2023 - MTF12A - Lab Guide
2023 - MTF12A - Lab Guide
2023 - MTF12A - Lab Guide
NQF LEVEL: 5
CREDITS: 14
1. Module overview.............................................................................................3
2. EXPERIMENTS.....................................................……………………………….7
2.1 PRACTICAL 1 7
2.2 ASSIGNMENT 1 11
2.3 ASSIGNMENT 2 12
2.4 EXPERIMENT 2 15
2.5 ASSIGNMENT 3 17
2.6 EXPERIMENT 3 19
4. Safety............................................................................................................. 26
5. Practical report.............................................................................................27
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1. Module overview
This report must be handed in one week after completion of the practical for
evaluation. The total mark for all your reports and practical tests is 35% of the
course mark. An average of 50% for the practical mark must be obtained for
admission to the main evaluation
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2. EXPERIMENTS
2.1 EXPERIMENT 1
2.1.1 Aim:
To determine the energy transfer and the index of compression (γ and n) of air during
adiabatic and isothermal compressions, experimentally, and compare it with the
theoretical values.
2.1.2 Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of a gas cylinder with piston and lever, coupled to a computer
(see Fig 1 below).
Figure 1: Apparatus
The pressure, volume and temperature are measured with electronic sensors and the
output voltages are fed to the computer. The Microsoft Excel software captures the
development of the above-mentioned 3 properties, during compression or expansion of a
gas inside the cylinder, as a function of time. The “volume sensor” measures the
distance L exerted by the piston (that can be read off from the scale on the front of the
cylinder). The diameter of the piston is 4.43 cm.
Sensitive transducers in the setup measure the pressure, temperature, and volume of
the gas almost simultaneously as the gas is compressed or expanded rapidly under
nearly adiabatic conditions, or slowly under isothermal conditions. Analog signals from
the sensors are monitored by a three channel analog-to-digital data acquisition system
that is capable of collecting at least 50 data points per second in each channel
simultaneously. The interface connects to a computer workstation with the data
acquisition program that can collect data and plot graphs of pressure, volume, and
temperature
The apparatus is settled with a card that gives information about how to interpret the
output voltages from the pressure, temperature, and volume transducers.
Calibrations is given as:
• Pressure: The output voltage is:
P=98,77Vp+14,17 (kPa) (with Vp the pressure reading in volts)
• Temperature: The calibration equation provided assumes a logarithmic relationship
which is approximately correct.
T = 85,993*ln(Vt) + 342,29 (K) (with Vt the temperature reading volts)
• Volume: V = 2,849e-5 Vv + 9,6024e-5 (m3) (with Vv the volume reading in volts)
For some of the calculations only the initial and final volumes are needed. These can be
determined by reading the transparent scale located on the front of the cylinder. This
indicates the displacement of the piston which, when multiplied by the cross section
area, is the volume. The diameter of the piston is approximately 4.4 cm. Since for some
calculations the ratios of volumes are used, the displacements can be used in the
calculations instead of the actual volumes.
The real values of volume (V in cm3), pressure (P in kPa) and temperature (T in K) can
be obtained with the calibration formulas (from the Volt-readings (Vv, Vp and Vt) on the
oscilloscope:
Remember to add 1.05 cm3 to the volume arising from the extra space included by
the valves).
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2.1.3 Theory (partial):
Adiabatic compression:
A thermodynamic process performed without heat entering or leaving the system (dQ=0)
is defined as an adiabatic process. A process is considered adiabatic if either the
system is perfectly thermally insulated or the process occurs so rapidly that there is no
time for the system to exchange heat with the environment. According to the gas theory,
from the energy equation for a closed system Q = ΔU + W, we have Q = 0 (that means
ΔU = -W).
For any 2 values of the process curve on the P-V-diagram, we have
Work done during compression of the air from its initial state (pt 1) to its final state (pt 5)
Isothermal compression:
When a compression process happens very slow, there will be more than enough time
available for heat to transfer across the boundaries of the system (the piston and
cylinder walls). During this process the temperature should remain more or less
constant. We call it an isothermal compression (and expansion) and according to the gas
theory, from the energy equation for a closed system, Q = ΔU + W, we have ΔU = 0 (that
means Q = W).
