perform
much better. If you can't get those 1N34A diodes will work just
fine. The first capacitor in line should have a voltage rating
of 500 volts because it will regularly come into contact with B+
voltages.

This probe has the advantage over the one supplied with the
Heathkit T-4. It filters out low frequencies and responds only
to frequencies higher than 50 kHz. In a departure from the usual
quality Heath engineering the T-4 was supplied with a simple
probe that didn't work very well. The manual admits this by
saying that the probe should not be connected to the plate of a
tube because all the operator will hear is 60 Hz hum from the
power supply. Using this probe that will not be a problem.

The probe should be shielded to avoid the effects of hand

capacitance but the metal shield should be covered with some
kind of insulating material. It is not safe to work on a radio
that has lethal voltages in it while holding a grounded probe in
your hand.

Another use for the probe is to measure RF voltages. The DC

output of the probe is very close to the peak to peak value of
the input wave. If it is a good sine wave the RMS value of the
wave is Vdc / (2 Square root of 2).

Also, do not be tempted to leave out the power transformer! Some

of the radios you will be working on will be of the line
connected chassis type and having two pieces of hot chassis
equipment on your workbench is a catastrophe waiting to happen.
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2.8 Miscellaneous Test Equipment.

There are many different pieces of test equipment. Some are not
well known. Some pieces of test equipment are designed to test
one particular make and model of apparatus. These are usually
referred to as "test sets" rather than test instruments. Test
sets cannot be covered in a book such as this. They are issued
to franchised service agencies and field service persons.
Training in their use comes from the manufacturer.

Signal Sources.

Signal sources are used in the signal substitution or signal

injection methods of testing to be covered in chapter 4 of this
book.

There are three general categories of signal sources (more often

called signal generators). They are 1) audio frequency, 2) radio
frequency, and 3) pulse generators.

Audio frequency generators come in a wide variety of makes and

models. The minimum acceptable frequency range is 20 to 20,000
hertz but most technicians prefer a range of 5 hertz to 1
megahertz. Generators are available which provide low distortion
sine waves (.05% or less). The most familiar, however, is the
function generator which provides sine, square and triangular
waves. The distortion of the sine wave is usually in the range
of 0.3% to 1%. A typical frequency range is from 1 hertz to 2
megahertz. The Thevenin output resistance of these generators is
usually 50 ohms. Some function generators also provide outputs
which are compatible with digital logic circuits. For details on
operating procedure consult the instruction manual for the
particular make and model you are using.

Radio frequency generators are further subdivided by the part of

the radio spectrum they cover. For example a Hewlett-Packard
model 606A is called an HF (high frequency) signal generator. It
covers the range 50 kHz to 65 MHz. Granted, the HF spectrum is
from 3 to 30 MHz but they didn't want to call it a "most of LF,
MF, HF and part of VHF signal generator". As you can see from
this example there is considerable overlap of AF (audio
frequency) and RF (radio frequency) generators.

The one feature which distinguishes an RF generator from an AF

generator is calibrated output voltage and power level. All RF
generators worthy of the name use a combination of an output
level meter and a well-calibrated attenuator to provide an
output level which is known. The level is measured across a 50
ohm load and usually ranges from 0.1 microvolts to about 1 volt.
Upper limits vary from one model to the next and can range from
0.2 volts to 3 volts.

Some high-priced AF generators may also have calibrated output

levels, the minimum level usually about 1 millivolt. Only an RF
generator will have a minimum output of 0.1 microvolts.

Pulse generators are used to stimulate logic circuits. They have

outputs which are compatible with various integrated logic
families such as TTL (transistor transistor logic), CMOS
(complementary metal oxide semiconductor), ECL (emitter coupled
logic) and others.

The pulse width and frequency are independently adjustable.

There are frequently provisions for external triggering or
triggering from the operation of a pushbutton switch.

Logic Probe.

A logic probe looks simple but can be quite complex. In general

it has two indicator lights, one for a low logic level and the
other for a high logic level. You might think that one light
would do but if no lights are on, the probe is indicating an
open circuit on its input.

If the logic probe is testing a pulse train of say 20 PPS

(pulses per second) or higher, the lights will flash off and on
too fast for the eye to perceive as flashes and they will look
as if they are on continuously. A good logic probe will contain
circuits which force the lights to flash slowly enough to be
perceived as flashes.

Thus you have an unambiguous indication of logic low, logic

high, open circuit or pulse train.

A logic probe must be compatible with the logic family with

which it is being used.
Continuity Tester.

A continuity tester is a device which gives an indication when

the resistance between its test leads falls below some preset
value such as 100 ohms. The indication can be either visual or
oral or both.

Many logic probes incorporate a continuity test mode.

Continuity testers are good for testing fuses, switches, line

cords and even diodes. Although they are employed primarily by
technicians who work on power or telephone circuits they can be
a handy tool for the electronics technician as well.

Test Lamp.

A test lamp has the advantage over a voltmeter of being smaller

and much less hassle to use. If the user desires to know if the
voltage is present or absent, it is just what the doctor
ordered.

In its most common form a test lamp is a neon lamp with a

current limiting resistor in series with it. It may be housed in
a small plastic cylinder and be equipped with a pocket clip. It
will have two test leads emerging from it. The test lamp is used
to check for the presence of AC line voltage.

You can also make your own test lamp. A six volt lamp makes an
excellent quick tester for the presence of five volt power in a
computer circuit.

AC Ammeter.

There is a class of AC ammeters which requires no direct

connection to the circuit under test. They sense the magnetic
field around a wire carrying AC. This magnetic field is directly
proportional to the amount of current in the wire.

These meters have a spring loaded clamp which can be opened by

squeezing a handle on the meter. The clamp is opened and allowed
to close around, not on, the wire in which the current is to be
measured.

The clamp must be placed around one wire. If you put the clamp
around a lamp cord (two wires) the meter will read zero. The
reason for this is each wire in the lamp cord is carrying
current in the opposite direction to the other one. Because this
is a series circuit, the current in each wire has the same
magnitude. The two equal and opposite currents cancel each other
out and there is no reading on the meter.

These meters are often called "amprobes" but Amprobe is a

registered trademark.

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2.9 Instruction Manuals.

It is a common joke among technicians and engineers that, "When
all else fails, read the instruction manual." This expresses the
reluctance of most technical people to admit that they don't
know something. There are, however, times when you should
consult the instruction manual.

If you have encountered a familiar piece of equipment such as an

oscilloscope, you may feel as if you know how to use a scope and
don't need the manual. But if it is one of those new digital
models (with no knobs, just push buttons) you will likely be
sufficiently stumped to need some help.

If the equipment is unfamiliar you should by all means "read the

book". There are only a few combinations of control settings
which will work and an infinite number which will not work. The
odds of hitting a working combination by random turning of knobs
are vanishingly small.

Don't be ashamed to "read the book". There's no shame in that.

No one was born all knowing.
Chapter 3 Failure Modes.
3.1 Generalized Failure Modes.
3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors.

Chapter 3.
Failure Modes.
It is possible to spend an entire career studying the failure
modes of electronic components. In this chapter we will cover
only the electrical characteristics of failed components.

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3.1 Generalized Failure Modes.

Electronic components usually fail in a specific way. That is a
good thing; it makes the job of troubleshooting easier than it
would be if components failed in random ways.

For example, capacitors almost always fail shorted while

resistors almost never fail shorted. If there is a parallel
combination of a resistor and a capacitor and the combination is
found to be shorted, we can be almost certain that the capacitor
is at fault.

The word "almost" appears in these statements because we are

dealing with probability and there are no absolute certainties,
only very high probabilities.

Resistors.
 Picture 3.1 Example Resistors.

In the photo above the top resistor is a 330 k ohm 10% 1 watt
carbon composition, the middle one is a 68 ohm 5% 1 watt carbon
film, and at the bottom is a 27 k ohm 5% 1/4 watt carbon film
resistor.

Components fail in the way they do because of the way they are
constructed. Resistors are constructed in two main ways. One
type is known as carbon composition. It is made by mixing up a
concoction of finely powdered graphite, an equally finely
powdered insulating material and some kind of glue. The brew is
molded into a small cylinder and dried. The lead is in the form
of a nail as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Construction of Carbon Composition Resistor.

 For a verbal description click here.

The two leads are placed in contact with the ends of the
cylinder and the assembly is encased in molded plastic. Color
code bands are painted on the finished resistor. The force
exerted by the lead's "head" against the end of the cylinder is
the only connection between them. I have seen such resistors in
which it was possible to rotate the resistor body on its leads.
Needless to say the amplifier was very noisy especially when
shaken.

The other type is carbon film or metal film. They are made by
coating a ceramic or plastic cylinder with graphite or metal.
Metal cups are placed over the ends of the cylinder and crimped
in place to make good electrical contact with the film. The cups
have leads attached as shown in figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Construction of Film Resistor.

For a verbal description click here.

The assembly is then placed in a lathe where a laser starts

cutting a helical path in the conductive coating turning it into
a coil of conductor surrounding the insulating cylinder. The
resistance is being measured continuously and when it reaches
the desired value the laser is turned off and the resistor goes
on to have its body encased in plastic. Color bands are then
painted on. The end contacts are what gives these resistors
their characteristic shape.

Carbon composition resistors can be reduced in value by

excessive heat which turns some of the glue from the original
mix into carbon. I have seen a 100 ohm resistor be reduced to 11
ohms by being burned to a crisp. However, this is rare. They
usually increase in value with age and can totally fail open or
become noisy as described above.
Film resistors are much more reliable because of the crimped
connections. They hold their original value very well and rarely
fail spontaneously. They can even remain very close to their
value after some serious overheating.

Capacitors.

Picture 3.3 Example Capacitors.

Capacitors are constructed of two thin pieces of metal foil with

a very thin insulator between them as shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Construction of Plastic Film Capacitor.

 For a verbal description click here.

Here the most likely failure is in the insulator, which will

allow the two metal foils to touch, causing a short.

It is possible for the connection between the foil and the wire
(which runs through the case to the outside world) to come loose
causing an open circuit, but this is a low probability
occurrence.

Capacitors are constructed by starting with a long strip of a

sandwich consisting of a layer of aluminum foil, a thin film of
plastic, another layer of foil and another layer of plastic
film. The strip is rolled up to form a cylinder. The sandwich is
made so that one of the foils sticks out slightly on one side
and the other sticks out the other. Thus, the two foils are
exposed one on each end. The connecting lead is made to resemble
a nail. The head of the nail, where the hammer would hit it, is
spot welded to the foil on the end of the cylinder. The whole
thing is encased in plastic.

Transformers, Chokes, and other coils.

Components which consist of a coil of wire such as transformers,

inductors and TV deflection yokes have two main failure modes.
The wire can break or burn in two (probably due to a
manufacturing flaw) causing an open circuit or the insulation on
the wire can fail causing a short.

An open is quite easy to diagnose. Testing with an ohmmeter will

show infinity on the defective winding.

A short may be a little more subtle. Unless the transformer is

absolutely cooked the short is likely to be over one turn. One
turn out of hundreds is not enough change in resistance to show
up on a DC resistance measurement. In the case of a transformer
when power is applied a high current will flow and if the fuse
doesn't blow the transformer will get hot very quickly and emit
a bubbling sound as wax or varnish inside begins to boil. There
is no saving such a transformer. It must be replaced. In the
case of a choke its inductance value will be reduced to a small
fraction of its normal value. An inductance bridge or meter will
be required to diagnose such a defect. In the case of a TV
deflection yoke the picture will b askew and either the vertical
or horizontal output tube will be overheating due to too much
current. Possibly to the point of having its plate glowing red.
The coil of a DC relay may not be effected by a shorted turn and
may operate for decades undetected. On the other hand a shorted
turn in the coil of an AC relay will cause it to draw too much
current and also prevent enough magnetic field from being
developed to close the contacts. In a few cases it may be
possible to disassemble the relay and replace the coil. In most
cases the entire relay must be replaced.

Semiconductors.

When semiconductor devices fail spontaneously, which is rare,

they don't fail in a binary manner. What usually happens is that
a lead which was welded to the crystal in the factory comes
loose. Because there is no force to move the lead away from the
crystal they will remain in contact, sort of. If the device is a
transistor in a radio or amplifier the result will be static in
the speaker. Shaking or slapping the radio or amplifier may or
may not effect the crackling sound.

In a radio the bad transistor can usually be found by half

splitting although you must be aware that changing impedance as
the contact makes and breaks will change the load on the
previous stage and cause the defect to appear at the output of
the stage previous to the one with the defective transistor.

In a stereo amplifier the presents of negative feedback will

cause the static to propagate around the entire feedback loop
and no amount of signal tracing will locate the defective
device. In such cases the only solution is to unsolder a
component such as a resistor to open the feedback loop but
BEWARE! In many stereo amplifiers the same feedback loop serves
to stabilize the DC operating point as well as provide AC
feedback for performance improvement. Opening such a loop will
usually result in the output of the amplifier locking to one of
the power supply rails. This could damage the amplifier giving
you more defective parts to find and replace. In such a case try
temporarily replacing the feedback resistor with two resistors
in series, each half the value of the original. If there was a
capacitor in parallel with the resistor temporarily remove it.
Connect a capacitor from the junction of the two resistors to
ground. The capacitor to ground should be of such a value that
it forms a 10 second time constant with the parallel equivalent
resistance of the two resistors. This allows the DC feedback to
remain effective while the AC feedback is removed. It should now
be possible to find the source of the noise by signal tracing.

When a semiconductor device fails as a result of some other

component failure the semiconductor was destroyed by heat. When
the silicon crystal is heated it eventually gets hot enough to
melt. This results in a short between all leads of the device.
As noted elsewhere in this text, the short can result in the
current being so high that the wire leads or the crystal itself
are burned away leaving an open circuit. Open is a secondary
failure mode.

On rare occasions the semiconductor crystal will get just hot

enough for the doping impurities to defuse in the crystal which
will change the characteristics of the device. The usual result
is that the breakdown voltage of junctions is reduced. Meaning
that a transistor will no longer operate at the applied
collector voltage or a diode will conduct somewhat in the
reverse direction. If this rare failure mode occurs it may be
very hard to find because it is so rare and is not expected. If
the early breakdown does not finish off the device it may turn
into a real dog. Transistors and diodes which appear to be good
in an out of circuit test may still not work in the circuit.

Summary of Failure modes.

The failure modes of the most common components are summarized

in table 3.1.

Table 3.1.
Summary of Failure Modes of a Few
Electronic Components.

High Probability Low Probability

Component
Failure Mode(s) Failure Mode(s)

Open
Resistance value
Resistor
Resistance value decreased
increased

Shorted
Capacitor,
Leaky (Effective Open
Film
parallel resistance
too low)
 Shorted

Leaky (Effective
parallel resistance
Capacitor, too low)
Electrolytic
Effective series
resistance increased

Open

Inductor

Transformer
Open
Relay coil
Shorted
Deflection
yoke

Diode Shorted Open

Base to Emitter
short
Intermittently
Base to Collector noisy
Transistor
short
Open
Everything to
everything short

Operational Output shorted to Low input

Amplifier one power supply rail resistance

Output shorted to
Digital IC
ground or V+

Low cathode
emission, (weak)
Vacuum Heater or
Tube filament open
Shorts between
elements

Cascading Failures.
Failures can cascade. Consider the case of the simple power
supply of figure 3.4. This is a typical circuit of those power
supplies which are in plastic cases with AC plug prongs on them.
These are often called "wall mounted" power supplies or wall
warts. You will note that there are no fuses in the circuit.

Figure 3.4 Schematic of Wall Wart.

For a verbal description click here.

Most recently made wall warts have some sort of fuse built into
the transformer. This may be a current sensing or temperature
sensing fuse. In either case it is a one time only operation and
if it is burned out the entire wall wart must be replaced. The
cost of obtaining a replacement transformer will most likely be
about equal to the cost of a new wall wart.

If you have to repair a very old wall wart that has an unusual
voltage making it impossible to replace you may have to saw it
open and work on it. If so the paragraphs below will apply.
These paragraphs will also apply to a power supply that is built
with discrete components.

The failure could begin with a shorted filter capacitor. This

causes the diodes in the bridge rectifier to overheat and
eventually one or more will become shorted. This puts a very
heavy load on the transformer causing it to overheat and develop
shorted turns. This causes the transformer to draw even more
current and get even hotter. The user may not know that anything
is wrong until he or she smells the transformer burning and by
then it is too late.

It is very common for failures to cascade in this manner. The

first fault you find may be a symptom rather than a cause.

In the example of the power supply above, suppose that the

transformer had been protected by a fuse. In that case the
diodes would have likely shorted out anyway because of one of
Murphy's laws, "An expensive semiconductor device protected by a
fuse will protect the fuse by burning out first." Therefore,
when the power supply comes to your service bench it will have a
shorted filter capacitor and one or more shorted diodes. If you
replace the faulty diodes and the fuse and apply power you will
just burn out some more diodes and another fuse.

The table lists open semiconductors as a low probability

occurrence. You may find open semiconductors in the normal
course of service work. This most likely is a secondary failure
mode.

In some circuits if a transistor shorts, an excessive amount of

current can flow. This excessive current can cause the fine
wires inside the transistor to melt, thus producing an open
circuit. First the transistor shorts and second it burns open.
That is a secondary failure mode.

Secondary failure modes are hard to predict in general because

they depend on the circuit. In general if a secondary failure
occurs, other components will be taken out as well.

The matter of secondary failures and cascading failures will be

dealt with as they come up in specific circuits.

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3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors.

 Picture 3.5 3 Electrolytic Capacitors.

For a verbal description click here.

Electrolytic capacitors are unique enough to warrant a section

of their own. In the picture above top is a two section can
electrolytic. The negative end of both capacitors is connected
to the can and the positive ends are brought out to the two
large lugs. A capacitor of this type mounts in a special cutout
made in the chassis in a factory or more often mounts on a
mounting plate which has slots for the four smaller lugs that
are around the edge of the bottom of the can. These capacitors
are made with up to 4 separate capacitors in one unit.

Next is a single 450 volt capacitor that is used in tube

circuits. Below that is a small 25 volt capacitor that is found
in transistor circuits.
All of these capacitors have positive and negative terminals.
Reversing the polarity can be catastrofic.

Electrolytic capacitors are an exception to the rule that

capacitors rarely fail open. They are made similarly to
conventional capacitors as described above but the insulator is
a porous paper instead of plastic film. The paper is impregnated
with an electrolyte usually an acid. During the manufacturing
process each capacitor is connected to a current source. This
causes a layer of aluminum oxide to form on the positive foil.
As the voltage increases the oxide layer becomes thicker and the
process is terminated when the voltage reaches about 1.5 times
the intended working voltage. This process is known as forming
the capacitor.

The paper is not the insulator, dielectric, of the capacitor,

the oxide layer is. The aluminum foil is the positive plate, the
oxide layer is the insulator and the electrolyte in the paper is
the negative plate.

A common failure mode in equipment which has never worked is for

the capacitor to be reverse polarized. Electrolytic capacitors
are used in power supplies. If someone connects one backwards
the capacitor will conduct a substantial direct current. This
current heats up the capacitor interior and when it gets hot
enough the water in the electrolyte turns to steam, pressure
builds up inside the container and the capacitor literally
explodes. The minimum sound is like a fire cracker but if the
capacitor is large it can range up to a cherry bomb or a silver
salute.

Other than the above electrolytic capacitors don't fail anymore

often than plastic film capacitors as long as the equipment is
in continuous use. Defective electrolytics are most often
encountered by those who restore vintage electronics.

Electrolytics made 50 or more years ago probably weren't as well

sealed as modern ones. They can dry out. With most of the water
gone from the electrolyte the capacitance is reduced to a small
fraction of its original value. Such capacitors are open and
have to be replaced.

Another very common failure mode for electrolytic capacitors in

vintage electronics equipment which has not been turned on for
decades is to become unformed. The oxide layer has become very
thin. If treated with care such capacitors can be reformed
outside of the factory. The thing you must not do with vintage
equipment is turn it on. The capacitors in the power supply will
explode if the primary fuse doesn't blow first. Considerable
damage can be done to other components, some of them difficult
to find. More details can be found in a later chapter devoted to
trouble shooting and restoring vintage electronics.

WARNING! Be sure to take the special precautions outlined below

or you will wind up with a burned out meter. If you just connect
the meter in series with a capacitor across a power supply, when
the supply is turned on the charging current of the capacitor
will be as much as an ampere and a sensitive milli amp or micro
amp meter will be burned out.

The empirical formulas below tell you when to discard an

electrolytic capacitor. In order to actually measure the leakage
currents without destroying your meter here is what to do.

1. Connect a short across your meter and set it to a high

current range.
2. Connect the meter in series with the capacitor you
want to test.
3. Connect the combination across the power supply.
4. Turn on the power supply.
5. weight for 1 minute.
6. Remove the short from the meter.
7. Start switching to lower ranges until you can read the
leakage.
8. Write down the value.
9. place the short back on the meter.
10. Turn off the power supply.
11. Discharge the capacitor by connecting a 10 k ohm
1 watt resistor across it for as long as it takes for
the voltage to fall below 5 volts.
12. Disconnect everything.
13. Apply the formulas below to determine the state
of your capacitor.

The current you measured above is termed the leakage current. In

normal operation it does no harm but if it becomes too large the
capacitor can fail violently as described above. A set of
formulas which give the approximate leakage current are given
below.

ILMin = Sqrt(VC)/5

ILMax = Sqrt(VC)/2
 ILWorst Case = Sqrt(VC)*6

IL is the leakage current, V is the rated voltage and C is the

rated capacitance of the capacitor.
Note: Those familiar with basic electricity will remember that
CV = Q, where Q is the charge stored in Coolums. This may be
just a coincidence. I can't readily see how the square root of
charge gives the leakage current. Dimensionally it gives meters
times the square root of Newtons. This must be an empirical
equation. It came from a capacitor manufacturer which is no
longer in business.

The leakage current IL values for minimum, maximum, and worst

case, are for newly manufactured capacitors. But if an older
capacitor fails to reform to a current less than the worst case
it should probably be discarded. Detailed reforming instructions
will be given in the chapter on vintage equipment.

Here is an alternative method for testing an electrolytic

capacitor using a voltmeter instead of a sensitive current
meter.

1. Connect the capacitor in series with a resistor and

the series combination across a power supply which is
set to a voltage equal to the working voltage of the
capacitor.
2. Set a voltmeter to a range just higher than the power
supply voltage.
3. Connect the meter across the resistor. Start with a
resistor having the value R = V / IL Where R is the
resistance of the resistor for the initial test and IL
is the expected leakage current from the above
equations.
4. When the meter reading stops increasing turn off the
power supply and discharge the capacitor.
5. Substitute a resistor having the value R = V / (10 x
IL) If the capacitor is good the meter reading will
rise to 90% of the power supply voltage.

The above test method will also serve to reform an electrolytic

capacitor which has become unformed from prolonged disuse.

Effective Series Resistance, ESR.

Another common defect of electrolytic capacitors is for the

effective series resistance to increase. All capacitors have
some series resistance. It is as though there is a small
resistor inside the case along with the capacitor. This resistor
is in series. In film capacitors this resistance is very small
being typically a fraction of an ohm. But in electrolytic
capacitors the ESR can be significant. The usual cause is drying
out of the electrolyte. A capacitor which is 20 years old may be
slightly dried out causing an ESR of a few ohms. Depending on
the application such a capacitor may not give any indication of
trouble. A capacitor which is 50 years old may be so dried out
that it's ESR is so high that it can no longer effectively
bypass a cathode resistor or act as a filter in a power supply.
It may show good on a capacitor tester and you may be able to
measure its capacitance with a bridge but it just doesn't work
right. Other 50 year old capacitors may be completely dried out
and are effectively open. The later are usually enclosed in a
cardboard tube and seeled with wax as opposed to being in metal
cans. These wax seeled capacitors were used in all American 5
radios and give the symttom of a loud hum in the speaker after
the tubes warm up.

Some testers and many bridges measure the D (dissipation) factor

along with the capacitance. The dissipation factor is defined as

D = Rs / Xc
Where Rs is the effective series resistance, and Xc is the
reactance of the capacitor calculated at the test frequency.
Therefore,
Rs = D Xc
Substituting for Xc gives,
Rs = D / (2 pi f C)
Where pi = 3.14159, f is the test frequency of the meter or
bridge, and C is the capacitance in farads, not microfarads.

I know of no simple setup that will reliably measure ESR. One

way might be to run up the frequency until Xc is less than an
ohm then apply a current and measure the voltage. The problem is
that the frequency may be so much higher than the normal
operating frequency as to render the results meaningless.
Substituting a known good capacitor is probably the only way to
diagnose high ESR
Chapter 4 Troubleshooting Techniques.

4.1 Check The Obvious First.

4.2 Do Not Make Modifications.
4.3 The Power Supply Section.
4.4 Half-splitting.
4.5 Signal Tracing.
4.6 Signal Injection.
4.7 Disturbance Testing.
4.8 Static Testing.
4.9 Shotgunning.

Chapter 4

Troubleshooting Techniques.

Before we can begin troubleshooting, we must develop some

techniques tools and rules. You may already know many of these
rules but have never expressed them in words. Most are simple
common sense.

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4.1 Check The Obvious First.

This seems so obvious that it should not need to be said. But

time and time again, service personnel will overlook a pulled
out plug, a blown fuse or even a burned out power indicator
light.

Replace indicator and dial lights. If the power indicator is

burned out the operator may assume that the equipment did not
come on when the power switch was activated. You should replace
lights even if you have not been asked to do so. Equipment
operators appreciate it and will have good feelings about the
equipment and the people who service it. This is more important
than you might think. If the operator believes that the service
personnel are doing a good job, there will be fewer complaints
and better evaluations for the service people.

Be tactful. If you find something so simple that the operator

could have corrected it, do not be insulting to the operator.
There is nothing to be gained and a great deal to be lost. If
questioned by the operator, be as diplomatic as you can. Good
relations between operating and service personnel are as
important as the technical operation of the equipment itself.

Test for the presence of AC voltage. You may want to use a test
lamp because it is quicker and easier than a voltmeter.

Test for the presence of DC voltage. Make sure that the power
supplies are delivering the voltages and that they are getting
to all of the circuit-boards in the unit.

Make sure the power supply voltages are correct and free of
ripple. A sizable enough percentage of equipment failures are
caused by the power supply to warrant always checking it first.
As a friend Mike McCarty puts it, "The power supply is mama. If
mama aint happy, aint nobody happy."

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4.2 Do Not Make Modifications.

There are two basic kinds of circuits to troubleshoot, circuits

which used to work and stopped working, and circuits which have
never worked.

If a circuit used to work, it is safe to assume that it came

from the manufacturer with all component values correct for
proper operation. As a service technician your job is to find
the defective component and replace it. Modifying the circuit to
correct the fault will probably result in performance not as
good as when the equipment was new. Modifications also make the
job of any technicians who come after you almost impossible.
Don't start changing component values and rearranging circuitry;
find the defective part and replace it.

As with any rule there are exceptions. One is obvious, if you

are the owner of the equipment and you want to add a feature
that was not part of the original design. Even so you should
print or write clearly information about the modification on a
gummed mailing label and stick it inside the chassis or cabinet.
You may think you will own the equipment as long as you live but
you aren't going to live forever. Eventually this beloved device
will wind up in the hands of a stranger who will be helped if
such a note is included. Making notations in the manual is not
good enough. After you have gone on to the big ham shack in the
sky chances are the manual will be tossed and the equipment sold
at an estate sail.

Another exception is if the owner specifically asks for a

modification. He or she may ask if you could add a phono jack so
the RCA 45 could be played through the radio. Or someone may ask
if the radio, phonograph, or TV set, could be equipped with a
headphone jack for private listening.

When the equipment doesn't belong to you and the owner just
wants it to work again, modifications are right out.

Don't start turning internal adjustments. If the equipment is

just a little bit off from its specifications, recalibration may
be what is needed. If the equipment just doesn't work, changing
calibration settings isn't going to fix it. If you have turned
every adjustment you can find, it will be difficult to know when
you have replaced the defective part or parts. You can never be
sure if the symptoms are caused by a defective part or the fact
that every adjustment has been tinkered with. Resist the urge to
tinker. Adjustable resistors and capacitors don't turn
themselves.

I personally know of a case where this happened. A student

worker was troubleshooting a Wavetech function generator. There
must have been half a dozen trimmer pots on the circuit board.
The first thing he did was to turn every screw. Then he started
randomly replacing components. He finally gave up saying it
couldn't be fixed. When it landed on my bench the first thing I
did was to perform the adjustment procedure in the manual. It
came into alignment and worked just fine. Somewhere along the
line he had replaced the defective part but didn't know it
because it was so far out of adjustment. So let me reiterate,
don't turn any adjustments. They don't turn themselves and they
are not the reason the instrument stopped working.

Circuits which have never worked are a slightly different story.

An example of such a circuit could be an R and D (research and
development) prototype. In such a case there may or may not be a
defective component in the circuit. It may not be working
because someone installed a resistor of the wrong value or a
diode or transistor backward. In a case such as this you are
justified in modifying the circuit.
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4.3 The Power Supply Section.

The power supply of any line operated electronic device is the

first place you should look for trouble. As pointed out above
the first thing is to check for normal voltages. However an
often encountered symptom is "It blows fuses." In such a case
the first step is to separate the power supply section from the
rest of the device. This may be as easy as pulling a plug or two
but may require unsoldering some wires. Once the supply has been
separated from its load try another fuse. One exception to this
is if the device uses vacuum tubes and one of them is a
rectifier. Unplug the rectifier tube and make sure there is no
bias supply that uses a selenium or silicon rectifier. Inspect
the heater circuit to make sure there aren't any shorts. Then
try another fuse. If it blows the transformer is most likely
shorted and needs to be replaced.

If the transformer is good no matter if the device uses tubes or

transistors, check for shorted diodes and filter capacitors. If
the diodes and capacitors appear to be good but fuse blowing
persists try the dim bulb test. Connect a low wattage, say 25
watt, tungsten light bulb in series with the power line. The
bulb may light up at full intensity. You now have current
flowing in the transformer, rectifier, and filter, components.
Find out what is going on in the power supply before you switch
to a higher wattage bulb. Check for heating of diodes and filter
capacitors. Measure voltages with an oscilloscope if possible.
If you find it necessary to go to a higher wattage bulb don't go
above the rated current of the device. For example if the device
specifications say normal line current is 2 amperes don't go
above a 250 watt bulb.

This test may reveal that a diode is going into reverse

breakdown at a lower voltage than required for the supply.
Contrary to popular belief a diode is not completely binary in
its failure. Overheating may reduce its reverse breakdown
voltage. The cause of that overheating may be an electrolytic
that passed an ohmmeter test but is conducting a direct current
at a much lower voltage than it's normal operating voltage. Such
a symptom is quite common in vintage equipment which has not
been turned on for several decades. You may observe that the DC
voltage across the filter capacitor is slowly increasing. If so
let things run while occasionally checking the temperature of
the capacitor. If the capacitor begins to heat change to a lower
wattage bulb. What is happening is that the capacitor has become
unformed from disuse and is being reformed. Reforming the
capacitor may restore the unit to operation. If the capacitor
refuses to reform to the necessary voltage it must be replaced.
Even if it does reform after a few hours of dim bulb operation
replacement is still recommended if at all possible.

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4.4 Half-splitting.

Many pieces of equipment are so designed that signals or data

flow through them from one operational block to the next. In
this case it is possible to apply a technique known as half-
splitting.

In this procedure you check for the presence or absence of

signal at a point halfway between input and output. If the
signal is present, you know the trouble is in the second half.
If the signal is absent, you know the trouble is in the first
half. Then you split the defective half in half and check for
signal. In a large system this procedure can save a lot of time
over moving down the line checking each block or stage as you
go.

Think of it as being similar to the old "guess the number" game.

"I am thinking of a number between 1 and 1000. You make a guess
and I will tell you if you are too high or too low." Your first
logical guess would be 500. If I say "You're too low," your next
guess would be 750, and so on. If your first guess was 1 and
your next guess was 2, it would take a very long time to find
the number unless I happened to be thinking of 3. If I am
thinking of 998 it would take a very long time.

An example might be an AM radio. Although it may not be exactly

half way, the volume control is a good place to start half-
splitting. It is easy to find and test equipment is easy to
connect. You are likely using a signal tracer or oscilloscope.
Presents of audio means that the RF and IF sections are OK and
the trouble is in the audio amplifier and speaker section. At
this point the circuits are so simple it is impossible to
distinguish between half-splitting and down the line testing.
All but the most elaborate console radios have only two stages
in the audio section. So check between them, at the plate or
collector of the power output and at the speaker.

If there is no audio at the volume control check to see if the

local oscillator is running. Do not connect your scope probe
directly to the oscillator grid in a tube radio. Connect to a
low impedance point such as the cathode in a Hartley oscillator
circuit. Transistor circuits operate at a low enough impedance
that connecting to the base of the oscillator will not stop the
circuit from oscillating.

There may be situations where half-splitting cannot be applied.

One is an audio amplifier with negative feedback. Any trouble
anywhere inside the loop will propagate around the loop and the
signal will be out of whack everywhere. If the feedback is AC
coupled only the loop can be opened up by unsoldering a resistor
and maybe a capacitor. Then normal half splitting can be
applied. In large and complex systems half-splitting usually can
and should be employed.

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4.5 Signal Tracing.

One way in which half-splitting can be implemented is by signal

tracing. In this technique a device which can detect the type of
signals in the system is used to look for them.

When AM radios were about the only thing to be repaired, a

device known as a signal tracer was on every service bench. The
device was capable of responding to the signals in the RF (radio
frequency), IF (intermediate frequency) or AF (audio frequency)
stages of the radio. The "readout" of the signal tracer was a
loudspeaker. Signal tracers are seldom seen these days and I
know of only one company which is still manufacturing them. No
such device is available for television signals.

A signal tracer for radios can easily be constructed. Any simple

two tube single ended audio amplifier can be a signal tracer.
Even one that already exists. Just attach a shielded probe to it
such as a times 1 scope probe. If you use an existing amplifier
it probably doesn't have a DC blocking capacitor in its input.
One must be added before the amplifier is used as a signal
tracer. Don't just say "I won't touch any high voltage. Someday
you will make a mistake and touch a 300 volt point and "zap",
there goes your amplifier especially if it is transistorized.

For checking IF and Rf circuitry all you need to do is add a

simple AM detector as shown below.

Figure 4.1 Circuit for a Simple AM Detector Probe.

For a verbal description click here.

Silicon diodes such as 1N4148 can be used but I don't recommend

it. Improved performance can be had with 1N270 if you can get
them. You stand a better chance of finding 1N34A diodes. Or the
ECG or NTE equivalent.

This probe can be used to test for an AM signal on the plates or

collectors of IF amplifiers, mixers, and RF amplifiers. When
connected to an unmodulated source of RF the detector will
deliver a DC voltage approximately equal to the peak to peak
voltage of the source. The probe can be used in conjunction with
a high impedance DC meter to tell if the local oscillator in a
radio is operating.

In the age of CD players and computerized industrial control

systems, signal tracing is usually accomplished using an
oscilloscope. Of course the troubleshooter must know what the
signal is supposed to look like in order to know if anything is
wrong. Service manuals for most modern equipment contain actual
photographs of scope traces to show what the signals are
supposed to look like at various points in the system.

Signal Substitution.
Signal substitution is employed when the equipment being tested
has been separated from its signal source. For example, suppose
you are working on a stereo receiver but you don't have a
turntable handy. You would use an AF generator to substitute for
the magnetic pickup of the turntable. You would then employ the
techniques of signal tracing to find the trouble.

Signal substitution should not be confused with signal

injection. In signal substitution the signal generator is
connected to the input of a piece of equipment instead of the
device or equipment which normally goes there. The signal
generator is left connected at the input throughout the testing
procedure.

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4.6 Signal Injection.

Another way in which half-splitting can be implemented is by

signal injection. It is employed when the equipment being tested
has been separated from its signal source but its output device
is present.

For example suppose you are troubleshooting the vertical

amplifier of an oscilloscope. You could use a function generator
to inject signals at various points in the vertical amplifier
and watch for the signal to appear on the scope's screen.

*** WARNING ***

Few if any of today's signal generators have DC blocking

capacitors in their outputs. The output impedance of most
generators is 50 ohms. If you inject signals without using an
external DC blocking capacitor, you could further damage the
piece of equipment you are trying to fix and/or damage the
signal generator.

It is necessary that the injected signal be compatible with the

stage into which it is being injected. It will be of no use to
inject the output from an RF generator into an audio stage or
the output from an audio generator into an RF or IF stage.

Returning to our example of an AM radio you could start by

injecting a signal at the volume control. If you don't hear the
signal or it is very weak even with the generator's output
turned up to full the trouble is in the audio section. Once
again the circuit is so simple that there is little use in half-
splitting beyond this point. If the audio signal generator you
have does not have a DC blocking capacitor in its output you
must use one. The simplest way is to hold one lead of a
capacitor in the clip lead from the generator and use the other
lead as a probe. It will usually help to shorten the leads of
the capacitor. Start with the generator output set low and touch
the probe to the plate or collector of the output device. Turn
up the generator until you hear something. In a tube radio the
sound will not be very loud even with the generator turned up to
full. Turn the output down a bit and touch the grid or base of
the output device. The sound should be loud with a low setting
of the output. Move back to the grid or base of the first audio
stage. The sound should be even louder. These statements would
be true if there was no trouble in the audio section. Obviously
there is so the sound will not be louder in one of the cases
where it is supposed to be.

If the trouble is not in the audio section you need to work with
the IF and RF sections. Set your RF signal generator to the
frequency of the IF which in most cases will be 455 kHz but in
car radios and some older radios may be 262.5 kHz. Remember to
use a DC blocking capacitor. Touch the probe to the plate or
collector of the last IF amplifier. You should hear a good loud
signal with the generator set to about 0.1 volt. Move the
generator to the base or grid of the same stage. Touch up the
frequency of the generator to be sure it is tuned to the center
of the IF band. The signal should be much louder. If the AGC in
the radio is very good you might not perceive much of an
increase. Don't be fooled by this. Turn down the output of the
generator until the signal begins to get weak. Move the probe
back to the plate or collector to confirm that the stage has a
lot of gain.

The next logical thing to check is to see if the local

oscillator is running. One of the least equipment intensive
methods is to listen to the oscillator on another AM radio. Tune
the other radio to a weak station in the top half of the AM band
above 1000 kHz. Tune the radio you are troubleshooting about 455
kHz below the other one and if the oscillator is operating you
will hear a beat, descending tone followed by an ascending tone,
as you tune across the frequency. If you are working on a pocket
transistor radio the two radios must be sitting one on top of
the other for the oscillator signal from one to be picked up by
the other.
Another way is to look with an oscilloscope. This is the only
sure test for a transistor radio. When looking at the grid in a
tube radio be sure to use a times 10 probe. Even so the
frequency of the oscillator will be thrown off by several kHz.

Yet another way to confirm oscillation in a tube radio is to

measure the DC voltage at the oscillator grid. If you have a
genuine VTVM it will have a 1 meg ohm resistor in the DC probe.
You should measure approximately -20 volts at the grid. This
figure is very approximate and your mileage may very. If you
measure only a fraction of a volt negative the oscillator is not
running. If you only have a DMM you must use a 1 meg ohm
resistor at the probe tip as described for a capacitor above.
Touch the resistor to the grid. The reading will be
approximately 10% low but you only want to determine if there is
negative DC present at the grid. Its absolute value is not
important.

If the oscillator is running but the radio is still not working

you may be encountering a puzzling situation. You may be hearing
stations when you touch your test probes to certain points in
the radio but they go away when the probe is removed. This is
most likely in a radio that has an RF amplifier stage. The
trouble is there. If the radio does not have an RF stage this
situation is still possible although the symptom was more likely
to be that the radio would pick up very strong local stations
but they sounded very weak. This would indicate trouble in the
built in antenna or if the radio is very old and requires an
external wire antenna the antenna transformer may be defective.
You did remember to connect an external wire antenna to that old
radio, didn't you?

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4.7 Disturbance Testing.