For any 2 values of the process curve on the P-V-diagram, we have
Work done during compression of the air from its initial state (pt 1) to its final state (pt 5)
it follows that
so that
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2.1.4 Method:
1. The computer screen must show the typical oscilloscope picture (graph) in
Microsoft Excel, which should have been prepared by the lab-assistant.
2. Open the 2 valves on the bottom of the cylinder and move the lever between the
2 boundaries. Every time the lever moves past a point just below the upper
boundary, the oscilloscope’s measuring procedure is triggered (this corresponds
to an output voltage of 5 volt from the volume sensor).
3. Open the valves and fill the cylinder with air. Close both valves and practice a
few times to push the lever down:
a. Adiabatic compression – push the piston lever down rapidly so that the
process takes place within 0,5 seconds (watch the computer). Ignore
the measurement when lifting the lever to its upper position.
b. Isothermal compression – push down slowly so that the process takes
approximately 8 to 10 seconds (watch the computer so that the
temperature readings varies as little as possible). Ignore the
measurement when lifting the lever to its upper position.
4. Obtain one good set of curves for the volume, pressure and temperature within
the given time on the screen, and release the lever without further movement
(one for adiabatic and one for isothermal).
5. Read the voltages for volume (Vv), pressure (Vp) and temperature (Vt) for at least
5 different states (time readings) spaced more or less equally between the
beginning and the end of the curves (at least 5 sets each of adiabatic and
isothermal compression).
6. Tabulate the measured values (in Volts) and calculate the real volume, pressure
and temperature for each of the states with the given calibration formulas, in the
correct units
7. NB: Use the data that has been collected so far to complete assignments 1 and 2.
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2.1.5 ASSIGNMENT 1 - Isothermal
2.1.5.1 Aim:
To determine the compression indices (γ and n) of air during isothermal compression,
experimentally, and compare it with the theoretical values. To determine the energy
transfer during the compression of air.
2.1.5.2 Theory:
Give a summary of the theory on gas processes applied to the isothermal compression
and expansion processes. Give a summary of the theory on energy transfer applied to
the isothermal compression and expansion processes. Explain the principles and give
the applicable formulas (with P-V-diagrams) that will be used in the calculations that
follow. Make use of the relevant theories in the following literature and acknowledge
each source used:
Yunis A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala and Robert H. Turner, 2017,
FUNDAMENTALS OF Thermal-Fluid Sciences, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill.
Eastop, TD & McConkey, A, 1993, APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS FOR
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGISTS, 5TH Edition, Pearson Education Limited.
Yunis A. Cengel, and Michael A. Boles, 2011, THERMODYNAMICS: An
Engineering Approach: SI UNITS, 7th edition, McGraw-Hill.
Michael J. Moran and Howard N. Shapiro, 2012, FUNDAMENTALS OF
ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS, SI Version, 7TH Edition, Wiley.
2.1.5.3 Apparatus:
Give a brief description (schematic drawing) of the layout of the apparatus used for this
experiment, showing the different measuring points and devices.
2.1.5.4 Procedure:
Describe briefly what you have done during the execution of the experiment.
2.1.5.6 Calculations:
Show one set of all calculations and tabulate the rest.
Tabulate the calculated/converted values of volume (V), pressure (P) and temperature
(T) for the compression.
Determine the theoretical maximum and minimum Pressure based on the measured
maximum and minimum volume obtained from the visual inspection of the vertical
position of the piston and compare it to the maximum and minimum values measured
with the electronic sensors.
Calculate and tabulate from that, the log(P) and log(V) for compression. Draw a graph of
log(V) on the x-axis and log(P) on the y-axis. Calculate the gradient of the graph (m =
Δy/Δx), which should give the value of the compression index (γ or n). Compare the
experimental results with theoretical data from literature.
Calculate the work done during compression of the air from its initial state (pt 1) to its
final state (pt 5) by using the real values of the pressure and volumes.
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Determine also the value of the heat transfer and the change of internal energy for the
isothermal compression.
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2.1.5.7 Results:
Tabulate the final results of all calculations as well as the theoretical values for
comparison, where applicable.
2.1.6.1 Aim:
To determine the compression indices (γ and n) of air during adiabatic compression
experimentally and compare it with the theoretical values. To determine the energy
transfer during the compression of air.