Disturbance testing can sometimes be employed in the absence of

a signal generator. You may be familiar with one kind of
disturbance testing. If you touch your finger to the phono input
of a stereo amplifier you will hear a loud hum in the speaker.
If you have ever used this effect to find out if the amplifier
was working, you have engaged in disturbance testing for the
purpose of troubleshooting.
The usual method of disturbance testing is to touch or scratch
various points in the circuit with a screwdriver. It is
sometimes helpful to touch a finger to the metal part of the
screwdriver, but only in low voltage circuits.

If you are concerned about the hazard of electric shock (as you
should always be), you can touch or scratch with one lead of a
resistor while holding the other lead.

Disturbance testing should always be conducted with care because

it is possible to destroy some MOSFETs (metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistors) by touching the gate
terminal.

Back to the example of our radio. The impedance levels in a

transistor radio are too low to effectively employ disturbance
testing. You can test the audio section in a tube radio by
touching the center terminal of the volume control. CAUTION! In
most AC operated radios the on/off switch is shared with the
volume control. The AC terminals for the on/off switch are on
the back of the control. The audio terminals for the volume
control are on the side. It is likely to be unhealthy to get
them confused. Touch the center terminal on the side of the
control and turn the volume up and down. You should hear the
volume of the hum change. Note: If you aren't using a knob on
the shaft but turning the bear metal shaft you will find that
the hum will be considerably reduced when you touch the metal
shaft. That's because you are grounding your body to the chassis
of the radio and the signal that your body picks up as it acts
as an antenna is not nearly as strong as when it is not
grounded.

Disturbance testing on the IF amplifier is done by scratching on

the grid terminal of the IF tube with the blade of a
screwdriver. If this produces static in the speaker it is likely
the IF amplifier is alright. And that takes us back to that
pesky local oscillator again.

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4.8 Static Testing.

The "static" in static testing is static as in standing still,
not static you hear on the radio. Static testing means testing
the device with no signals present.

Static testing is further subdivided into two types, testing

with power on and testing with power off.

Testing with power on usually means making DC voltage

measurements. Voltage measurements are only meaningful if you
know what the voltages are supposed to be. That implies that you
need a voltage chart for the particular piece of equipment. If
you are without such a chart, do not despair; later chapters in
this book will cover how to reason from the circuit diagram what
the voltages should be.

In any radio, tube or transistor, if it stops working chances

are that some vital DC supply voltage is missing. While you may
not be able to say if the voltage is high or low, if it is zero
the tube isn't going to do much amplifying. In a tube radio
check for plate and screen grid voltages. Odds are good this
will lead you to the problem. In a transistor radio check to see
that base emitter junctions are forward biased and that the
collector is higher, in the absolute sense, than the base.
Remember that most older transistor radios used PNP transistors
which means that all voltages are reversed from the way we have
become accustomed to thinking of them in NPN circuits.

Static testing with power off means making resistance

measurements with an ohmmeter. Because the amplifying devices
used today conduct current (from the ohmmeter battery) even when
no power is applied (unlike vacuum tubes), resistance
measurements are seldom used.

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4.9 Shotgunning.

The term "shotgunning" and the procedure which goes with it

originated with the writer's father. The procedure is quite
simple. "Find what stage the trouble is in and replace all of
the parts in that stage. Resistors and capacitors are cheap"
(and now so are transistors) "and time is money."
This philosophy does not work quite as well in the transistor
age as it did in the vacuum tube age. One reason why this is
true is because transistors have such a low input impedance. The
trouble can be one stage later than you think it is. Another
reason shotgunning doesn't work as well as it used to is because
of the increased use of feedback in transistor circuits. This
makes trouble propagate around the loop, making it very
difficult to pinpoint the defective stage. Negative feedback can
also defeat signal tracing and half-splitting.
Chapter 5 Faults in Power Supplies.

5.1 Rectifier-Filter Circuits.

5.2 Analog Voltage and current Regulator Circuits.
5.3 Switching Mode Power Supplies.

Chapter 5

Faults in Power Supplies.

With the exception of battery operated equipment everything has

a power supply. When troubleshooting any piece of electronics
the power supply is always the place to start.

The device containing the power supply may be a kit or DIY

construction project that used old parts. It may be a piece of
old electronics that has not been turned on in several decades.

There are also laboratory bench power supplies that may develop
a fault and wind up on your bench.

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5.1 Rectifier-Filter Circuits.

WARNING: IF THE ELECTTRONIC ITEM HAS NOT BEEN TURNED ON FOR MANY
YEARS, DON'T JUST PLUG IT IN AND TURN IT ON. Refer to the
chapter on antique electronics equipment before attempting to
troubleshoot such items.

Power supplies can range in complexity from simple transformer-

rectifier-filter circuits to multi output with electronic
voltage and current regulation. If the power supply is one of
the latter the regulator circuits should be separated from the
basic rectifier filter and the basic circuit tested separately.

Although a simple power supply has little to go wrong, as

pointed out earlier in this book failures can cascade turning a
simple problem into a more complex one.

An electrolytic capacitor used in a DIY project may have been

taken from NOS (new old stock) and may not be formed up to its
rated voltage. Such a capacitor may show good using an ohmmeter
but will blow fuses and diodes when the power is turned on.
Since the capacitors have never been put into use they should be
tested at their rated voltage.

For a brief discussion on the construction of an electrolytic

capacitor, how to test it, and its behavior in a circuit, refer
back to 3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors.

For a discussion on testing a power supply which may have

unformed electrolytic capacitors and how to reform them refer
back to 4.3 The Power Supply Section.

Figure 5.1, Four Most Common Rectifier-Filter Circuits.

For a verbal description click here.

Figure 5.1 shows the four rectifier-filter circuits you are most
likely to encounter. The primary circuit showing connection to
the power line, switch, and fuse have been omitted but will
always be present in the device on your bench. Just for the
record they are (a) full-wave center-tapped, (b) bridge, (c)
dual voltage bridge, and (d) full-wave voltage doubler.

The terminal labeled "COM" (common) on each circuit may or may

not be connected to the chassis of the work device. The positive
terminal labeled "V+" could just as well be used as common to
obtain a negative supply or a circuit could have its "COM"
connected to the positive of another similar circuit to obtain
more voltage. The circuit of Figure (c) could have the bottom or
top terminal used as common to produce voltages of V+ and 2V+ or
V- and 2V-.

If you have stripped the circuit down to one of these and it is

found to be at fault the most likely symptom is blowing fuses.
Resist the temptation to put in a bigger fuse. A good starting
point is to use your ohmmeter to test the diodes. Most of the
time a failed diode will be a really dead short, zero ohms.
There will be parallel current paths through the other diodes
and transformer secondary. If the power supply is low voltage
high current the secondary may have a resistance of a small
fraction of an ohm. In this case if two of the diodes are
shorted it may appear as if all are shorted.

You will likely have to unsolder the diodes in order to test

them. If even one defective diode is found you should replace
all of them. All diodes in a rectifier should be of the same
voltage and current rating. Diodes aren't all that expensive
anyway.

Remember that one or more shorted diodes may be caused by a

shorted or unformed electrolytic capacitor. After replacing the
diodes and before plugging it in, use your bench power supply to
attempt to apply the normal operating voltage across the outputs
with the power supply being worked on unplugged. The bench power
supply MUST be current limited.

WARNING!!! Most vacuum tube bench power supplies do not have

current limiting. A resistor must be used to limit the current
to a safe value for the bench power supply.

If the voltage will only come up to approximately 10% or 20% of

operating voltage an unformed electrolytic capacitor is
indicated.

In the case of Figure (c) the voltage may be applied to each

half of the supply separately. This will localize the problem to
one or the other of the circuits. If you carefully examine the
circuit you will see that the bridge really consists of two
full-wave center-tapped circuits like that of Figure (a). One is
reversed from the other.

Silicon Diodes most often fail dead shorted. If the fuse does
not blow quickly enough another diode may also go shorted and
excessive current may burn one or both open. In either case the
failure is binary and can be detected with an ohmmeter, even the
ohmmeter section of a DMM. In higher voltage circuits the
partial failure of reduced reverse breakdown voltage may be
encountered. Such a failure mode is difficult to detect unless
you have access to a curve tracer. In deed it may be difficult
to tell the difference between such a diode failure and an
unformed electrolytic capacitor. Unsoldering components for
testing separately is the only way to resolve this ambiguity. If
the capacitor test good up to its operating voltage the diodes
should be shotgunned.

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5.2 Voltage and current Regulator Circuits.

5.2.0 How a voltage regulator works and what it does.

A voltage regulator has to hold the voltage constant as the

voltage of the input varies and as the load current changes. The
output voltage of a rectifier and filter capacitor is not
constant. The line voltage can vary all over the place and then
there is that ripple which is always present. Another
application is in battery operated equipment. In many cases the
designer of such equipment wants the voltage applied to the
circuits to remain constant as the batteries run down. The
battery voltage is set higher than the circuit needs and the
regulator holds it constant until the voltage gets near the
operating voltage. Special circuits usually warn the operator
and/or turn off the equipment when the battery is so run down as
to no longer operate the device.

Changing load current is another difficulty. We often use

resistors to indicate the load on a power supply. The real load
on a power supply is a transistor circuit and/or a small motor
or two. The current drawn by a transistor circuit may change
depending on what the circuit is and what it is doing at the
moment. The current drawn by a motor changes as its mechanical
load changes. So a regulator may have a lot to do.

A regulator can't increase the voltage applied to it. All it can

do is reduce it. It regulates the voltage by reducing it by the
amount required to hold it at some preset value. The difference
between the regulator input and the output is called the
regulator drop. Each type of regulator has it's minimum
regulator drop. If the input voltage falls so low as to make the
regulator drop less than the minimum the regulator will lose
control and the output voltage will fall.

For example, a 12 volt regulator IC has a minimum drop of 2

volts. That means that the input voltage must be 14 volts or
higher. It regulates just fine for input voltages anywhere from
14 to 40 volts. But if the input voltage falls to 13 volts the
output voltage will fall to 11 volts and it will no longer be
regulated. It will just be 2 volts less than the input, ripple
and all. If the ripple valley falls below the minimum required
the output voltage will acquire ripple as shown in the graph
below.

A common fault in equipment that is older than 20 years is for

the electrolytic filter capacitor(s) to dry out which reduces
the effective capacitance value. In such a case the ripple
amplitude will increase.

Figure 3.14 Input and output waves of a voltage regulator.

For a verbal description click here.

The upper wave is the output of a full wave rectifier with a
capacitor filter. The lower wave is the output voltage of a
voltage regulator. In (a) the input voltage is high enough that
the regulator is able to do its job properly. In part (b)
decreased capacitance has reduced the ripple valley so it is
below the minimum required to maintain regulation. Note that the
peak voltage is the same in both cases. This is the way ripple
responds to decreased filter capacitance value or increased load
current.

A measurement with a DC voltmeter is likely to indicate that the

input voltage is high enough but the ripple valley is too low.
Only an oscilloscope measurement will reveal this defect. This
is one of the most overlooked problems in troubleshooting
electronic devices.

5.2.1 Transistor Circuits.

If the basic rectifier filter section is working properly The

problem is in the electronic regulator circuit. Beware of
treating the symptom. Many power supplies I have opened up have
revealed a burned or scorched resistor. Replacing this resistor
will not fix the problem. The replacement will just burn out as
the old one did. However, this will point you to the area of
trouble.

A very basic voltage regulator circuit is shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2, Simple Voltage Regulator Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

This type of regulator would most likely be used as the internal

power supply for some piece of lab equipment such as a signal
generator. The voltage adjustment pot would be of the "set and
forget" type. Bench power supplies require different circuitry
so their voltage can be adjusted all the way to zero.

R2 supplies a current to the zener diode D5 which maintains a

constant voltage at the emitter of Q2. R1 supplies current to
the base of Q1 which without Q2 would hold Q1 in near
saturation. The collector of Q2 can take current away from the
base of Q1 reducing the voltage at the emitter of Q1. In the
equilibrium condition the voltage at the emitter of Q1 is held
constant by the circuit. Q1 is known as the pass transistor and
Q2 is the error amplifier. The zener diode provides the
reference voltage.

If the output voltage, emitter of Q1, tries to decrease due to

an increase in load or a decrease in line voltage the voltage at
the base of Q2 will decrease reducing the base current because
the emitter voltage of Q2 is being held constant by the zener
diode. This will also decrease the collector current of Q2. This
allows the base current of Q1 to increase because the current
through R1 divides between the collector of Q2 and the base of
Q1. If the collector current of Q2 decreases the base current of
Q1 will increase. This provides more current to the emitter of
Q1 partially counteracting the original decrease in voltage at
the emitter of Q1.

If Q1 shorts the output voltage will be stuck at maximum and

cannot be changed by the setting of the pot.

If Q2 shorts the output voltage will be reduced to a value near

that of the zener diode and can't be changed.

If D5 shorts the output voltage of the circuit will fall to a

very low value. The control will still have some effect but the
regulation will be vary poor.

If R2 opens the circuit will still appear to be working but the

regulation will not be quite as good as it was before. The
emitter current of Q2 is supplying current to the zener but it
will not be as large and will vary quite a bit. As zener diodes
aren't perfect a varying current will cause the voltage to vary
somewhat.

If R1 opens the output voltage will fall to a very low value

likely zero.
Figure 5.2b, Improved Simple Voltage Regulator Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

Improved performance equivalent to using a current source

instead of R2 can be achieved by simply moving the top end of R2
to the emitter of Q1 as shown in Figure 5.2B below. The value of
R2 would have to be decreased somewhat but no additional
components are required. Very small changes in the output
voltage would have a very very small effect on the zener current
and a very very very small effect on the zener diode voltage.
The operating theory is not changed by this change.

General Operating Theory.

Q1 is the pass transistor and operates as an emitter follower

amplifier. Such an amplifier has current gain. In high current
power supplies Q1 is often a Darlington circuit.

Q2 is a voltage amplifier. It can be easily replaced by an

operational amplifier. The emitter is the noninverting input and
the base is the inverting input.

A zener diode is a zener diode and there isn't anything else

that can replace it. There are IC devices known as voltage
references but at their heart is a zener diode. An improvement
that can be made to the zener part of the circuit would be to
replace R2 with a current source. The circuit with all of these
improvements is shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3, Improved Voltage Regulator Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

Q3 and R1 form a constant current source for the zener diode.

This isolates the zener current from changes in the input
voltage. Because the zener diode is not perfect large changes in
zener diode current can cause small changes in the voltage drop
across the diode.

If the op amp has bipolar inputs the current into or out of the
noninverting input will be only a few microamps. If an FET input
op amp is used the current will be about 1 pico amp. In either
case the current is insignificant compared to the current of
several milliamps flowing in the zener diode. The circuit
functions exactly as the one above except that the op amp has a
much higher gain than a single transistor which makes the
regulation much more accurate.

Troubleshooting this circuit is in many ways easier than the

more primitive circuit of Figure 5.2. This circuit is somewhat
limited in range of adjustment and may be a fixed voltage supply
within a piece of complex equipment. In that case the pot is a
setup adjustment which is not meant to be turned by the
operator. Let me reiterate, DON'T CHANGE THE SETTING OF THE
CONTROL.
If either Q1 or Q2 shorts the voltage will go up to maximum. It
may be difficult to determine which one is at fault without
removing them from the circuit and performing a junction test.
One thing to try is measure the voltage from emitter to base of
each one by connecting the voltmeter leads to those two points.
If one of the transistors is good it will most likely have 0.6
volts between base and emitter. If you measure zero or 0.1 volts
that transistor is most likely shorted.

If the op amp fails its output will be locked to either common

or the positive input rail. This will cause the output to go to
either zero or maximum voltage. If the voltage goes to maximum
it may be difficult to tell the difference between a short in Q1
or Q2 from a short in the op amp. Once again measure the emitter
base voltage on Q1 and Q2. If both are 0.6 volts the op amp is
most likely shorted.

The failure mode of FETs is not easily predictable. The gate to

channel junction can short in which case the drain current will
go up to the zero bias value and stay there. This may or may not
produce an over current condition in the zener and R1 large
enough to cook either one. The power supply might operate for
several years with this condition without any hint that anything
is wrong. The conditions would be that the line regulation and
ripple rejection would not be up to original specifications. The
condition might show up as hum in a sensitive amplifier being
powered by the regulator.

If the FET should develop a gate to source short the zener and
R1 would be smoked.

If the FET develops an open drain or open source the zener

voltage will drop to zero and so will the output voltage of the
regulator.

Current limiting.

Figure 5.4 shows a current limiting circuit added to Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.4, Improved Voltage Regulator Circuit with Current
Limiting Added.

For a verbal description click here.

The ideal current limiter holds a constant voltage up to the

current which is set by the value of R5 and the breakdown
voltage of Q4. Once this current value has been reached the
current does not increase by so much as a pico amp and the
voltage of the regulator falls, to zero if necessary. The
smaller the base current of Q2 is, the closer this current
limiter will come to the ideal.

The circuit works as a voltage regulator as long as the voltage

drop across R5 is less than the emitter base breakdown voltage
of Q4. When the voltage drop across R5 reaches the breakdown
voltage Q4 begins to conduct pulling base current away from Q2.
R6 helps to isolate the output of the op amp from the base of Q2
so Q4 doesn't have to pull the output voltage of the op amp
down.

With this circuit there would be some increase in current after

limiting begins because as the voltage at the base of Q2 drops
the current through R6 will increase. If Q1 and Q2 were replaced
by a power FET R6 could be very large and the limiter would work
quite well.
This circuit is a cascading failure waiting to happen. If the
load develops a short the voltage will drop to zero but the
maximum current will be flowing. If the heat sink on Q1 is not
designed for this fault condition Q1 will overheat and
eventually short out. When that happens the current will go up
to a very large value and the voltage across R5 will exceed the
emitter base breakdown voltage of Q4. This will cause the
emitter base junction to short out and as the high current flows
through the shorted junction the base will likely burn open. Q4
would not be a high power transistor but a small 250 mW
transistor. With Q4 now burned away, R5 will smoke and burn up.
As the high current continues to flow diodes in the rectifier
will short out and the primary fuse will eventually blow, after
most of the semiconductor devices have either shorted or melted
open. Some parts in the electronics which was the load will
probably be cooked as well. All in all this particular failure
mode is a total disaster.

On the other hand if the heat sink was sized for continuous
short circuit operation There shouldn't be any problems.

If this is a lab bench power supply the voltage and current

should be fully adjustable. R5 can be a rheostat adjustable from
the front panel.

If the power supply has a fixed output voltage and is part of a

large device such as an oscilloscope or test set the current
limit will also be fixed. Such an internal supply may also be
equipped with current fold back as shown below to protect the
power supply and circuitry connected to it in case of a short.
Figure 5.5, Voltage Regulator Circuit with Current Fold Back.

For a verbal description click here.

The fold back threshold is set by the voltage divider consisting

of R8 and R9. C2 delays the voltage so the power supply can get
started without going into fold back when the power is turned
on.

In normal operation and when current limiting first begins D6 is

reverse biased. As current limiting continues and the output
voltage falls at some point D6 will become forward biased. This
increases the base current of Q4 which takes even more current
away from Q2. This shuts down Q2 and Q1 reducing the current to
a small value.

If C2 should open the power supply most likely wouldn't come on.
If C2 shorts or R8 opens, current fold back will be disabled.
This is not likely to be discovered unless another failure
brings attention to it.
If R9 should open the power supply will shut down. There will be
an abnormally large current into the base of Q4. It may overheat
and short, becoming a cascaded failure.

Floating the Error Amplifier.

You have noted in each of these circuits that the op amp power
connections are between ground and the positive side of the
rectifier-filter output. Op amp ICs typically have a maximum
voltage of plus and minus eighteen volts. When using one of
these ICs the highest allowable voltage of the filter output is
36 volts. The maximum regulator output voltage is several volts
less than the filter output voltage so this limits the maximum
voltage of the power supply. If the error amplifier is operated
from an additional floating power supply the maximum output
voltage is limited only by the maximum voltage of the pass
transistor. An example is shown below.
Figure 5.6, Voltage Regulator Circuit with Floating Error
Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

Note that the center of the symmetrical supply for the op amp is
connected to the positive output of the regulator. The voltage
reference and the noninverting input are also returned to this
point. An op amp will always set its output voltage to whatever
is required to bring the inverting input to the same voltage as
the noninverting input. Let's say that the reference zener diode
is 6 volts, R5 is 12 k ohms, and R6 is set to 36 k ohms. The op
amp is going to force the inverting input to be at zero volts
because the noninverting input is at zero volts. That places 6
volts across R5 and makes the current through it 0.5 mA to the
right. That current isn't going to go into the inverting input
because it is a high impedance point, possibly an FET input. The
current is flowing downward through R6. Now 0.5 mA in 36 k ohms
gives a voltage of 18 volts. That's the answer. Nothing else to
add or subtract.

This arrangement is often used in laboratory power supplies

which employ switches to set the voltage. This can be precisely
done because the voltage is directly proportional to the
resistance. The most significant digit of the switches often
selects taps on transformer T1 so the pass transistor, or tube,
does not have to stand the maximum voltage of the power supply.
If tubes are substituted for the pass transistor the output can
go up to hundreds or even thousands of volts.

A common fault in power supplies such as this is for the switch

contacts to become oxidized and make poor contact. Cleaning will
usually fix this problem. One or more of the range resistors can
open causing the power supply to work properly up to a certain
voltage setting and then go to maximum.

The fact that the positive output is labeled as 0 volts does not
mean this terminal is grounded or connected to the chassis. In
deed, laboratory bench power supplies never have either side
connected to the chassis. Schematics for these supplies will
most likely have voltages labeled in this way because it makes
trouble shooting much easier. Imagine if the voltages of the
power supply operating from T2 were referenced from the negative
output terminal (-ADJ.). Any faults in this part of the circuit
would be much harder to figure out. If this circuit were a sub
part of a large circuit either side might be grounded or neither
side grounded.

IC Voltage Regulators.

The 723 voltage regulator remains popular and available even

after 30 years. It is a 14 pin DIP that has all the elements of
a voltage regulator inside. It will work at current levels of a
few mA using its own internal pass transistor. If an external
high power pass transistor is driven by the internal one in a
darlington connection the little IC can handle an amp or more.
After study of the above circuits the data sheet of the 723 will
look very familiar.

The other IC regulators are those three terminal regulators.

They come in a variety of voltages from 5 to 24 volts and there
is one that is adjustable. They are current limited which can't
be adjusted and thermally protected.

The latter can cause a fault which may be hard for the
uninformed to find. If the regulator is air cooled and the air
passage becomes clogged with dust as it is guaranteed to do, The
regulator will overheat and shut down. As it is no longer
dissipating power it will cool and turn back on. No reset is
necessary. It may take several hours to heat up enough to shut
down and only a few tens of minutes to recover. So, the
equipment shuts down, you are called in, and about the time you
arrive the IC has cooled enough to turn back on. If this did not
repeat you could get the reputation of curing equipment by
laying on of hands. But it is going to repeat again, and again,
until you clean out the airway.

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5.2 Vacuum Tube Power Supplies.

Figure 5.7, Vacuum Tube Voltage Regulator Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

If this circuit seems familiar it should. Compare it with Figure

5.2. V3 is the voltage reference, V2 is the error amplifier, and
V1 is the pass tube.

Isn't that funny? When I first learned transistors the analogy

was drawn the other way. The circuit started out with tubes and
they were replaced by transistors. Now when everyone is more
familiar with transistors we have to start there and replace
transistors with tubes. And now back to our regularly scheduled
program.

V3 is a gas filled voltage regulator tube. They come in voltages

of 75, 90, 105, and 150. They use the inert gasses with the
exceptions of helium and radon. Each tube type uses a different
gas. That was all we had before Clarence Zener did his thing.

R1 and R2 set the voltage on the screen grid of V2. This voltage
will vary some and the more it varies the less gain the tube
will have. The voltage divider is made as stiff as practical.
The screen voltage is usually set between 1/2 and 2/3 of the
supply voltage. R1 and R2 also provide the current for V3 the
regulator tube. This tube requires a minimum of 5 mA to maintain
the glow discharge and regulate the voltage. In order to insure
that a brownout won't extinguish the VR tube a minimum current
of 10 mA is usually set.

If the voltage at the output tries to decrease the voltage at

the grid of V2 will change a bit in the negative direction. This
will decrease the plate current of V2 because the cathode is
held constant by the VR tube. A decrease in current through R4
will cause the voltage across it to decrease which will increase
the current in V1 mostly counteracting the change.

The 7 pin miniature series of VR tubes has the anode connected

to two pins and the cathode to three. This allows designers to
protect the power supply against being operated with the Vr tube
unplugged. In this circuit if V3 is unplugged while power is on
the positive voltage will be removed from the cathode of V2. R3
will pull the cathode down close to common reducing the output
voltage to near zero.

Unlike transistors tubes fail in a decided analog manner.

Although there are occasionally catastrophic shorts the usual
failure mode is for the cathode emission to become so low that
the tube can no longer conduct enough current to do its job. The
commonly used term for this is to describe the tube as weak. If
V2 grows weak the output voltage will go high. It may still be
possible to adjust it somewhat down from maximum but not all the
way down.

If V1 grows weak the supply will still appear to work when

lightly loaded, a small load current, but if loaded to its
specified current the voltage will drop down and cannot be
turned up to the desired value.

I have never known a VR tube to fail so I can't tell you how a

failed tube behaves.

The output voltage of this circuit cannot be adjusted below the

voltage of the VR tube plus about 50 volts. So a regulator built
using a 105 volt tube would only come down to about 150 volts.
Circuits of this kind are not used in bench power supplies but
are frequently seen in fixed voltage regulators such as those
found in Tektronix oscilloscopes, H P signal generators, etc.

Improved Voltage Regulator.

Figure 5.8, Improved Vacuum Tube Voltage Regulator Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

This power supply circuit will go all the way to zero and even a
little negative if R7 is not properly adjusted. R7 is usually a
screwdriver adjusted rheostat. The cathode of the error
amplifier, V2, is at a negative voltage and the negative end of
the adjustment divider chain is held at twice that voltage.

This circuit will also go much closer to the voltage across C1

than the previous one. Figure 5.7 uses a triode but if the
pentode in Figure 5.8 were to have its screen grid connected to
its plate it would be triode connected. The floating power
supply from T2 which is filtered by C4, R10, C5, R11, and C6,
keeps the screen grid of the pass tube a constant voltage above
its cathode which makes it behave as a pentode or beam tetrode.
Any ripple on the screen supply will appear in the output of the
regulator so it must be very well filtered.

Most power tubes have a maximum heater to cathode voltage of 200

volts. If the output of the regulator is to go higher than this
the heater and its supply must be floating. The dot showing a
connection from one side of the heater to the cathode of the
pass tube is not a mistake.

The negative supply for the two seriesed VR tubes is derived

from the negative half of the bridge on T1 and filtered by R1,
C2, R2, and C3. R3 sets the current through the VR tubes and
isolates them from C3. If a capacitor is placed in parallel with
a VR tube it will form a relaxation oscillator just like the
neon lamp type we used to build for science fair projects.

R1 dissipates more power than would be calculated based on the

DC current. The output of the bridge rectifier has an AC
component which has a peak to peak value equal to the peak value
of half of the transformer secondary. Almost all of the AC
component of current in R1 flows back to the center-tap through
C2. Thus, R1 is carrying the DC plus the AC components of
current. The power dissipated cannot be calculated without the
use of calculus. Therefore it is recommended that this resistor
be considered to be dissipating two or three times what the DC
calculation yields.

Current Limiting?

I have never seen a vacuum tube power supply that was protected
by a current limiting circuit. That is not to say they never
existed, it's just that I have never seen one. My attempts to
design such a circuit on paper have become very complicated and
I doubt if they would work reliably. The only over current
protection I have seen in a tube power supply is the obvious one
of a fast acting fuse in series with the output or an over
current relay. Think of an over current relay as being a self
resetting circuitbreaker.

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5.3 Switching Mode Power Supplies.

The earliest switching mode power supplies were developed to

improve the efficiency of the analog regulators shown above.
Such regulators are likely to be 50 percent efficient or less. A
more efficient circuit is shown below.

Figure 5.9, Early Switching Regulator Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

The power connections to the triangular wave generator and
comparator are not shown but they are assumed. If they were not
present the circuit would not work.

Notice in the circuit above that the transistor is now a PNP. It

acts as a switch not an analog amplifier. When the output level
of the comparator which drives it is low Q1 is on. When the
comparator output is high Q1 is off. When Q1 is off the power is
zero. When it is on the voltage drop is small typically 0.1 to
0.5 volts depending on the current. The power is still very
small for a current of 1 amp it can be as low as 250 mW.

The inductor and C2 smooth the output. When Q1 turns off the
inductor produces a negative going pulse at its left end. D6
prevents this pulse from going to huge negative values that
would burn out Q1.

A comparator is a device that compares two analog voltages and

produces a binary output. If the noninverting input is higher
than the inverting input the output is high. If the noninverting
input is lower than the inverting input the output is low.

The triangular wave is applied to the inverting input. The

horizontal line on the waveform is the assumed level of the
noninverting input. The output wave is what would be produced.

Suppose that this is the equilibrium condition. If the load

current increases the output voltage will decrease which will
cause the output of the op amp to increase. The horizontal line
on the triangular wave will move up and the negative pulses from
the comparator will become wider. That means that Q1 will be on
for a larger percentage of the time. This permits Q1 to deliver
more current to the load and the output voltage will be
maintained at almost the original value.

If Q1 shorts the output voltage goes up to maximum and won't

come down. If either the op amp or comparator shorts to rail the
output will go either to maximum or zero. If the triangular wave
generator stops working the regulator circuit will seem to be
working but the voltage will be bouncing up and down by some
amount. Just how much and at what frequency cannot be predicted
without knowing details about the regulator. It will likely be
switching at a much lower rate and the output will have a
definite triangular wave superimposed on the DC. Without the
triangular wave generator the circuit will generate its own
triangular waves.
Figure 5.10, Isolated Switching Mode Power Supply Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

The circuit above is not regulated but is strictly open loop.

It's advantages are high efficiency, light weight, and small
space.

The switching frequency is quite high to place it well above the

range of human hearing. That means that the transformer needs
very little iron and can be small and light. Because the
transistors operate as switches they dissipate little power.

The high switching frequency and fast switching transistors used

mean that the circuit produces strong harmonic frequencies well
into the radio spectrum. In order to reduce this interference to
below 1 microvolt the entire circuit would have to be placed in
a cast iron box with multi section multi compartment filters on
all leads passing through the wall of the box. This would mostly
defeat the purpose of a switch mode power supply.

R2 slightly forward biases the base emitter junction of the two

transistors to insure that oscillation will start spontaneously.
After oscillation starts capacitor C2 builds up a negative
charge and R1 limits the base current to a safe value. R1 also
sets the maximum base current so if it should increase in value
the output power of the supply would be somewhat down.
Chapter 6 Faults in Transistor Circuits.

6.1 Common Emitter Amplifier.

6.2 The Emitter-follower's Fatal Flaw.
6.3 AC Coupled Amplifiers.
6.4 DC Coupled Amplifiers.
6.5 Radio Frequency Amplifiers.
6.6 Switching Circuits.

Chapter 6.

Faults in Transistor Circuits.

Discrete transistor circuits are found in almost every area of

electronics. Transistor circuitry is to be found in consumer,
industrial, automotive and military electronics. The importance
of knowing how to troubleshoot transistor circuits cannot be
over-emphasized. In this chapter we will examine the minimal
circuits that are the building blocks of larger circuits.

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6.1 Common Emitter Amplifiers.

One of the most common uses of transistors is to provide signal

amplification. The most common amplifier configuration is the
common emitter amplifier.

In this and following chapters we will refer to voltages at

particular points. Everyone knows that there is no such thing as
a voltage at a point, only voltages between two points. When we
speak of a voltage at a point, the other point is assumed to be
ground. Imagine that one lead of our voltmeter is connected to
the ground point of the circuit. When we speak of the voltage at
a point we are connecting the other lead of our voltmeter to
that point. Thus the voltage at a point is the voltage between
that point and ground.
Figure 6.1 Constant Voltage Biasing.

For a verbal description click here.

Figure 6.1 is the circuit of the most popular method of biasing

a common emitter amplifier. Typical voltages for this circuit
would be VE (emitter to ground voltage) = 1.13 volts, VB (base
to ground) = 1.73 volts, and VC (collector to ground) = 6.79
volts.

Suppose now that we observe the following voltages: VE = 1.5

volts, VB = 1.8 volts and VC = 12 volts.

The fact that VC = VCC indicates no voltage drop across the

collector resistor and therefore no collector current. A shorted
collector resistor can be ruled out because resistors rarely
short.

VE - VB < 0.6 v could indicate a base-emitter short in the

transistor, or could it? A base-emitter short would effectively
place RE in parallel with R2. The parallel combination is (1.2 k
ohms x 6.8 k ohms)/(1.2 k ohms + 6.8 k ohms) = 1.02 k ohms and
the voltage divider equation gives a voltage at the base of 12 v
x 1.02 k ohms /(1.02 k ohms + 39 k ohms) = 0.31 v. Since the
measured voltage is 1.8 volts, a base to emitter short can be
ruled out.

A short in the transistor involving the collector would make the

collector and base voltages to be the same. Thus we can rule out
a shorted transistor.

Because the voltage at the base is normal we can also rule out
any trouble in R1 or R2.

If the collector resistor were open, the transistor collector

would try to draw current and pull the collector voltage down to
very near the emitter voltage. Thus we rule out the collector
resistor.

After you have ruled out all other possibilities the one which
remains is the answer. The emitter resistor open is the only
thing not ruled out. Let us check the logic to see if it makes
sense.

If the emitter resistor opens there can be no emitter current.

With no emitter current there is also no collector current. No
collector current means that there is no voltage drop across the
collector resistor. Thus VC = VCC.

As a further consequence of no emitter current, the base-emitter

junction will not be forward biased, VBE = 0.6 volts, which
means that VE is closer than normal to VB. Since there is no
base current, the voltage at the base will be normal or may
increase slightly. All clues are consistent. The emitter
resistor is open.

Suppose that we observe VE = 0, VB = 0 and VC = 12 volts. In

this circuit there is no failure mode of the transistor which
can make the base voltage zero. If R1 opens, there can be no
current through R2 and no bias for the transistor. The
transistor will be in cutoff; VE will be zero and VC = VCC. The
answer must be R1 open.
Suppose we observe VE = 2.3 volts, VB = 2.9 volts and VC = 2.4
volts. There are two possibilities here, either the transistor
is shorted (everything to everything) or the transistor is being
driven into saturation. We will examine each possibility in
turn.

If the transistor were shorted, the circuit would become that of

figure 6.2. This places R1 in parallel with RC which is (39 k
ohms x 5.6 k ohms)/(39 k ohms + 5.6 k ohms) = 4.90 k ohms and
also R2 in parallel with RE (1.2 k ohms x 6.8 k ohms)/(1.2 k
ohms + 6.8 k ohms) = 1.02 k ohms. The two parallel combinations
make up a voltage divider. When we calculate the voltage we find
12 v x 1.02 k ohms /(1.02 k ohms + 4.90 k ohms) = 2.07 volts. If
everything were shorted we should measure 2.07 volts at base,
emitter and collector.
Figure 6.2 Figure 6.1 With a Shorted Transistor.

For a verbal description click here.

The only failure which could drive the transistor into

saturation would be R2 open. If R2 opens, all of the current
which flows through R1 will flow into the base of the
transistor. We can calculate the base current as follows. From
the voltage measurements above we see that the voltage at the
base is approximately 3 volts. That leaves 9 volts to drop
across R1. The current in R1 is 9 v / 39 k ohms = 230 microamps.
If beta is 50 the collector current could be as high as 230
microamps x 50 = 11.5 mA. The resultant drop across RC is 11.5
mA x 5.6 k ohms = 64.4 volts. This is impossible! It is much
greater than the power supply voltage. The transistor is in hard
saturation. The fact that VB is different from VE is a strong
(but not absolute) indication that the transistor is not
shorted. It is time to shut down the power and make some
ohmmeter tests.

Ohmmeters and Transistors.

Ohmmeters must be used on transistor circuits with some caution,

not because of any danger of damage to the circuit but because
of the danger of arriving at the wrong conclusion. Analog and
digital ohmmeters work quite differently and you can be badly
misled if you fail to understand the difference.

A digital ohmmeter applies a constant current source to the

resistance under test and measures the voltage drop which
results. Since the function V = I x R is linear, the scale is
linear. The maximum voltage at full scale is 0.2 volts. This is
not enough to forward bias a silicon P-N junction. What this
means is that you cannot use a digital ohmmeter to test
semiconductor devices. The meter will indicate over-range no
matter what you do. You can use a digital ohmmeter to test
resistors in transistor circuits without removing them from the
circuit.

Many newer DMMs have a diode test position on the range switch.
In this position the full-scale range is 2 volts (1.999) and a
good P-N junction will indicate approximately 0.6 volts in the
forward direction and over-range in the reverse direction.

An analog ohmmeter applies a voltage to the resistance under

test and measures the current which flows. The ohmmeter scale is
very nonlinear because I = E / R is nonlinear. The voltage
applied is 1.5 volts on all but the RX10,000 range, where it is
9 volts. This voltage is sufficient to forward bias P-N
junctions. You can use an analog ohmmeter to test transistors
out of circuit.

In order to use an analog ohmmeter to test semiconductor devices

you must know which lead of the ohmmeter is charged positively.
In the case of the Simpson model 260 the terminal marked + is
positive and the one marked "common" is negative. Many
manufacturers are not as careful in designing their ohmmeter
circuits. There are many analog ohmmeters on the market in which
the terminal marked + is actually the negative side of the
ohmmeter voltage source. The best way to find out is to use
another test instrument to test the voltage at the ohmmeter
terminals.

When you use an analog ohmmeter to test P-N junctions, you can
determine if they are good, open or shorted.

When you connect the ohmmeter so as to forward bias the junction

it will indicate a relatively low resistance. The actual value
will be different on different ranges because a P-N junction
does not obey Ohm's law.

When you connect the ohmmeter so as to reverse bias the junction

the meter will indicate infinite resistance.

If a P-N junction is shorted the ohmmeter will show the same low
resistance value in both directions. This value may range from 0
to a few ohms and will likely obey Ohm's law.

If the P-N junction is open it will indicate infinite resistance

in both directions.

Example 6.1.

In the circuit of figure 6.3 the normal voltages are VE = 1.1 v,

VB = 1.8 v and VC = 10.9 v. After the circuit develops a fault a
low cost analog VOM is used to make the following voltage
measurements: VE, VB and VC are all approximately 6 volts. What
is wrong?
Figure 6.3 Circuit for Example 6.1.

For a verbal description click here.

Solution:

With all voltages being the same, our first conclusion might be
that the transistor is totally shorted. If the transistor were
shorted (everything to everything) the circuit of figure 6.4
would result. This fault places R1 in parallel with RC and R2 in
parallel with RE. The two parallel combinations form a voltage
divider across the power supply.
Figure 6.4 Figure 6.3 With a Shorted Transistor.

For a verbal description click here.

R1 in parallel with RC is (27 k ohms x 4.7 k ohms) / (27 k ohms

+ 4.7 k ohms) = 4.0 k ohms. R2 in parallel with RE is (4.7 k
ohms x 4.7 k ohms) / (4.7 k ohms + 4.7 k ohms) = 2.35 k ohms.
Applying the voltage divider equation gives VEBC = 12 v x 2.35 k
ohms / (2.35 k ohms + 4.0 k ohms) = 4.44 volts. This seems
rather far away from the measured value of 6 volts.

If R2 opened the circuit would become that of figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5 Figure 6.3 With R2 Open.

For a verbal description click here.

This would cause the transistor to be driven into hard

saturation. The measured voltage indicates a drop of
approximately 6 volts across R1. Since all of the current
through R1 flows into the base of the transistor, the base
current is 6 v / 27 k ohms = 220 microamps. Assuming 50 as a
reasonable value for beta, the collector current could be as
high as 50 x 220 microamps = 11 mA. If this current could flow
through RC it would produce a voltage drop of 11 mA x 4.7 k ohms
= 51.7 volts. This impossible voltage indicates that the
transistor is in hard saturation. A transistor which is held in
saturation has the equivalent circuit of figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6 Equivalent Circuit of Figure 6.3 With R2 Open.

For a verbal description click here.

If we neglect the drop across the diode in figure 6.6, we have a

voltage divider consisting of R1 in parallel with RC and the
parallel combination is in series with RE. The voltage at all
elements is VEBC = 12 v x 4.7 k ohms / (4.7 k ohms + 4.0 k ohms)
= 6.48 volts.

The possibility that the transistor is shorted gives a voltage

of 4.44 volts and the possibility that R2 is open gives 6.48
volts. The original measurement was approximately 6 volts. 6.48
is closer to 6 than 4.44 v; therefore, the answer must be that
R2 is open. If the transistor is good, the voltage at the base
would be 0.6 or 0.7 volts higher than that at the emitter. Since
our cheap voltmeter did not show us this difference between 6
and 6.6 volts, it could not show us the difference between 6 and
6.48 volts.

Troubleshooting Without a Voltage Chart.

While the major manufacturers are very good about providing

typical AC and DC voltage measurements, these companies can be
counted on the fingers of one hand. There are dozens of medium
sized and hundreds of small manufacturers who provide electronic
equipment to industry and education. The owner's manuals
provided by these lesser companies range from rough to downright
primitive. A schematic diagram is about all you can expect. If
you get a circuit board layout, consider yourself indeed
fortunate. If you do get normal operating voltages, buy stock in
the company while it is still cheap.

Small companies are often able to provide quality equipment at a

lower price than a large company would ask. It is for this
reason that you are likely to encounter such equipment in your
career.

Suppose you are working on a piece of equipment from one of

these smaller manufacturers and you measure the collector
voltage of a transistor. You don't know any more after you make
the measurement than you did before you made it. The reason is,
of course, you don't know what the voltage is supposed to be.

If you are not given the voltages, you must calculate them
yourself. Let us calculate the voltages in figure 6.1.

Note: If you follow the links below, use your back button to
return here.

First, we will calculate the Thevenin equivalent of R1 and R2 in

the base circuit from Equations 4.18 and 4.19. VBB = 12 v x 6.8
k ohms / (6.8 k ohms + 39 k ohms) = 1.78 volts. RB = 6.8 k ohms
x 39 k ohms / (6.8 k ohms + 39 k ohms) = 5.79 k ohms.

If we don't know beta we can apply Equation 4.24.

Ic = (VBB - VBE)/RE = (1.78 v - 0.6 v)/1.2 k ohms = 0.983 mA.

We may want to use Equation 4.23. To do so we must make a guess

as to the beta of the transistor. It will do little good to look
up the transistor in a transistor manual. Values of beta even
for transistors of the same type number can range from 25 to 250
and are listed as such in the manual.

Let us make a slightly pessimistic guess that the transistor's

beta is 50.

Ic = (VBB - VBE)/(RE + RB/beta)

Ic = (1.78 v - 0.6 v)/(1.2 k ohms + 5.79 k ohms / 50) = 0.897

mA.

To calculate VE we must know IE. IE = IC (1 + Beta) / Beta

IE =0.897 (51/50) = 0.915 mA. VE = IE RE = 0.915 x 1200 = 1.098
Volts.

The voltage at the collector is equal to VCC - IC x RC. VC = 12

v - 0.897 mA x 5.6 k ohms = 6.98 volts.

Example 6.2.

In figure 6.3 change R1 to 270 k ohms and R2 to 82 k ohms.

Calculate the values of VB, VE and VC.

Solution:

Let us calculate the Thevenin values for the voltage divider

circuit of R1 and R2. VBB = 12 v x 82 k ohms / (270 k ohms + 82
k ohms) = 2.80 v. RB = 82 k ohms x 270 k ohms / (82 k ohms + 270
k ohms) = 62.9 k ohms.

Equation 4.24 depends on the voltage drop across RB being small.

Because of the large value of RB in this problem we cannot
ignore this voltage drop. We must use Equation 4.23.

IC = (VBB - VBE)/(RE + RB/beta)

IC = (2.80 v - 0.6 v)/(1.2 k ohms + 62.9 k ohms/50) = .895 mA.

VE = RE IC (Beta + 1) / Beta

VE = 1200 0.895 (51/50) = 1.095 volts.

The voltage at the base is VB = VE + 0.6 = 1.695 volts.

The voltage at the collector is equal to VCC - IC x RC. VC = 12

v - 0.895 mA x 5.6 k ohms = 6.99 volts.
By now you may be wondering if all of these calculations are
worth the effort. You are likely thinking that you could change
a resistor or transistor while someone else is making all of
those calculations. Giving all of the details of a calculation
in printed or written form always takes longer than it would on
a calculator. An experienced person can finish the above
calculations, using a pocket calculator, before the soldering
iron gets hot.

Another way is to have a computer program that will perform the

calculations and show the results. Such a program may be
downloaded from this location. This program only works on
windows computers in north America. Clicking on the link above
will initiate download.

1. After clicking the link you will be asked if you want to

open or save the file. Select save.
2. You can save it anywhere you want but remember where you
saved it. I have a folder in My Documents named AAA as a
place to put such files.
3. After download completes close the dialog box if you didn't
check the box that says "Close this dialog box when
download completes.
4. Open windows explorer and navigate to the folder where you
downloaded the file. Select "Transistor_Q_Point.zip" in the
left hand window and it will be unzipped and the three
files it contains will display in the right hand window.
5. If "Transistor_Q_Point.zip" won't show in the left hand
window, double click it in the right hand window. A new
explorer window will open and three files will be displayed
in it.
6. Double click "setup.exe" and the program will begin to
install.
7. Accept all defaults unless you have a strong reason for
doing otherwise.
8. When the installation is finished you will see the message
"Transistor Q Point was successfully installed."

You will find that the program gives slightly different results
from the calculations performed above. The computer program uses
the exact equation which was derived in chapter 4 section 3 of
Electronics for Physicists. Equation 4.22 is the most accurate
and that was used in the program since there is no point in
using approximations in a program. Most of the above results
were obtained with equation 4.23 which neglects a Beta / (Beta +
1) term.
If your computer is not close to your workbench you may be very
tempted by the process of "shotgunning" described in chapter 4
but beware. You can afford to fire the shotgun only once. If you
fire it and miss, you could be in trouble with your supervisor
or customer. There are faults which can be misleading as to
which stage the trouble is in.

There are other faults which can occur in a common emitter

circuit. These faults will be covered in sections 6.3 and 6.4.

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6.2 The Emitter-Follower's Fatal Flaw.

The fatal flaw in the emitter-follower is that the transistor

can fail and the circuit can continue to function under some
circumstances. A "tape output" on a stereo receiver might drive
one tape deck but not another; a regulated power supply which is
rated to deliver 500 mA will begin to current limit at 25 mA; an
oscilloscope which, when new, had a bandwidth of 100 MHz, now
has only a 30 MHz bandwidth. Faults involving the emitter-
follower can be so subtle that they can go undiscovered for
months or even years.

When an NPN transistor develops a base-emitter short it becomes

equivalent to the circuit of figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7 NPN Transistor with B to E Short.

For a verbal description click here.

Figure 6.8 Emitter-Follower Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

If we put this shorted transistor into the emitter-follower

circuit of figure 6.8 the result is the circuit of figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9 Emitter-Follower with Shorted NPN BJT.

For a verbal description click here.

The diode which was the base-collector junction in the former

transistor is now just a diode. In the circuit of figure 6.9 it
will always be reversed biased. We may leave out this reversed-
biased diode and our former emitter-follower circuit now is that
of figure 6.10.
Figure 6.10 Equivalent Circuit of Emitter-Follower with Shorted
BJT.

For a verbal description click here.

An emitter-follower has a voltage gain of approximately unity.

The circuit of figure 6.10 has a voltage gain of unity, which is
one of the reasons why the fault can be so hard to find. An
emitter-follower has a current gain of approximately the beta of
the transistor. The circuit of figure 6.10 has a current gain of
less than unity, which is the reason it needs to be repaired.

Tape Output Buffer Amplifier.

Consider the AC coupled emitter-follower of figure 6.11. This

circuit is often incorporated in the "tape output" circuit of
stereo receivers or in the output circuit of tape decks or CD
players. Although most tape decks have a high input impedance,
occasionally one will come along which has a medium or even low
input impedance. I happen to own one that has a 10 k ohm input
resistance. If a consumer has more than one tape deck it is
likely that "Y" connectors will be used to parallel the inputs
of the decks on the one tape output. This is why the designer of
the receiver put an emitter-follower in the tape output circuit.

Figure 6.11 AC Coupled Emitter-Follower Circuit.

For a verbal description click here.

If the transistor in figure 6.11 develops a base-emitter short,

the circuit will become that of figure 6.12. If the receiver is
being used with one tape deck which has a high input impedance
the fault may never be noticed. The fault may show up when the
consumer tries to add another tape deck to the system.
Figure 6.12 Emitter-follower with Base to Emitter Short.

For a verbal description click here.

The consumer will first blame the new tape deck. After being
assured by the service technician that there is nothing wrong
with the new deck, the receiver is likely to be the next item to
appear on the service bench. The technician is unlikely to place
any load on the tape outputs and the fault will not be found.
The end result is an angry consumer who may never do business
with that technician again.

A fault in an emitter-follower can be more easily found by DC

analysis than by AC analysis. A typical set of DC voltages for
the circuit of figure 6.11 is, VE = 7.3 volts and VB = 8.0
volts. Because the collector is connected directly to the +12
volt line the collector voltage will always be 12 volts. If the
transistor develops a base to emitter short, R2 will be placed
in parallel with RE and the equivalent resistance is (4.7 k ohms
x 22 k ohms) / (4.7 k ohms + 22 k ohms) = 3.87 k ohms. The
voltage divider now consists of a 10 k ohms and a 3.87 k ohms
resistor. The voltage at base and emitter is 12 v x 3.87 k ohms
/ (3.87 k ohms + 10 k ohms) = 3.35 volts.

If measurement of DC voltages, (static testing), in an emitter-

follower reveals voltages much lower than normal, you can bet
your VOM that there is trouble in the circuit.

Wide Band Amplifier.

Now consider the circuit of figure 6.13. This circuit is typical

of circuits found in the vertical amplifiers of oscilloscopes.
These amplifiers are always differential or push-pull in
configuration. The other half of the amplifier would be exactly
like the half which is shown.

The emitter bypass capacitors have not been omitted from the
drawing; there are none in the circuit. This introduces a large
amount of emitter degeneration or negative feedback. Like all
negative feedback this emitter degeneration increases the upper
limit of frequency response. The designers are giving up gain to
get increased bandwidth. The gain of the common emitter stages
is approximately RC/RE.
Figure 6.13 Wide Band Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

The emitter-follower Q2 would seem to be completely superfluous.

The output impedance of the Q1 common emitter stage is the same
as the collector resistor, 1 k ohms. The input impedance of the
Q3 common emitter stage is approximately equal to RE x beta, or
about 17 k ohms. A 1 k ohms source certainly does not need any
help to drive a 17 k ohms load. If resistance was all there was
to it then Q2 would be superfluous.

Two factors which control the upper frequency limit of an

amplifier are the characteristics of the transistors and the
capacitance in the circuit. Assuming that Q1, Q2 and Q3 are the
best that money can by, the upper frequency limit of the Q1
stage will be determined by the total amount of capacitance from
the collector of Q1 to ground. This capacitance is the output
capacitance of Q1 and its printed circuitry, plus the input
capacitance of the following stage.
If the following stage were a common emitter, this input
capacitance would be made up of the input capacitance of the
transistor plus the capacitance of the printed circuitry plus
the Miller capacitance of the common emitter stage. If the stage
following Q1 is an emitter-follower, there is no Miller
capacitance. The purpose of the emitter-follower stage (Q2) is
to isolate the Miller capacitance of Q3 from the output of Q1.

If Q2 develops a base-emitter short, the Miller capacitance of

Q3 is no longer isolated from the output of Q1 and the frequency
response of the amplifier will be impaired.

DC measurements may not reveal the fault because the emitter-

follower is not doing any work at DC. The fault may show up if
careful measurement is made of the base to emitter voltage of Q2
using a DMM. But even this measurement is not an ironclad
guarantee of finding the trouble. It usually comes down to
pulling the transistors from the board and testing them out of
circuit.

If a scope with impaired frequency response comes to the bench

of a technician who is unaware of this kind of fault, he or she
may work for days and not find the cause. It may even get as far
as recommending that the scope be junked.

Example 6.3.

In the circuit of figure 6.13 the output capacitance of the Q1

stage is 1 picofarad and the input capacitance of the Q2 stage
is also 1 pf. The input capacitance of Q3 is 1 pf and the Miller
capacitance is 4 pf. What are (a) the normal upper frequency
limit of the amplifier and (b) the upper frequency limit if Q2
develops a base to emitter short?

Solution:

(a) When the circuit is operating normally the capacitance

across R1 is 1 pf + 1 pf = 2 picofarads. fC = 1 / (2 x ã x R x
C) = 1 / (6.28 x 1 k ohms x 2 pf) = 79.6 Mhz. (b) Even if Q2 is
shorted its capacitance does not disappear. The total
capacitance is now CT = CoQ1 + CiQ2 + CiQ3 + CmQ3 CT = 1 pf + 1
pf + 1 pf + 4 pf = 7 pf. The new corner frequency is fC = 1 /
(6.28 x 7 pf x 1 k ohms) = 22.7 Mhz.

Regulated power supply.

You may not have realized it but the pass transistor in a
regulated power supply is an emitter follower. The circuit of a
simple adjustable voltage power supply is shown in figure 6.14.
The diagram has been arranged in such a way as to emphasize the
fact that the pass transistor is an emitter- follower.

Figure 6.14 Regulated Power Supply.

For a verbal description click here.

Suppose that Q1 develops a base to emitter short. The circuit

reduces to that of figure 6.15. This is just a noninverting
amplifier whose gain is set by R1, R2, and R3. It is amplifying
the voltage of the zener diode. That is all any regulated power
supply does no matter how complex it may appear.
Figure 6.15 Regulated Power Supply After Q1 Develops a Base-
Emitter Short.

For a verbal description click here.

If a power supply with a shorted pass transistor comes to your

service bench you may wonder at first if it was operator trouble
rather than equipment trouble. The output voltage comes up, it
can be adjusted over its full range (assuming that the unit you
are working on is adjustable) and the scope does not show any
ripple. If you send it back to the lab with no further tests, it
will be back on your bench within a day.

The output of a typical op amp (operational amplifier) will

deliver about 25 mA. This is sufficient to supply current to the
voltage adjust resistors and the power supply will function
normally as long as there is no large load on the output.

When a power supply comes to your service bench you should

always test the supply at its specified maximum current.
Figure 6.16 Regulated Power Supply with Darlington Pair.

For a verbal description click here.

Many regulated power supplies use a Darlington connected pair as

the pass transistor, figure 6.16. If Q2 develops a base to
emitter short the power supply will still work and will likely
deliver an appreciable current, several hundred milliamperes.
However, it will not perform up to its specified maximum
current.

If Q1 develops a base to emitter short, Q2 will try to take over

the duties of Q1. Q2 is not equipped with a large heat sink and
will overheat very quickly. The power supply will seem to work
normally for a short time and then catastrophically fail. Q2
will likely short everything to everything. The output voltage
will go above specified maximum and stay there.

If both transistors in a Darlington pair have base to emitter

shorts, the supply will be down to the bare op amp as shown in
Figure 6.15. If you replace only one of the defective
transistors you will create one of the situations described
above.

The Cause of the Short.

You may be wondering how a base-emitter short can happen. The
usual cause of any failure is difficult to pinpoint. Part of the
fatal flaw in the emitter-follower is that it has its cause of
failure built in.

Consider the circuit of figure 6.11 again. If there is no load

connected to the output when the power is turned on, C2 will
remain discharged. If the output is then shorted momentarily to
ground, the capacitor will be charged through the emitter of the
transistor. The pulse of current is short, but it can be several
amperes in magnitude. This extremely large current pulse can
burn out the base-emitter junction of a small transistor. The
collector-base junction is larger in cross-section area and is
usually not damaged.

It is possible to burn out the tape output buffer in a stereo

receiver very easily. If the owner makes connections to the tape
output with power turned on, the capacitor in the output will
start out with no charge on it. In the process of connecting the
cables it is possible to momentarily short the output and there
goes the emitter-follower transistor. This is a documented and
repeatable failure in a stereo receiver from a well known
manufacturer.

A modification which will prevent burning out the transistor is

to connect a resistor of about 470 k ohms from ground to the
terminal marked "output" in figure 6.11. This will make sure
that C2 gets charged even if there is nothing connected to the
output. It is the charging of C2 through a dead short, not a
resistor, which can destroy the transistor.

In the case of a power supply the pass transistors can be zapped

if the power supply is forced to charge a large external
capacitor each time the power supply is turned on. The current
limiting circuits should prevent such damage but if it is a
little slow to respond the pass transistors may experience a
large amplitude current pulse.

We have cited only three uses of emitter-followers, there are

many others. All are subject to the same kind of failure and all
can be a little tricky to find.

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6.3 AC Coupled Amplifiers.

AC coupled amplifiers make up a significant percentage of

amplifier circuits. They are used in audio, radio frequency and
industrial applications.

An AC coupled amplifier is shown in figure 6.17. The emitter

resistors are bypassed to increase the gain to the maximum.
Capacitor C1 prevents whatever may be connected to the input
from upsetting the base bias of Q1. C3 prevents the DC voltage
at the collector of Q1 from upsetting the base bias of Q2 and C5
prevents the DC voltage at the collector of Q2 from reaching
whatever is connected to the output.

DC Voltage Measurements.

If an emitter bypass capacitor shorts, the emitter voltage of

that transistor will be zero. The voltage divider in the base
will cause a very large base current to flow, which will drive
the transistor into hard saturation. The typical voltages for a
shorted bypass capacitor will be VE = 0 v, VB = 0.7 v and VC =
0.1 v.
Figure 6.17 Two Stage Common Emitter Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

The results of a short in C1 are difficult to predict without

knowing what is connected to the input. Suppose that a dynamic
microphone is connected there. It is typical for a dynamic
microphone to have a DC resistance of only a few tens of ohms.
If C1 shorts, it will remove all bias from the base of Q1 and
cause Q1 to be driven into cutoff. Typical voltages for this
condition will be VE = 0 v, VB = 0 v and VC = VCC.

If C3 shorts, the result will depend on whether the voltage at

the collector of Q1 is greater than or less than the voltage at
the base of Q2. The two voltages will become equal and Q2 will
be in either saturation or cutoff depending on whether VCQ1 is
greater or less than VBQ2. Typical voltages cannot be given
because they depend on the values of the resistors.

The effect of a short in C5 depends on what is connected to the

output. If it were one side of a pair of headphones, the DC
resistance would be very low, about 6 ohms. This would pull the
collector voltage down and forward bias the base-collector
junction. The transistor may not be damaged but it certainly
will not amplify. Typical voltages would likely be VE = 0 v, VB
= 0.7 v and VC = 0 volts.

AC Voltage Measurements.

If you are signal tracing instead of making static tests, you

will see the signal suddenly disappear at the defect. A
transistor which is in cutoff or saturation does not provide a
signal path. Some types of faults can make you think that the
trouble is in the stage ahead of where it actually is.

Suppose that Q2 in figure 6.17 develops a base-emitter short.

The emitter is connected to ground through a capacitor. Because
the base is shorted to the emitter, the base will be at AC
ground potential. C3 also has a low reactance for AC and so the
collector of Q1 is effectively shorted to ground for AC. The
signal is no longer present at the collector of Q1 because it is
shorted out by the series combination of C3, the base to emitter
short in Q2 and C4.

When signal tracing, you would find signal at the base of Q1 and
no signal at the collector of Q1. Your first conclusion would be
that the trouble is in the Q1 stage. DC measurements would
reveal that all in the Q1 stage is well. DC measurements in the
Q2 stage will reveal the base to emitter short. This false clue
is a very common phenomenon in transistor circuits.

A transistor which is being driven into hard saturation may

appear as a short circuit to the signal. When the AC signal
disappears, you must check the stage just after the point where
the signal disappeared as well as the one where it disappeared.

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6.4 DC Coupled Amplifiers.

A DC coupled amplifier is one in which the stages are coupled

together without using capacitors. Sometimes this is done
because the amplifier must have gain all the way down to and
including DC. Sometimes the reason is economics.
One of the miniature capacitors which are used in transistor
circuits can cost 4 or 5 times as much as a resistor. The
capacitors may even cost more than the transistors. Therefore,
if it is possible to replace one capacitor with three resistors,
the design engineer will do it. Even in circuits where the
signals are AC only, it is very common to see groups of two,
three or even four stages which are DC coupled.

A two-transistor DC coupled gain block is shown in figure 6.18.

R4 is present to allow negative feedback to be applied to the
emitter of Q1. If no feedback is to be connected, R4 can be
replaced with a piece of wire. With R4 = 0, this circuit can
provide the same amount of gain as the circuit of figure 6.17.
The circuit of figure 6.18 with R4 = 0 does the same job with
only 5 resistors and 3 capacitors, as opposed to 8 resistors and
5 capacitors for figure 6.17.

Figure 6.18 Two-stage DC Coupled Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

Operating point stabilization (DC feedback) is provided by R1
and R2 from the emitter of Q2 to the base of Q1. AC feedback
along this path is prevented by C2, which bypasses AC signals at
the emitter of Q2 to ground.

AC feedback is often added to this circuit by making R4 some low

value, say 100 ohms, and coupling signal from the output back to
the emitter of Q1.

If Q1 goes totally shorted, all of the voltages in the circuit

will go nearly to zero except the collector of Q2, which will go
up to VCC. The reason for this is as follows. When Q1 shorts
out, all of its voltages will be equal to each other. R4, if it
exists at all, is a low value and its voltage drop is very
small. The short in Q1 will pull the base of Q2 down and send Q2
into cutoff.

If Q2 goes totally shorted, the emitter voltage of Q2 will

remain normal, provided that R5 and R6 are not too low compared
to R3. The DC feedback from the emitter of Q2 to the base of Q1
is responsible for this. The voltages at the collector and base
of Q2 will be equal to the emitter voltage. The circuit with
this defect will not provide gain for AC because C2 bypasses all
signals to ground.

Example 6.4.

The normal voltage chart for the circuit of figure 6.18 is as

follows.

VE VB VC

Q1 0 v 0.6 v 4.0 v

Q2 3.4 v 4.0 v 8.3 v

A fault develops and the voltages become:

VE VB VC

Q1 0 v 0.6 v 1.6 v
 Q2 1.0 v 1.6 v 10.9 v

What is wrong?

Solution:

The transistors are not shorted because both have VB > VE and VC
> VB. We conclude that both transistors are good. The voltage
drop across R1 is 0.4 volts. This indicates that the current
through R1 is not what it used to be. This could only be caused
by R2 being open.

In example 6.4, the feedback is what causes the circuit to

behave in the way it does. The voltage at the emitter of Q2 will
be adjusted to whatever is necessary to make the voltage at the
base of Q1 be 0.6 volts. As long as R1 and R2 are intact the
emitter of Q2 adjusts to 3.4 v to forward bias Q1 by just the
right amount. In this circuit you might assume that if R2
opened, the transistor would be driven into hard saturation. But
if the base is receiving too much bias the collector voltage of
Q1 will come down and the emitter voltage of Q2 will follow. The
emitter of Q2 will assume whatever voltage is necessary to
provide just the right amount of bias to the base of Q1.

This is another one of those circuits which will continue to

work even with a defect, especially if there is AC feedback to
the emitter of Q1. The circuit will function quite normally for
small signals. On larger signals the positive peaks will be
clipped off. This is because the voltage at the collector of Q2
(10.9 volts) can only go up to 12 volts but it can go down to
about 1 volt.

If R3 opens there will be no current path from the collector of

Q1 to VCC. The collector of Q1 which is also the base of Q2 will
fall to its lowest possible potential. The voltages will be much
the same as if Q1 had shorted, except if R4 is present, there
will be absolutely no voltage drop across it because there is no
current through it.

If R5 opened, the voltage at the collector of Q1 would fall

until it became equal to the emitter voltage. All other voltages
in the circuit may be normal, depending on the relative values
of R3 and R6, because of the DC feedback through R1 and R2.
When R5 opens, R3 and R6 become a voltage divider with the base-
emitter junction of Q2 acting as a forward biased diode. If R3
is much larger than R6 it will be unable to pull the voltage up
to the normal emitter voltage. If the voltage divider of R3 and
R6 can assume a voltage greater than the normal emitter voltage
of Q2, the collector current of Q1 will pull the voltage down to
the normal value.

Depending on the load impedance the circuit may still provide

gain while adding some distortion. However, the sign of the gain
will be changed. When the circuit is working normally it is a
noninverting amplifier. When R5 opens, Q2 is no longer an
inverting amplifier. With only Q1 doing any amplifying, the
overall gain of the circuit is inverting. If this circuit is in
the middle of a larger feedback loop the feedback can change
from negative to positive.

If R6 opens, the emitter current of Q2 will be only that which

flows through R1 and R2. The voltage at the collector of Q2 will
rise to very nearly VCC. All other voltages in the circuit will
be normal because of the regulating effect of the feedback.

Figure 6.19 shows a configuration involving an NPN and a PNP

transistor. This circuit is stabilized by DC feedback from the
tap on the collector resistor of Q2 which feeds back a portion
of the output voltage to the emitter of Q1. The voltage at the
node between R4 and R5 will adjust itself until Q1 has just the
right collector current to provide just the right amount of bias
to Q2.
Figure 6.19 Complementary DC Coupled Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

The feedback path also passes AC. The gain of this circuit is
set at 10. If higher gain is required, the variation of figure
6.20 may be used.

If Q1 in figure 6.19 shorts, it will effectively place a 100 ohm

resistor from the base of Q2 to ground. This will unquestionably
drive Q2 into hard saturation. The base current will be
approximately 120 mA, assuming a 12 volt power supply. This
excessive base current may destroy Q2 as well. In the circuit of
figure 6.20 R4 will prevent excessive current from flowing and
Q2 will likely survive.

In figure 6.19 if R2 opens, Q1 will receive constant current

bias through R1. This will increase the collector current of Q1
and in turn increase the collector current of Q2, driving it
into saturation. The voltage at the collector of Q2 will be 12
volts but the voltage at the emitter of Q1 will be higher than
the expected value of 1.2 volts. The reason is the emitter
current of Q1 has become significant compared to the current
flowing through R4 and R5. In a test circuit with R2 open the
emitter voltage of Q1 was 3 volts.

If R3 opens, the effect may never be noticed. A slight reduction

of bandwidth at high signal levels will be the only observable
effect.

If R5 opens, the voltage at the collector of Q2 will fall to

about 0.6 volts. This is because the feedback in the circuit
will try to keep Q1 biased just right. The base of Q1 is set at
1.2 volts by R1 and R2. In order to keep Q1 properly biased, the
emitter voltage must be 0.6 volts. With R5 open the voltage drop
across R4 is extremely small. Thus the collector of Q2 will be
at 0.6 volts.

If R4 opens, the result will be to cause the collector current

of Q1 to be very high. The opening of the current path to the
collector of Q2 means that the emitter of Q1 must conduct all of
the current which is flowing through the resistors to ground. Q1
cannot saturate because of the base- emitter junction of Q2 in
its collector circuit. The collector voltage of Q2 will be VCC
because it is in saturation and its collector resistor is open.

In figure 6.20 an additional resistor has been added to raise

the impedance at the emitter of Q1. The emitter of Q1 is
bypassed by C2 which removes all AC feedback. If some AC
feedback is needed to lower the gain, a small amount of
resistance may be inserted in series with C2.
Figure 6.20 Complementary Amplifier Without AC Feedback.

For a verbal description click here.

If Q1 shorts, R4 will protect Q2 from being subjected to

excessive base current, as was the case for figure 6.16.

In figure 6.20 if Q2 shorts, its collector voltage will become

approximately 12 volts, which will increase the voltage applied
to the emitter of Q1. The voltage at the base of Q1 is fixed by
the voltage divider of R1 and R2. The short in Q2 will pull up
the emitter voltage of Q1 to the point of reverse biasing the
base-emitter junction of Q1. This will bias Q1 into cutoff.

If R1 opens, both transistors will be driven into cutoff and the

voltage at the collector of Q2 will be zero. All other voltages
will be what you would expect with both transistors in cutoff.

If R2 opens, both transistors will be in saturation. R4 in the

emitter of Q1 will permit Q1 to make it into saturation.
If R3 opens, the effect will be quite noticeable. The collector
current of Q1 will be reduced to equal the base current of Q2.
This decreases the emitter current of Q1 which will cause the
voltage drop across R4 to be reduced. Since the base voltage of
Q1 is held nearly constant by the voltage divider of R1 and R2,
the emitter voltage will change very little. The voltage at the
node where R4, R5 and R6 join will increase. Calculations
indicate and tests verify that for the given resistor values, Q2
will be biased into saturation.

If R6 opens, the voltages measured at the terminals of the

transistors will change only very little. However, the voltage
at the node connecting R4, R5 and R6 will rise from about 3
volts to become equal to the collector voltage of Q2 (about 6
volts). The blame is once again placed on that feedback which
does its best to keep the circuit working no matter what is
wrong. The circuit will adjust itself to properly bias Q1.

In actuality, both transistors are in cutoff. When a voltmeter

is connected to the collector of Q2 it, the voltmeter, provides
a load resistance to complete the current path. Both transistors
are now conducting very small currents. An additional effect may
be that the circuit which was previously dead may come to life
(begin to amplify AC signals) when the voltmeter is connected
and go dead again when the voltmeter is removed. This may lead
one to a false conclusion that there is a loose connection in
this part of the circuit.

If R5 opens, the result will be to place Q1 in saturation. The

opening of the current path to the collector of Q2 means that
the emitter of Q1 must conduct all of the current which is
flowing through the resistors to ground. For almost any
combination of resistor values this will put Q1 into saturation.
When Q1 saturates, Q2 saturates.

Let us now return to a circuit which we looked at earlier,

figure 6.13. In section 6.2 we discussed the effects of a short
in Q2.

If Q1 shorted, the effect would be to place the emitter and

collector resistors in series across the power supply. The
collector voltage would be decreased. Q2 will pass this voltage
through and decrease the bias on the base of Q3. This may or may
not drive Q3 into cutoff. It will depend on the values of the
resistors and the power supply voltages.
The following discussion will concern the effect of a total
short in Q3. The same effect may well show up if Q1 were to
short instead of Q3. Figure 6.13 does not show us what is
driving the base of Q1. If it is an emitter follower, the effect
would be the same. If it is a higher impedance source, the
amplifier may simply go dead.

A total short in Q3 will convert it into a node connecting the

emitter of Q2 to the bottom of R4 and the top of R5. While this
does place quite a heavy load on Q2, the emitter follower could
drive it.

Signals which are injected into the amplifier will come through
even with a short in Q3. The gain of 3 which Q3 normally
provides will become unity. That is a relatively small change.

The effect on phase shift is the one which will be most

noticeable. A common emitter stage such as Q3 in normal
operation inverts the input signal. A node connecting some
resistors together provides no inversion. The amplifier shown in
figure 6.13 is a noninverting amplifier with a gain of 9. When
Q3 shorts, the amplifier becomes an inverting amplifier with a
gain of 3.

Circuits such as figure 6.13 do not stand in isolation. A

circuit such as this will be a small part of a much larger
circuit. If the larger circuit has negative feedback, the loss
of an inversion will cause this to become positive feedback.

If the feedback is AC coupled, the circuit will oscillate at

some unpredictable frequency. If the entire feedback loop is DC
coupled, the circuit will simply latch up at one extreme of
voltage.

If the larger circuit is an electro-mechanical control system,

the system will drive away from the proper point instead of
towards it as it should. It will run to the mechanical limit
where the limit switches will cause it to stop.

A small loss of gain inside a feedback loop can easily go

unnoticed but a change of phase is very noticeable. An amplifier
which oscillates or latches up or a control system which drives
the wrong way can be a very puzzling situation.

Assume that the circuit of figure 6.13 is part of a sub-

assembly which has been removed from a large system and taken to
the repair shop. Because the circuit has been removed from its
normal signal sources, signal substitution must be used for
testing.

The diagram should indicate whether the amplifier unit is

inverting or noninverting. The very first test should be to
confirm that the phase of the amplifier is correct. If it is
incorrect, some very careful testing will be necessary.

Set up the oscilloscope so it is triggered from the signal

source. At each stage the scope will show the phase relationship
between the input signal and the signal at the test point.

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6.5 Radio Frequency Amplifiers.

Radio frequencies are those that are higher than the audio band.
It may surprise you to know that there is actually some overlap.
The Omega Navigation system, no longer in operation, used a
frequency range from 8 to 12 kHz. With the proper filtering to
remove the power line frequency and its harmonics an audio
amplifier could be connected to an antenna and some of these
transmitters could be heard as they were switched on and off.

What distinguishes an RF (Radio Frequency) amplifier from an

audio amplifier is that the former contains one or more LC
resonant circuits to restrict the band of amplification to a
narrow range of frequencies.

Common emitter amplifier.

Figure 6.21 Typical IF Amplifier used in Pocket Radios.

For a verbal description click here.

This circuit is typical of the IF (intermediate frequency)

amplifiers found in most transistor sets particularly those 6
transistor pocket radios. Transistors are low impedance devices
and the input impedance is especially low. The tuned
transformers have been designed to work with transistors
operating at a supply voltage of from 9 to 12 volts.

The transistor is a triode device and as such has a significant

amount of capacitance from input (base) to output (collector).
In tubes this problem was solved by adding another grid but this
is not possible in a transistor. Therefore an RF amplifier must
be neutralized. Note that the Vcc is applied to a tap in the
middle of the coil which is not in the exact center. This serves
two purposes, one, the impedance between the tap and the near
end is lower than the impedance across the entire coil. This
prevents the low output impedance of the transistor from
lowering the Q of the tuned circuit. Second, by connecting the
coil as shown the phase of the voltage at the other end of the
coil is 180 degrees out of phase with the voltage at the
collector. By connecting a small capacitor, less than 10 pf,
from this point back to the base the feedback through the
collector to base capacitance of the transistor is canceled by
an equal and opposite amount of feedback from the transformer
through the capacitor to the base. This is a small ceramic
capacitor and its failure is unheard of. If it were to open the
amplifier would be likely to oscillate. If it were to short the
transistor would be placed in saturation and the circuit would
cease to amplify. If the IF strip uses AGC the positive bias is
likely to be conducted along the AGC line making it difficult to
isolate the problem to a particular stage.

KEEP YOUR SCREWDRIVER OUT OF THE TRANSFORMER ADJUSTING SLUGS!

If the radio or tuner isn't working it isn't because the

adjustment screws turned themselves. The cause of the problem is
a defective component not because the tuned circuits are
mistuned. The only exception to this rule is if an uninformed
owner tinkerer tightened up all the loose screws. Also the slugs
are made of a material something akin to glass but not as hard.
They are held in place by hardened paraffin and will not move
easily. If you insert a metal screwdriver and start twisting the
result will usually be a broken slug. If you can verify that
alignment is necessary the IF transformers in question should be
gently warmed under a heat lamp, with a hair dryer, or with a
heat gun held a considerable distance away.

Open coils and open resistors are more likely than shorted
capacitors since the capacitors are usually ceramic with voltage
ratings of 50 volts and have a very low probability of failure.
DC measurements around the circuit should find the fault. The
same formula used in audio amplifiers may be used to calculate
the voltages if they are not given.

Grounded or Common Base Amplifier.

Figure 6.22 Two examples of grounded base amplifiers.

For a verbal description click here.

The transistor is constructed with the base physically between

the collector and emitter. If the base could be grounded it
would act as an electrostatic shield between the emitter and
collector. When the emitter is used as the input element the
impedance is quite low typically 25 millivolts divided by the
emitter current. As you can see for an emitter current of 1 mA
the input impedance is 25 ohms. This is a rather rough
approximation and should not be used in the design of impedance
matching circuits such as transformers or pi networks.

Actually grounding the base is most effective in preventing

oscillation even at VHF. The circuit of Figure 6.22 (a) might be
found in a short wave receiver or FM tuner. In an S W receiver
there most certainly will be band switching which will
complicate the schematic. If you examine the diagram carefully
you will be able to tease out the basic circuitry.

Figure 6.22 (b) is a circuit often seen in portable FM radios.

Because these radios use a single polarity power supply the
transistor must be biased with the usual three resistor circuit
which means that the base must be grounded through a capacitor
rather than directly. The coil is a low Q RF choke which is
tuned to the center of the FM band by circuit capacitance. The
impedance at the base of a ¼ wave antenna is low which is a
match for the input impedance of the amplifier. DC measurements
should turn up a fault but connecting a voltmeter lead or
oscilloscope probe may well make the circuit start oscillating.
It may be necessary to connect a short across the collector coil
to kill this oscillation in order to obtain good measurements.

Cascode Amplifier.
Figure 6.23 Cascode Amplifier sometimes found in Ham Radio
Projects.

For a verbal description click here.

This circuit is used by amateur builders who don't know or

didn't stop to think that a field effect transistor is not
constructed like a triode tube. Proper operation of the circuit
requires that the upper device have an electrostatic shield
between the source and drain. FETs are not constructed in this
way. The channel which has the source on one end and the drain
on the other is a small bar of N type silicon. The gate is a
small dot of P type silicon on one side of the channel. The gate
is not physically between source and drain. For the depletion
region to serve as an electrostatic shield it would have to
occupy the entire cross section of the channel. That would place
the FET in total cutoff and it would not function as an
amplifier.

If you ever have to deal with such a circuit it will most likely
come to you as a newly constructed device that has never worked.
Slight detuning of the input and output tuned circuits may make
it stable enough to use. The circuit is most likely to appear in
fixed tuned converters so there is no tracking problem to deal
with.

Probably the best cure is to break the "don't modify" rule and
change the upper FET to an NPN BJT. I have used circuits of this
kind and they are very stable because the grounded base of the
BJT does act as an electrostatic shield in the same way as the
grid of the triode did in the original tube circuit that the
semiconductor version was borrowed from. If a low noise BJT is
used the circuit should be just as quiet as it was with the FET.
It should actually be quieter because it isn't oscillating.

A modified version of this circuit was used in the FM tuner

section of the Heathkit AR-15. Instead of a series coil from the
drain of the bottom fet to the source of the top fet the signal
was coupled by a combination of magnetic and capacitive
coupling. In addition a third winding on this transformer
provided neutralization to the circuit. Clearly it took some
engineering to make this circuit work well enough for use in a
production product. The tuner front end came preassembled and
factory aligned in the kit.

Servicing anything more complex than an IF amplifier in an AM

receiver is usually beyond the capabilities of small shops and
hobbyists and is best left to factory service centers. The
reason is that the arrangement of leads and components effects
the alignment and neutralization. Replacing a transistor in a
VHF amplifier will certainly require the neutralization of the
circuit to be readjusted. To do so usually requires a network
analyzer which is a very expensive and complex piece of test
equipment.

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6.6 Switching Circuits.

Although switching functions have largely been taken over by

integrated logic, there are occasions on which a very small
amount of switching circuitry is required. On such occasions the
designer may elect to use discrete transistor logic.

Consider the circuit of figure 6.24. In logic terms This is a

noninverting buffer. A "high" input will cause base current to
flow in Q1 which will turn it on. When Q1 is on, its collector
voltage will be about 0.1 volt ("low") and there will be no bias
for the base of Q2. Q2 will be off and its collector voltage
will be "high". If the input is "low" there will be no bias for
the base of Q1 which will turn it off. With Q1 off, its
collector will be "high" and there will be bias for the base of
Q2, turning it on. When Q2 is on, its collector will be "low".
Figure 6.24 Discrete Noninverting Buffer.

For a verbal description click here.

If Q1 shorts, its collector will be "low" regardless of the

state of the input. Q2 will be off and the output will be
"high".

If Q2 shorts, its output will be "low" regardless of the state

of Q1.