2.1.6.2 Theory:
Give a summary of the theory on gas processes applied to the adiabatic compression
and expansion processes. Give a summary of the theory on energy transfer applied to
the adiabatic compression and expansion processes. Explain the principles and give the
applicable formulas (with P-V-diagrams) that will be used in the calculations that follow.
Make use of the relevant theories in the following literature and acknowledge each
source used:
Yunis A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala and Robert H. Turner, 2017,
FUNDAMENTALS OF Thermal-Fluid Sciences, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill.
Eastop, TD & McConkey, A, 1993, APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS FOR
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGISTS, 5TH Edition, Pearson Education Limited.
Yunis A. Cengel, and Michael A. Boles, 2011, THERMODYNAMICS: An
Engineering Approach: SI UNITS, 7th edition, McGraw-Hill.
Michael J. Moran and Howard N. Shapiro, 2012, FUNDAMENTALS OF
ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS, SI Version, 7TH Edition, Wiley.
2.1.6.3 Apparatus:
Give a brief description (schematic drawing) of the layout of the apparatus used for this
experiment, showing the different measuring points and devices.
2.1.6.4 Procedure:
Describe briefly what you have done during the execution of the experiment.
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2.1.6.5 Experimental Data:
Present the recorded, measured data of volumes, pressures and temperatures in tabular
format.
2.1.6.6 Calculations:
Show one set of all calculations and tabulate the rest.
Tabulate the calculated/converted values of volume (V), pressure (P) and temperature
(T) for the compression. Calculate and tabulate from that, the log(P) and log(V) for
compression. Draw a graph of log(V) on the x-axis and log(P) on the y-axis. Calculate
the gradient of the graph (m = Δy/Δx), which should give the value of the compression
index (γ or n). Compare the experimental results with theoretical data from literature.
Determine the theoretical maximum and minimum Pressure based on the measured
maximum and minimum volume obtained from the visual inspection of the vertical
position of the piston and compare it to the maximum and minimum values measured
with the electronic sensors.
Calculate the work done during compression of the air from its initial state (pt 1) to its
final state (pt 5) by using the real values of the pressure and volumes.
Determine also the value of the heat transfer and the change of internal energy for the
adiabatic compression.
2.1.6.7 Results:
Tabulate the final results of all calculations as well as the theoretical values for
comparison, where applicable.
2.1.7.1 Aim:
What was the aim of the other group’s assignment
2.1.7.2 Theory:
Summarize the theory on the other assignment and explain the differences between the
theories on the report your group completed. Give the summary of the theory on gas
processes applied to the compression and expansion processes, on energy transfer
applied to the processes. Explain the principles and give the applicable formulas (with P-
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V-diagrams) that should be used in the calculations.
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2.1.7.3 Results:
Tabulate the other group’s final results of calculations. Provide graphs to explain the
calculated data.
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2.2 EXPERIMENT 2
2.2.1 Aim:
To determine the dryness fraction of steam by using the combined separating-and-
throttling calorimeter.
2.2.2 Theory:
The condition (or quality) of wet steam is defined by knowing the dryness fraction, which
can be measured with calorimeters:
B) Throttling Calorimeter: If wet steam with a high dryness fraction (x > 0.94)
experiences a pressure drop across a throttling orifice, it will turn into superheated
steam. The superheated steam is thus at a lower pressure P3 and temperature T3 than
wet steam before throttling (where the pressure P 2 = P1). The fact that the enthalpy
before throttling is equal to the enthalpy after throttling, enables one to calculate the
dryness fraction:
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A) Combined Separating-and-Throttling Calorimeter: It has been found that the “dry
steam” that passes through the top exit of the separating calorimeter, is not perfectly dry,
but still contains a small amount of water droplets. Therefore, if the throttling calorimeter
is used in series with the separating calorimeter, placing it just after the exit of the
separating calorimeter so that almost dry steam is entering the throttling calorimeter, a
more accurate value of dryness fraction can be obtained. The condenser is moved
further down the line so that it still enables the determination of the mass of the dry
steam (now superheated) for the calculation of x0 from the separating calorimeter. The
dryness fraction (x1) as determined with the throttling calorimeter, is then a fraction of the
dryness fraction (x0) as determined with the separating calorimeter, so that the actual,
real dryness fraction
(x) from a test plant can be calculated with
2.2.2.1 Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of the combined separating-and-throttling calorimeter as well as
the condenser on the mini steam plant test bed. The steam is supplied from the main
steam pipe (covered in silver-painted insulation) through the upper tap. The collected
water in the separating calorimeter can be drained with the tap on its bottom, while the
tap to its right provides an alternative path (bypass) for steam during the warm-up
period. The remaining steam through the throttling calorimeter is fed to the condenser
(green cylinder) from where it drips out as water. The tap below the condenser controls
the flow of cooling water through the condenser (leave it open).