If R2 opens, the circuit would act the same as if Q1 had

shorted. If R3 opens, changing logic levels would be observed at
the collector of Q1 but Q2 would always be off and there would
be a "high" at its collector.
Chapter 7 Transistorized Consumer Equipment.

7.1 Audio Amplifiers.

7.2 Radios and tuners.
7.3 Things you should leave alone.

Chapter 7.

Transistorized Consumer Equipment.

As you read in the foreword of this book it has been repurposed

from a university textbook to a web publication whose target
audience is more likely to be home experimenters and hobbyist.
Therefore this chapter is about consumer grade electronics
rather than exotic devices that may be found in a scientific
research laboratory.

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7.1 Audio Amplifiers.

The term "audio amplifier" can cover a multitude of sins and in

this section we shall cover the most important of them. There
are thousands of variations on the basic audio amplifier so only
a few representative samples can be given here.

Transformer Coupled Audio Amplifier.

The very first audio amplifiers employing transistors were

designed as the audio section in transistor radios. Figure 7.1
is an example.
Figure 7.1 Transformer Coupled Audio Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

Although this circuit is very old dating back to the dawn of the
transistor age it still exists in vintage radios and phonographs
and is occasionally used in new equipment.

Transformer coupling was used because early transistors had low

current gains. Transistors are current devices unlike tubes
which are voltage devices. Note that both transformers are
impedance step-down which translates to current step-up. Those
transistors needed all the help they could get and the
transformers provided it.

Note. The values given in the circuit are NOT from a vintage
radio but have been designed to work with modern silicon
transistors. If you were to construct this circuit using 2N3904s
or any other small silicon NPN transistor it has a high
probability of working and delivering approximately 250 mW, a
little more on 12 volts.

Although the transistors are transformer coupled the failure

analysis given in section 6.1 for the common emitter
configuration mostly applies here. The main difference is that
in the push-pull pair consisting of Q2 and Q3 the collector
voltage will mostly be at Vcc for all failure modes except an
open transformer winding. That case will be identical to that
for an open collector resistor. For the single ended amplifier
of Q1 the 1.8 k ohm resistor will be the collector load for DC
and the failure modes will be almost the same. The upper base
biasing resistor is effectively returned to the collector for DC
but the effect of this will be small for a failure mode
analysis.

In vintage equipment using germanium transistors there will be a

thermistor in parallel with the resistor that is equivalent to
the 270 ohm resistor. In most vintage circuits the capacitor
across this resistor has been omitted. This omission likely
slightly reduces power output and increases distortion. There
was already so much distortion in these vintage circuits the
designers probably felt that a little more wouldn't be noticed.

A variation of the transformer coupled amplifier was seen in

line operated table radios from the mid 1970s onward. It came
closest to being the transistor equivalent of the all American
five tube radio.

Figure 7.2 Line Operated Transformer Coupled Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

This circuit was made possible by the fact that high voltage
power transistors had come down in price sufficiently to make
the circuit practical. The output transformer would likely be a
5 k ohm to 4 ohm unit not unlike the ones used in tube radios.
The transistor would be mounted on a heat sink of some kind
maybe the metal chassis of the radio.

The diode half wave rectifies the line voltage and the
rectifier's output is filtered by the 30 uf capacitor. The
ripple on the output is calculated by starting with the
equation,

i = C dV/dt (Eq 7.1)

First we mentally change the derivative to delta V / delta t and

change the case of the current symbol, then solve the equation
for dV.

DV = Dt I/C (Eq 7.2)

Where DV is the change in voltage over a finite time, Dt is the

time interval, I is the DC load current, and C is the
capacitance of the capacitor in farads.

DV = 16 e-3 seconds x 20 mA/30 uf = 10.7 volts.

16 e-3 (16 milliseconds) is approximately the length of one

cycle in north America.

The calculated peak of the 120 volt line voltage is 170 rounded
to 3 digits. The calculated peak to peak ripple of 10.7 volts
means that an average DC voltage of 165 volts is reasonable.
This voltage value was used to design the transistor circuit.
Because a transistor is a constant current device, similar to a
pentode tube, voltage changes of 10 volts peak to peak will not
produce any significant changes in collector current. The output
transformer responds to changes in current so the hum level will
be almost undetectable.

The voltage divider consisting of the 15 k ohm 2 watt and the

1.3 k ohm resistors form a voltage divider which places the base
of Q5 at approximately 12.6 volts. The emitter will then be at
12 volts. The * 620 ohm resistor is the closest standard value
that will produce 20 mA of emitter current in Q5. The resistor
must be recalculated to account for the current drawn by the
converter and IF stages of the radio. Let's say that the current
drawn is 5 mA. Then the resistor has to conduct 15 mA to common
to set the emitter current to 20 mA. The resistor value is given
by 12 v / 15 mA = 800 ohms. The closest standard value is 820
ohms which means that the emitter and therefore the collector
current of Q5 will be a shade low. In a real circuit the emitter
voltage may be set a little higher and an additional RC filter
stage inserted to ensure there will not be any positive feedback
which could result in motorboating of the radio.

The above mention motorboating could be a fault of the circuit

if the capacitor from the emitter of Q5 to ground were to
develop a high effective series resistance (ESR).

If the emitter capacitor were to short Q5 would draw too much

current, overheat, and short. This would apply the full line
voltage peak to the converter and IF circuits thus cooking the
entire radio and likely making it's repair uneconomical. Only a
restorer of antiques would be interested in it after such a
catastrophic failure.

Transformerless Amplifier.

Below is the circuit that was used for power amplifiers from the
earliest days of transistors to some time in the early 70s.

Figure 7.3 Transformerless Amplifier from the 1960s.

For a verbal description click here.

This circuit actually has 3 feedback loops. 1) An AC negative
feedback loop around the entire amplifier from the positive side
of the 4000 uf capacitor, which is often called the amplifier
midpoint, through the 2.2 uf capacitor and the parallel
combination of the 330 k ohm resistor and the 2.7 pf capacitor
to the base of the first transistor. 2) A DC coupled negative
feedback loop from the amplifier midpoint through a 33 k ohm
resistor to the base of the transistor that would be Q3 if I had
remembered to number them. 3) An AC coupled positive feedback
loop from the amplifier midpoint through the 50 uf capacitor to
the junction of the 1 k ohm and 4.7 k ohm resistors.

The first two transistors on the left are in a stabilized

configuration identical to that of Figure 6.18. As pointed out
in chapter 6 the failure of the second transistor's collector
resistor can cause the phase of the amplifier to reverse while
it does continue to amplify to some degree. This would change
the negative feedback to positive and the amplifier will
oscillate at some frequency, most likely high, possibly
ultrasonic.

If ultrasonic the oscillation is likely to do serious damage to

speakers before being detected. The output transistors would
most likely blow.

The second feedback loop stabilizes the amplifier midpoint at

1/2 of the Vcc supply. If the 33 k ohm or the 270 k ohm resistor
opens the midpoint will go up to very near Vcc. If the 2.2 k ohm
resistor opens the midpoint will come down to be very close to
zero. If the 250 uf capacitor between Q2 and Q3 shorts Q3 will
be driven to high collector current and the amplifier midpoint
will be reduced in voltage. I think the 1 k ohm resistor in
series with the 250 uf capacitor is meant to reduce the effect
of such a short to prevent damage to the rest of the amplifier.

Note there are three diodes in series with the collector of Q3.
Note also that the base of the top darlington pair is connected
above the diodes while the base of the lower complementary
darlington pair is connected below the diodes. These diodes are
to temperature compensate the idling current of the outputs.
They are usually very near the heatsink or may even be thermally
bonded to it. If one or more of these diodes shorts the effect
might not be noticed for some time. It's main effect would be to
reduce the idling current of the outputs likely to zero. The
resultant distortion would be compensated for and covered up by
the large amount of negative feedback. The user may perceive
that the amplifier doesn't sound right but may not be able to
put his finger on the problem.

If one of these diodes opens, all four transistors in the output

stage as well as the two 0.67 ohm resistors are in for a
cooking. If you replace the two resistors and four transistors
without finding out what made them cook the replacements will
cook just as the originals had.

If any one of the four transistors shorts it will most likely

take the other three with it. This leaves the same symptom as an
open diode but one of the four transistors shorting was the
precipitating event. You are likely to find all four transistors
open. That is because the initial short caused excessive current
to flow which shorted another transistor and then the enormous
amount of current melted the transistors open before the main
fuse had time to blow. I have even seen the small leads on the
driver transistors between the transistor header and the PC
board burned in two. Repairing such an amplifier can be a game
of Russian roulette. You replace all four transistors and the
two resistors and check everything else you can think of, close
your eyes and apply the power. The problem with this circuit and
others like it is you can't fire it up with the expensive high
power transistors removed. You have to put it all back together
and hope.

The third feedback loop is more commonly known as bootstrapping.

The 50 uf capacitor couples AC signal from the midpoint to the
junction of the two resistors. The effect is to tremendously
increase the effective value of the 4.7 k ohm resistor. As the
mid point is driven up and down by AC signal the left end of the
4.7 k is also driven up and down. The voltage drop across the
resistor is very nearly constant. Constant voltage means
constant current. Instead of behaving like a resistor it behaves
like a constant current source for the collector of Q3. This has
the effect of increasing the gain of Q3 and reducing distortion
in the three diodes. A short in the 50 uf capacitor would place
the top transistors in cutoff which would allow the midpoint to
be pulled down near zero. If the capacitor were to open the
bootstrapping effect would be lost. This would increase the
amount of distortion but the global feedback would tend to cover
it up. Depending on how demanding a listener the owner is the
amplifier might be brought in for service only to have the
repair man say "It sounds alright to me." On the other hand the
owner may not notice that anything is wrong and the problem
could go undetected for years.
Figure 7.4 Improved Transformerless Amplifier from the 1970s.

For a verbal description click here.

Here is a circuit from the third decade of transistorized

consumer equipment. Its main improvement is DC coupling
throughout including the global feedback loop. Also a transistor
(active) current source has replaced the bootstrapped resistor.
The global negative feedback is applied to one base of a
differential pair with input applied to the other. There is a
current source in the emitters of the differential pair. It
operates from symmetrical power supplies so the midpoint is held
at zero. Almost any circuit fault will cause a large DC offset
which can destroy a speaker system in pretty short order if
there is no protective fuse.

The chief difficulty with this kind of circuit is that any fault
anywhere will propagate around the feedback loop and every
voltage will be out of whack. There are often clues. Say the
midpoint is locked to the positive rail. You should find that
the base of Q2 is more positive than the base of Q1. Because
these are PNP transistors Q2 will be in cutoff and Q1 will be
taking all of the current of the current source Q3. This will
pull the collector of Q1 higher than normal and pull the base of
Q4 higher, increasing its collector current. This will be trying
to pull the three diodes down but it can't because the amplifier
is at positive rail. The feedback is telling the amplifier to go
negative but something is keeping it from it. It could be a
short in any one of the three transistors Q5, Q7, Q9, or the 200
pf capacitor. Q4 could also be open causing this symptom.

This circuit suffers from many of the same problems as Figure

7.3 with the additional ones introduced by DC coupled feedback.

Both of these circuits have current limiting circuitry to

protect the amplifier against a short in the speaker wiring.
These circuits work in the same way as current limiting in a
bench power supply. The voltage drop across the low ohm
resistors in the output is sensed and if it exceeds a certain
value the current supply to the bases of the power transistors
is shut down.

Figure 7.5 is the circuit of Figure 7.3 with the protection

circuitry added.
Figure 7.5 Figure 7.3 with protection circuitry added.

For a verbal description click here.

The added parts that make up the protection circuit may be hard
to find. It consists of the series combination of two zener
diodes connected anode to anode and a 100 uf capacitor. The
literature I have for the amplifier does not reveal the voltage
of the zener diodes. If a short is placed across the output the
high current will cause a large AC voltage to be developed
across each of the two 0.67 ohm resistors. This voltage also
appears across the series combination of the two zener diodes
and the capacitor.

Suppose there is a short and the input signal is telling the

output to swing positively. The emitter of the top output will
swing positive creating a larger than normal voltage drop across
the top 0.67 ohm resistor. The positive going swing on the
emitter of the top output transistor was caused by a positive
going swing on the collector of Q3. Remember that there is a
short on the amplifier output and the 4000 uf capacitor prevents
any significant swing on the amplifier mid point. When the
voltage across the 0.67 ohm resistor is large enough the left
hand diode will go into zener breakdown and the right one into
forward breakdown. This will prevent the voltage at the
collector of Q3 from going any higher thus limiting the current
to a safe value. When the output tries to swing negatively the
lower 0.67 ohm resistor conducts a high current and the voltage
at the collector of Q3 is negative going. The right hand diode
goes into zener breakdown while the left hand one goes into
forward breakdown. This prevents the collector of Q3 from going
any more negative thus limiting the current.

Because the circuit of Figure 7.4 is dc coupled the current

limiting circuitry must be DC coupled and somewhat more
elaborate.

Figure 7.6 Figure 7.4 with protection circuitry added.

For a verbal description click here.

The limiting transistors are Q10 and Q11. Their emitters are
connected to the amplifier midpoint. Diodes D1 and D2 disconnect
the current limiting circuitry when no limiting is taking place.
The connections from the top and bottom ends of the sense
resistors may appear to be rather complicated but if you
mentally strip it all away, basically the top of the top 0.33
ohm resistor connects to the base of Q11 and the bottom of the
bottom 0.33 ohm resistor connects to the base of Q10. The
network of resistors, capacitors, and diodes appears to serve
the main purpose of preventing oscillation when current limiting
is in effect.

On the positive half cycle if the load is drawing too much

current Q11 is turned on and it's collector current takes
current away from the base of Q7 reducing the output to a safe
level. On the negative half cycle Q10 takes current away from Q6
limiting the current.

Stop the presses, it isn't quite that simple. Those two diodes
D3 and D4 appear to add a lot of complexity but the limiter
wouldn't work right without them. When there is no current
limiting taking place everything is going up and down positive
and negative with respect to ground. The drop across the 0.33
ohm resistors is small so the two 68 ohm resistors, the two .01
uf capacitors, the two 15 ohm resistors, the two 250 uf
capacitors, (they are connected to the midpoint), the top end of
the top 1 k ohm resistor, the bottom end of the bottom 1 k ohm
resistor, Q10, Q11, and the three capacitors that are around Q10
and Q11, are all swinging up and down with the output signal.

But on the positive swing D3 is forward biased and holds the

junction of the upper 1 k and the 4.7 k to near ground. This
reverse biases the base emitter junction of Q11 which was
already turned off but forward biases the base emitter junction
of Q10 which turns it on. This might turn off Q6 and Q8 but they
are already turned off. On the negative half cycle of normal
output Q11 is turned on. This has no effect until current
limiting kicks in.

If there is a short or too many speakers connected to the

amplifier. Q11 will be turned on as explained above. If Q10 were
not already on the voltage at the collector of Q5 would be
pulled down which would turn on Q6 and Q8. Q4 and Q5 are both
current sources so their voltage can be easily pulled around.
This would bring about the destruction of Q6, Q7, Q8, and Q9,
instead of protecting them. Q10 and Q11 being turned on at the
same time prevents this from happening. The similar event occurs
on the negative swing.

Current limiting circuitry is not likely to fail because it

rarely if ever turns on. If prolonged current limiting should
overheat either or both Q10 or Q11 causing it(them) to short the
amplifier might appear to work at very low volume settings but
distort at even moderate listening levels. Such a fault might be
hard to find if you fail to check the current limiting
components.

Integrated Circuit Amplifiers.

I recently had on my bench a home theater amplifier made by

Sony. It had discrete complementary output transistors but the
rest of the circuitry was inside a medium power integrated
circuit. Fault detection circuits found a DC offset and would
not connect the speakers while indicating an error on the front
panel display. The offset was not large being about 1/4 of the
Vcc and Vee supplies. The power transistors had normal values of
Vbe indicating neither an open or short. My only alternative was
to replace the IC. That turned out to fix it. Because of minimum
order requirements I had to buy 3 of the ICs. Such is the plight
of someone who does not operate a professional service shop.

Then there are those amplifiers that are one great big IC for
each channel. Before ordering these expensive parts perform the
"what is it being told to do" test. These are really nothing but
high power op amps and they will be treated as such in this
explanation. If the output is locked to the positive rail and
the inverting input is more positive than the noninverting input
the output is being told to go negative. If the output is locked
to the negative rail and the inverting input is negative with
respect to the noninverting input the output is being told to go
positive. In either of these cases the op amp is not doing what
it is being told to do so it must be defective.

On the other hand if the output is locked to the positive rail

and the inverting input is negative with respect to the
noninverting input the amplifier is being told to go positive.
If the output is locked to the negative rail and the inverting
input is more positive than the noninverting input the amplifier
is being told to go negative. In either of these cases the
amplifier is doing exactly what it is being told to do. The
fault lies with the surrounding circuitry that is doing the
telling. There are so many variations on these circuits that it
is impossible to give any examples.

Back to Fun with Transistors.

Back to Fun with Tubes."
Back to Table of Contents.
Back to top.

7.2 Radios and tuners.

The All Japanese Six.

The 6 transistor radio which I shall call the All Japanese 6

(AJ6) uses 3 of its transistors in the audio section, another as
the converter and the remaining two in the IF amplifier.

Note. The first transistors were mass produced by Texas

Instruments and their engineers designed the first practical
transistor radio. It was made under contract by a company in
Illinois for a time. However as has happened so many times over
the years since 1952 the Japanese were able to make it at less
cost which drove American manufacturers out of the transistor
radio business. Even though it isn't "all" Japanese I choose to
call it the AJ6 in the same way as the 5 tube radio that really
was all American was called the All American 5 (AA5). I do this
with apologies to the states of Texas and Illinois.

One of my professors told the following joke. "Whenever an

American company comes out with a new product, within one week
the Russians have invented it first, and within two weeks the
Japanese are making it cheaper." I have no knowledge of the USSR
claiming to have invented the transistor radio first but there
is no doubt that the Japanese did make it cheaper. Now it's the
Chinese but that's another story for another time.

The diagrams below were obtained from this website. The diagrams
have been redrawn to avoid any copyright problems.
Figure 7.7 Voxson Model 762.

For a verbal description click here.

These diagrams give no clue as to the year of introduction. They

all use germanium PNP transistors so the late 1950s or early 60s
seems to be a good guess.

The Converter.

The station signal is picked up by the ferrite rod antenna and

signal is coupled into the converter, Q1, by a coil that
consists of a few turns wound between the turns of, or over, the
grounded end of the main tuned winding. The transistor uses
series fed constant voltage biasing. The 10 k ohm and 2.2 k ohm
resistors provide the bias voltage to the transistor. The
emitter resistor sets the collector current. The .01 uf
capacitor keeps the low end of the base winding at RF ground.
In the collector of Q1 the tickler coil for the oscillator and
the primary of the IF transformer are connected in series.
Signal from the tickler coil is magnetically coupled to the
resonant coil and a tap on this coil couples signal of the
proper phase through the .01 uf capacitor to the emitter of Q1.
The resonant coils of the ferrite antenna and the oscillator
coil are tuned by the two sections of the tuning capacitor.

The IF (Intermediate Frequency) Amplifier.

The difference signal between the oscillator and station signal,

455 kHz, is coupled to the primary of the input IF transformer.
Vcc is fed to the mid-tap on the IF transformer primary and the
collector is connected to the end of the winding nearest the
tap. This prevents the low impedance at the collector of Q1 from
lowering the Q of the tuned circuit.

The function of D1 is unclear. Its anode is connected to the

high impedance end of the primary of the input IF transformer
while it's cathode is connected to the mid-tap on the interstage
IF transformer. The Q point program tells us that the no signal
collector current of Q2 is 212 microamps which gives a drop
across the 4.7 k ohm resistor of approximately 1 volt. If a very
strong nearby station were to be tuned in the peak RF voltage at
the anode of D1 could exceed 1.1 volts but it is hard to say
exactly what would happen. A strong signal would reduce the
forward bias on Q2 bringing the voltage on the cathode of D1
closer to its DC anode voltage. The DC voltage at the mid-tap of
the interstage transformer might be reduced which would reduce
the gain of Q2 but the top end of the input transformer is a
high impedance point which has many more turns between it and
the mid-tap than there are between the collector end and the
mid-tap. The cathode of the diode would have to drive the 4.7 k
ohm resistor. It seems more likely that the signal on the
primary of the input transformer would just be clipped
distorting the modulated signal from the station.

The base winding of the input IF transformer couples signal to

the base of Q2. Q2 is biased from the -9 volt line through a 180
k ohm resistor and AGC (automatic gain control) is applied
through an 8.2 k ohm resistor. The AGC voltage is derived from
the cathode of the detector D2 so it is positive going. This
will reduce the collector current of Q2 reducing it's gain. This
is the only point in the radio where closed loop AGC is applied.
(Note. As speculated above the signal rectified by D1 may be
forward gain control but it's function seems doubtful.) The
primary function of the 4.7 k ohm resistor and 0.1 uf capacitor
is to decouple the collector of Q2 from the minus nine volt
line. The collector of Q3 is decoupled by the 470 ohm resistor
and 0.068 uf capacitor.

The interstage IF transformer couples signal from the collector

of Q2 to the base of Q3. The output IF transformer couples
signal from the collector of Q3 to the detector, D2. The base of
Q3 is biased by the voltage divider consisting of the 15 k ohm
and 1.2 k ohm resistors. The 680 ohm resistor in the emitter
sets the collector current. The 0.068 uf capacitor bypasses the
cold end of the base winding on the interstage IF transformer
and the 0.1 uf capacitor bypasses the emitter of Q3.

Both Q2 and Q3 are neutralized by the series combination of a

resistor and small capacitor connected between the top of the IF
transformer primary and the base. The use of a resistor is quite
rare. Usually only a capacitor is seen. Early transistors had a
substantial reverse voltage transfer ratio, hre. This consisted
of the capacitance between collector and base but also an
electric field effect which altered the forward voltage drop
across the base emitter junction as the collector voltage
changed. The resistors apparently were used to neutralize the
real part of hre while the capacitors neutralized the imaginary
part. This was evidently an example of thorough engineering
which other companies found to be unnecessary. That would seem
to point toward this being an early design. More about this when
discussing figure 7.8.

Detector and AGC.

D2 half-wave rectifies the voltage on the secondary of the

output IF transformer. The 0.025 uf capacitor smoothes out the
455 kHz ripple component while leaving the audio uneffected. The
DC component which is proportional to the strength of the
received station's signal is fed through an 8.2 k ohm resistor
to the cold end of the base winding on the input IF transformer.
A 10 uf capacitor filters out all audio from the AGC signal so
just the strength of the station's signal will effect the gain
of Q2. As the signal from the station gets stronger the DC
voltage applied to the right end of the 8.2 k ohm resistor grows
more positive. An increasing positive voltage reduces the bias
on Q2 which reduces its collector current thus lowering its
gain. Both the DC and audio are applied to the top of the 5 k
ohm volume control. The signal from the wiper also contains a
reduced version of the DC and audio. The 125 uf capacitor blocks
the DC from the base of Q4.
The Audio Amplifier.

The base of Q4 is biased by the voltage divider consisting of

the 22 k ohm and 20 k ohm resistors. The collector current of Q4
is set by the 1.2 k ohm resistor and this resistor is bypassed
by the 10 uf capacitor. Signal from the collector of Q4 is
coupled by the interstage audio transformer to the bases of Q5
and Q6. The low end of the primary of the interstage transformer
is bypassed to ground by a 64 uf capacitor. This capacitor in
conjunction with the 560 ohm resistor serves to decouple Q1
through Q4 from the effects of the audio power output
transistors Q5 and Q6.

Q5 and Q6 have base bias applied through the secondary of the

interstage transformer from the resistive voltage divider
consisting of the 3.3 k ohm and 68 ohm resistors. Q5 and Q6 each
have their own 10 ohm emitter resistors. This will provide some
automatic collector current balancing effect not available if a
single emitter resistor had been used for both transistors.
Leaving these two resistors unbypassed also provides some
negative feedback to the output stage. Signal from the
collectors of Q5 and q6 is coupled by the output transformer to
the speaker. The 220 ohm resistor and 0.047 uf capacitor roll
off the high frequencies and stabilize the global negative
feedback loop. This feedback is taken from the secondary of the
output transformer back to the base of Q4 through the parallel
combination of a 330 k ohm resistor and a 180 pf capacitor.

Comments.

The thoroughness of the neutralizing of the IF stages and the

use of negative feedback in the audio section indicates that
considerable thought was put into the design of this radio. It's
hard to believe all that was used to drive a 2 inch speaker.
Perhaps the design was lifted from an AC operated table radio
with a larger speaker.

Another Example.
Figure 7.8 Sanyo Super-Six.

For a verbal description click here.

The converter.

This circuit is similar to the Voxson radio above but there are
also notable differences. Feedback from the tuned winding of the
oscillator coil is fed through a 0.003 uf capacitor to the cold
end of the base winding on the ferrite rod antenna. This strikes
me as a questionable design change because it is certain to
result in a stronger signal from the local oscillator being
radiated from the radio as compared to designs where the
feedback is coupled to the emitter of the converter transistor.
4 of the 17 6 transistor radio circuits I found have oscillator
feedback taken to the base of the converter transistor. The rest
take the feedback to the emitter.

IF Amplifier.
Q2 and Q3 are neutralized by capacitors only which is far more
typical of transistor radio designs. Also there is no decoupling
for Q2 and Q3.

AGC.

The major difference is in the AGC system. The top of the output
IF transformer secondary connects to the cathode of a diode D1
and the bottom connects to one end of a 0.01 uf capacitor.
Instead of being connected to ground the bottom end of the
winding is connected to the same voltage divider which biases
the base of Q2. This divider consists of a 90 k ohm and an 18 k
ohm resistor. This sets the base bias for Q2 as well as the
reference for the detector at approximately -1.5 volts. This
bias point is bypassed for both audio and Rf by a 10 uf
capacitor.

The signal from the anode of the detector, D1, is partially

filtered by the 0.01 uf capacitor which has its other end
connected to the bottom of the IF secondary coil. Additional
filtering is provided by the 200 ohm resistor and another 0.01
uf capacitor. At this point there is DC for AGC plus detected
audio. The DC is filtered by a 5.6 k ohm resistor and the 10 uf
capacitor in the emitter of Q2.

The AGC detector like any electrical source has two outputs. The
positive side is the bottom end of the IF transformer secondary
which is labeled AGC. The negative output is the bottom end of
the 5.6 k ohm resistor. This source of DC is floating, not tied
to ground anywhere, and is connected between the emitter and
base of Q2. As the signal from the station becomes stronger the
positive voltage applied between emitter and base becomes larger
which takes away from the normal negative bias for a PNP
transistor. The collector current of Q2 is reduced which reduces
its gain. But in addition the voltage at the emitter becomes
less negative.

Note that the bias for the base of Q3 instead of being derived
from a voltage divider as in the circuit above, comes from the
emitter of Q2. As the emitter voltage of Q2 becomes less
negative so does the base voltage of Q3. This reduces its
collector current which reduces its gain. AGC action in this
radio would be much improved as compared to the one above
because AGC is applied to both IF stages Q2 and Q3 instead of
just to Q2.
Audio is coupled from the junction of the 200 ohm and 5.6 k ohm
resistors through a 10 uf capacitor and a 1 k ohm resistor to
the top of the volume control. This is labeled VR on the
schematic and does not have an entry in the parts list. The
wiper of the control feeds through another 10 uf capacitor to
the base of Q4. Note that the designer of this radio took
measures to keep DC levels off of the volume control. This
reduces crackling when the control is rotated.

The Audio Amplifier.

The audio section has a few differences from the circuit above
but is mostly similar. There is a 0.005 uf capacitor across the
primary of the driver transformer. If the transformer is
actually a 10k primary to 2k secondary the roll-off frequency is
3180 Hz which seems low even for a pocket radio. The 9 volt
battery line is decoupled from the supply for Q1 through Q4 by a
200 ohm resistor and a 50 uf capacitor. The emitters of Q5 and
Q6 are tied together and connected to ground through a single 10
ohm resistor. There is no negative feedback around the audio
amplifier in this radio.

There is not a thermistor in either circuit selected as

representative of 6 transistor radios. This may indicate that
these are both early designs. Owners of radios of this type
found they would stop playing if left on a beach blanket in the
hot sun for several hours. The radios were found to be working
upon arrival home. The problem was instability of the operating
point of some of the transistors. The two most vulnerable stages
were the converter, Q1, and the push-pull outputs, Q5 and Q6.

At elevated temperatures the transistor's current gain would

increase causing it to go into saturation and stop oscillating.
The cure for this was to make the parallel combination of the
two biasing resistors in the base very approximately equal to
the emitter resistor. This appears to have been done in both
designs shown above. The result of an overheated push-pull pair
was distorted sound and a quickly run down battery. As the
transistors heated up their current gain would increase causing
them to draw more current which heated them up more causing more
current etc. etc. In line powered radios this runaway condition
usually resulted in cooked transistors. In a battery powered
radio a run down battery was usually the only result. Several
repeats of this incident resulted in unhappy customers and
eventually the engineers added the thermistor to compensate for
wide temperature changes.
What can go wrong?

After the manufacturers made their radios able to work at the

beach there really wasn't much left to go wrong. Low voltages
and currents didn't put much stress on resistors, capacitors,
and transistors. When a radio turned up at a service shop it was
usually because of being dropped into the family swimming pool
or overboard from the family boat. In such cases it was not
economical to repair because the cost would exceed the price of
anew radio. In deed by the late 60s a six transistor radio could
be had for 5 or 6 dollars.

At this writing the very first transistor radios made in USA are
60 years old. If they haven't already these will soon become
quite valuable as rare antiques and because there were so few
made.

Meanwhile the transistor radios of today use the same ferrite

antenna, tuning capacitor, and IF transformers, but the
transistors have been incorporated into a 16 pin DIP. If a true
6 transistor radio lands on your bench it is most likely that
the owner, sometimes you, wants it restored to operation for
sentimental reasons. What voltage, current, and power, couldn't
do to these radios, time has. The electrolytic capacitors will
most certainly need to be replaced. In early transistors the
mechanical connection between the leads and the germanium
crystal wasn't very good and often failed. In most cases the
radio will still play but the sound contains a most annoying
crackling that is usually not effected by mechanical shock.
Germanium transistors are available from specialty suppliers. A
Google search should turn them up. I once went so far as to
reengineer a transistor radio for silicon NPN transistors. It's
not a job I would recommend to anyone.

The volume control in these radios is usually not the enclosed

potentiometer we are accustomed to seeing in other equipment.
The carbon element is glued to the circuit board and the wiping
contact runs around it as the knob is turned. At the counter
clockwise end of its rotation part of the wiper moves a contact
opening the connection to the 9 volt battery. This leaves the
carbon ring vulnerable to being damaged or at least getting
dirty. Either one will result in a crackling sound when the
control is rotated. If this occurs some control cleaner applied
to the carbon ring will fix the problem. If the control has been
damaged it will have to be replaced. The best source is probably
another radio. I have no experience to offer on how to remove
these rings.
Another source of crackling is the tuning capacitor. These
capacitors are inside a plastic box and as far as I know opening
the box is an irreversible process. To save space these
capacitors have very thin layers of plastic between the plates.
It is not unusual for the plastic to have worn through in a few
places allowing the plates to make electrical contact. Replacing
the capacitor is the only fix for this. Fortunately in most
radios the tuning capacitor is easily removed and if you can
obtain a matching capacitor, easily replaced.

As mentioned above the modern pocket radio contains a DIP IC

instead of transistors. However, the tuning capacitor appears to
have changed little if at all over the last 50 years. If all
else fails, one of these IC radios could be a source of parts to
repair an AJ-6.

Car Radios.

AM transistorized car radios are only slightly different from

home AM radios. Three major differences are; They are with few
exceptions tuned by variable inductors rather than variable
capacitors, the intermediate frequency is 262.5 kHz, and the
audio output is capable of delivering a watt or more. Much more
in some cases. The FM stereo section is pretty standard.

The hardest part of repairing car radios is getting them out of

the car and then back in after repair is complete. Modern low
voltage high current power supplies are sufficient to power one
while it is on the test bench. In some cases the speaker or
speakers are mounted in another part of the car, such as in the
door panels but any small set of speakers can be substituted for
troubleshooting purposes.

One complaint may be that there is excessive ignition noise and

alternator hum in the radio. This problem is very difficult to
troubleshoot because it can't be tested outside of the car. In
older radios power is fed into the radio through feed-through
capacitors which in car radio parlance are known as spark
plates. These are usually found in tube radios in an era when
low impedance feed-through capacitors had not yet been
developed. A spark plate is a square of metal which is connected
to the hot power lead and insulated from the radio chassis with
a sheet of mica. There is little to go wrong with such a device
except corrosion at the point where the power lead connects to
the plate. In modern transistorized radios feed-through
capacitors will be found instead of the older technology.
AM/FM Stereo Car Radios.

This book is primarily aimed at those repairing or restoring

vintage equipment so little time will be spent on this subject.
Other than the differences noted above for AM radios there is
virtually no difference between a car radio and a home AM/FM
stereo receiver. With the exception of the 120 VAC power supply
of course. High power car stereos require more supply voltage
than the 12 volts of the car's electrical system. If only the
available 12 volt supply were used the highest peak-to-peak
voltage across the speaker would be approximately 22 volts using
a bridge amplifier. Based on a 4 ohm speaker the power
calculates out to about 15 watts. While this would be plenty for
any sane person those car stereos that you can hear booming from
2 blocks away are running several hundred watts. To obtain that
much power they have to use Vcc supplies of 50 or 100 volts.
These comparatively high voltages are obtained from an inverter
circuit which is basically a silicon version of the vibrators
used in tube radios of old.

AM/FM Radios.

An AM/FM radio may be a portable, small table, clock radio, or

car radio. Separate transistors are used for the AM and FM
frontends. The low cost of transistors and high cost of switches
is what makes this economically possible. Band switching is
accomplished by switching on the Vcc to the frontend which is
desired and switching off the Vcc to the other one. This can be
done with a simple single pole double throw switch. Each mixer
is coupled into the IF strip through the appropriate IF
transformer. AM uses an intermediate frequency of 455 kHz while
FM uses an intermediate frequency of 10.7 MHz.

In the IF strip the FM and AM IF transformers have their

primaries and secondaries wired in series to the base or
collector of each IF transistor. The highest frequency
transformer, 10.7 MHz FM IF, is closest to the transistor. The
AM IF usually needs only 2 stages and the signal is taken off
for detection after passing through this many transistor stages.
The FM signal usually needs a total of 4 stages so the IF strip
continues with only 10.7 MHz transformers after the AM takeoff
point. Some radios may only have a total of 3 IF stages. The
last stage of the IF strip is overdriven to remove amplitude
variations which contain no intelligence.

The FM signal is demodulated by a circuit known as a ratio

detector. The circuit is shown below.
Figure 7.9 Ratio Detector.

For a verbal description click here.

There are three coils inside a discriminator transformer. (Note;

even though the circuit is a ratio detector the transformer goes
by the name of the other detector circuit which is a
discriminator. The discriminator circuit is almost never used
because of its poor AM rejection. But the transformer which is
identical for both circuits still carries the name.) Now, where
was I? Oh yes, 3 coils. The primary coil which is in the
collector of the last IF transistor is tuned to the center of
the FM IF, 10.7 MHz. The secondary which is center-tapped is
also tuned to the center frequency. The third coil known as a
tertiary winding is magnetically coupled to the primary but is
untuned.

Imagine for a moment that the tertiary winding has no voltage

across it. The voltages at the top and bottom of the secondary
are 180 degrees out of phase with each other. There will be a
positive voltage at the cathode of the top diode and a negative
voltage at the anode of the bottom diode. The polarity of the DC
voltages are determined by the direction of the diodes not by
the phase of the RF signals. These voltages will be filtered by
the 330 pf capacitors. These voltages will cause current to flow
through the two 10 k ohm resistors. (Let's simplify the
explanation by pretending that the 2.2 k ohm resistor doesn't
exist. The imbalance it introduces can be compensated for by
slightly off-tuning the secondary of the transformer.) As the
junction of the two 10 k ohms is grounded the voltage at the
center-tap will be zero. Without the tertiary winding it would
stay like that regardless of the input frequency.

The current which is induced in the tertiary winding is in phase

with the current which is induced in the secondary winding. That
is because both currents are being induced from the primary
winding.

The tertiary winding is untuned and it has a self resonant

frequency which is much higher than 10.7 MHz. Thus it appears
inductive and the voltage is leading the current induced in it
by 90 degrees. The bottom of this winding is very nearly at
ground potential so the voltage applied to the center-tap of the
secondary leads the current by 90 degrees.

Because the secondary is tuned to resonance at 10.7 MHz the

voltage from the center-tap to the top is in phase with the
current and the voltage from the center-tap to the bottom is 180
degrees out of phase with the current. Let us say for the sake
of argument that the RF voltages across the top half of the
secondary, the bottom half of the secondary, and the tertiary
winding are all equal in amplitude and equal 10 volts. This
condition is shown in the phasor diagram in Figure 7.10(a).

Figure 7.10 Phasor Diagrams of Discriminator Transformer

Voltages.

For a verbal description click here.

The voltages across the tertiary winding and the top half of the
secondary add as to the voltages across the tertiary and the
bottom half of the secondary. This addition is shown in Figure
7.10(a). The voltage at the top of the secondary is 14.14 volts
at an angle of 45 degrees while the voltage at the bottom of the
secondary is 14.14 volts at an angle of 135 degrees. Note that
both voltages still have equal amplitude although the relative
phase angle has been altered. The diodes recover only amplitude
information not phase information. Therefore the DC voltages at
the cathode and anode of the top and bottom diodes respectively
will be equal in value and opposite in sign. (+14.14 volts at
the top and -14.14 volts at the bottom). Note that the DC and
audio output from the detector is taken from the center-tap of
the secondary. The tertiary winding has a minute amount of
reactance at audio frequencies.

Now suppose that the frequency shifts upward. The phase of the
voltage at the top end of the secondary will shift negatively
because the resonant secondary now appears capacitive. Voltage
lags current in a capacitive circuit so the phase will shift and
let's say it shifted by -45 degrees as shown in figure 7.10(b).
The voltage at the top of the secondary is now 7.653 volts at an
angle of 22.5 degrees. The voltage at the bottom of the
secondary is 18.478 volts at an angle of 112.5 degrees.

Remember that the two 10 k ohm resistors are holding the

voltages across them equal and balanced to ground. Phasors
represent the peak value so the voltage between the anode of the
lower diode and the center-tap is 18.478 volts with the center-
tap positive with respect to the diode anode. The voltage
between the upper diode cathode and the center-tap is 7.653
volts with the cathode positive with respect to the center-tap.
The total voltage is 26.131 volts. Each 10 k ohm resistor will
have 13.0655 volts across it. The voltage at the center-tap will
be 13.0655 v - 7.653 v = 5.4125 volts. Note that for an increase
in frequency the output of the detector goes positive which is
desirable for tuning meters and automatic frequency control
(AFC).

When the frequency goes below center by the same amount it went
above center the numbers are the same but all signs are
reversed.

I wonder if anyone noticed the discrepancy with the numbers.

When the incoming frequency is at the exact center the total
voltage across the two 10 k ohm resistors was 28.28 volts and at
a frequency that will give a 45 degree phase shift the voltage
was 26.131 volts. If the voltage of the tertiary winding is
decreased to 1 volt the total DC is 20.1 volts at center
frequency and 20.05 volts at a frequency that gives a 45 degree
phase shift. Decreasing the phase shift to 30 degrees gives 20.1
v and 20.08 v respectively. Reducing the phase shift and
tertiary voltage reduces the amount of recovered audio. Clearly
the designers of ratio detectors have to make some compromises
to obtain a practical audio level and acceptable distortion.

There are no large currents or voltages in this circuit which

reduces the probability of component failure. Resistors and
capacitors can simply fail from old age. The most likely one to
fail from this cause is the 5 μf capacitor which is a low
voltage electrolytic. This capacitor in conjunction with the 2.2
k ohm resistor set the AM rejection. If the electrolytic should
dry out and its value be reduced the AM rejection of the
receiver will be considerably poorer than when the set was new.
Do not assume that if 5 μf is good that 10 μf is better. The
impedance and time constant of the circuit consisting of the 2.2
k ohm resistor and 5 μf capacitor in conjunction with the Q of
the transformer secondary set the best value of AM rejection.
Changing the value of the capacitor will reduce the AM rejection
of the detector. In this particular case the substitution of a
4.7 μf capacitor would probably be acceptable especially since 5
μf capacitors are no longer made.

Note: In diagrams of the Ratio Detector you are likely to find

in other textbooks the 2.2 k ohm resistor will be split between
the top and bottom of the circuit. The designers of this circuit
are taking the AGC voltage from the bottom end of the 5 μf cap.
My best guess is that if there were a resistor between the diode
and this cap there would be an additional RC time constant in
the AGC loop which might render it unstable.

The two 10 k ohm resistors are 5% in table radios and are often
1% in High fi tuners. If one of them were to increase in value,
a common result of old age, this would cause you to alter the
tuning of the secondary of the discriminator transformer in an
attempt to balance the circuit at center tuning. The effect of
this would be to decrease the dynamic range of the detector
possibly introducing a considerable amount of distortion.

If you think the detector is misaligned refer to the alignment

procedure in the FM Tuner section below. References to the
stereo light and tuning meter won't apply to a portable or table
radio but the sound will be the same.
FM Tuners.

There is so much variation in circuitry among various tuners

that it is impossible to give any detailed schematic diagrams.
An FM tuner has the following sections. RF amplifier, Mixer and
local oscillator, linear IF amplifier, limiting IF amplifier, FM
detector, and stereo multiplex demodulator.

The RF amplifier operates in the frequency range between 88 and

108 MHz. The physical layout is even more critical than the
component values. The simple act of bending a transistor to a
more upright position could seriously degrade the performance of
the tuner. If there is nothing wrong in the RF and
mixer/oscillator section, don't touch it. If a transistor is
burned out in this section and must be replaced your odds of
ever getting it working again are small.

The linear section of the IF amplifier permits information for a

signal level meter and AGC to be derived, usually from a simple
diode detector.

The limiting section of the IF amplifier derives a signal which

has a constant output level regardless of changes in the input
signal. This is not done by AGC but by simple hard clipping.
This is usually done within one or more integrated circuits. If
the tuner is more than 20 years old these circuits may be very
hard or impossible to find. Most all modern tuners use factory
tuned LC filters or fixed tuned ceramic or crystal filters. In
general such devices are not bothered by component replacement.
Should one of these filters be found to be defective, and the
tuner is old the chances of it playing again are small.

Detector Alignment.

CAUTION! Even high quality FM tuners in the transistor age use

the same tiny transformers as their little brothers. The slugs
in these have an obvious slot and they are very hard to turn.
You may be tempted to use a metal screwdriver. DON'T DO IT! The
slot will break out and the slug may brake into several pieces
rendering the chances of a successful repair even lower. These
slugs are held in place with paraffin. A little gentle warming
with a hair dryer will permit them to be turned safely with an
alignment tool.

Unless the tuner on your bench has been in the hands of someone
who tightened up all the loose screws the IF and detector really
won't need much if any alignment. In every old tuner I have seen
the detector was slightly miss-aligned. You shouldn't need to
turn the alignment slug more than 1/2 turn and more likely it
will require less than a quarter turn.

The evidence for a misaligned detector is found by tuning across

a strong local station which has only very weak signals nearby.
When the detector is properly aligned you will observe three
distinct listening peaks, not peaks on any meter. As you
approach the signal you will begin to hear audio and it may not
be distorted but it may be mixed with a little noise. The tuning
meter will read quite low. As the tuning meter rises the sound
will grow quite distorted. As you continue tuning the distortion
will clear and the tuning meter will be at its peak. The stereo
light will most likely come on. As you continue to tune the
sound will once again grow distorted, the tuning meter will
drop, and the stereo light will go out. The distortion will
clear but the audio will be a bit noisy, and the tuning meter
will read quite low.

A misaligned detector will give you two peaks and it may be

ambiguous as to which one is the right one. Make small changes
in the discriminator transformer or quadruture coil and tune
across the station until you observe the signature of a properly
aligned detector described above. If a symmetrical triple peak
can't be obtained it may indicate trouble in the detector, or an
IF that is seriously out of alignment.

Never adjust the detector for maximum noise when tuned off a
station. You will adjust the detector so it won't detect FM at
all but might detect AM if the limiters aren't to hard.

Stereo Demultiplexing.

Stereophonic, two channel, recordings have been transmitted on

the radio since 1960. The method of transmission is compatible
with monophonic, single channel, radios. This is done by a very
clever method.

The two channels of the stereo audio signal are added together
to form a signal called L + R, left added to right. This signal
is modulated on the transmitter so any radio can pick it up.
Then a signal that can tell a receiver with the proper hardware
how to separate the mixed up channels is sent on frequencies
that are above the range of human hearing. A monophonic radio
may pick up these signals but they are not heard by the
listener. The secret signal is made by subtracting the R signal
from the L signal to give L - R. In the receiver the secret
signal is added to the L + R signal and at the same time in a
different circuit is subtracted from the L + R. This gives.

L + R + (L - R) = 2L

L + R - (L - R) = 2R

The factor 2 can actually be heard In many stereo receivers

particularly early ones where the manufacturer did not
compensate for them. When the receiver is switched to mono mode
the sound grows softer.

The L - R or difference signal is it is often called has to be

transmitted in such a way as to not cause any interference with
the sum L + R signal. The signal is transmitted as double
sideband suppressed carrier on a frequency of 38 kHz. The audio
bandwidth is limited to 15 kHz so the double sideband signal
occupies the band from 23 to 53 kHz.

Since the carrier has been suppressed it must be reinserted at

the receiver and it must be in phase with the original carrier
or the stereo signal will not be properly decoded. A 19 kHz
pilot tone is sent to synchronize the oscillator that replaces
the missing 38 kHz carrier.

So the whole composite stereo signal consisting of the baseband

audio from 50 Hz to 15 kHz, the 19 kHz pilot tone, and the
double sideband suppressed carrier from 23 to 53 kHz is sent to
the frequency modulator in the transmitter. Preemphasis is
applied to the two left and right channels independently before
they are fed to the electronics that perform what has been
described above.

Why is the 38 kHz carrier suppressed? The maximum carrier

deviation that the FCC will allow on American broadcast stations
is plus and minus 75 kHz. The mathematics of frequency
modulation are far too complicated to go into here. To describe
the effect, you can only squeeze in so much power into a carrier
with a fixed deviation. The more you try to put in the less
there is for the rest. A 38 kHz carrier would take considerable
power away from the sum channel and require it to be modulated
less to stay within FCC limits. An AM carrier does nothing but
sit there and burn up power so it is suppressed. That makes much
more modulation power available for the sum channel and the
difference channel.
In receivers constructed using semiconductor technology the
decoding is done by an IC with only a few external parts. The
most popular seems to be the Motorola MC1310. A block diagram of
the chip is shown in figure 7.11.

Figure 7.11 Block diagram of MC1310.

For a verbal description click here.

The input buffer provides a high input impedance to the chip

while providing a low output impedance to drive all the internal
circuitry. The entire composite stereo signal is applied to all
internal circuit blocks and each one uses what it needs and
ignores the rest. This eliminates the need for tuned circuits
and LC filters.

The internal 38 kHz carrier is generated from the 19 kHz pilot

by a phase locked loop. The 76 kHz VCO (voltage controlled
oscillator) is divided by two by a JK flip-flop and then by two
again by another flip-flop. This yields 19 kHz which is fed to
the phase detector. The phase detector picks out the 19 kHz
pilot tone and locks the VCO to it.

When the two input signals of a phase detector are at 90 degrees

and the same frequency the DC output voltage is zero. When the
two signals are in phase the output is positive and when the two
are 180 degrees out of phase the output is negative.
The VCO is designed and adjusted so when the DC input voltage is
zero its frequency is 76 kHz. When the voltage is negative the
frequency is lower than 76 kHz and when the input voltage is
positive the frequency is higher.

If the frequencies differ by say 1 Hz the output of the phase

detector is 1 Hz. This will cause the VCO to be frequency
modulated at 1 Hz and when it falls on 76 kHz the VCO will lock
onto the pilot tone. The tuning range of the VCO is small so it
won't lock onto musical notes in the program material.

The phase difference of the two 19 kHz signals is 90 degrees but

at twice the frequency, namely 38 kHz the phase difference
becomes 180 degrees. The 38 kHz signal between the two flip-
flops is 180 degrees out of phase with the carrier that is
required to recover the difference signal. A reversal in phase
will flip the phase of the recovered difference signal. That is
The difference signal will become -L + R. When the 38 kHz signal
is fed to a DBM (doubly balanced mixer) it will use the 23 to 53
kHz double sideband signal to recover the -L + R signal which
when combined with the composite signal through the two 75 k ohm
resistors will derive the left channel. The not Q signal from
the flip-flop is 180 degrees out of phase with the Q signal so
when it is applied to another DBM it derives the L - R signal.
When this signal is combined with the composite signal it
derives the right channel signal.

What is a doubly balanced mixer?

Note: In the discussion below the terms sum frequency and

difference frequency are used. Do not confuse these terms with
the terms difference signal and sum signal. The sum signal is
the L + R signal and the difference signal is the L - R signal.
A sum frequency is a new frequency resulting from two
frequencies being added together. A difference frequency is a
new frequency resulting from two frequencies being subtracted
one from the other. I promise to always say exactly what I mean
and mean exactly what I say.

A DBM produces the sum and difference frequencies the same as

any other mixer. If two signals of 6 kHz and 4.5 kHz are
injected into a DBM the output is 1.5 kHz and 10.5 kHz. But the
two original signals of 4.5 kHz and 6 kHz are canceled out by
the circuitry and do not appear in the output. The truth is that
the internal circuitry of the two DBMs is no different from the
circuitry of the phase detector. They are the same circuit
serving different functions. This makes chip manufacturing
easier because it becomes a series of modules that are connected
together before final packaging.

The 23 to 53 kHz double sideband signal combines with the 38 kHz

signal to produce audio from 50 Hz to 15kHz which is the
recovered difference signal. Also the original L + R sum signal
combines with the 38 kHz signal to produce sum and difference
frequencies which is a whole new set of frequencies in the range
of 23 to 53 kHz. If the original difference signal were not
canceled out by the DBM these frequencies would combine, beat
together, to produce all sorts of weird effects.

The 76 kHz VCO is an RC controlled Multivibrator with the

resistor and capacitor outside the IC. Part of the resistor is
usually a trimmer resistor to set the frequency of the
oscillator. The four 75 k ohm resistors are internal but the
0.001 uf capacitors must be supplied on the outside.

The output of the IC is not line level so gain stages must be

provided before going to line output jacks. Many tuners have
elaborate filters to make sure no frequencies above the audio
band escape from the tuner. If the 19 or 38 kHz signals were to
appear at the output with any appreciable amplitude they would
beat with the bias oscillator in a tape recorder and produce
beat frequencies, tones, in the audio band. These tones would
not be heard when listening to the radio but would be heard in
the recording.

What can go wrong?

If there is no output from the chip it is most likely bad and

must be replaced. A possible symptom is that there is audio but
it is monophonic, the same signal from both channels. This can
be tested for without having to rely on your ears. Connect the
two channels to the X and Y inputs of an oscilloscope and be
sure the station you have tuned in is transmitting stereo
program material. If the output is monaural the scope will show
a straight line at 45 degrees to the horizontal. If the signal
is stereo the scope will show all kinds of random circles and
ellipses.

If the receiver is producing monaural try adjusting the trimmer

pot in the frequency determining parts of the VCO. Many times
this will fix the problem.

If one channel is dead check the gain stages that come after the
demodulator chip.
If there is trouble in the filters and the user owns a tape
recorder there may be beats in the recording that aren't heard
in normal listening. Back to Fun with Transistors.
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7.3 Things You Should Leave Alone.

You should leave the following items alone.

1. VCRs.
2. CD Players.
3. DVD Players.
4. Flat screen TVs.

You may break the "leave it alone" rule if all four of these
conditions are satisfied.

1. The item is not working at all.

2. It is out of warranty.
3. The service shop you took it to declined to work on it.
4. You own the item.

When you have nothing to lose there is no risk and you might
just get it working. But don't make any bets or hold your
breath.

So what to do if you decide to open it up and have a look.

Before removing the screws or prying up the tabs check the back,
or the manual, if you still have it, for a reset button.

Assuming you manage to get it open without doing too much damage
trace the AC power line. You might find a fuse and most likely
it will be a solder in type and won't be the kind you can walk
into a Radio Shack and buy. If the fuse is blown don't replace
it just yet. Fuses do occasionally blow all by themselves but it
is rare.

Keep following the AC trail. Depending on the size of the device

you may or may not find a power transformer. But eventually you
will find one or more diodes and a filter capacitor. Check them
for shorts.

After the rectifier and filter you may find either an analog
voltage regulator or a switch mode power supply. At this point
the problem usually becomes getting at the components to figure
out what is there let alone test and replace them. If the
designers were thoughtful enough to realize that this part of
the unit is field repairable the circuit boards may come out
easily.

If you get this far without finding any fault temporarily solder
in a fuse clip and insert a standard fuse of the proper current
rating. If it blows you haven't found the problem. If it doesn't
start checking around on the net to find the proper replacement.
If you can find a way to safely anchor the fuse clip so it is
not hanging from the leads on the PC board you may decide to
leave it in place.

CD and DVD players will have two power supply lines a positive
and a negative with respect to ground. VCRs and TV sets will
have a multitude of voltages available from the power supply. TV
sets are most likely to have no line frequency transformer but a
switch mode power supply after a bridge rectifier and filter
capacitor.

DVD and CD players and VCRs can have mechanical problems which
can be difficult to diagnose without special test sets supplied
by the manufacturer. VCRs often have small spring loaded
switches that are meant to detect trouble in the mechanism and
shut off the power or reverse the action to prevent damage.
These switches are often not of the best quality and they end up
being the cause rather than the cure.

Often the wisest decision is to walk away particularly if the

thing doesn't belong to you. In the words of the song, "You've
got to know when to hold em and know when to fold em."
Chapter 8 Faults in Vacuum Tube Circuits.

8.1 Audio Amplifiers.

8.2 Radio Receivers.

Chapter 8.

Faults in Vacuum Tube Circuits.

A large segment of the electronics community considers vacuum

tubes to be an obsolete and useless technology. Another large
and growing segment considers them to be superior to transistors
in many applications. To name just a few they are, musicians who
play electric instruments, audiophiles, hams and SWLs, and
hobbyist and experimenters.

Musicians and audiophiles prefer the sound of tubes over

transistors. Hams and SWLs find that a tube receiver will
outperform a transistor receiver of comparable complexity and
price. Electronics hobbyist, especially the older ones, prefer
the point to point wiring construction used in conjunction with
tubes as opposed to the printed circuit boards of transistors.

Many items of tube equipment are more than 50 years old which
qualifies them as antiques. If one of these items turns up on
your service bench how it is treated depends on whether it has
not been turned on for several decades or if it was in daily use
and suddenly failed to operate. The latter case is covered in
This chapter.

If an item is brought to your shop by a tearful owner who states

that he or she used to listen to it at age six and asks you if
you can make it work again even though it may have been stored
in a damp basement or hot attic for the last 50 years you are
definitely on the hot seat. Such an item requires special care.
An entire chapter will be devoted to such items. There is bound
to be some duplication between this chapter and the one
concerning Antiques. However, this chapter is what it is.

For additional information on tube amplifier and radio circuits

see The Fun with Tubes website. Also see Electronics for
Physicists particularly chapter 4A.

Back to Fun with Transistors.

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8.1 Audio Amplifiers.

The largest segment of the tube culture consists of musicians

and audiophiles. The amplifiers they use differ in a few details
but are basically the same.

Power Supplies.

Tube aficionados disagree on whether it is best to use a tube as

the rectifier or silicon diodes. Tube rectifiers have a large
internal voltage drop and the drop changes with current being
drawn. When the power output stage is operating in class AB the
power supply voltage will fall when the amplifier is delivering
large amounts of power. The term applied to this is sag. Many
musicians find the sound produced by sag to be desirable.

Silicon rectifiers do produce a small amount of sag but it is

very much less than that occurring with a vacuum rectifier. Some
extremist will state they can tell the difference between the
sound of an amplifier using a tube rectifier and silicon even at
low power. Personally, I don't believe them.

Whichever type of rectifier it has the power supply should

always be checked first.

Heater Wiring and Schematics.

Tube heaters and filaments must be connected to a source of

power or the tube will just sit there and not do a thing.
Draftsmen have three basic ways of showing these connections.

The most obvious is to draw the lines from the power source to
the tube. This is more likely to be seen in circuit diagrams
showing filament type tubes rather then indirectly heated
cathode tubes.

Another way to indicate heater connections is shown in Figure

8.0A. The letter X is used to indicate that the power source is
indeed connected to the tube heater even though it is not shown
with lines on the drawing.
Figure 8.0.A Heater Connections Indicated By the Letter X.

For a verbal description click here.

The third way is to show the heaters separate from the tubes as
shown in Figure 8.0B. In this method it is easier to show the
heater connections in a duo triode such as the 12AX7. The
circuit on the left shows parallel connection while the one on
the right shows series connection.
Figure 8.0.B Heater Connections Indicated By Removing the Heater
From the Tube Symbol.

For a verbal description click here.

Single Ended Amplifier.

A single ended amplifier is about as simple as it gets. A

typical example of a musical instrument amplifier is shown in
Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Single Ended Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

This would be a low power practice amplifier. V1 is a 12AX7 and

V2 a 6V6. In another incarnation as a desk top amplifier for a
portable CD player the V1A stage would be removed and the signal
fed in at the top of the volume control. Another 6V6 would be
added and the other half of the 12AX7 would be in the other
channel.

A common fault in tube amplifiers is evidenced by the plate of

the output tube, 6V6 in this case, glowing red hot. This is not
a normal condition. There are two possible causes and they are
both capacitors. If C8 shorts the grid bias on V2 will be
reduced to zero and excessive plate current will flow. The other
defect is for C6 to become leaky. This is a resistance in
parallel with the capacitor and it doesn't take much leakage
current to cause problems. A leakage current of 25 micro amps
will approximately double the plate current of V2. This is an
effective parallel resistance of 6 meg ohms.
If the amplifier is producing weak and distorted sound you may
suspect a tube. Eliminate this fault by replacing both tubes
with known good ones. If this fixes the problem go back to the
old tubes one at a time to see which one is at fault.

If new tubes don't fix it look for a resistor that has increased
in value or a leaky capacitor. These can usually be found by
voltage measurements. Do not use a VOM for these measurements.
The resistance of the VOM will severely load the high resistance
voltage points. The plate voltages on those tubes with resistors
in the plate circuit will be approximately from 1/2 to 3/4 of
the voltage at the top end of the plate resistor. Grid voltages
should always read zero or perhaps a few millivolts on the
lowest range of a DMM.

Another fault that would silence the amplifier would be R5 or R9

open or C2 or C5 shorted. These will be evidenced by the voltage
across either or both C2 and C5 being zero. If the voltages
across C2 and C5 are zero the fault could be either C5 shorted
or R9 open. An ohmmeter test with power off should find which is
the fault.

If the voltage across C2 is zero this could be caused by C2

shorted or R5 open. The question can be resolved by the voltage
across C5. If the voltage across C5 is higher than normal there
is less current than normal flowing through R9. That points to
R5 being open. If the voltage across C5 is lower than normal
there is more current flowing through R9 than normal which
points to C2 being shorted.

Unformed electrolytic capacitors are usually not found in new

equipment. Faults unique to antique electronics will be covered
in a chapter devoted to that sub class.

Negative Feedback. (NFB).

A musical instrument amplifier often does not employ negative

feedback. NFB sharpens the overload corner so an amplifier
without it will overload more gracefully than one that has it.
Distortion which is anathema to audiophiles is often a desirable
effect to a guitar player. But it needs to be a particular kind
of distortion. Simple sharp clipping is usually undesirable.

If NFB were to be applied to this amplifier one side of the

voice coil winding would be grounded and the other side
connected through a resistor to the cathode of V1A. C4 would be
removed or a 100 ohm resistor would be connected in series with
it. The tone control circuit consisting of R8 and C7 would have
to be removed. If the tone control were left in place the NFB
would reduce its effect to the point of being almost
unnoticeable.

Push-Pull Amplifiers.

To make a push-pull power output amplifier work properly the two

grids must be driven by signals that are 180 degrees out of
phase. That is accomplished through a circuit known as a phase
inverter. Examples of the two major types of inverters are shown
in Figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2 (a) Split Load Phase Inverter, (b) Long Tail Pair
Phase Inverter.

For a verbal description click here.

Circuit (a) is known as a split load phase inverter. As shown it
is often made with a low μ duo triode such as a 6SN7. Another
variation uses a high μ triode for V1 and a low μ triode for V2.
Yet a third variation connects a capacitor between the plate of
V1 and the grid of V2. The V2 stage is biased the same way as
the modified cathode follower shown in Figure 4A.17(b). All but
the last variation can be upset by a change in the power supply
voltage. A fault elsewhere in the amplifier could be responsible
for a power supply voltage change and mislead the repair
technician.

If the power supply voltage is correct check DC voltages around

the circuit. The voltage at the plate of V1, also grid of V2,
should be approximately 1/4 to 1/3 of the B+ supply. The voltage
drops across R4 and R5 should be equal with the remainder of the
B+ voltage dropped across V2. The capacitor across R2 may be
omitted to permit negative feedback to be applied.

The circuit shown in Figure 8.2(b) is known as a long tail pair.

V1 is usually a high μ triode while V2 is a medium or low μ duo
triode. Signal is coupled directly from the plate of V1 to the
grid of V2A. The signal is inverted and appears at the plate of
V2A. Some of the signal is coupled from the cathode of V2A to
the Cathode of V2B and then to the plate of V2B. In this signal
path V2A acts as a cathode follower while V2B acts as a grounded
grid amplifier. Both configurations do not invert the signal.
The signal appears at the plate of V2B without being inverted.
Thus the two signals at the two plates of V2 are 180 degrees out
of phase. The signal path through V2A and V2B has slightly less
gain than the signal path through V2A alone. The increased value
of the plate load resistor on V2B, R5, compensates for the
difference in gain. R4 makes certain that the voltages at the
two grids of V2 are at the same DC potential. C2 grounds the
grid of the grounded grid amplifier V2B. A very slight leak in
C2 will imbalance the circuit and increase the distortion.

The voltage at the plate of V1 should not be too much greater

than 1/4 of B+. The voltage drops across R5 and R6 should not
differ by anymore than 20%. If there is a large imbalance it is
most likely caused by R4 or C2.
Figure 8.3 Complete Push-Pull Amplifier.

For a verbal description click here.

The figure above shows variation 3 of Figure 8.2(a). It also

shows how NFB is applied to the circuit. The output transformer
must be phased, correctly connected, to obtain negative feedback
instead of positive. This amplifier suffers all the same failure
modes as the single ended amplifier except there is more to go
wrong. Push-pull amplifiers are found more often in audiophile
equipment whereas single ended amplifiers are more likely to be
found in musical instrument amplifiers. This rule is broken when
the musician wants more power. Many instrument amplifiers such
as those made by Fender do use negative feedback and push-pull
outputs.

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8.2 Radio Receivers.

The All American Five.

The All American Five represents a triumph of the bottom line

over quality and safety. It was the radio that the Atwater-Kent
company went out of business rather then make. Every feature had
one purpose, to reduce the cost of manufacture. After World War
II there were millions sold under hundreds of brand names from
Admiral to Zenith.

It is called the All American Five because all brands were made
in America. This was long before the mass exodus of the
electronics industry. The five comes from the fact that it used
5 tubes. There were variations using 4 tubes which didn't
perform very well and 6 tubes which costs more. The average
person who didn't stay up late to see how many distant stations
they could hear (known as D X ing) didn't care about the
improvements provided by 6 tubes. Consequently the All American
Five became a post war standard which did not fade away until
replaced by the All Japanese Six, the six transistor radio made
in Japan.

The most prominent feature of the AA5 was that it had no power
transformer. The result was that the circuit common was
connected to one side of the power line. Because there was no
polarized plug there was a 50 - 50 chance that the radio's
chassis would be connected to the hot side of the power line.
Very late models from the sixties were carefully designed not to
have any metal parts on the outside even going so far as to
recess screws in deep holes. In the 40s and 50s there was no
such concern on the part of manufacturers. It was common to see
chassis mounting screws exposed on the bottom of the plastic
case. These radios could be, and sometimes were, lethal. All it
would take was for an unwary person to complete the circuit
between a metal part on the radio to a kitchen sink. I once
owned one that was in a metal case. My friends and I called
these radios "suicide boxes".

Because these radios were made literally by the millions there

are still many of them around and in working order. The odds are
better than even that one which has been in regular use by a
nostalgic owner will be brought to your service shop.
Figure 8.4 A Typical All American Five Radio.

For a verbal description click here.

These radios came in two main varieties, the octal tube versions
built mostly between 1946 and 1950, and the 7 pin miniature tube
type built between 1950 and fading out in the late 1960s. I have
seen a few hybrid radios that must have been made in the
transition period and the designers used whatever tubes were
priced the lowest by the tube manufacturer.

The tube line up was as follows.

Function Octal 7 pin mini

 tube. tube.

Converter 12SA7 12BE6

IF Amplifier 12SK7 12BA6

Detector and First

12SQ7 12AV6
Audio

Audio Power Output 50L6 50C5

Rectifier 35Z5 35W4

Radios of this type constitute a real danger to you and your

test equipment. You don't want to join the "great balls of fire"
club by burning off the ground lead of your oscilloscope probe
or worse.

The safest way to work on a radio of this type is to use an

isolation transformer. You need at least 36 watts to be on the
safe side. You could gin up an isolation transformer out of two
6.3 volt 6 amp filament transformers connected back to back,
that is the two filament windings connected together and the two
120 volt windings used as the primary and secondary of the
isolation transformer. You could also use a pair of 12.6 volt 3
amp transformers or a couple of 25.2 volt 1.5 amp transformers.
Larger current rating wouldn't hurt, smaller is not recommended.

If you just can't arrange an isolation transformer Plug the

radio into an outlet strip that has a switch. Temporarily solder
a jumper wire across the radio's on/off switch so it can't be
accidently turned off. Measure the AC voltage between the
cathode of the 12SQ7 or 12AV6 and AC power ground. If it is 120
volts reverse the plug. Use the switch on the power strip to
turn the radio on and off while making tests.

Troubleshooting.

The most likely symptom is a loud hum which comes up as the

tubes warm up. The loudness is not or very slightly effected by
the volume control. Sometimes you can actually tune in a station
and hear it through the hum. This is caused by the electrolytic
capacitor in the power supply being dried out. It can't be
reformed or recovered in any way. It must be replaced. The
circuit above shows a duo 40 microfarad 150 volt capacitor. In
most radios these will be a bit smaller. I have seen ones as
small as 20 - 20. They may be 20 - 30, 20 - 40, 30 - 40, or 30 -
30. If you can't find the exact replacement use something that
is close. You can go up in value but you should never go down.
Same goes for voltage.

None of the tubes light up and there is no sound. All of the

tube heaters are in series. One opens up and they all go out.
Pull the tubes and perform resistance measurements on the
heaters. They should range from roughly 20 to 85 ohms. Replace
the burned out tube.

Tubes light up but there is no sound. It's time to do a little

disturbance testing and half splitting. Turn the volume control
to about 2/3 rotation. Touch a screwdriver tip to the center
terminal of the three on the side of the volume control. Touch a
finger to the metal shaft of the screwdriver. You may or may not
hear a loud hum. You have just half split the radio. A hum means
the audio section is fine and the trouble is in the Converter,
IF, or detector. No hum means trouble in the audio section.

If you've got hum touch the screwdriver blade to the grid pin of
the IF amplifier. No need to touch the screwdriver shaft. If you
hear static the IF amplifier is good and the problem is most
likely that the oscillator is not running. Use a high resistance
DC voltmeter to measure the voltage at grid 1 of the converter
tube. You should get a voltage ranging from -2 to -20. It will
vary slightly as you tune across the band. In an AA5 sitting on
my bench I read approximately -10. If you have an authentic VTVM
it will measure this voltage without any major errors. A DMM may
or may not work. One way to ensure that it will is to wrap one
lead of a 1 meg ohm resistor around the probe or clamp it in the
alligator clip. Use the other lead as the probe to touch the
terminal. The reading will be about 10% low but you aren't
worried about accuracy, you just want to know if the voltage is
present.

If there is no static when touching or scratching on the IF

amplifier grid terminal, or the oscillator is not running, check
DC voltages on the IF and converter tubes. A zero plate voltage
might well be caused by an open IF coil. Zero plate and screen
voltages will likely point to a shorted bypass capacitor.
If you have the equipment you may find signal injection or
signal tracing to be more fun. To do signal injection make
absolutely sure the signal generator has a DC blocking capacitor
in its output. If it does not, modify the equipment or use one
externally held in an alligator clip test lead.

Set the generator for audio output and touch the lead to the
plate of the output tube. Turn the amplitude up to full. You
should hear a weak tone in the speaker. Move the probe to the
grid of the output tube. If the output tube is functioning
properly you'll get a blast of sound. Reduce the amplitude to a
normal level and move the probe to the grid of the first audio
tube. You'll get another blast. Turn it down again and move to
the top of the volume control.

Now change the generator to modulated RF and tune it to the

frequency of the IF in the receiver you are working on. 455 kHz
in the case of an AA5. Touch the probe to the plate connection
of the two diodes in the detector. Some AA5s use only one of the
diodes for audio detection. You should hear the modulated tone
on the RF generator. Touch the probe to the plate of the IF
amplifier. You should still hear the tone at about the same
strength. Now move to the grid of the IF amplifier. The tone
should grow much louder and require you to reduce the output.
Rock the frequency of the generator a little to be sure you are
tuned in exactly on the IF. An older set may have drifted a
little off frequency or been mis-aligned by a previous owner or
technician. Move the probe to the plate of the converter tube.
There should be no significant change in the amplitude of the
tone. Now move the probe to grid 3 of the converter tube.
Although the tuned circuit is off from the frequency you are
injecting you should still hear something just by brute force
injection. You would hear this tone even if the oscillator is
not running.

Now tune the generator to the band that the receiver is tuned
to. Tune the generator around to see if you can find it. If not,
the oscillator is likely not running.

There can be a number of reasons for a non running oscillator.

The oscillator coil could be open. The 22 k ohm resistor, or its
equivalent in your receiver, could be open. The 220 pf
capacitor, or its equivalent in your receiver, could be either
open or shorted. The tuning capacitor could be damaged and the
plates may be touching shorting it out.

Other Types of Radio Receivers.

Not all tube radios that still work are AA5s. There are console
radios that use a conventional transformer power supply. All the
tube numbers begin with a 6 and all are in parallel across the
6.3 volt transformer winding. The rectifier is sure to be a tube
maybe a 5Y3 or if the audio section produces some power a 5U4.
If the radio has shortwave bands, and most tube consoles did,
clean the contacts on the band switch. Switches that don't make
reliable contact are a major cause of malfunctions in such
radios. The main feature that distinguishes these radios from an
AA5, other than the power supply, is an RF stage before the
converter.

There are also many receivers that were intended for use by hams
and serious SWLs (Shortwave Listeners). These receivers were
made by National, Hallicrafters, Hammerland and others. The more
deluxe ones of these had a first If somewhere above the AM
broadcast band and a second IF below it. These are called double
conversion receivers. The very top of the line receivers made in
the 1950s were triple conversion.

No matter how complex they may be the basic principles are the
same as those of the AA5. Conversion to an Intermediate
Frequency (IF), amplification, and detection.

Alignment.

Aligning the IF amplifier in an AA5 is about as straight forward

as it gets. Set a signal generator to 455 kHz and turn on
modulation. Connect the generator's output to grid 3 of the
converter tube. Connect a VTVM set to AC to the plate of the
output tube.

WARNING!!! There is a high DC potential at this point. The

classic VTVM included a DC blocking capacitor to allow this
measurement to be made safely. A DMM or Transistorized analog
meter might have a low voltage capacitor or might not have one
at all. If this is the case connect the meter across the speaker
terminals.

Some top of the line radios from the 30s made by Zenith and
others used stagger tuned IF transformers. If you try the
procedure below you will really mess them up. Get hold of a
service manual for such radios. It will have alignment
instructions.

If you have an AA5 on your bench go ahead with this procedure.

Set the volume to a comfortable listening level and adjust the
range of the meter to get a good reading. Gently turn the
trimmers or slugs in the IF cans. Adjust all for maximum
reading.

For Antenna and oscillator tracking alignment the loop antenna

can easily be thrown out of resonance by direct connection of a
signal generator to the antenna circuit. You may be tempted to
use the external antenna connection, usually just a wire
sticking out of the back of the radio, as a connection point for
your signal generator. DON'T DO IT!

Make a transmitting loop antenna by driving a few small nails

into a piece of plywood. Make the shape circular or oval which
ever strikes your fancy. Wind several turns, say 4 or 5, around
the nails. Place the board so the transmitting loop is parallel
to the loop in the radio and at least a foot away from it.
Connect the output of your signal generator to the transmitting
loop and turn up the amplitude until you can find the signal on
the dial of the radio. Note: If you have a good ear you can use
a local station for this part of the alignment.

Tune to the high end of the band and adjust the oscillator
trimmer so the dial is in calibration. Adjust the antenna
trimmer for strongest signal.

If the oscillator coil has no adjustment slug the alignment is

complete. If it does, continue.

Now tune to the low end. It is difficult although not completely

impossible to do this part of the alignment with a station
instead of a signal generator. Set the generator's frequency to
about 600 kHz or a nearby spot which is clear of a local
station. Turn the radio's tuning knob to bring in the signal
generator. There is no way to adjust the inductance of the loop
antenna. Read the voltmeter and turn the slug in the oscillator
coil until the signal is off tuned. Turn the tuning knob on the
radio to bring the signal back in. Read the meter again. If it
is less you turned the slug the wrong way. Turn it the other way
and tune the signal again Keep doing this until you get the
highest signal possible. This is known as rocking the
oscillator. If it is something you do frequently you will
develop a rhythm in which you are almost turning the slug and
tuning knob in unison.

Go back to the high end and if necessary touch up the oscillator

trimmer for dial calibration and antenna trimmer for strongest
signal. A small table radio such as an AA5 usually does not need
repeated iterations of this procedure. Put it back in the case
and send it home.

Shortwave and Communications Receivers.

The short wave bands on an AM radio may require more attention.

You should not attempt alignment of these bands without an
accurately calibrated signal generator. A service manual is
always a good idea but if you don't have one you can likely
figure out which adjustment goes with which band if no other way
than by trial and error. If the latter is necessary be sure to
mark the adjustments so you won't get confused and turn an
adjustment on a band which has previously been aligned.

Start at the high end. Choose a frequency that is near but not
at the high end of the band. Something that is about 20 degrees
of rotation of the variable capacitor from the top. Adjust the
oscillator trimmer for proper calibration and the antenna
trimmer and if the radio has an RF stage the RF amplifier plate
trimmer for maximum signal.

Now go to the low end but not the bottom. Once again about 20
degrees off the low end. Adjust the slug in the oscillator coil
for proper calibration and the antenna and RF coil slugs for
strongest signal.

Now go back to the same frequency you used at the high end and
repeat the dial calibration and strongest signal adjustments.
Back to the low end and repeat. Go back and forth until the
adjustments stop needing to be changed.

Never, never, never, never, attempt alignment of a

communications grade receiver without a service manual or a lot
of experience. Of course, if you have a lot of experience you
will be writing your own book instead of reading mine.

Car Radios.

Car radios are only slightly different from other AM radios.

Four major differences are; Car radios are with few exceptions
tuned by variable inductors rather than variable capacitors, the
intermediate frequency is 262.5 kHz, the B+ is derived from a
vibrator power supply, and the radio will always have an RF
amplifier stage.

The hardest part of repairing car radios is getting them out of

the car and then back in after repair is complete. A typical
transistor bench power supply may not have enough current
capability to power a tube car radio. If all else fails you may
have to take the battery out of the car and bring it into your
shop. If you do, BE WARE OF SHORT CIRCUITS! A car battery can
deliver enough current to heat a test lead instantly red hot and
set the insulation ablaze. In-line fuse holders are available
from electronics suppliers and you should by all means get one
and fuse the battery. You could use a smaller battery such as
one for a motorcycle or riding lawnmower. Even these should be
fused.

If you frequently work on car radios I would recommend the

construction of a battery eliminator as they were called in the
day. Use one or more filament transformers, a bridge rectifier,
a BIG filter capacitor, and a variac.

In some cases the speaker is mounted in another part of the car,

such as in the dash above the radio and was not removed with it.
But any small speaker can be substituted for troubleshooting
purposes.

One complaint may be that there is excessive ignition noise and

generator hash in the radio. This problem is very difficult to
troubleshoot because it can't be tested outside of the car.
Power is fed into the radio through feed-through capacitors
which in car radio parlance are known as spark plates. A spark
plate is a square of metal which is connected to the hot power
lead and insulated from the radio chassis with a sheet of mica.
There is little to go wrong with such a device except corrosion
at the point where the power lead connects to the plate. Here we
have a wide open opportunity for finger pointing. The radio
repair man will say the fault is in the car while the mechanic
will insist that the radio is at fault.

I have no direct experience with functioning car radios either

in or out of the car, except for listening. If there are any
experienced troubleshooters out there who would like to write a
section on this subject be sure to get in touch with me. There's
no pay, just credit.

The Vibrator and Buffer Capacitor.

The problem you are most likely to encounter is trouble in the

vibrator power supply. The problem may be the vibrator itself or
the buffer capacitor which is connected across the secondary of
the transformer.
There are two main types of vibrator circuits used, Figure
8.5(a) is an external rectifier type and figure 8.5(b) is a
synchronous rectifier type.

Figure 8.5 (a) Uses a Rectifier Tube, (b) Extra Contacts

Accomplish Rectification.

For a verbal description click here.

Note: * Some cars in the tube era used positive ground instead
of negative ground. OEM radios were properly designed for the
make and model of car they were intended to fit. Some after
market radios were universal while others were not. This would
be a problem for the troubleshooter only if someone has tried to
fit an after market or wrong model into a vintage car. Such an
event is unlikely for a vintage car restorer. More on battery
polarity later. End of note.

A vibrator is nothing more than a fast relay. You can wire any
small DC relay so it's coil is energized through a normally
closed contact. As soon as you apply the power the relay
armature will change states opening the normally closed contact
and interrupting the current to the coil. The contact will close
reenergizing the coil and causing the contact to open again.
This is an electromechanical oscillator. With most relays it
will only operate at about 10 cycles per second. A car radio
vibrator has been designed so the armature has a mechanical
resonance at approximately 100 Hz where it operates.
The vibrator could be arranged to just turn the 6 or 12 volts of
the car's electrical system on and off to form a square wave but
it would have a DC component of ½ the supply voltage. This DC
component would saturate the core of the transformer making it
necessary to design the transformer with a larger core cross
section. Rather than do that the transformer primary has a
center tap which prevents a DC magnetic field from appearing in
the core. The positive, or negative, of the car battery is
applied through a filter consisting of an inductor and capacitor
to the center-tap of the primary. The purpose of this filter is
to keep vibrator hash out of the heaters of the tubes and
causing interference. The vibrator contacts alternately connect
the top and bottom ends of the primary to ground.

You will note that the vibrator coil is connected to the bottom
of the primary which does not allow the current through the
bottom half to drop completely to zero. Perhaps the primary has
been wound to allow for this or maybe it just doesn't make any
real difference.

Note: The circuit above shows the vibrator coil being energized
from one of the contacts that also serves to switch the
transformer. Some vibrators have been designed to use a separate
contact for the coil which keeps coil current from flowing in
the transformer. This connection is made inside the vibrator can
and is invisible to the repair technician. Research has shown
that a majority of radios were designed as shown above.