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2.2.2.2 Method:
Make sure that all taps at the separating calorimeter are closed before starting the
experiment. See that the supply water against the wall, as well as the condenser tap, is
open so that cooling water can flow through the condenser. Firstly, open the bypass tap
of the separating calorimeter and afterwards the upper (steam inlet) tap from the main
steam pipe. Allow the steam to flow freely through the separating calorimeter for ± 30
seconds to get hot, and then close both taps. Place a glass beaker under the separating
calorimeter and allow all water and steam to flow out. Close the bottom tap and throw
away the water collected in the glass beaker. Determine the mass of the 2 empty glass
beakers (mb) with the electronic balance. Place one beaker under the bottom tap of the
separating calorimeter and the other beaker under the outlet tube of the condenser.
Slowly open the inlet steam tap from the steam main pipe to allow steam to flow through
both calorimeters. Keep on with the experiment until ± 100 ml of water has been
collected in the beaker under the condenser. During this period, the following
measurements must be taken:
When the required amount of water has been collected in the glass beaker under the
condenser, the upper (steam inlet) tap can be closed. Wait until the pressure in the
manometer has returned to 0 before the bottom tap is opened to collect the water in the
separating calorimeter. If no more condensate flows out of the condenser, the masses of
the 2 glass beakers with their water content (m t1 and mt2) must be measured on the
electronic balance. Determine then:
Determine the atmospheric pressure from the barometer against the wall of the
laboratory by measuring the difference in height between the mercury levels in the left-
and right-leg of the U-tube (in mm). Calculate the atmospheric pressure (Patm = ρgh) and
remember to correct all the measured pressures (gauge pressure, Pg) to absolute
pressures (Pabs = Pg
+ Patm).
2.2.3 ASSIGNMENT 3
2.2.3.1 Aim:
To calculate the dryness fraction of steam with the measured values from the combined
separating-and-throttling calorimeters, and with the aid of steam tables and the steam
chart
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2.2.3.2 Theory:
Give a summary of the theory on the dryness fraction of wet steam as well as the
operation of steam calorimeters. Explain the principles and give the
applicable formulas (with P-V-diagrams) that will be used in the
calculations that follow in the Results-paragraph. Make use of the
relevant theories in the following literature and acknowledge each source
used.
Yunis A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala and Robert H. Turner, 2017,
FUNDAMENTALS OF Thermal-Fluid Sciences, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill.
Eastop, TD & McConkey, A, 1993, APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS FOR
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGISTS, 5TH Edition, Pearson Education Limited.
Rayner Joel, 1996, BASIC ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS, 5TH Edition,
Addison Wesley Longman Limited.
2.2.3.3 Apparatus:
Give a brief description (schematic drawing) of the layout of the apparatus used for this
experiment, showing the different measuring points and devices.
2.2.3.4 Procedure:
Describe briefly what you have done during the execution of the experiment.
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2.3 EXPERIMENT 3
2.3.1 Aim:
To investigate the validity of Bernoulli’s theorem as applied to the flow of water in a
tapering circular duet.
2.3.2 Theory:
2.3.3 Apparatus:
Hydraulic bench
Bernoulli apparatus
Stop watch
Measuring cylinder
2.3.4 Procedure:
1. Connect the apparatus to the hydraulic bench. Level the apparatus with the
adjusting feet.
2. Close the delivery valve on the hydraulic bench. Switch on the pump. Open the
flow control valve on the apparatus slightly. Open the delivery valve on the
hydraulic bench to fill the manometer tubes with water.