This continuous switching causes an alternating magnetic field

to be induced in the core of the transformer which causes an
alternating voltage across the secondary. The secondary has more
turns than the primary so the voltage is stepped up. The
capacitor which is shown connected across the secondary combines
with its inductance to form a resonant circuit at the frequency
of the vibrator. This attenuates the higher harmonics of the
square-wave and makes it closer to a sine-wave. This gives
higher peaks and hence more B+ and makes the vibrator work more
smoothly.

Back in the day this was called a buffer capacitor and was a
frequent cause of trouble. In fact it failed more often than the
vibrator. This capacitor carries a considerable alternating
current which common radio capacitors are not normally called
upon to do. Replacement with an X or Y rated capacitor might be
a good idea if space permits.
If the vibrator is bad you are not up the creek although
vibrators have not been made for several decades. A Google
search will turn up many DIY vibrator circuits as well as
companies making silicon replacements. I have not included any
links here because like bananas they have a way of going bad
over time.

As shown in Figure 8.5(a) the rectifier tube is a 0Z4. This is a

gas filled cold cathode type which is no longer available. I am
told there are occasionally some on eBay but one can never tell
if tubes from that source are good or not. I recommend removing
the tube and soldering silicon diodes to the socket terminals.
In a number of other places I have strongly recommended against
this practice but the 0Z4 is an exception. Unlike a vacuum diode
it's forward voltage drop is a nearly constant 14 volts. The
slight increase in B+ voltage resulting from silicon
replacements is not significant enough to cause trouble.

If the radio is from a 6 volt car you might be tempted to

replace the 0Z4 with a 6AX5 and extend the heater wiring to the
tube. The two plates and cathode use the same pins in both
tubes. The heater current for the 6AX5 is 1.2 amps which will
add this much current to the total radio current draw. Also the
voltage drop across a vacuum diode is much greater than that
across the gas filled diode it replaced. The B+ will be much
lower which may adversely effect the performance of the radio.
There is doubt in some circles that the 6AX5 would stand up to
the vibration experienced by tubes in a car radio. Silicon
diodes are the best replacement. If you don't want to solder
them in you can destroy a bad octal tube and mount the diodes in
the empty socket.

This circuit will deliver a positive B+ regardless of the

polarity of the DC input voltage. As long as the designer didn't
use the car battery voltage for bias somewhere such a radio
should be universal with respect to positive or negative ground.

Synchronous Rectifier.

The circuit of Figure 8.5(b) is of a synchronous rectifier

vibrator. Another set of contacts on the vibrator switches the
secondary to the reservoir capacitor eliminating the need for
any sort of electronic rectifier. The timing of the second set
of contacts has been adjusted in the design so switching takes
place when the current is zero. The advantage of this circuit is
that there is one less component to fail and the disadvantage is
that there are 3 more contacts in the vibrator to fail. The
synchronous vibrator was also more costly to manufacture
offsetting the cost of the rectifier tube.

The most important difference between this circuit and the

external rectifier circuit is that the "B+" will have the same
polarity as the car battery. If this circuit were to be used in
a positive ground car either the primary or secondary leads of
the transformer would have to be reversed. But not both. As this
would not be considered by the manufacturer as a field
adjustment the radio would be made for either positive ground or
negative ground and substitution would not be possible. It is
conceivable that a service switch could be added to the design
which would reverse the leads of the transformer primary. But
there is another set of contacts to shake loose and cause
trouble.

The construction techniques used in a car radio are meant to

withstand the heavy vibration that a radio in a car is likely to
encounter. You will find things like hold down straps and
springs, loops in wires that may seem unnecessary, and devices
meant to hold the tubes in their sockets. The loops in wires are
to prevent tension in wires that cause them to break under
vibration and temperature extremes. DO NOT REMOVE ANY OF THESE
SPECIAL FEATURES.

Other than that a car radio is pretty much standard radio. The
same troubleshooting techniques and failures as an AA5 apply.

One thing that might be overlooked is the antenna trimmer. It is

a screwdriver adjustment which is accessible from the outside
and is usually located next to the antenna jack. To properly
adjust it extend the antenna to full height and tune in a weak
station near the center of the band. If no suitable station can
be found power line noise can be used. Adjust the trimmer for
maximum volume. Remember to use a plastic alignment tool rather
than a metal screwdriver. The AGC in car radios is designed to
work very well making it impossible to hear any change on a
strong station when adjusting the trimmer.

Hybrid Car Radios.

My web research resulted in radios for hybrid cars rather than

hybrid radios for cars. Why can't Google give you exactly what
you want instead of exactly what you ask for.

A hybrid car radio is one that uses both tubes and transistors.
In most examples found the pleural use of tubes was correct but
the pleural for transistors was not. Hybrid car radios used 4
tubes and one transistor.

Hybrid radios for cars were produced in a very narrow time

window. Research on the web resulted in spotty information at
best but it appears that the first radios that used space charge
tubes were produced in 1958 and the last model year to use tubes
in car radios was 1962.

Space charge tubes have a very special design that permits them
to operate with plate voltages as low as 12 volts. Such tubes
were designed to function in a radio as the RF amplifier,
Converter, IF amplifier, Detector, and First audio amplifier. In
the early days of the transistor age these are the functions
which transistors did rather poorly as evidenced by the
performance of table and portable transistor radios from those
years. Customer's expectations for the performance of car radios
were, and still are, much higher than for home radios. A car
radio which would not easily bring in out of town stations
during the day and distant stations at night would not be
excepted.

The only thing that these 12 volt tubes could not do was deliver
audio power measured in watts, as opposed to milliwatts. On the
other hand audio power in the single digit watts range was about
the only thing that transistors of the day could do well. So the
logical answer was to combine 12 volt tubes with an audio power
transistor and that was exactly what was done.

The high impedance of the post detection triode was stepped down
by a transformer to the low impedance of the power transistor's
base. Another larger transformer matched the collector of the
transistor to the speaker and they had a working radio that
didn't need a vibrator to operate.

In my web research I saw someone in a forum suggest that

switching transistors took the place of the mechanical vibrator
in tube car radios. I have doubts that this was ever done
outside of the R and D lab.

If one of these vibrator-less hybrid radios lands on your bench

the output transistor is most likely to be at fault. These were
PNP germanium transistors which did not stand up well to high
temperatures. The only radio of this type I have had my hands on
was missing it's speaker and output transformer so I junked it
out. The transistor did not have a very effective heatsink.
Germanium transistors are still available but they cost an arm
and a leg. Substitution of a silicon transistor is possible but
some reengineering will be necessary. Since both input and
output are transformer coupled a change from PNP to NPN would be
feasible.

FM did not appear in car radios until FM stations started

playing pop and country music which was sometime in the mid 60s.
By then transistors had completely supplanted tubes in most all
radios including those for cars.

FM Receivers and Tuners.

Alignment of an FM receiver will be discussed after some circuit

information. There are only two differences between an FM
receiver and an AM receiver. The frequency range and the type of
detector. The receiver tunes a range of 88 to 108 MHz and the IF
is 10.7 MHz. The IF bandwidth is about 200 kHz as opposed to 15
kHz for an AM broadcast band radio. The higher frequencies make
the coils much smaller but the basic principles are the same.
The FM detector is another story.

FM Detectors.

There are three main types of FM detectors. The Foster-Seeley

Discriminator, the Ratio detector, and the Quadruture detector.
Of these the first is almost never used because it has poor AM
rejection and must be preceded by very hard limiters.

The ratio detector has very good AM rejection and low

distortion. It was used in most high fidelity tuners and
receivers in the tube era.

The quadruture detector was developed by RCA in an attempt to

get around the patents of Edwin Armstrong. The detector was used
in almost all TV sets both color and monochrome. Because of the
very poor sound reproduction of tube based TV sets I had never
thought of this detector as high fidelity. When I had the
pleasure of working on a Citation tuner I found to my surprise
that it used a quadruture detector. If the Citation used it, it
must have been a pretty good detector.

The Ratio Detector.

Below is the circuit of the Ratio detector used in the

Stromberg-Carlson model SR-402 AM FM tuner. For a detailed
discussion of the operation of the ratio detector click here.
Use your back button to return here.
Figure 8.6 A Typical Ratio Detector.

For a verbal description click here.

This was a pre multiplex stereo model however it was on the

horizon. There was an extra jack on the back which was labeled
detector that mirrored the main audio output. Modifying it to
bring pre de-emphasis signal to this jack was very simple.

There are no large currents or voltages in this circuit which

reduces the probability of component failure. Resistors and
capacitors can simply fail from old age. The most likely one to
fail from this cause is the 5 μf capacitor which is a low
voltage electrolytic. This capacitor in conjunction with the 2.2
k ohm resistor set the AM rejection. If the electrolytic should
dry out and its value be reduced the AM rejection of the
receiver will be considerably poorer than when the set was new.
Do not assume that if 5 μf is good that 10 μf is better. The
impedance and time constant of the circuit consisting of the 2.2
k ohm resistor and 5 μf capacitor in conjunction with the Q of
the transformer secondary set the best value of AM rejection.
Changing the value of the capacitor will reduce the AM rejection
of the detector. In this particular case the substitution of a
4.7 μf capacitor would probably be acceptable especially since 5
μf capacitors are no longer made.
Note: In diagrams of the Ratio Detector you are likely to find
in other textbooks the 2.2 k ohm resistor will be split between
the top and bottom of the circuit. S-B designers are taking the
AGC voltage from the bottom end of the 5 μf cap. My best guess
is that if there were a resistor between the diode and this cap
there would be an additional RC time constant in the AGC which
might render it unstable.

The two 10 k ohm resistors are listed as 5% on the diagram. If

one of them were to increase in value, a common result of old
age, this would cause you to alter the tuning of the secondary
of the discriminator transformer in an attempt to balance the
circuit at center tuning. The effect of this would be to
decrease the dynamic range of the detector possibly introducing
a considerable amount of distortion.

The Quadruture Detector.

The circuit for this detector is somewhat simpler because a

special discriminator transformer is not required.

Figure 8.7 A Quadruture Detector.

For a verbal description click here.

As mentioned earlier this circuit is found as the detector in
the Citation tuner. This detector has no output for AFC or AGC.
I had no diagram of the Citation. All I did was to restring the
dial cord and touch up the detector coil a bit. I don't recall
if it had an AFC switch. Perhaps its designers had temperature
compensated the oscillator well enough that none was required.

The internal structure of the tube used in the detector such as

a 6BN6 is such that grid 3 has a negative resistance
characteristic. This makes the combination of grid 3 and the
tuned circuit oscillate at the resonate frequency of the LC tank
circuit. When a signal is present at grid 1 of the tube the
oscillator is locked to the incoming frequency. If the tank
circuit is tuned to the incoming frequency the relative phase of
the signal and the oscillator will be 90 degrees, hence the name
of the detector.

As the frequency of the incoming signal changes the relative

phase of the signal and the oscillator varies. Alterations of
the phase will cause the average plate current of the tube to
vary. C1 filters out the RF variations at the plate and in
conjunction with the parallel combination of R2 and the plate
resistance of the tube adds de-emphasis.

Both C2 and C3 must be large enough to present a low reactance

to audio frequencies as well as RF. When this circuit fails,
round up the usual suspects, shorted capacitors and open
resistors.

FM Receiver Alignment.

Before attempting alignment of the IF strip be sure it needs it.

If you remove the tubes for testing be sure to mark them so you
can get them back in the same sockets. Small differences in tube
capacitances can significantly throw off the alignment of the IF
section.

Repeat after me.

NEVER ATTEMPT TO ALIGN THE IF SECTION OF AN FM RECEIVER OR

TUNER!

"Never attempt to align the if section of an fm receiver or

tuner."

I CAN'T HEAR YOU!

"Never Attempt To Align The If Section Of An Fm Receiver Or
Tuner."

I STILL CAN'T HEAR YOU!

"NEVER ATTEMPT TO ALIGN THE IF SECTION OF AN FM RECEIVER OR

TUNER!"

YOU ARE GETTING CLOSE, TRY IT AGAIN!

NEVER ATTEMPT TO ALIGN THE IF SECTION OF AN FM RECEIVER OR

TUNER!

OK. Now remember that.

Although the drill sergeant would never put up with you asking
why, I will. The why is that the IF tuned circuits are stagger
tuned. That means that each one is tuned to a slightly different
frequency. The purpose is to obtain a wide band response with a
flat top. The Citation tuner went one step further and designed
an IF amplifier that was phase linear. That is, the phase shift
across the bandwidth of the IF was a straight line. They used a
very high priced swept frequency instrument to align the IF
tuned circuits at the factory. The high priced instrument is
still available, but apparently there is no one left who
remembers how to perform the alignment. My advice is "don't try
it." That said, if you have a sweep frequency generator and a
scope and know how to use them and the IF is so badly out of
alignment that the receiver does not function then you have
nothing to lose.

Other brands of FM tuners weren't so sophisticated so if you

have experience in aligning stagger tuned IF strips and it is
clear that the IF needs alignment then go ahead. But if you make
it worse, don't blame me.

Front End Alignment.

Adjust the oscillator trimmer for best calibration at the center

of the band. Adjust the RF and antenna trimmers for strongest
signal as indicated on the signal strength meter, maximum AGC
voltage, or maximum reading at one end or the other of the
equivalent of the 5 μf cap in the ratio detector.

If the frequency calibration is way off at the ends of the band

you may have to get into coil adjustment. Some tuners do have
slug tuned coils. If so follow the alignment instructions for
the short wave bands above.

If you aren't so lucky you will find the coils to be air wound
coils. Turn spacing may look a little irregular as the factory
alignment consisted of altering the turn spacing of the coil.
This is how inductance is changed. Follow the alignment
instructions for the short wave bands above but squeeze or
stretch the coils to alter their inductance.

Detector Alignment.

Unless the tuner on your bench has been in the hands of someone
who tightened up all the loose screws the IF and detector really
won't need much if any alignment. In every old tuner I have seen
the detector was slightly miss-aligned. You shouldn't need to
turn the alignment slug more than 1/2 turn and more likely it
will require less than a quarter turn.

The evidence for a misaligned detector is found by tuning across

a strong local station which has only very weak signals nearby.
When the detector is properly aligned you will observe three
distinct listening peaks, not peaks on any meter. As you
approach the signal you will begin to hear audio and it may not
be distorted but it may be mixed with a little noise. The tuning
meter will read quite low. As the tuning meter rises the sound
will grow quite distorted. As you continue tuning the distortion
will clear and the tuning meter will be at its peak. The stereo
light will most likely come on. As you continue to tune the
sound will once again grow distorted, the tuning meter will
drop, and the stereo light will go out. The distortion will
clear but the audio will be a bit noisy, and the tuning meter
will read quite low.

A misaligned detector will give you two peaks and it may be

ambiguous as to which one is the right one. Make small changes
in the discriminator transformer or quadruture coil and tune
across the station until you observe the signature of a properly
aligned detector described above. If a symmetrical triple peak
can't be obtained it may indicate trouble in the detector, or an
IF that is seriously out of alignment.

Never adjust the detector for maximum noise when tuned off a
station. You will adjust the detector so it won't detect FM at
all but might detect AM if the limiters aren't to hard.

Stereo Demultiplexing.
The tube version of the stereo demultiplexer could be much more
complex than the IC version. The stereo decoder in the Heathkit
AR-15 outdid the tube version because it was pre IC. It worked
well but had a temperature drift problem.

For a discussion of the theory of operation of FM stereo click

here. Use your back button to return here.

Figure 8.8 Tube Stereo Demultiplexer.

For a verbal description click here.

A typical tube type stereo demultiplexer is shown in figure 8.7

above. The input stage is a hybrid cathode follower and common
cathode which provides signal to all three parts of the circuit.
You will note the absents of component values. When you are
working on a tuner its schematic diagram will give you the
values.

Unlike the IC version the stages of the tube version are

incapable of selecting the proper signal and ignoring the rest.
The sum signal is separated from the others by being passed
through a low pass filter which has a bandwidth of 15 kHz. This
filter consists of the inductor and capacitor to ground. There
is DC from the cathode follower present at the output of the
filter which would upset the operation of the two detector
diodes. The signal is coupled by a capacitor to the de-emphasis
network where the difference signal is added and subtracted.

The 19 kHz pilot tone is taken off the cathode of the cathode
follower by a capacitor which forms a series resonant circuit
with the primary inductance of the 19 kHz transformer. The
secondary circuit appears to be a full-wave center-tapped
rectifier. That is exactly what it is however there is no filter
capacitor. The circuit doubles the 19 kHz pilot to a frequency
of 38 kHz. The output of the frequency doubler is fed into the
grid of the 38 kHz oscillator which is a Hartley circuit. The
oscillator is synchronized with the doubled pilot by a
phenomenon known as injection locking. When the free-running
frequency of the oscillator is close to the injected frequency
the oscillator will fall into step with the injected signal.
Adjusting the slug in the oscillator coil will set the phase of
the oscillator with respect to the 19 kHz pilot. Proper phase is
important to proper stereo signal decoding.

The wide band filter transformer in the plate of the cathode

follower pulls off the difference signal. It is applied to the
anode of one diode and the cathode of the other to give L - R
and -L + R signals. The 38 kHz transformer in the plate circuit
of the oscillator couples carrier to the suppressed carrier
double sideband difference signal for proper detection by the
diode detectors. The L - R signal should be the one taken off
the cathode of the diode but there is an inversion from the
input triode which switches the signals around reversing left
and right channels.

The two capacitors block the DC from the two detectors from
upsetting the bias on the next stages and the two resistors
provide DC return to ground for the detectors.

As with the IC demultiplexer you can use an oscilloscope in X-Y

mode to tell if the signal at the output jacks is really stereo
or just two identical monaural signals. If there is no stereo or
the separation is very poor a slight adjustment of the
oscillator slug will bring it back. This adjustment is
particularly sensitive to temperature and should only be done
after a thorough warm-up. The 19 kHz transformer and the 38 kHz
transformer in the plate of the oscillator will also effect the
phase of the injected carrier. These transformers should be
adjusted for maximum signal and the oscillator used for phase
adjustment. The 23 to 53 kHz filter requires a very special
sweep and marker generator for alignment. I don't think any ever
existed outside of the J W Miller factory. There were very few
of these coil sets made because designers came up with a less
complex circuit that didn't require so many coils. If one of
these goes bad your chances of ever finding a replacement are
slim and none. If you are absolutely positively certain that the
filter can needs alignment you might as well give it a try.

About that simpler circuit. I have it in one of my old

notebooks. They are in storage until I finish building book
cases to hold them. When the cases are finished and the books
come out of storage I will post that simpler circuit.

Well, my books are back and I found the circuit. There are two
unidentified coils and an unidentified transformer. Not only
that there are several resistors and capacitors which have no
value specified. That's nobody's fault but mine. I drew the
diagram from a verbal description and I guess I just forgot to
write them down. I hope you weren't waiting for the circuit.
I'll have to see what I can brew up with some tubes and RF
chokes. Oh no! Another addition to my to do list.
Chapter 9 Antique Equipment.

9.1 Before Turning on the Power.

9.2 Pre 1930 Radios.
9.3 Pre World War Two Radios.
9.4 The All American Five.
9.5 Three Way Portable Radios.
9.6 Phonographs and Record Changers.
9.7 Consoles and High Fi Components.
9.8 Wire and Tape Recorders.
9.9 Why TV Sets Are Not covered.

Chapter 9.

Antique Equipment.

Many items of tube equipment are more than 50 years old which
qualifies them as antiques. If one of these items turns up on
your service bench how it is treated depends on whether it has
not been turned on for several decades or if it was in daily use
and suddenly failed to operate. The former case is covered in
This chapter.

When such an item is brought to your shop by a tearful owner who

states that he or she used to listen to it at age six and asks
you if you can make it work again even though it may have been
stored in a damp basement or hot attic for the last 50 years you
are definitely on the hot seat. Such an item requires special
care.

There are many special procedures which must be followed if the

item is ever to function again. Failure to observe even one of
these procedures may result in serious damage to the equipment
that may be difficult or even impossible to repair.

One of the many things that is unique about servicing antique

equipment is that except for common parts such as tubes,
resistors, and capacitors, many of the parts are simply no
longer available at any price. Great care must be taken to avoid
either physical or electrical damage to these parts.

Authentic Parts Verses Modern Parts.

Some restorers are nuts, that's right I said nuts, over keeping
the inside of their radios authentic looking. How many people
are going to be interested in looking inside a radio. OK, other
restorers. If you are fixing up a radio for competition you will
need to be nuts. But most of us just want the radio we found on
eBay that is the same make and model on which we used to listen
to The Loan Ranger to work and we don't care if it has dog bone
resistors and capacitors that look like they are wax paper even
if they are plastic on the inside.

In the final analysis you have to decide just how authentic you
want your treasured radio to be.

If you are doing the restoration for someone else you must be
sure that you and the owner are in agreement about the degree of
authenticity. Be sure that the owner understands that as the
radio becomes more authentic that the bill will rise. Failure to
communicate may result in you having a very authentic radio on
your hands with hundreds of dollars of your own money wrapped up
in it with no way to recoup your losses.

Authenticity Verses Safety.

In this area I am absolutely adamant. Safety always trumps

authenticity when ever and where ever they come into conflict.
The example that is most often sighted is the All American Five
radio. There were millions of these produced in the years
roughly between 1945 and 1965 and there are still hundreds of
thousands still in existence and in more or less working order.

Their danger comes from the fact that the chassis is connected
to one side of the power line through the off/on switch. You may
find that the chassis of the radio has 120 volts between it and
an earth ground such as the kitchen sink. I hope you didn't find
this out the hard way. So you do the logical thing and reverse
the plug in the socket. All is fine until you turn the radio
off. Then you find that there are 120 volts between the radio
chassis and ground. That's right, you can't win. The chassis is
"hot" no matter which way the plug is inserted in the socket.
Detailed rewiring instructions with diagrams will be given in
the section on post WW II radios. This is one area in which
authenticity MUST be sacrificed for safety's sake.

For additional information on tube amplifier and radio circuits

see The Fun with Tubes website. Also see Electronics for
Physicists particularly chapter 4A.

Back to Fun with Transistors.

Back to Fun with Tubes."
Back to Table of Contents.
Back to top.

9.1 Before Turning on the Power.

There are certain dos and don'ts that should be observed when
working on any piece of antique equipment. They are as follows.

1. Don't plug it in and turn it on.

2. Do replace paper and electrolytic capacitors and selenium

rectifiers.

3. Do check all resistors for value and replace if more than 20%
high or low.

4. Do check the power transformer by applying power with all

tubes removed from sockets.

Replace Capacitors and Selenium Rectifiers.

The photographs below show examples of the capacitors that

should be replaced.
Figure 9.1 Paper capacitors in a radio chassis.

These are wax paper capacitors. They are not just wax paper on
the outside, they are wax paper on the inside as well. Refer to
the construction of a capacitor in chapter 3. Instead of plastic
film these capacitors use wax paper which is not unlike the
stuff your mother used to wrap your school lunch sandwiches in.
Paper is a hydroscopic material which means that it likes water.
The wax is supposed to prevent the absorption of water but it
won't work forever. Over time moisture in the air seeps into the
capacitor and gets absorbed by the paper and its insulation
property is compromised.

Capacitors are supposed to be a totally open circuit for DC but

a paper capacitor conducts some DC current. This is referred to
as leakage current and a capacitor that conducts is said to be
leaky.
When you find these capacitors in radios or other old equipment
replace them with modern plastic film capacitors. Don't bother
testing, don't turn it on to see if it will work, don't
hesitate, don't ask, don't tell, just replace them.

The photo below shows some capacitors that look nice but they
are wolves in sheep's clothing. Or paper capacitors in plastic
clothing.

Figure 9.2a Black Beauty and Paper Capacitors.

Figure 9.2b Dark Red Mallory Paper Capacitor.

The one on the left in Figure 9.2a is a 47,000 pico farad,

center is a 6800 pf and the one on the right is unknown. The
6800 pf is really blue, gray, red, but the blue and gray didn't
translate well to the internet.

The oddball on the right is disguised as a mica capacitor but it

is nothing more than alternate stacks of foil and wax paper.
True mica capacitors rarely have to be replaced but the paper
ones are usually thicker than mica. True mica capacitors are not
very thick.

The type of capacitor shown in Figure 9.2b are especially

troublesome. In the mid 1960s, 50 years ago, I stocked up on
these thinking they were good capacitors. They were at the time
but time has been their enemy. They look really good. The ends
of the plastic tube are filled with epoxy and they even test
good on a digital RLC meter. The only clue that something is
wrong is that the value reads out of tolerance high. I just
finished going through them and they are 100% too leaky to be
used in any circuit. Every last one out of more than 200
capacitors was bad and had to be thrown away.
Figure 9.3 Selenium Rectifiers.

Something else that should be replaced before turning on the

power are selenium rectifiers. Selenium dioxide is not just a
bad smell it is a rather deadly poison in high concentrations.
Replace them with silicon diodes and a series resistor. More
about this when 3 way portables are covered. Use the rectifier's
mounting screw to mount a terminal strip and solder the wires,
the resistor and silicon diode to the terminals.

Never, never, never, solder the diode across the terminals of

the rectifier. It is going to short out some day and the results
will certainly be catastrophic.

The section below was written by Mike (Mac) McCarty. Mac is a

regular contributor to the Fun with Tubes email forum and Is
highly knowledgeable in the areas of electricity, electronics,
and mathematics. He has so many cogent thoughts on questions
that are asked on the forum that I have prevailed on him to
become a contributor to this book. I was going to write this
section myself but when I remembered that Mac had written
something along the same lines I read it over. I can't improve
on what he said so why should I try to reinvent the wheel? I now
place you in Mac's capable hands.
Max Robinson.

Steps To First Power On.

by Mike (Mac) McCarty.

*** C A U T I O N ***

The high voltages associated with the older tube type equipment
CAN KILL YOU!

Before I get into trying to power up a piece of equipment

(especially an old tube type) that hasn't been powered up in
quite some time, let me say that I presume that the person
performing these steps is aware of the dangers presented by high
voltages, and is capable of using high voltage power supplies
safely. If you have any doubts about your ability to take
measurements of high voltages including AC line voltages, then
do not perform these tests. Get someone else who is comfortable
and experienced with high voltages to do them for you.

Disclaimer.

This little missive surely contains a mistake, or omission, or

requires some other polishing. It is assumed that the reader has
some electronic theory background. So use this guideline at your
own risk. No one associated with the development of this
document assumes any responsibility if you electrocute yourself,
wife, cat, or dog.

Introduction.

You've acquired a "new" piece of vintage equipment and want to

restore it to service. What steps should you follow?

There are several ways to power up a piece of equipment that

hasn't been used in a long time.

1. The quickest and most likely destructive way, is just to

plug it in and turn it on. This can result in anything from
a working unit, to blown fuses, or smoked parts. NOT a good
method.
2. Another method is to use a light bulb limiter. This does
not allow high current, even if there is a short in the
piece of equipment being powered up. The light bulb is in
series with the piece of equipment under test. So if the
equipment has a short, the only current that flows is that
 required to light the light bulb. For a 60 W 120 V bulb,
that is 1/2 A.

A good rule of thumb is that a light bulb limiter allows a

maximum of about 40 % of the lamp's rated power to be dissipated
in the load.

For information on building a light bulb current limiter see:

Light Bulb Current Limiter.
Or Current Limiting with a Dim Bulb Tester.

Though this method has much to recommend it over just plugging

in the equipment, by itself it is not enough to ensure that the
equipment does not get damaged.

3. Another popular method is to use a variac to slowly bring

the voltage up to "reform" the filter capacitors.
Electrolytic capacitors have a tendency to loose their
ability to store a charge if they have been lying around,
not used, for a long time. I DO NOT RECOMMEND "bringing up
voltage on a variac to reform capacitors". That is not a
proper way to reform electrolytic capacitors.

Especially when the rectifiers are tubes, attempting to use that

method can seriously shorten the lifetime of the rectifiers.
Pulling current from the cathode of a rectifier running with
reduced heater voltage can damage or destroy it.

Properly reforming electrolytic capacitors requires a current

limited power supply, which a variac run through a transformer
and rectifier is not. For more information on reforming
electrolytic capacitors refer to Restoring Dead Capacitors.

This technique is superior to just plugging in the equipment,

but it is also not enough by itself to prevent damage to the
equipment.

4. The recommended method takes a lot longer than the previous

methods, but definitely reduces or limits the chances of
doing any damage to the equipment. This requires
disconnecting many parts of the equipment. Because of this,
remember - the high voltages used in the old tube type
equipment CAN KILL YOU. So proceed at your own risk.

Preparing to power vintage tube equipment for the first time.

Before beginning work on vintage equipment which has not been
powered in some time, first remove all tubes, and mark them as
to where they go. Sometimes "identical" tubes don't perform
identically. If you remove an IF amplifier tube from an FM set,
you may need to tweak alignment if you replace it with an
"identical" but not the same tube.

The heart of any piece of equipment is the power supply, and

until the power supply is working properly and supplying proper
voltages at adequate currents, one cannot hope to try to
troubleshoot any of the other stages. Power supplies are like
Mama. If Mama ain't happy, ain't nobody happy! So, I recommend
you start with the power supply stage(s).

Preparing the Power Supply.

Power supplies often supply several different voltages at

different currents. Usually, there are one or more heater or
filament supplies which may be AC, and one or more high voltage
DC supplies, usually called something like B+1, B+2, etc. Since
a variety of voltages is supplied, and also to provide isolation
from the AC line, such power supplies usually contain a
transformer with separate windings for each heater or filament
supply, and one or more high voltage windings, usually center
tapped, with a rectifier followed by filtering stages, and
sometimes voltage dividers, to supply the various B+ voltages.

Many low end vintage radios have a so-called AC/DC power supply,
that is a power supply without a transformer. If this is the
case, then one may skip the steps necessary to test the
transformer, and check the integrity of the insulation. Look
down below to the section Testing the Input Side of the Power
Supply. However, spend the time to read and understand the
intervening sections, even if you are dealing with an AC/DC
power supply, since the principles apply, and some of the
techniques are used, in AC/DC supplies as well.

Otherwise, the first step in preparing the power supply is to

test the transformer and ensure the power supply is safe to plug
in.

Testing the Transformer.

This describes how to check a "characterized" transformer, one

whose characteristics are known. It's behavior is characterized,
it's a known item, or one which is installed into a piece of
equipment which is characterized, and from which we can derive
approximate characteristics for the transformer.

If the transformer is "bare", we have no information about it

other than perhaps some meaningless (to us) OEM part number, and
it is "bare" in the sense of just the transformer, no equipment
it is installed in, so we can't guess, except very vaguely like
by its weight, what its characteristics might be, then some
other checks must be performed.

However, since the transformer is in a piece of equipment which

we want to power up, we omit some steps necessary for
uncharacterized transformers in this procedure.

1. Disconnect all windings from their sources or loads, or

ensure that they were effectively disconnected when the
tubes were removed, then test each winding for continuity
using a multimeter. If any winding is open, then obviously
there is a problem.

The resistance of the primary of a transformer intended for 120

VAC is usually of the order of tens to perhaps low hundreds of
ohms. The higher the power, the lower the resistance, and high
power transformers may have primary resistances of just a few
ohms. Transformers for 240 VAC have primary resistances about
double that of transformers for 120 VAC.

Heater and filament windings are usually much less than one ohm,
and just a continuity check is all that gets done here.

The high voltage windings are usually center tapped, and may
have resistances on the order of hundreds to a few thousand
ohms.

Check for the center tap to be roughly centered for resistance.

It will not be exactly balanced for resistance, because the
winding is wound in layers, and is balanced for turns. The
length of wire required for the outer turns is greater than that
for the inner turns, so the tap is not precisely balanced for
resistance.

2. Check the integrity of the insulation between the various

windings, and the core. To do this, apply a high DC
voltage, of the order of 400 VDC, using in series a neon
test lamp with integral resistor. Do not exceed the
capability of the neon lamp tester with the DC voltage used
for insulation tests. These lamps are available at many
 auto supply houses, or in the automotive section of Wal-
Mart. This type of tester or equivalent is what you need:

Figure 9.4 Photo of Electrical Test Lamp.

Similar devices are available from Glow Circuit Tester. or

Circuit Tester.

Check the test lamp, to make sure it lights up, by attaching one
terminal of the power supply to a winding, the other terminal to
the test lamp, and probing another end of the winding with the
free probe of the test lamp. The test lamp should light
indicating that there is a good connection. We don't want to
think the insulation is good, when in reality it was not good,
but the lamp didn't light because there was a bad connection to
the winding. This check to ensure that the lamp lights up must
be repeated for each winding connection.

Now, again using the free probe of the test lamp, probe all
other winding ends not part of this winding, and the core.
Expect to see a single flash, as the inter-winding capacitance
(or to core) charges, and then little or no glow after that. If
the lamp glows continuously, then there is an inter-winding
short, or short to core. Such a transformer is not safe, and
must not be used until the short is corrected, or the
transformer must be replaced.

Note that some transformers use a single lead connecting to an

internal shield, which may also be connected to the core. This
lead is often uninsulated. I mention this so you won't think
that there is a short from a winding to the frame, when you are
actually just probing the shield, which may be intentionally
connected to the core.

Repeat this test on every winding on the primary and the

secondary side of the transformer.

Before applying 120VAC power, if there are line filter

capacitors present on the primary side winding, then they must
be replaced before doing any full power tests. This means that,
if the capacitor is only across the line power, it must be X2
rated. If one or more connects from either side of the line to
ground, or to the chassis, it must be Y2 rated. Below are some
examples of X and Y rated capacitors.
Figure 9.5 Photo of X and Y Rated Capacitors.

The capacitors are, top left to right 0.047 uf Y2 250 VAC, 0.047
uf Y2 250 VAC, 0.1 uf Y2 275 VAC and the smaller one below is
0.047 uf X2 305 VAC.

This needs to be done between reattaching the primary winding to

the switch, fuse, etc. present in the primary side and any
further testing on the primary side.

Also, rarely but occasionally, there are paper capacitors in the

power supply on the secondary side. These must be replaced with
modern films before powering up the entire supply.

 After verifying insulation integrity, try verifying voltages,

and balance for tapped windings.

Instead of using 120V AC, try applying 12 VAC to the primary.

This makes it easy to compute voltages at 120 VAC, and yet not
deal with high voltage unnecessarily. Apply the voltage through
a 12 VDC automobile tail lamp. If the lamp lights, there is a
problem. If not, then check the windings to see that they
produce approximately 1/10 normal voltage, and that center
tapped windings are balanced for voltage. If all looks well,
then you are ready to apply full voltage.

The full voltage is applied to the primary through a lamp

current limiter. I use a 120 V lamp, and check for shorted
windings this way. A variac is optional, but the lamp is not. I
usually start with a 7 W lamp for small transformers, and a 40 W
lamp for larger ones. Apply 120 VAC through the lamp, and expect
to see little or no glow. With a 40 W lamp, you should expect to
see no glow. If I use a variac (not usually, but sometimes) I
ramp it up fairly quickly to 120 VAC.

If the lamp lights, then there is a shorted winding somewhere,

or the transformer is not truly isolated from the circuit, or
the voltage is applied to the wrong winding.

If all looks well, then another voltage check is done, and

voltages should be somewhat high. For example, a 6.3 VAC winding
may read 7.5 VAC with no load. To avoid unnecessarily checking
high voltages, check tapped windings only from the tap to each
end, and not end to end.
At this point, we have a working transformer. Reattach it, and
then start to check integrity of insulation to chassis.

Testing the Input Side of the Power Supply.

Using the same neon lamp technique as above, check the

insulation from each side of the power line to the chassis. If
all looks good, then we are getting close.

Check the fuse, and the power switch with a ohmmeter. Measure
from prong to prong on the power line cord, and ensure that the
switch can make it open, and also go down to the previously
measured resistance of the primary, plus an ohm or two for the
fuse. If this is an AC/DC power supply, then replace any line
filter capacitors, or one across the rectifier(s) connected
directly to the line with X2 rated capacitors as described in
section 3 just above.

Testing the Output Side of the Power Supply.

The next step is to investigate the secondary side of the power

supply, that is the rectifier(s) and filter. Check all resistors
and filter chokes for in tolerance resistance. Disconnect any
filter capacitors, and disconnect all B+ outputs, and any
resistive dividers, and check integrity of insulation to B- and
chassis (if different), using the same neon lamp technique
described above. Don't exceed the rating of the components of
the rectifier, however.

1. Attempt to reform the filter capacitors.

Any electrolytic capacitor which has been out of service for two
years or more needs significant reforming before having full
voltage applied to it. Some restorers don't like to reform
capacitors if they've been out of service for several years, and
simply replace them. In that case, the replacements must be
reformed. One doesn't know how long an electrolytic capacitor
may have been sitting in a vendor's shelf. If it's two years or
more, then it needs reforming. That information comes from
several manufacturers, like Sprague, Hitachi, and Nichicon. All
agree with that assessment, and I believe them.

Reforming of electrolytic capacitors is worthy of a missive on

its own, and is not covered in detail here. See Restoring Dead
Electrolytic Capacitors, which describes some acceptable ways to
reform electrolytic capacitors.
You may expect the reforming process to take a period of at
least five minutes plus one minute per month of storage. So, if
the equipment has not been powered for 20 years, expect to spend
about four hours or more reforming.

After the filter capacitors are reformed (and possibly replaced)

they can be reattached to the circuit. Then measure the actual
resistance between B+ and B-. The positive probe from the
multimeter goes to B+, the other to B-, observing polarity.
That's not necessarily across the filter caps, since some sets
use B- filtering or other unusual circuitry. The idea is to
protect the rectifier. I've measured from the rectifier cathode
to the return connection on the transformer (likely center tap
of the HT winding). That's probably the best way. You want to
see how much current the supply is going to demand from the
rectifier. It'll take a while for the capacitors to charge up,
so the reading will start out low and increase. Some meters
reverse the polarity on ohms to that on volts, so that the black
lead is positive. Check your meter.

The ultimate purpose, since we've already checked the capacitors

themselves by reforming them, and also checked the insulation
using the neon bulb, is to ensure that we haven't inadvertently
introduced a short or near short into the supply when
reattaching the caps.

The ohmmeter likely will read a low resistance, which gradually

increases as the filter capacitors charge. Wait for the reading
to stabilize. It should be such that not more than 2 mA of
current would flow at full B+.

2. If that's met, then I attach any resistive dividers, and

it's time for First Power On of the power supply only.

If the rectifier is a tube, I install it after checking it for

shorts. See below for how to do that. No other tubes get
installed.

Ensure that the Device Under Test is not between you and the
door.

With the possible assistance of a variac but definitely with a

light bulb current limiter of appropriate rating, I apply power
to the power supply. A bulb limiter permits a maximum
dissipation of approximately 40 % of its rating. So, a 100 W
bulb would permit a maximum of 40 W or so. That's too high for a
First Power On. I normally start with a 20 W to 40 W bulb. If I
use a variac, I ramp it up over a space of perhaps five or ten
seconds to full voltage. Normally, I just use the switch on my
bulb limiter.

The light bulb current limiter may light to perhaps yellow

brilliance for a couple of seconds, then dim down to no more
than a dull red glow. If that passes, then I check output
voltages. They should all be "ballpark", but somewhat high. If
that passes, then the power supply is probably in pretty good
shape. If the output voltage has not risen to the point where
it's not good for the filter caps, then I'll leave it that way,
on a bulb limiter, for a few hours, to weed out any sudden
changes which may occur.

So far, all that works is the power supply. It's time to move on
to Part II, powering the equipment with the power supply
connected to a load.

Good, we now have a working power supply. However, it still

isn't time to plug the equipment in and turn it on. It may be
that it was simply superseded, but the chances are that it was
retired for a reason. Even if the equipment was in reasonable
working condition when it was retired, there are components
which deteriorate although they are not in use.

Many who have not dealt with vintage tube equipment much are
inclined to believe that the tubes need extensive testing, or
are likely to be bad. This is usually not the case. Tubes are
essentially low power and low temperature light bulbs. Even the
very early ones, like the 201, though they are not low
temperature, are still essentially light bulbs. Light bulbs do
not go bad sitting on a shelf.

There are three kinds of vintage components which are likely to

be bad in vintage equipment. These are electrolytic capacitors,
paper capacitors, and resistors. So, let's handle these likely
problem spots first.

The case for electrolytic capacitors has already been covered in

the description of preparing the power supply. They must be
reformed or replaced. If they are to be replaced, then the
replacements must be reformed before putting them into the
equipment.

Paper capacitors are commonly subject to two kinds of

deterioration. There are others, but these are the most common.
Power line filter capacitors are subject to other stresses, but
we covered replacement of them above.

One is electrolysis which takes place in the oils and waxes of

the capacitor when it has a DC voltage impressed upon it. The
other is corrosion which is a result of residual water which
remains in the paper. Paper is extremely hygroscopic, and even
when the paper has been dried by heating in a vacuum, as was
done when papers were the common capacitor, some still remains.
This corrosion takes place even when there is no voltage
impressed upon the capacitor.

For this reason, all paper capacitors must be replaced. Some try
to replace only those needing it, or to "save" them. I did that
when I first started restoring vintage equipment to service, but
found that, when the capacitors were properly tested at their
rated voltage, 97 % of them were leaky. Even if they are not
leaky enough to require replacement at the time the equipment is
received, they will become so with use. They are like time bombs
waiting for the moment when they explode. When a paper capacitor
becomes leaky, the consequences may be disastrous for the
equipment. They were commonly used for coupling capacitors from
plate to grid. If one of them becomes leaky, it may cause a
power amplifier to pull sufficient current through an output
transformer that it damages the transformer. Transformers are
expensive, when obtainable.

If you want to retain original look, then re stuff with Modern

film capacitors. They are smaller than the originals, and can be
put inside the old outer wrap. This procedure is not covered
here, but it is not difficult, though it is time consuming. The
same is true of electrolytics. Modern electrolytic capacitors
may be fitted inside the cases of vintage electrolytics.

The third commonly bad component type is the carbon composition

resistor. All resistors, carbon or not, should be measured to
verify that they are within tolerance. It is very common for
carbon composition resistors to change values, almost always
increasing in resistance, sometimes by orders of magnitude.

I realize that some equipment may have hundreds of resistors.

However, it is much easier to troubleshoot equipment when the
easy to find problems have already been repaired. A screen
resistor being two orders of magnitude higher than it should be
can make a tetrode act like a triode, introducing weird
"birdies" into a receiver, because it now requires
neutralization, and there are no neutralizing components
present. It's much easier just to measure a resistor, find it
out of tolerance, and replace it, than it is to track down a
birdie. A cathode resistor which is five times as large as it
should be can reduce gain to unacceptably low levels, causing
the equipment to work, but not work well. Partially functional
equipment is hard to troubleshoot.

If you absolutely just can't wait, then perhaps you should be

doing something besides restoring vintage equipment. There are
many aspects to restoring vintage equipment to service which
require patience. Knobs, for example, often require special care
and time to remove without damage. Often switches or other
controls have frozen shafts which require time and deliberation
to free up.

Flexible wire resistors, looking like a piece of insulated wire,

often with a terminal on each end, are subject to being open. I
recommend checking all resistors for being in tolerance. Note
that vintage parts often do not have the same appearance as
their modern counterparts. If you are going to work on pre WWII
equipment, then I suggest you familiarize yourself with the
appearance of vintage components, like dog bone resistors, wire
wound resistors which look like half of a mica capacitor having
dots on them, and so on.

Something especially to watch for are paper capacitors having

the appearance of a vintage mica capacitor. These usually have
the trade name "Mica Mold" stamped upon them. While paper
capacitors are frequently bad, and need replacement in any case,
mica capacitors are very stable, and rarely need replacement.
Ceramic capacitors, which often look similar to dog bone
resistors, are also very stable, and normally do not need
replacement.

The way to discern these is that vintage mica capacitors have

reddish brown cases, but the paper capacitors mimicking them
have black cases. Also, the dot in the upper left corner is a
different color. So, familiarize yourself with the appearance of
vintage components.

There is one other thing which requires checking before powering

the equipment up as a whole. That is, the tubes need to be
checked for shorts. This does not mean you have to have a tube
tester. The reason tube testers exist has always been to sell
tubes, that is to encourage customers to purchase replacements
for otherwise perfectly functional tubes. If you were a
repairman working for pay on someone else's set and wanted to
maximize your profits, this would make sense. You are working on
your own equipment and not for pay, and any tube replacements
are going to come out of your own pocket.

What I suggest is to use test equipment similar to that used for

checking the insulation resistance of transformers. Use
approximately 100 VDC to 200 VDC and a neon test lamp with
integral current limit resistor. Check each pair of tube pins
which are not supposed to be connected internally. The lamp
should not light.

Now, any reasonable tube tester can do this, perhaps a little

faster, perhaps not. If you want a tube tester, then certainly
feel free to use one to do at least the "shorts" test. If you
want to do more extensive tests, then I can recommend one to use
the Sencore "Mighty Mite" line of emissions testers for shorts,
for rectifiers and other power tubes' emission, and for the grid
leakage test for non rectifier tubes, at which it is superb. For
testing gain, the Hickok circuit, used in certain Stark testers
from Canada, is also excellent, and the Stark line, while
internally a Hickok, will not cost nearly as much. However, bear
in mind that the best test of the functionality of a tube is the
equipment into which it is going to be placed. Unless a tester
complains about shorted elements, or the tube has an open
heater/filament, do not discard it just because a tester says to
do so. Also, do not expect that a tube will perform adequately
simply because a tube tester indicates "GOOD".

At this point, reconnect all the power supply connections, and

re insert the tubes into their respective sockets. We are now
ready for a true First Power On. Ensure that the equipment is
not between you and the door. You should have a Master Power Off
switch which is accessible from the door, and certainly not
requiring you to reach over the equipment to reach it. Many like
to use a variac, and if you wish to do so, then it comes first
in the power chain. Next, and not optional, is a lamp limiter.
Select the lamp to have a power rating approximately twice the
expected power consumption of the equipment, or perhaps a little
more. If the equipment to be tested has an AC/DC supply, then an
isolation transformer comes between the variac and the bulb
limiter.

Set the variac, if used, to minimum voltage. Turn the lamp

limiter off, and set it to limit. Plug in the test equipment.
Plug in the equipment under test to the test equipment, and turn
it on. Turn the lamp limiter on, but leave it set to limit. If a
variac is used, then ramp the voltage up to full voltage over a
period not to exceed about thirty seconds.

Expect to see the limit lamp to light to perhaps half brilliance

for up to several seconds, perhaps ten or so, and then dim down
to yellow, and then to dull red glow. If the lamp lights
brightly, or if the glow does not dim fairly rapidly, then there
is a problem, which must be investigated. However, if the First
Power On succeeds, it's time to start to do initial checkout,
and troubleshoot any remaining problems in the equipment.

The equipment will probably function somewhat even with a limit

lamp, and I normally will use a receiver and check each
function, band, tone control, etc. If it appears that the
equipment is mostly working, then I'll use it for a period of a
few hours with the limit lamp to weed out early failures. If all
looks good after that, then I'll set the limit lamp to full
power, and after a few moments, begin real checkout.

Checkout and troubleshooting are outside the purview of this

document, but a reasonable first step is to measure all socket
voltages and ensure that they are all within 10 % or so of
nominal. One thing to watch for is that often vintage equipment
literature specifies a 1000 ohms/volt or 5000 ohms/volt
sensitivity meter when making measurements. Use of a modern 10
Meg ohm meter would show all voltages as being too high.
Parallel your meter with an appropriate value and rating
resistor to avoid this problem.

Congratulations on successfully powering your equipment without

damaging it!

Thank you Mac.

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9.2 Pre 1930 Radios.

Radio receivers were in a pretty primitive state in the 1920s.

Many were home made crystal sets. Some manufacturers provided
kits for constructing 1 or 2 tube radios. The TRF (tuned radio
frequency) set was more or less the standard for commercially
produced radios in the 20s.
In a TRF all amplifiers up to the detector were tuned to the
frequency of the received station. Early designers had not
figured out how to make the circuits track. That is if the
tuning capacitor were set to the same angle all tuned circuits
would be tuned to the same frequency. When tracking was achieved
all tuning capacitors could be on the same shaft and tuned by a
single knob. The resonance phenomenon was not well understood in
1920 and what seems obvious to us now was not to them then.

In 1920 the top of the line for those who could afford the price
was Atwater-Kent. Here are a couple of photographs of one that I
had the pleasure of restoring and have the pleasure of owning.

A Case Study.

Figure 9.6 Restored Atwater-Kent Model 20.

Figure 9.7 Chassis of Atwater-Kent Model 20.

In figure 9.7 from right to left the tubes' functions are; first
RF amplifier, second RF amplifier, grid leak detector, first
audio amplifier, and audio output amplifier. The round can which
appears to be behind the detector tube is an audio coupling
transformer between the detector and first audio stage. There
was another one which was between the first and second audio
stages which had an open primary. When this picture was taken
the second audio interstage transformer had been replaced by a
modern one. It can't be seen in the picture. I melted the tar in
the defective transformer and pulled the guts out of the can. I
installed the now empty can over the new transformer to give the
radio an authentic look. In case you have a similar problem the
new transformer came from Antique Radios inc. The original
transformer is wound with many turns of very fine wire and is
lacking in the complete magnetic circuit we know from modern
transformer designs.

Troubleshooting.
Figure 9.8 Schematic of Atwater-Kent Model 20.

This radio is so simple there isn't really much to go wrong. The

one I restored probably presents a typical set of problems.
There was no plate voltage on the first audio stage because the
interstage transformer was open. When I connected a 100 k ohm
resistor from B+ to the plate the radio began to work, sort-of.
I found the grid leak resistor which is specified as having the
range of 2 to 4 meg ohms read approximately 15 megs. I soldered
a 3.3 meg ohm resistor under the chassis where it is out of
sight. I left the snap-in grid leak in place for appearance.

Why did the radio work with an open audio transformer? Evidently
there was enough capacitance from the primary to the secondary
and enough secondary inductance to couple signal from the plate
of the first audio to the grid of the audio output. After
installing the replacement transformer the audio quality was not
improved very much. As you can see from the first picture above
I am using the radio with the wrong speaker. This is in fact an
RCA horn speaker. The Atwater-Kent speaker may have better
quality. I am on the lookout for one.

The operating instructions I found on line state that the B+

should be 90 volts. In fact the radio performs much better at 40
volts. This must have extended the useful life of the B battery.
The instructions are also written for use with a 6 volt storage
battery as the A source. I used a 5 volt logic power supply
which matches the 5 volt filaments in the tubes. This means I
don't have to be as cautious with the filament rheostats as the
instructions state. These rheostats are the only means of volume
control.

To say the radio is difficult to tune is an understatement of

gigantic proportions. With patient tuning I have managed to find
some distant high power stations at night. It actually helps to
have a noisy fluorescent lamp on the table next to the radio.
Turn it on to peak the tuned circuits and off to see what's on
that frequency.

The model 20 dates from about 1920. TRF radios were improved
through the 20 as manufacturers figured out how to make the
circuits track. At first the three knobs were reduced to two
with each one controlling two tuned circuits giving a total of
three amplifier stages and finally with higher gain tubes one
knob controlling three tuned circuits while returning to two
amplifier tubes.

Although the super heterodyne circuit was invented in 1916 I'm

not sure when it came into the radio market but I am sure it was
phased in gradually. It seems to have been well established by
1930.

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9.3 Pre World War Two Radios.

By 1930 the superhet was well established so any radio of this

vintage you encounter is more than likely to be of this design.
Now we will study the principles behind the superhet.

The Super Heterodyne Radio.

It's hard to say why the heterodyne radio was considered super.
I suspect it was marketing ad verbiage. In any case we are stuck
with the term and most of the time it is shortened to superhet.

The TRF radio receivers have brought us up to about 1925. The

principle of heterodyning had been developed by Edwin Armstrong
in the 19 teens and patented by him in 1916. An early version
was offered to the public as early as 1919 but it really didn't
catch on in the consumer market until the late 1920s.

The Principle of Heterodyning

Heterodyning is more commonly known as "mixing", "conversion" or

"modulation". OK; but what is it? If you combine two frequencies
in a device known as a "mixer", "converter" or "modulator" you
get two new frequencies. These new frequencies are the sum and
difference of the two original frequencies. For example if you
combine 5 MHz and 6 MHz in a mixer you get the two original
frequencies and in addition you get 1 MHz and 11 MHz. If you
combine 650 kHz and 1105 kHz you get 455 kHz, 650 kHz, 1105 kHz
and 1755 kHz. There are some types of mixers in which the
original signals are canceled out and ONLY the sum and
difference frequencies appear in the output. These devices are
called "doubly balanced mixers" or DBMs for short. We will
likely get to them in time. But for now we will be talking about
mixers in which the original two signals appear in the output
along with the sum and difference frequencies.

So What is a Mixer?

Well, it's any nonlinear device. A nonlinear device is anything

that has a graph that isn't a straight line. A diode, either
vacuum or semiconductor makes an excellent mixer. A tube or
transistor which is being driven into overload is another
excellent mixer. The balanced variety consists of combinations
of diodes and transformers, or transistors (usually in an
integrated circuit). There was even a special tube developed in
the 1960s that was a balanced mixer.

The Superhet Receiver.

In connection with the TRF receiver I mentioned that tracking of

the tuned circuits was a problem. But the major problem with TRF
receivers is changing selectivity as you tune across the band.
The stations at the high end (near 1600 kHz) tune more broadly
than the stations at the low end (near 540 kHz). If there are
two stations close together in frequency at the high end you
would have trouble separating them. This is not a problem at the
low end.

The reason for this is that selectivity (or bandwidth) is a

constant percentage of the center frequency. Suppose the Q of a
tuned circuit is 40. At a frequency of 600 kHz the bandwidth is
15 kHz. That's about right for AM reception. On the other hand
the bandwidth at 1500 kHz is 37.5 kHz. There is no way around
this. We would have to repeal some of the laws of electricity
and magnetism to keep this bandwidth change from happening.

If we could find a way to change the frequency of any given

station to some predetermined frequency we could build a set of
tuned circuits and amplifier stages that would always have the
proper bandwidth and we wouldn't have to worry about tracking
because the frequency of the circuits will never be changed.
Calling up the station and asking them to change frequency
doesn't seem to be a practical solution. We need some way to
change the frequency after the station's signal enters our
radio.

Are you ahead of me? Yes. The mixer is it. The frequency we
generate to combine with the incoming station is produced within
our own circuitry so it is local. It is called the "local
oscillator". Let's say we have constructed a fixed tuned
amplifier at a frequency of 455 kHz. (That's the almost
universally used frequency for this amplifier. Car radios
usually use 262 kHz. I don't know why.) So if we want to listen
to a station on 780 kHz we must tune our local oscillator to 780
kHz + 455 kHz = 1235 kHz. The 1235 kHz local oscillator combines
with the incoming station at 780 to produce two new frequencies
at 455 kHz and 2015 kHz. The tuned circuits select the frequency
at 455 kHz and reject all others. The frequency of 455 kHz is
in-between the station's frequency and the audio frequencies so
it is called the "Intermediate Frequency" or just IF for short.

Image Frequencies

Suppose you live in Cincinnati so you have a strong local

station on 1530 kHz. (It used to be WCKY; I don't know if it has
changed. I haven't heard it in a long time because it skips over
me here in BG KY.) Well, suppose you would like to listen to
an out of town station which is operating on 620 kHz. You tune
your local oscillator to 620 + 455 = 1075 kHz. What do you hear?
Well, WCKY on 1530 is also there and combines with your local
oscillator on 1075 to produce a difference frequency of 1530 -
1075 = 455 kHz. OOPS! That's the main drawback to a Superhet
receiver. It receives two frequencies simultaneously at the same
time. It's up to the antenna coil which is tuned to 620 kHz to
reject the strong signal on 1530 so you can listen to the
station you want to hear. A really good AM radio will have an
amplifier stage before the mixer, called the "RF Amplifier" or
"RF Stage" with two tuned circuits to make sure you are only
listening to one station at a time.
The 1930s are often referred to as the golden age of radio. Most
of the people who use this phrase are thinking of radio
programming content. However it was also technically the golden
age of radio. The difference between a 1930 model and a 1940
model is striking. Probably the most striking improvement to a
nontechnical person would be sound quality. But there were also
large improvements in reliability, stability, and ease of
tuning.

Many consoles incorporated record players and a few even had the
newest thing, FM radio. Many had push-pull output stages some
boasting output power of 25 watts.

At the other extreme there were still many battery radios which
were not intended as portables. These days they are called farm
radios because they were intended to be used on farms where
there was no electricity at all or if there was electricity it
was 6 or 32 volts DC from a gasoline powered generator and a
system of storage batteries.

Types of farm radios are as follows.

1. Dry battery only. The source of power was a large cardboard

box containing A and B batteries that sat in a compartment
in the bottom of the radio. When the batteries ran down the
user had to buy a new one. I suspect that when the battery
pack went dead that many farms did without radio during the
depression.
2. Dry B battery and storage battery for A battery. If a means
existed to charge batteries this was a good solution. A
single B battery was less expensive than an A-B pack. In
some radios the A battery was a 2 volt single cell lead
acid battery. In others it was a 6 volt battery of the same
type.
3. Vibrator derived B+ from a 6 volt storage battery. Many
farms had wind powered 6 volt generators that kept one or
more 6 volt lead acid batteries charged. A 6 volt radio
could operate well from such a system without the ongoing
expense of buying replacement B batteries.
4. 32 volt vibrator radios. Other farms, such as the one I
grew up on, had a Delco gas powered 32 volt DC generator
system. A bank of five 6 volt batteries were charged daily
by the generator. The trick was to manage the power usage
so there would be enough juice left in the batteries the
next morning to start the generator. In addition to making
electricity the generator made enough RFI to make radio
 listening impossible for all but the strongest station
which was WHO in Des Moines.

Troubleshooting.

What all these radios have in common are tubes, resistors,

capacitors, and inductors. The same kinds of component failures
afflict all 4 types. Remember to half split at the volume
control and then signal trace or signal inject to find the
defective stage.

One component found in two of the types is the vibrator. Because

it is an electro-mechanical device it is the least reliable part
in the radio. If you are asked to repair one of these sets you
may find that the vibrator can't be made to function. There are
companies you can find with a Google search that will provide
vibrator replacements that use transistors as the switching
elements. You really don't have any choice in replacing this
part. Nobody is making mechanical vibrators anymore. In addition
the owner will likely want you to build a suitable DC power
supply to run the radio. This should not be difficult in this
age of power transistors and IC voltage regulators. Remember
that the original battery gave a wide range of voltages from
fully charged to near run down. Any power supply does not have
to be regulated within 1 millivolt or even 1 percent.

AC Powered Radios.

Refer to "Steps to First Power on" Above. Near the end of the
decade early versions of the All American Five were beginning to
be seen but most of the line powered radios you will encounter
will have power transformers. This is both a blessing and a
curse. The blessing part is that the circuitry is isolated from
the power line making the set safe to work on. The curse is that
the transformer may be burned out and you will have to find a
replacement for it. Hammond makes a wide range of power
transformers so you won't have any trouble finding a good
electrical match for the original but physical mounting will be
the major problem. If you are lucky the replacement will mount
in the same way and it will fit in the allotted space. You may
have to drill 3 new holes in the chassis to mount the new
transformer. If you are unlucky there a whole host of problems
that can rear their ugly heads to make your life difficult. You
won't know for sure what you need to do until you have the
replacement transformer in hand.

Some Common Problems.

At this point it is assumed that you have troubleshot the power
supply section and replaced all capacitors except micas. One
common problem you may have already found is for the field coil
of the speaker to be open. Now the issue of authenticity versus
cost of repair comes into play. In most radios the speaker field
coil was used as a filter choke in the power supply. There are
companies out there that will rebuild old speakers including
field coil and cone and voice coil replacement. I'm not going to
quote a dollar figure but it is likely to cost you more than two
limbs. The easiest solution is to buy a modern permanent magnet
speaker of the correct size and install it. The diagram is
likely to state the resistance of the field coil and a resistor
close to this value should be installed in its place.

If after the radio is working you hear hum in the speaker you
may need to add a filter choke in series with the resistor. 5
henrys will usually be enough. The filter choke may not be
required if the filter capacitors which were quite small in the
original were replaced with larger values. For example it was
not uncommon to find filter capacitors of 2 or 4 microfarads
particularly in radios of the early 30s. If you replace these
with 22 or 47 uf caps the resistor will usually provide
sufficient filtering. Leave the can capacitors standing on top
of the chassis and install the modern ones under the chassis out
of site. Don't forget to disconnect the old capacitors.

The oscillator and antenna coils in these radios may be quite

fragile and a touch or unfortunate bump from a tool may cause it
to disintegrate. If this happens don't despair. Antique
Electronic Supply has an assortment of oscillator coils and a
few antenna and RF coils. The ones made by Hammond are the best.

The if transformers are a different story. The fragile coils are

encased in square cans and are not likely to suffer any
accidental physical damage. If one is found to be open you may
be out of luck. Your best chance is to substitute an IF
transformer from a 1950s or 1960s radio. The only alternatives
are winding a new one or make one out of RF chokes. Either way
it's going to be a lot of work.

In some 1930s Philco radios I have seen there are capacitors

that are disguised as terminal strips. They have 3 terminals
mounted on a black Bakelite block. Inside the block is a
capacitor and it has a 99% chance of being too leaky to allow
the radio to work properly. These will be found in the audio
section used as coupling capacitors. Some people melt the tar
out of the block and install a modern capacitor in it. I simply
mounted a modern terminal strip on the mounting screw and
connected a new capacitor to it. I jumpered from the input side
of the capacitor to one side of the new capacitor and unsoldered
the wire to the grid and the grid resistor from the block and
soldered it to the other side of the new capacitor. The
capacitor blocks were left in place so as not to preclude a more
authentic restoration in the future.

One more thing you are likely to encounter is a noisy volume

control. Most pots have a small slit opening behind the
terminals. Turn the radio so the terminals are up and use a
medicine dropper to drop control cleaner at the slit. Rotate the
control vigorously to work the cleaner into all of the rotating
contacts. If the radio has short wave bands the band switch will
also need cleaning. I have seen many radios in which the switch
was so dirty that the radio would not work. If the audio section
is functioning but the radio is silent clean the band switch
first.

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9.4 The All American Five.

During World War II the American electronics industry turned its

efforts to supplying military electronics and there were very
few if any civilian radios built in the years 1942 through the
first half of 1945. At the end of the war the industry started
cranking out a simple and inexpensive, some might even say
cheap, table radio that became known as the All American Five.

This radio circuit represents a triumph of the bottom line over

quality and safety. It was the radio that the Atwater-Kent
company went out of business rather then make. Every feature had
one purpose, to reduce the cost of manufacture. After World War
II there were millions sold under hundreds of brand names from
Admiral to Zenith.

Much scorn has been heaped on the little AA5 by myself and
others but the truth is it's a wonder of design and simplicity.
The word is starting to get around and local antique dealers are
bringing me their AA5s to put into operating condition. I have
had the opportunity to see a great many different radios. The
marvel is how well they work considering their construction.
There's no such thing as a wiring harness. Wires go every which
way, crossing over, twisted around, power next to audio, audio
next to RF, power next to RF. Terminal strips are seldom used or
used in great moderation. That sometimes means that wires are
just brought together in the middle of the air and soldered
together. Yet still they keep on ticken'. The design has been so
well refined that it seems impossible to build one that won't
work.

It is called the All American Five because all brands were made
in America. This was long before the mass exodus of the
electronics industry. The five comes from the fact that it used
5 tubes. There were variations using 4 tubes which didn't
perform very well and 6 tubes which cost more. The average
person who didn't stay up late to see how many distant stations
they could hear (known as D X ing) didn't care about the
improvements provided by 6 tubes. Consequently the All American
Five became a post war standard which did not fade away until
replaced by the All Japanese Six, the six transistor radio made
in Japan.

The most prominent feature of the AA5 was that it had no power
transformer. The result was that the circuit common was
connected to one side of the power line. Because there was no
polarized plug there was a 50 - 50 chance that the radio's
chassis would be connected to the hot side of the power line.
Very late models from the sixties were carefully designed not to
have any metal parts on the outside even going so far as to
recess screws in deep holes. In the 40s and 50s there was no
such concern on the part of manufacturers. It was common to see
chassis mounting screws exposed on the bottom of the plastic
case. These radios could be, and sometimes were, lethal. All it
would take was for an unwary person to complete the circuit
between a metal part on the radio to a kitchen sink. I once
owned one that was in a metal case. My friends and I called
these radios "suicide boxes".

Most people who owned and used them were blithely unaware of the
danger. I'm sure it must have cost some of them their lives. One
side of the power line connects to the chassis. Depending on how
it happens to be plugged in the chassis could be "hot" 120 volts
above power line ground. Most of them have the switch in the
chassis side of the line which means that even if you have it
plugged in correctly, when you turn the switch off the chassis
will be electrically hot. With these units there is no right way
to plug them in.

A Change For Safety.

First of all you should have replaced all paper capacitors with
modern or with X or Y rated capacitors as described in section
9.1 above. Following that there is another change which must be
made to make an AA5 safe to work on and use. Here is how most
AA5s have the power switch wired.

For a verbal description click here.

Figure 9.9 Unmodified AA5.

The common wiring method had one side of the line cord going to
a pin on the rectifier tube and the other side going to one
terminal of the on/off switch. The other terminal of the on/off
switch went to chassis.
It should be noted that not all radios used the metal chassis as
the circuit common. In some radios all connections that went to
common connected together with wire usually at a terminal lug.
From this point there was a resistor and capacitor in parallel
to the chassis. Commonly used values for these were 220 k ohms
and 0.001 uf. When modifying such a radio the 0.001 uf capacitor
should be replaced with one that is X rated. When the
instructions below refer to the chassis the common point is
meant.

Suppose you plugged it in so the chassis was "cold" when the

radio was turned on. That would mean that the bottom prong of
the plug was connected to the power line neutral. Everything
would be fine until you turned the radio off. Now the top prong
of the plug is connected to the hot side of the power line. The
tube heaters are cold and have a very low resistance (very
approximately 100 ohms). This resistance is connected from the
hot side of the power line to the chassis of the radio. You
could connect a clip lead from the radio chassis to a water pipe
and the radio would come on and play. If part of your body
should complete the circuit instead of a clip lead you might
never play again.

I strongly urge modification of the radio circuit to make it

somewhat safer. Here's the diagram.
For a verbal description click here.

Figure 9.10 AA5 Modified for Safety.

Before starting to modify the radio go to a discount store and

buy a polarized 2 prong plug extension cord. They are usually a
dollar or less. Cut away the old power cord but leave short
pieces of it on the rectifier tube and switch. If the insulation
is in good shape (not always the case in these old sets) leave
enough wire to reach to the switch. If the insulation on the old
cord is rotten replace it with a piece of wire cut from the
extension cord. Decide how long you want the new cord on the
radio to be and cut the cord that length from the plug end. You
will most likely never find a use for the socket end so cut off
the extra cord, save it, and throw the socket end away. Thread
the new cord in through the chassis hole, and secure it in the
same manner that the old one was, for example tying a knot in
it.

Separate the two wires for a couple of inches, and strip about
1/4 inch of insulation off the ends of the wires. Twist the fine
strands of wire tightly together and melt a small amount of
solder over them to hold the strands together. This is known as
tinning the wire.

Now remove the wire connected from one side of the switch to the
chassis. Strip and tin the piece of wire connected to the
rectifier tube socket. Connect this wire to the terminal of the
switch you just removed the chassis grounding wire from. Solder
the wire in place.

Remove the piece of old line cord from the other terminal of the
switch. Solder the wire coming from the NARROW prong of the new
line cord to that terminal of the switch.

Solder the wire from the WIDE prong of the new line cord to the
chassis connection where the switch used to be grounded.

You may find after making this modification that the hum level
has increased. The phrase "lead dress" was probably never spoken
in an AA5 factory so the wires go every which way. The reason
for putting the switch in the neutral lead was to minimize hum
transfer from the off on switch to the volume control pot. Now
that the switch is in the "hot" side of the line there may be
more hum than desirable in the speaker. When installing the
polarized cord make sure the hot leads run along the chassis and
as far away as possible from the three terminals on the side of
the control. It may be best to route the wires straight down to
the chassis perpendicular to the shaft. Route the leads that
carry audio along the chassis and away from the power line
leads. You may have to solder new pieces of hookup wire in these
leads to make this possible. Experience has shown that careful
routing of the leads will reduce the hum to acceptable levels.

The switch modification will make the radio much safer to use
and work on but the safest way to work on these sets is to
obtain and use an isolation transformer. The minimum you need is
a 30 watt transformer. A higher wattage unit would give you more
flexibility. It may cost you some money but how much is your
life worth. If you think you are immortal or just want to live
dangerously there isn't much I can say to you. If you decide to
work without an isolation transformer get one of those test
lights or a small night light and permanently connect one side
of it to the power ground and terminate the other in a test
wire. Touch the wire to the radio chassis. If the light lights
up reverse the plug. Test it with the switch off. If there is no
right way, plug the radio into a plug strip with a switch and
use that to turn the radio on and off. Temporarily solder a
jumper across the radio's off on switch to prevent yourself from
absent mindedly turning it off.

Jim sent me an email in which he makes the following

recommendations.

"These are excellent suggestions. However, I would suggest

taking these steps further, by equipping the radio with a ground
fault interrupter (GFI) .

In my research, I find that many hair dryers are equipped with

cords that have plugs containing the GFCI protective device.
These look like wall warts on the end of the cord. I found used
hair dryers in second hand stores selling for under $5 each. So,
the plan is to purchase a used hair dryer with a good cord and
GFCI plug, remove the cord and use it to power an AA5 radio, in
one of two ways:

The simplest way to power the radio is to make the hair dryer
cord into a GFCI extension cord. Purchase, from a hardware
store, an outlet that installs on the end of a cord. Then,
properly wire and attach the outlet to the hair dryer cord and
you have a GFCI extension cord. Plug the radio into your GFCI
extension cord and plug the GFCI extension cord into AC power.
Secure the radio cord into the extension cord outlet, since you
want the extension cord permanently connected.

The other way is to use the hair dryer cord to replace the cord
that came with the radio. If you choose this method, note that
the hair dryer cord is thicker than most AA5 radio cords. The
entry hole into the chassis may need enlargement and the strain
relief may require replacement to fit the larger cord.

Look for hair dryers with plugs that have two buttons labeled
TEST and RESET. If an outlet is available in the second hand
store, test for proper operation of the GFCI before buying the
hair dryer.

Hair dryers have been manufactured with GFCI plugs for over 10
years now, but not all models have GFCI plugs. Therefore, check
very carefully to be sure you purchase a hair dryer with a GFCI
plug. GFCI plugs may also be found on hair curlers and other
bathroom and kitchen electrics, so check those as well if you
can't find a suitable hair dryer.

Jim also sent along this anecdote.

In my own case I repaired an AA5 radio which used a capacitor

between the metal chassis and one side of the line cord. I found
about 120 volts DC between the radio internal ground and
chassis. I traced the problem to continuity between the audio
output transformer's primary winding and its frame. The radio
played well despite this problem. I remounted the transformer
with insulated fasteners and spacers. GFI would have protected
humans from electrical shock if I hadn't fixed the problem, or
if the problem developed later.

Jim"

Testing tubes.

You don't necessarily need a tube tester. All you need is a

functioning radio that has the same tube lineup as the one
you're working on. In the process of testing tubes whether it's
with a tube tester or another radio, NEVER PUT A HOT TUBE INTO A
COLD RADIO OR A COLD TUBE INTO A HOT RADIO. What the heck do I
mean by that? Here is the hot tube into a cold radio scenario.
The radio you are working on lights up but doesn't work. You
turn it off and take out one of the tubes to test it. You find
the tube to be good, yank it out of the tester or other radio,
plug it into the radio being repaired and turn it on. The heater
of the tube you just switched is hot but the heaters of all the
other tubes in the radio are cold. The resistance of the cold
heaters is quite low while the resistance of the hot heater is
close to its operating value. In the series heater circuit the
highest resistance gets most of the voltage. For a few seconds
the hot heater will get almost all of the line voltage. It may
burn out before the other heaters warm up and start taking their
fair share.

The cold tube into a hot radio goes like this. You have a
complete set of AA5 tubes you know to be good and decide to
substitute them in to a defective radio one at a time. You turn
off the radio, remove one tube, replace it with one of the same
type number and turn the radio back on. The cold heater won't
take its share of the voltage for a few seconds. The other tubes
will proportionally divide up the over voltage until the cold
one warms up. If the one you plugged in cold is one of the 12
volt tubes the chances of doing serious damage are small but
still exist. If the cold one is the 35 or 50, the other tubes
are going to get quite a large over voltage shot and at least
one of them may not survive.

The Dial Light.

As you learned the dial light carries the B+ current. When you
first turn the radio on the light glows at normal brightness for
a fraction of a second and then dims down. As the tubes warm up
and the radio begins to play the light comes back to normal
brightness. If you turn the radio off and right back on the
light will light up very bright for a fraction of a second and
then dim back to normal. You don't have to do this many times
before the light burns out. SO DON'T DO IT.

If the light burns out the voltage across that part of the
heater of the rectifier tube will go up to about 12 volts. That
portion of the heater will over heat and will burn out within a
few hours of operation. Since dial light bulbs are much cheaper
than rectifier tubes, don't operate a radio with a burned out
dial light. If you have a large collection of AA5s you should
keep some spares on hand.

Troubleshooting Hints.

The most common defect of these radios is a bad filter

capacitor. This is the one I have designated in the diagrams as
a dual 40 microfarad at 150 volts. In real radios it could be as
low as a dual 20 microfarad. The symptom is a loud hum that may
be changed slightly, if at all, by the volume control. Sometimes
you can tune in a station and hear it through the hum. The only
thing for this is to replace the capacitor. One with this
failure mode can't be reformed. You can go up in capacitance or
voltage but not down. For example if the radio has a 20 - 20
microfarad at 150 volts you could replace it with a 20 - 30 at
150 volts or 40 - 40 at 250 volts.

If you have a radio which lights up but has no sound try this.
Touch the tip of a screwdriver to the center terminal on the
volume control while touching the metal part of the screwdriver
with one finger. There are two terminals on the back of the
control, these are the on-off switch. You don't want to touch
them! The terminals of the potentiometer are in a group of 3 and
are on the side of the control. Turn the volume to middle or
higher. Touch the screwdriver to the terminal and touch the
metal shaft of the screwdriver with a finger. You may or may not
hear a loud hum or buzz. If you do the audio section is working
and the trouble is in the converter, IF or detector. If you
don't hear anything the trouble is in one of the two audio
tubes. Not necessarily the tubes themselves. As you learned
earlier this is a form of half splitting.

Use a DC voltmeter to measure the voltages on plates and screen

grids. A leaky capacitor can put a positive voltage on the
control grid of the 50L6/50C5, but you already replaced that one
didn't you?

If the audio section is working, try scratching on the grid

terminal of the IF tube with the screwdriver. If you hear static
the IF amplifier is OK and the trouble is most likely in the
converter.

Check to see if the oscillator is running. The oscillator grid

of the converter tube should have a negative voltage on it. A
VOM won't work here. Use one of those cheap DMMs. Wind one lead
of a 1 meg ohm resistor around the measurement probe. Touch the
other lead to the oscillator grid terminal and read the voltage.
The purpose of the resistor is to keep the input capacitance of
the DMM from stopping the oscillator. You should read anything
from about -2 volts to -50 volts. The reading will be about 10 %
low but you're not going after precision, you just want to know
if there is a negative voltage indicating that the oscillator is
running.

If you are using an authentic VTVM you don't need to use the
resistor. The DC probe on most VTVMs has a 1 meg ohm resistor
built in and the meter calibration takes this into account.

Some AA5s might fool you because of a peculiar money saving

modification. Look ahead to figure 9.11. Note the connections to
grid 1 of the 1R5. You will note that there is no capacitor in
the grid line and a coil that someone forgot to connect. There
is virtually no inductive coupling between the tuned winding of
the oscillator coil and the grid winding. The coupling is
capacitive and replaces the typical 220 pf capacitor which is
usually found here. I have worked on such an AA5 and I can say
that it does work. It strikes me as going to great lengths to
save a few cents on one capacitor per unit. It must have been
economically feasible or it wouldn't have been done.

One more thing you are likely to encounter is a noisy volume

control. Most pots have a small slit opening behind the
terminals. Turn the radio so the terminals are up and use a
medicine dropper to drop control cleaner at the slit. Rotate the
control vigorously to work the cleaner into all of the rotating
contacts.

Variations on a Familiar Theme.

As I noted earlier there was an All American 4 which didn't work

very well and an All American 6 which worked very well but cost
more.

In some radios, particularly AM/FM there wasn't enough heater

voltage for the rectifier so the 35Z5/35W4 would be replaced by
a selenium rectifier. If you get one of these go ahead and
replace it with a silicon. The extra voltage won't hurt anything
in this case.

In the AA4, 35 + 50, + 2 X 12 doesn't add up to the line

voltage. A tube manual I have from 1946 lists 45Z3 and 45Z5
which could have been substituted for the 35Z5 in an AA4. I once
owned one of these radios and it didn't use one of these 45 volt
tubes. I assume that most other AA4s used a fixed resistor to
drop the extra voltage as mine did.

AA6s on the other hand needed a lower voltage tube in one of the
sockets. The 35L6 and 35C5 were made for this purpose. I have
seen AA6s which had a 50L6 in the output tube socket while the
schematic listed a 35L6. Either someone didn't know or didn't
have a 35L6 in stock and decided to send the radio home with a
50L6 to get the radio working rather than wait to order the
correct tube.

Millions of AA5s were made and thousands have been restored.

There are still tens of thousands out there waiting to be
restored. Have fun.

Back to Fun with Transistors.

Back to Fun with Tubes."
Back to Table of Contents.
Back to top.

9.5 Three Way Portable Radios.

The 3 way portable radio was call that because it could operate
from AC line, DC line, or an internal battery pack. They ranged
in size from small enough to fit into a large coat pocket to
luggables that were about 12 inches wide and 10 high. I owned
one of the latter which wasn't very heavy without the battery
but when batteried up was quite a load. It was a Motorola model
6L1. I don't have it anymore but I spotted it on a museum site
and found the schematic on Nostalgia Air. I suppose it was for
sentimental reasons that I have chosen this circuit to represent
3 way portables.

Figure 9.11 Schematic of 3 Way Portable.

Upon examining this schematic the first thing that struck me was
that AGC is applied only to the RF tube and no other. After a
few minutes of puzzlement I got it. The 1U4 is a sharp cutoff
pentode. A remote cutoff pentode can provide gain control over a
wide range even for voltages measured in volts or even 10s of
volts. if this is attempted with a sharp cutoff tube serious
distortion of an amplitude modulated signal will result. A sharp
cutoff can be used as a gain control element if the signal level
is kept small, in the single digit millivolts or below. That is
exactly what is being done in the RF stage of this radio.

I remember that the AGC action was about the same as an AA5 but
not as good as an AA6 wherein the AGC is applied to RF,
converter, and IF stages. In keeping with small voltages
approximately 25% of the derived AGC voltage is applied to the
control grid of the RF stage. I assume that the tapped secondary
of the RF plate coil and the resistor in series with grid 3 of
the 1R5 is to improve performance under extremely strong signal
conditions. I don't remember it ever being blocked even when
riding in a car with it and driving past a radio station's
tower.

The oscillator needs a special note as this method of coupling

to grid 1 of the converter tube is used in many AA5s as well.
What appears to be a link winding which has one end not
connected is just that although there is probably very little in
the way of magnetic coupling going on. Capacitance from the
tuned section of the oscillator coil to the link replaces the
mica capacitor which is usually found here. This strikes me as
going to great lengths to eliminate one capacitor but the
economics must have worked or it wouldn't have been done this
way.

Note that local audio ground is established from the negative

side, pin 1, of the filament of the 1U5. You may find the
filament string a bit tough to tease out so here is a simplified
diagram of the chain.
Figure 9.12 Filament circuit of 3 Way Portable.