3. Ensure that all connecting pipes and manometer tubes are free from air bubbles.
4. Carefully adjust the two valves to give the largest convenient difference between
the highest and lowest manometer levels. To enable the manometer levels to be
lowered by means of a hand pump connected to the Schrader air valve.
5. The levels in the manometers may be adjusted to a convenient position by
closing the flow control valve slightly. Carefully adjust the two valves to give the
largest convenient difference between the highest and lowest manometer levels
6. Take the reading on every manometer tube (h).
7. Take three readings of time for a certain volume of water. Use a measuring
cylinder and a stop watch to determine the flow rate through the venturi. Take at
least three times the time taken to fill the measuring cylinder
8. Repeat the experiment for two other flow rates.
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2.3.5 Data, Calculations, Results:
Determine and tabulate the measured and calculated values as follow: (3 tables, one for
each set)
2.4.1 Aim:
To investigate the validity
of the formulae for
resultant force on and
position of, center of
pressure on a vertical
rectangular surface.
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2.4.3 Apparatus:
Hydrostatic Pressure apparatus with loose weights.
Counterbalance
weight
Flat surface
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PARTIAL IMMERSION:
d
y Water
COMPLETE IMMERSION:
Water
y
d
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2.4.4 Procedure:
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3. Laboratory and practicum rules:
3. Students must prepare prior to the lab session by reading the laboratory manual and
completing all assigned pre-laboratory work for the experiments.
5. Laboratory overcoats and closed shoes must be worn during each session. No
open shoes are allowed in the laboratory.
6. Do not commence with the practical session or handle any laboratory equipment
without supervision! Handle all apparatus with care to keep it in a perfect condition.
7. Students must actively participate in performing the experiments, and should also
take an active role in writing all extra information provided during laboratory work.
10. Although practical sessions are done in a group, it is expected that every student
must hand in his own work (unless otherwise stated). All students participating in
duplication (copying someone else’s work) will be automatically disqualified for
that practical session. Dishonesty will be reported to the Disciplinary Committee and
could lead to permanent suspension from CUT.
11. Late submittal penalties - Unless an extension has been sought and granted, late
assignments will be penalized when marking. The penalty rate will be -20% if late but
still handed in on same day. No assignments will be accepted after the submission
date! Therefore, it is in your interest to aim to complete the work before the due date.
13. The Practical mark makes up 35% of the semester course mark.
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4. Safety
Close attention should be given to all aspects of safety throughout training, and the
highest possible standards insisted upon. There is a special need to emphasize the
fundamental safety rules of behaviour, dress and practice when students enters a
laboratory. Instructors have a particular responsibility to set a good example and to
check without delay any departure from safe working practices by students. Individual
responsibilities in respect of the safety of all persons in the laboratory must be clearly
understood by everyone. It is essential to develop safe working habits.
4.1.1 What to do
Think before you act.
Ask if in any doubt.
Help to keep gangways clear.
Keep your bench and working area tidy.
Find out the position and type of fire appliances available.
Report all accidents to your supervisor
IN CASE OF EMERGENCY:
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5. Practical report
Front Page: Use the “Assignment Submittal & Identification” form provided in this guide
for each report.
Inner pages of Report: All data, sketches, explanations and calculations. For reports
submitted through ethuto, calculations must be done by hand, scanned and added to the
final report. Graphs can be presented on graph paper. Note the evaluation summary are
items that should be in the report layout (by that order).
1. Aim
Aim of the experiment/practical/assignment.
2. Summary of Theory
Summary of the underlying theory, which you must present in your own words after
searching in the relevant literature (provide references).
4. Procedure
A short description, in your own words, of the experimental procedure.
7. Results
Results or final values must be presented again in tabular form (with experimental
data) to compare where possible (all data, experimental and calculated)
8. Conclusion
Interpretation, discussion, remarks on some interesting observations, questions, etc.
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6. Practical/Assignment Submittal and Identification Sheet
RESULT%
Student number(s):
Module code: M T F 1 2 A
Graduate None 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Attribute (GA)
assessment: X
Practical/Assignment
number:
Group number:
Due date: 2 0 2 1 M M D D
Lecturer:
Signed:
Date:
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