The two resistors associated with the 3V4 are to conduct the
plate and screen current to ground. Without them this current
would flow through the filaments of the other tubes. You will
note that the filaments are a little starved for voltage and
they are not all equal. When the applied voltage is 9 volts as
when operated from batteries the voltages will be a bit higher.
There should be more resistors for cathode current along the
line. The Zenith Transoceanic has several resistors to ground
along the filament chain. I don't see that adding these
resistors would significantly effect the battery life. I'm sure
they were left out to reduce the manufacturing cost.

The two 1 k ohm resistors shown in this diagram are actually the
2 k ohm tapped resistor shown in the complete diagram above.
This resistor became open while I owned the radio and before I
had acquired sufficient skill to replace it myself. I suppose
that just one of the sections opened up. The service shop where
I took it made no attempt to obtain the original Motorola part.
Instead they hung a 10 watt resistor by stiff wires coming
through a hole drilled in the chassis. If I still had the radio
I would do something about this.

Troubleshooting.

I have already pointed out the most likely failure in the radio.
The 2 k ohm resistor is dissipating 5 watts and is the most
likely component to fail.
Remember that the selenium rectifier should be replaced with a
silicon diode. Do not give in to temptation to leave it in
place. When a selenium rectifier fails it gets hot and some of
the selenium is oxidized. Selenium is in the same column of the
periodic table as sulfur and shares some of its characteristics.
Of interest here is it's oxide. Sulfur dioxide and selenium
dioxide are both rather poisonous. Also they both smell like
rotten eggs. If you are working on a radio that still has a
selenium rectifier in place and you smell rotten eggs, unplug
the radio and open the windows. A selenium rectifier is a poison
bomb waiting to go off. Physically remove the rectifier from the
radio because some future owner might try to restore it to
authenticity by reconnecting it. Use a shorter machine screw
than was used to mount the rectifier and mount a terminal strip.
Connect the wires that originally went to the rectifier and
solder a silicon diode in place of the rectifier. The plus
marked side of the selenium corresponds to the banded, cathode,
end of the diode.

The value of the 150 ohm resistor will most likely have to be
increased to keep the voltage at pin 7 of the 3V4 from exceeding
9 volts. Actually 9 or even 9.5 volts at this point wouldn't
hurt any. If you are uneasy with the differing voltages along
the filament string you can always do a little re-engineering by
adding equalizing resistors.

If the 20 uf capacitor shorts it would most likely take out the

top half of the 2 k resistor especially if the owner unwisely
left the radio turned on even though it was silent.

If the 80 uf capacitor shorts out it will also silence the radio

but it is unlikely that any additional damage will be done even
to the 3V4. The 2 k resistor from the 105 volt supply is almost
a constant current source and the 3V4 will not sustain any
damage.

Elsewhere the circuitry is not unlike an AA6 so if the filaments

have proper voltage but the radio remains silent all you need to
do is round up the usual suspects.

If you or the owner wants battery capability you will have to

construct a battery. If you are extremely lucky you will be able
to find an AB pack that fits the radio. You might even find one
still in it. It will be run down long ago but you can use the
box and the connector socket. If not you will have to devise a
method of connecting the battery that is easy to connect and
disconnect.
The 90 volt B battery is easy. Just ten 9 volt transistor
batteries will do perfectly. I have heard of people making up
the B battery from AA cells but I view this as overkill. The
current drawn from the B battery is less than that drawn by a 6
transistor radio so the 9 volt batteries should last a long
time. In the original AB pack the A battery was made up of F
cells which was probably overkill. After the B battery was run
down I could get several months of experimentation out of the A
battery. Modern D cells or even C cells should do the job
nicely. It may be that the B battery was intended to run down so
the user would stop using it before the A battery lost
sufficient voltage to damage the filament's coating from being
operated below design temperature.

One more thing you are likely to encounter is a noisy volume

control. Most pots have a small slit opening behind the
terminals. Turn the radio so the terminals are up and use a
medicine dropper to drop control cleaner at the slit. Rotate the
control vigorously to work the cleaner into all of the rotating
contacts. If the radio has short wave bands the band switch will
also need cleaning. I have seen many radios in which the switch
was so dirty that the radio would not work. If the audio section
is functioning but the radio is silent clean the band switch
first.

Back to Fun with Transistors.

Back to Fun with Tubes."
Back to Table of Contents.
Back to top.

9.6 Phonographs and Record Changers.

As far as I can tell the first electric phonographs intended for

home use appeared about 1930. At one time I actually had
ownership of a variable reluctance pickup cartridge intended to
adapt a spring driven acoustic phonograph to electrical
reproduction. I couldn't make it work and not realizing the
antique value even of a nonfunctional unit I either threw it
away or gave it to a friend. Oh, the indiscretions of youth.

Beginning after world war II the crystal phonograph became very

popular. I owned one myself. These players used a Rochelle salt
crystal cartridge which delivered about 6 volts into a 500 k ohm
load. This high output meant that only one amplifier tube was
required. The diagram is shown below.
Figure 9.13 Crystal Phonograph.

There were other variations than those indicated in the

schematic. The first electric phonograph I owned used a 117L7/M7
which incorporated the rectifier and the power amplifier into
the same envelope with a 117 volt heater. Another variation I
saw used a selenium rectifier and a 25L6 amplifier. The motor
had been designed to operate from 92 volts at a current of 300
mA. The motor was in series with the heater.

If you find one of these phonographs your chances of ever

getting it to operate in its original state are absolutely zero.
The reason is the crystal pickup. Rochelle salt is a very
hydroscopic material. That means it loves water and will grab
onto any stray water molecules that come by. My original
phonograph was bought and used for about 2 years in Iowa. Then
we moved to Florida. In that humid climate it only lasted about
6 months. After having the cartridge replaced for a cost of 8
dollars it went out after another 6 months. 8 dollars was a
considerable sum of money in 1952 and my mother said I would
just have to do without rather than spend another 8 bucks on
another crystal. The symptom is the sound grows progressively
weaker and weaker until the volume control is up all the way and
from that point it fades out to inaudibility. No doubt one of
these cartridges would last for several years in Arizona but
humid climates are death to them.

If you must get one of these phonographs restored to operation

the only way I can see to do it is to install a ceramic or even
a magnetic cartridge and install a transistor preamp to bring up
the level to that required. It could easily be powered from the
DC level at the cathode of the power tube and hidden in an
electrolytic capacitor can.

A much better phonograph was the one with two stages of

amplification. If you take away the 12SA7/12BE6 and the
12SK7/12BA6 from an AA5 and replace the heaters of the missing
tubes with a 150 ohm 5 watt resistor you have the circuit of a
ceramic phonograph. These were a little more expensive but if
you lived in a humid climate the difference would be made up in
a year. The reason that more gain was needed was that the
ceramic cartridge output was less than 1 volt.

Other than the cartridge the filter capacitor was the part most
likely to fail. In an old player this is one of the parts that
should be replaced as a matter of routine.

The test for either a one stage or two stage phonograph

amplifier is to lift up the arm with the unit turned on and the
volume up all the way. Touch the cartridge pins one at a time
while not touching anything else. If you hear a loud hum when
touching one the amplifier is alright and the cartridge is dead.
Even ceramic cartridges can go dead after 50 years. Although I
do have a Silvertone wire recorder and phonograph that has a
working ceramic cartridge in it. The sound is a little weak but
it is still usable enough to record from a record to wire.

Record Changers.

I don't know when the record changer was invented but I once
owned one that dated from about 1940. It made an incredible
amount of mechanical noise. The change cycle began with a
metallic bang that was a projection on the rim of the turntable
hitting a lever which the eject button or the arm tracking the
eccentric groove at the end of the record had pushed into the
path of the projection. This raised a roller that engaged a
spiral groove in the bottom of the turntable. This pulled the
roller toward the center of the turntable which moved the rack
in one direction. When the roller reached the end of the groove
an inclined plain pushed it down which caused another one to pop
up that was positioned at the beginning of the groove. This was
the halfway point of the cycle. The second roller was pulled
toward the center which moved the rack back in the other
direction. The incline pushed the roller down completing the
cycle. The rollers in the groove were metal on metal. The cycle
sounded like this. Music ends, record scratch, click bang, grind
grind grind, flop as the record dropped, grind grind grind
record scratch, music starts.

The odds of either one of us encountering this exact model are

small although I must say the movement was quite robust and as
long as I kept things oiled it worked fine.

The three types you are most likely to encounter are the ones
made by BIC, yes, that's the same as the pen company, VM (Voice
of Music), and the RCA 45. The BIC name is not on every changer
built by BIC. They made drop in changers for console units made
by many different manufacturers. Most manufacturers put their
own name on the changer. VM also made changers for consoles but
you are apt to see the VM name plate on these changers. I
suspect that VM wrote a clause in their contracts that required
that the VM name remain on the changer.

The BIC and VM changers worked much the same. There are gear
teeth cut into the bottom end of the turntable bushing. The
change drive is a gear about 5 inches in diameter with a gap at
one point. During play the gap is positioned around the gear on
the turntable. When the cycle is triggered a small projection is
moved forward which catches the teeth and turns the change drive
gear just enough to engage its teeth in the turntable's gear.
There are various grooves and projections on the change gear
that move the arm, activate record size detectors and initiate
record drop. The change cycle takes place over about 4
revolutions of the turntable.

The RCA 45 was another of those innovations that comes along

about once in a generation. It and the records it played had
been designed for each other. The entire change cycle took place
in a single revolution of the turntable.

Troubleshooting.

If the turntable runs the most likely problem is that it stalls

when going through the change cycle. One cause of this is a
slippery idler wheel. If you do a Google search you may be able
to find a replacement idler wheel or the rubber tire that goes
around it. One thing you may be able to do is to remove the
rubber tire, turn it inside out, and reinstall it. This exposes
rubber which has been protected from the ravages of time. Be
warned, the tire may be too fragile to withstand this treatment.
If the previous option is out of the question but the tire has
not totally disintegrated you may be able to resurrect it by
roughing the surface with sandpaper or a file. Be careful not to
create flat spots. A change in diameter of the idler will not
alter the speed of the turntable. Sometimes it is necessary to
shorten up the idler spring a little but don't carry this too
far.

Another cause of stalling is a frozen up bearing in the changer

mechanism. The lighter hydrocarbons in the oil have evaporated
leaving behind a substance that is more like tar than anything
else. The bearings most likely turn with great difficulty if at
all. The right way to treat this condition is to completely
disassemble the mechanism and soak all parts in a degreaser,
then relubricate with sewing machine oil and reassemble. I must
admit that I have never felt up to such a time consuming
procedure with its high risk of losing parts or forgetting how
they go back together.

One way is to simply flood the bearings with new oil and wipe up
the excess. The idea is to flush out the heavy hydrocarbons and
replace what's in the bearings with good oil. In particularly
stubborn cases WD-40 can be used to flush out the tar and then
oil the moving parts. DO NOT LEAVE WD-40 IN THE BEARINGS. It is
NOT a lubricant. You MUST replace the WD-40 residue with real
oil or they will freeze up tighter than they were before.

You should use a very light oil on the parts of a record

changer. The old hardware store standby 3 in 1 will do but it
will tar up again in a few years. Sewing machine oil is a much
better choice and you don't have to look very hard to find it.

Troubleshooting a record changer can be difficult because it is

hard to see what's going on under there. Here is a way to get
the inner workings into the open and still allow it to be
operated.
Figure 9.14 Hang the Changer by Wires.

This picture shows the transport mechanism from a Silvertone

wire recorder hung by coat hanger wire from my workbench light.
The florescent fixture is hung from the ceiling by chains
attached to screw hooks that go into ceiling joist. Any record
changer can be hung in the same way. The wires pass through
hooks in wires that go over the top of the fixture. This is so
the wires can be folded up against the fixture out of the way
when not in use.

Once the bearings are properly lubricated and running freely the
changer will work most of the time. If it doesn't there may be a
missing spring, misadjusted or misaligned part, or a warn part.

Ace hardware does stock a few helical springs and if you need
one of those you may be able to find it. If a flat spring is
called for it may be harder to find. Flat springs are found in
old windup clocks. Here is a case where you may need to
sacrifice one antique to restore another one.

Misalignment is sometimes the result of a missing screw. They do

tend to vibrate out and get lost. Finding a new screw shouldn't
be hard even if it is metric. Changer parts often pivot on nylon
inserts. Do not oil these. If a previous owner did the insert
has likely disintegrated and needs to be replaced. Such parts
may be very hard or impossible to find. If you have some skills
with files and other small hand tools you may be able to
fabricate one out of aluminum or hardwood. If made of wood the
friction surface should be heavily waxed, not oiled.

A previous owner may have bent a part for some reason known only
to that person. Bending it back is probably the only solution
but be cautious. Metal fatigue can set in very quickly
particularly if the part is made of aluminum. If it breaks you
are probably back to fabricating a new part.

If a part is just warn out the only option is to make a new one
as indicated above.

Sometimes a changer will be just so warn out that it can't be

restored. One option is to disable the change mechanism by
removing the change cycle initiation part or parts and using it
as a single play turntable. Another option is to say "it can't
be fixed". If you are working on it for someone else and they
insist that they want it to work you may have to say "take it to
someone else".
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9.7 Consoles and High Fi Components.

High fidelity seems to have come into existence sometime after

World War II. I'm going to put it at about 1950. By 1955 the
word if not the sound had become rather prevalent if not
ubiquitous. Many older console designs were given a facelift,
labeled as high fidelity usually in script, and remarketed with
few or no internal changes.

These renamed consoles usually featured a 12 inch electro

magnetic speaker, push-pull outputs and no negative feedback.
The power tubes were most likely to be 6V6s although some had
6F6s or 6K6s. A few did have 6L6s. These were monophonic. The
output transformer was usually mounted on the speaker. Although
stereo was introduced in late 1957 it did not really catch on
with the general public until after 1960.

Phase Inverters.

Because most of these consoles had push-pull outputs the phase

inverter circuit is important to the performance of the set. The
earliest consoles used a circuit known as the open loop phase
inverter. An example circuit may be seen at this location. Look
at the first diagram on the page. Use your back button to return
here. The duo triode would likely be a 6SN7 rather than the
12AU7 shown, and the single triode would likely be a 6J5.
Resistor values would be different.

A variation on the open loop is the closed loop phase inverter.

Negative feedback is used to make the circuit self balancing as
shown below. This circuit was found in a Westinghouse console.
Figure 9.15 Closed Loop Phase Inverter.

The 220 k and 270 k ohm resistors form a voltage divider across
the two output tube (6V6) grids. When the voltages at the two
grids are equal in amplitude and opposite in phase the voltage
at the junction of the two resistors is just what is needed to
make the AC voltage at the plate of the second 6AT6 exactly what
it should be. If aging tubes imbalances the drive to the two
6V6s, say to reduce the drive to the bottom tube, the voltage at
the junction of the two resistors will increase driving the grid
of the lower 6AT6 harder partially restoring the voltage to its
proper value.

The diodes in the first 6AT6 are used as the AM detector as in

the all American 5.

Troubleshooting.

First of all it is assumed that all capacitors have been

replaced or reformed as appropriate. All resistors should have
been checked and replaced if out of tolerance.

If the set still doesn't work the band switch probably needs
attention. Older consoles are very likely to be either AM/FM or
AM/SW or even AM/SW/FM. There may also be a phono position for a
record player included in the console. Silver plating of switch
contacts was common in this era as it is today. Silver can be
oxidized to the point of making poor or no contact. The rubbing
of contacts together which keeps them clean when in daily use is
not sufficient when a radio has sat unused for several decades.
Contact cleaner applied to the switch contacts will very likely
restore the set to operation.

Other causes of non operation could be an open speaker field

coil. Even if the set plays, check the plate voltage on the
plates of both output tubes. If one side of the output
transformer is open there may be no noticeable effect on the
sound at low listening volume. The tube on the open side which
has screen voltage but no plate voltage will not last very long
under these conditions.

The record player, usually a changer, likely employs a ceramic

pickup cartridge. Unless the set has been stored in a very damp
basement, chances are good that the cartridge is still good. In
units made in the late 40s and early 50s the changer was most
likely a single speed 78 RPM player. I have seen many consoles
from this era in which the original changer had been pulled and
a 3 speed or 4 speed changer dropped in its place. At some time
the size and mounting of record changers was standardized which
made a drop-in retrofit possible.

Another thing you are likely to encounter are noisy volume and
tone controls. Most pots have a small slit opening behind the
terminals. Turn the chassis so the terminals are up and use a
medicine dropper to drop control cleaner at the slit. Rotate the
control vigorously to work the cleaner into all of the rotating
contacts.

High Fi Components.

High fi components basically took the parts of a console radio

phonograph and packaged each separately. Because customers were
willing to pay more for quality components they were all more
elaborate than would be found in a typical console.

The radio section was marketed as a tuner. Invariably FM and

usually including an AM section as well. The FM section was as
good as the state of the art at that time permitted. Sometimes
the AM section was skimped although it was often of a high
quality.

The amplifier would always have negative feedback, lower

distortion, and more power than a console. In the bottom of the
line amplifier the output tubes would be 6V6s but higher priced
amplifiers would have 6L6GCs or EL34s. For details on the
circuitry of amplifiers I suggest study of all the articles
under the heading of "Audio Amplifiers How they Work" on this
website. You might also find useful information under the
heading "Building Amplifiers". I've already written those pages
so why should I reinvent the wheel. Although there was movement
towards high quality capacitors some amplifiers and tuners still
used wax paper capacitors. Many manufacturers thought of the
black beauty as being a quality part but it was a wolf in
sheep's clothing. If any of these are found they should be
replaced just as in an AA5.

Speaker systems were built in large boxes and there was little
in them to go wrong. One common problem with vintage systems is
that the rim support of the woofer was made from a kind of
plastic that disintegrates after about 20 years. Even the much
touted Acoustic Research speakers suffer this fait. You could
have the speaker reconed but it is a lot cheaper to just buy a
new speaker and figure on replacing in another 20 years. The
crossovers have capacitors, inductors, and occasionally
resistors. Unless the speaker system has been over driven it is
unlikely that any of these components will be defective.

Speaking of over driven I remember an anecdote from the late

50s. It seems that a local TV shop sold and installed a
component system for a well to do family. The shop unwisely
installed a standard AC outlet on the back of the cabinet
containing the electronics and AC plugs on the ends of the wires
from the speakers. Shortly after the installation was completed
the family decided that the listening room needed to be
carpeted. After the departure of the carpet installers the sound
system no longer worked. You guessed it. The carpet installers
in an attempt to be nice plugged everything back in as they had
found it, almost. I can't imagine what sound must have come from
those speakers with 120 volts AC applied.

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9.8 Wire and Tape Recorders.

In the late 40s and early 50s there were a few home disk
recorders sold but they never really caught on. The main reason
was probably that the media could not be reused if the performer
made a mistake or if it was recorded with too low or too high a
recording level. Also they needed the constant attention of an
operator to sweep away the fine thread of plastic that the
stylus cut out of the surface of the disk.

Sears introduced the first wire recorder in 1948 under its

Silvertone brand. The selling point was that the recording media
could be used over and over until performers and engineers got
everything right. There were other makes of wire recorders most
notably Webcor which made machines intended for office
dictation. The recording wire was very fine and there was more
than a mile of it on a spool. The wire speed was 22.5 inches per
second which meant if something went wrong the wire would be in
a hopeless tangle before the user could get to the stop control.
Such a tangle could not be recovered and the tangled section had
to be cut out and thrown away with the loss of anything recorded
on it.

The wire recorder had a fairly short run and was replaced by the
tape recorder in the early 50s. Tape had the advantage of
running more slowly, 3 and 3/4 or 7 and 1/2 inches per second so
a real did not need to contain nearly as much of it. The tape
was 1/4 inch wide which made tangling caused by a malfunction of
the machine much less likely. It would take a kid or a cat
playing with a real to get the tape in a hopeless tangle.

Magnetic recording.

In theory the principle seems simple enough. To record just

apply the signal to be recorded to the coil of an electro magnet
and pull the media across it at a constant speed. To playback
just connect the coil of the electro magnet to the input of a
high gain amplifier and pull the media across the iron core at
the same speed and in the same direction.

What you will get will be the biggest mess of distortion you
have ever heard. Language will be incomprehensible, Musical
instruments unrecognizable, and you won't want to listen to it
for very long. The problem is the magnetization curve of almost
any metal. Below is the graph showing amount of magnetization
versus the magnetizing force.
Figure 9.16 Hysteresis Curve of Magnetizable Material.

If the material starts out with zero magnetism and magnetizing

force is applied the amount of magnetism will follow the red
line up to the hysteresis loop and then it will be stuck on the
loop. The only way to get back to zero will be to apply a slowly
decreasing AC magnetizing force which will loop back to zero as
shown in figure 9.19.

If magnetizing force is altered from zero and then brought back

to zero the remaining magnetism will depend on whether the
magnetizing force was positive or negative. If the force goes up
the red line to the tip of the curve in the first quadrant and
then is reduced to zero the remaining magnetism will follow the
right hand side of the curve back down to zero force but there
will be some magnetism left. This is desirable but the problem
is the nonlinearity of the curve.
If in each case we start with a piece of fully demagnetized
material and take the magnetizing force up from zero to a
specific value and then back to zero the remaining magnetism can
be plotted on a graph. What results is the graph below.

Figure 9.17 Transfer Function of a Magnetic Recorder.

This is the transfer function of our intuitive tape recorder

described at the beginning of this section. Some method of
linearizing the function is needed. The very first thing tried
when magnetic recording was being invented was the use of DC
bias.

If a direct current was superimposed on the audio signal to be

recorded and the value of the DC places the magnetizing force at
the center of the linear region as indicated by the dashed line
recording can take place with a tolerable amount of distortion.
I once owned a recorder that used a permanent magnet to erase
the tape and DC bias for recording. It wasn't suitable for music
but I used it for several years to exchange voice letters with
members of my family.

What got magnetic recording off the ground was the use of AC
bias. A frequency of approximately 10 times the highest
frequency to be reproduced is added to the audio. Note, the
audio does not alter the amplitude of the bias signal as in
amplitude modulation. It is simple addition. That electro magnet
I mentioned earlier is called the Record/Playback Head. A much
oversimplified diagram of it is shown schematically in Figure
9.18.

Figure 9.18 Magnetic Recorder Erase, Record, or Playback, Head.

The same AC bias signal is used to energize the erase head to

clean the tape before recording. As the tape passes the gap in
the head a given magnetic domain will "feel" many cycles of the
bias signal. For the first half of the trip across the gap the
strength of the field is increasing but for the second half it
is decreasing. The figure below shows what happens to a single
domain as it passes from the center of the gap to its edge.
Figure 9.19 below shows what happens to the magnetization of
each domain as the bias field decreases.
Figure 9.19 Bias Loops for a Magnetic Recorder.

The remaining magnetization is brought to zero by the bias field

leaving the tape free of any magnetized domains. "Blank" for all
practical purposes. Next the tape passes over the record head.
The Bias field is not as strong as from the erase head. A given
magnetic domain will pass the gap in less time than the period
of the highest frequency to be recorded. So as far as any one
domain is concerned the signal to be recorded is just a DC
level.

If you are no stranger to tape recorders you have probably read

that recording takes place at the trailing edge of the gap. I
have, but it was never explained. Here is that long overdue
explanation. As a single domain passes from the center to the
edge of the gap the bias field is decreasing as for the erase
head. But the field does not reduce to zero. The value it loops
to is the value of the recorded signal at that moment. After the
domain passes the gap it is left magnetized to the exact value
of magnetism to correctly represent the recorded wave. When the
tape is passed over the playback head the wave comes out
accurately reproduced instead of being distorted.

What keeps the recorded signal from going to zero at the

trailing edge of the gap is the frequency relative to the width
of the gap. The bias frequency is much too high to be recorded
because the head gap would have to be much narrower to make that
possible. The bias signal makes recording linear without being
recorded itself.

Troubleshooting.

I don't know how many times people have asked me why their tape
recorder doesn't sound as good as when it was new. When I ask
them when was the last time they cleaned the heads they reply,
"cleaned the heads?" Head cleaning fluid is pretty much a thing
of the past. Some people used to recommend carbon tetrachloride
but it is too toxic to mess with. Common drugstore alcohol will
do but it is half water so be sure to avoid getting it into the
works or electronics of the recorder and dry the heads
thoroughly after cleaning. When you instruct the owner on how to
clean the heads using a Q-tip be sure to emphasize that they are
not to run tape through the machine until all liquid has either
been wiped up with a dry Q-tip, or has evaporated.

Other than dirty heads the most common problem with a tape
recorder is that it will not erase a recorded tape and when a
new or bulk erased tape is tried the recorded sound is weak and
badly distorted. Are you ahead of me on this one? The AC bias
signal is generated by an oscillator and it is not running.

Many people record infrequently so the record/playback switch

contacts have become corroded. Most times cleaning the contacts
of the switch will restore the recorder to operation. This is
also true for a recorder that has not been used in any way for
several years or decades.

Because a tape recorder is a mechanical device it can have

similar troubles to a record changer. Many have idler wheels
that no longer grip. Cleaning of rubber surfaces and tightening
springs will usually set things right.

Old recorders with rubber belts are another story. Some

compounds of rubber turn to gue after 20 years. Those that
don't, stretch and become too loose to transfer power. In many
cases such belts can be replaced with O rings. They are
available from auto and industrial supply houses.

The Silvertone Wire Recorder.

The Silvertone wire recorder is an especially tough nut to

crack. In all that I have seen the idler wheels are made of hard
plastic which even if you can get them to drive make so much
mechanical noise you can't hear the content of the wire. I
presume there was some kind of soft rubber coating them but it
must have been very thin because there is little clearance
between the wheels and what they drive. It was probably the
latest material in the post war 40s and there had not been
enough time to life test it before it was used.

I have no solution for this in spite of giving it considerable

thought. If anyone out there has found a successful fix I hope
you will share it with me so I can share it with others.

I will tell you how I fixed mine for all the good it will do
you. I knew that Pentron made tape recorders for sears and when
I was buying Silvertone wire recorders I saw a Pentron and
bought it on the off chance that that might have been true for
wire recorders as well. The electronics were quite different but
the transport turned out to be identical. Pentron had had the
good sense to use time tested and proven rubber rimmed steel
idler wheels. The paint job on the Pentron was different from
the Silvertone I wanted to restore so I transferred the idler
and drive wheels from the Pentron to the Silvertone. So I have a
working wire recorder.

You might be fortunate enough to find phonograph idler wheels

that will fit. If that fails I can't give you much hope. I have
another rare portable Silvertone I would like to restore but so
far I have not found any wheels to replace the plastic ones that
were original equipment.

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9.9 Why TV Sets Are Not Covered.

I have little experience with TV sets. The few times in the 60s
that I tried to repair a set belonging to my family I failed
miserably. It's true I did successfully assemble a Heathkit
color TV and get it aligned but building a kit with the quality
instructions provided by Heath and repairing a set in which
something has gone wrong are two very different kettles of fish.
I'm sure there are lots of other resources available on the web.
If anyone would like to volunteer to write a chapter on TV
repair please submit it to my email address which can be found
on the website that linked you to this book.
Chapter 10 Things That Have Never Worked.

10.1 Power Supplies.

10.2 Audio Amplifiers.
10.3 Radio Receivers.
10.4 Simple Test Equipment.

Chapter 10

Things That Have Never Worked.

As a trouble shooter you will occasionally encounter something

that has never worked. This may be a prototype constructed in an
industrial or university research and development laboratory. It
might be a DIY (do it yourself) project that was brought to your
shop. It night be a kit that was constructed by someone else or
yourself. What ever it is the fact that it has never worked can
make the job of troubleshooting much harder than with something
that used to work and stopped. The malfunction might be caused
by a defective component but it is more likely to be cause by a
wiring error or wrong component value.

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10.1 Power Supplies.

Power supplies can range in complexity from simple transformer-

rectifier-filter circuits to multi output with electronic
voltage and current regulation. If the power supply is one of
the latter the regulator circuits should be separated from the
basic rectifier filter and the basic circuit tested separately.

Although a simple power supply has little to go wrong, as

pointed out earlier in this book failures can cascade turning a
simple problem into a more complex one. An electrolytic
capacitor may have been taken from NOS (new old stock) and may
not be formed up to its rated voltage. Such a capacitor may show
good using an ohmmeter but will blow fuses and diodes when the
power is turned on. Since the capacitors have never been put
into use they should be tested at their rated voltage.
For a brief discussion on the construction of an electrolytic
capacitor, how to test it, and its behavior in a circuit, refer
back to 3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors.

For a discussion on testing a power supply which may have

unformed electrolytic capacitors and how to reform them refer
back to 4.3 The Power Supply Section.

If the basic rectifier filter section is working properly The

problem is in the electronic regulator circuit. If the unit uses
IC regulators there is little to do but replace the one that
seems to be causing the trouble. If the unit is blowing fuses it
will be necessary to isolate the individual regulator circuits
probably by removing the ICs. If the circuit is built with
discrete components refer to section 5.2.

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10.2 Audio Amplifiers.

10.2.1 Transistor amplifiers.

Beware of treating the symptom. Many amplifiers I have opened up

have revealed a burned or scorched resistor. Replacing this
resistor will not fix the amplifier. The replacement will just
burn out as the old one did. However, this will point you to the
area of trouble.

Transistor audio amplifiers usually just blow fuses. This

requires testing with power off. Most DMMs only apply 200 mV or
less to the test leads. This may not reveal the problem. A VOM
is a much better instrument for this kind of testing. Test from
power supply positive to ground, from power supply negative, if
the amplifier has one, to ground, and from power supply positive
to negative. Be sure the polarity of the leads is such that the
proper polarity is applied to the test point, positive to the
positive rail and negative to the negative rail. This is likely
to reveal that there is a short, which you already knew.

If the amplifier has multiple PC boards you can unsolder the

power supply leads to each one in turn and determine which board
the trouble is on. If there is only one board isolating the
trouble is more difficult. Removing the power transistors from
their sockets one channel at a time may, at least, show which
channel the problem is in.

Testing Transistors.

Now that you have the power transistors out you might as well
test them. A transistor tester is handy but not essential. The
most basic test is the junction test. A DMM cannot be used for
this test because it does not apply enough voltage to cause the
junctions to break down. Set the VOM to measure ohms on the RX1
range and connect it to the collector and base. It should show a
diode with the anode to the base in an NPN and the anode to the
collector in a PNP transistor. The polarity reversing switch on
the Simpson 260 is a real time saver when making this test. The
transistor should also show a diode between base and emitter.
Anode to base in NPN and anode to emitter in PNP. It should show
open in both directions from emitter to collector.

WARNING: APPLYING POWER TO THE AMPLIFIER WHILE THE OUTPUT

TRANSISTORS ARE REMOVED MAY DAMAGE THE DRIVER AND PREDRIVER
CIRCUITS. THIS IS NOT RECOMMENDED.

A voltage breakdown test might also be a good idea. The

schematic will tell you how much voltage is applied to the
transistors. If for example the power supply is plus and minus
40 volts then in the static condition 40 volts is applied across
each output transistor. Connect an external power supply with a
series connected current limiting resistor of 10 k ohms to the
collector and base of each transistor one at a time in tern.
Positive to the collector of NPN transistors and negative to the
collector of PNP transistors. Connect a voltmeter of any type
across the 10 k ohm resistor. The meter should not indicate a
voltage any grater than a few millivolts. If the reading is more
than 1 volt the transistor should be replaced. Note: a reading
of 1 or 2 volts might be observed if the transistor is a good
germanium.

If the outputs test good.

If the transistors test good the problem may be caused by a

transistor or other defective component earlier in the circuit
causing the output stage to draw too much current. The high
power transistors in the output are usually in sockets which
require the removal of two screws to take out each transistor
for testing. On the driver and predriver level the transistors
will have to be unsoldered from the board. To junction test low
power transistors set the VOM to the RX 10 or RX 100 range. When
doing the breakdown test use a 100 k ohm resistor instead of a
10 k ohm.

If all transistors test good you need to start looking at the

passive components. Shorted capacitors are the most likely
suspects. Test electrolytic capacitors at their rated voltage
not with the low voltage applied by an ohmmeter. Open resistors
are also a possibility. For example an open resistor connected
from the positive power supply rail to the collector of a
predriver transistor could allow the transistor to go into
saturation pulling the amplifier's output to the negative rail
resulting in an apparent short.

If the defective component can't be located it may come down to

shotgunning.

10.2.2 Vacuum Tube Amplifiers.

The first assumption when a non working vacuum tube amplifier is

encountered is to assume a tube is defective. Although failure
statistics tell us to check the tubes first in my personal
experience with tube radios, TV sets, and instrument amplifiers
is that the problem was caused by a passive component as often
as it was by a tube. That said, the tubes should be checked
first because they are so easy to replace. Even if the tubes are
brand new they still should be checked. If they were taken from
NOS (new old stock) there is a higher probability one is bad.

Unless you have a high quality vintage tube tester which is in

good operating condition the best way to test the tubes is by
substitution of tubes that are known to be good. There are two
conditions in which this should not be done. One is if the
amplifier is blowing fuses and the other is if one or more tubes
has a red hot glowing plate. In these two cases the known good
tubes may not be good after the test.

If the unit is blowing fuses and it has a rectifier tube, unplug

the tube and see if the fuse blowing continues. If it does the
most likely defect is a shorted power transformer. There is one
thing you should check before condemning the transformer. Check
to see if there are any shorts in the heater wiring or bypass
capacitors in the heater circuit. Check the capacitors for
shorts. If there are no capacitors unplug all the other tubes
making sure you know which tubes go where. If there are no
numbers imprinted on the chassis and you don't have a layout
drawing, make one so you don't get the tubes mixed up. Heater
shorts in a tube are rare but possible. If the amplifier still
blows fuses the power transformer is the culprit.

If unplugging the rectifier tube prevented fuse blowing then the

filter capacitors become the prime suspect. If the amplifier has
silicon diodes check the power supply capacitors and diodes.
Remember that a shorted diode is likely to be part of the
symptom rather than the cause. Check the capacitors at their
operating voltage before assuming the diodes are at fault.

Another way of testing the power supply is to unplug all of the

tubes and use the dim bulb test. Remember you can't possibly
burn out a 120 volt bulb by applying 120 volt line voltage to
it. Start with a low wattage bulb and move to higher wattages.
For full details on the dim bulb test refer to 9.1 Steps to
First Power on.

If the fuse doesn't blow immediately after the power switch is

turned on but the plate of one or both of the output tubes
begins to glow red hot and then the fuse blows the outputs are
drawing far too much current. In the case of a new design or kit
oscillation is a good possibility. This may be taking place at a
frequency above human hearing and will only be detectable with
an oscilloscope. The primary leads of the output transformer may
have been reversed turning negative feedback into positive
feedback. Be certain there are no oscillations going on before
proceeding.

Capacitors are the next suspect. If the amplifier uses cathode

bias a shorted or reversed cathode bypass capacitor may be at
fault. If fixed bias is used there may be a shorted or reversed
capacitor in the bias rectifier/filter circuit which is
preventing any negative bias from being applied. Shorted or even
leaky coupling capacitors from the plates of the driver tubes to
the control grids of the outputs could be applying a positive
voltage to the grids causing too much current to flow. If the
screen grid voltage is electronically regulated the regulator
may be defective allowing too much voltage on the screen grids.
This can cause too much plate current to flow.

If fuses are not being blown but the sound is week and distorted
coupling capacitors earlier in the circuit are suspect. Plate
load resistors which may be defective or the wrong value can
also cause this symptom.

If static testing does not reveal the problem it may be

necessary to disconnect the negative feedback and use signal
injection or signal tracing in conjunction with signal
substitution techniques to localize the defect. Be cautious when
negative feedback is disconnected. The overall gain of the
amplifier will be 10 times or more greater than it was with the
feedback connected. Oscillation is a possibility under these
conditions. Keep input and output leads separated as much as
possible and by all means use shielded cables between the
oscillator and input of the amplifier. Set the volume control on
the amplifier very low so the oscillator can be operated at a
higher level.

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10.3 Radio Receivers.

A communications or even a simple AM broadcast radio that has

never worked can be a difficult problem. There are all those
tuned circuits that have never been adjusted because the
receiver doesn't work.

The first step is to half split at the detector. In most

receivers the volume control is just after the detector. This is
usually true even in short wave or ham receivers. Inject an
audio signal at the top of the volume control and if you hear it
the trouble is in the RF or IF circuits. If you don't hear the
signal then the problem has been reduced to a simple audio
amplifier problem and should be easy to solve. Once you have the
audio working chances are you can align the IF and RF stages.

To troubleshoot and align the pre detector section an RF signal

generator is an absolute must. It might be possible to trouble
shoot without one but we are talking about a receiver that has
never worked and has not been aligned.

Some service shop RF signal generators such as those made by

Heath and Eico included DC blocking capacitors in the output.
Higher end generators do not have a blocking capacitor and one
should be added on the outside when making the following tests.
Use a coaxial cable with the appropriate connector on one end
and clip leads on the other. If you don't have one, make one.
Clip the ground lead to the chassis* and clip one lead of a
0.001 microfarad capacitor in the hot lead clip. Use the other
capacitor lead as a probe to make the tests.
* If the receiver being worked on is line operated and has no
power transformer, the chassis is connected to one side of the
power line. These radios, commonly known as All American Fives,
should only be worked on while powered from an isolation
transformer. Question. How did you get hold of an AA5 that has
never worked?

Tune the generator to the frequency of the IF and turn on the

modulation. Turn the generator's output up full or to 1 volt if
it goes higher than that. Touch the test lead to the collector
or plate of the last IF amplifier stage. You should hear a tone
in the speaker. If not, find out why because you should.

If you heard a tone move the probe to the base or grid of the
same amplifier stage. The tone should get much louder. Reduce
the output of the generator and tune the adjustment or
adjustments in the last IF transformer for maximum signal.

If the receiver is a simple tube type AM broadcast radio it most

likely has only one IF amplifier stage. If a transistor AM radio
it will have two IF stages. If it is a sophisticated
communications receiver it will have several IF amplifiers and
will likely be a double or triple conversion receiver. Work your
way back through the amplifiers following the same procedure.
Only align the transformer in the output of the amplifying
device while the generator is connected to the input of the
device. When you come to a mixer connect the probe to the plate
or collector to see if you are getting a signal through all
stages between there and the speaker.

Next check to see if the oscillator signal is present. If not,

find the problem and fix it. If so tune the signal generator to
the frequency of the preceding IF or if the receiver is single
conversion to the received band. Tune the generator around until
you hear it in the speaker. If this is a multi conversion
receiver and the IF is off frequency adjust the oscillator
frequency until it is correct. A transistor receiver may have
amplifying stages between the two mixers. A tube receiver most
likely will not.

As you work your way back through the receiver stages you will
be aligning the tuned circuits and upon arriving at the antenna
you may find the receiver is working properly. The alignment may
need a little touching up.

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10.4 Simple Test Equipment.

There is a problem with test equipment. To test and repair a

VOM, you need a working VOM. To test and repair an oscilloscope,
you need a working oscilloscope etc etc. Since the heading is
simple test equipment we will not try to repair oscilloscopes
and let's not even think about digital multimeters.

If the problem is a VOM the first question is, "Is it completely

dead or works on some ranges but not on others?" If the answer
is completely dead the chances are the meter movement is
defective. Unless you have the skills of a jeweler or watch
maker repairing the meter movement is beyond consideration.

If it works on all voltage and current ranges but not the

resistance ranges, check to see that batteries have been
installed.

If it works on some ranges but not on others the probabilities

point toward a wiring error or miss placed resistor. Since this
device has never worked the chances that you will see a cooked
resistor are small.

If the device is a VTVM or SSVM and it is completely dead check

to be sure the amplifier is getting voltage from its power
supply. Such meters have a rather complicated switching circuit
between the amplifier and meter movement to allow for measuring
negative voltages. Make sure this switch is wired correctly. If
the meter will not come into calibration on any of its ranges
check the amplifier for proper wiring and component values. If
it works on DC but not on AC check the AC to DC converter
(rectifier) for proper wiring and component values.

For simple things such as an RF probe the RF probe for the

Signal Tracer described in section 2.7 if one of the diodes were
to be installed backward there would be no output. For a wave
meter, not described in this text, if the meter moves backward
either reverse the diode or the connections to the meter
movement.