Chapter 12: Indexing and Hashing Basic Concepts

! Indexing mechanisms used to speed up access to desired data.

! Basic Concepts
" E.g., author catalog in library
! Ordered Indices
! Search Key - attribute to set of attributes used to look up
! B+-Tree Index Files records in a file.
! B-Tree Index Files ! An index file consists of records (called index entries) of the
! Static Hashing form
! Dynamic Hashing search-key pointer

! Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing

! Index files are typically much smaller than the original file
! Index Definition in SQL
! Two basic kinds of indices:
! Multiple-Key Access
" Ordered indices: search keys are stored in sorted order
" Hash indices: search keys are distributed uniformly across
“buckets” using a “hash function”.

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Index Evaluation Metrics Ordered Indices

! Access types supported efficiently. E.g., Indexing techniques evaluated on basis of:
" records with a specified value in the attribute ! In an ordered index, index entries are stored sorted on the
search key value. E.g., author catalog in library.
" or records with an attribute value falling in a specified range of
values. ! Primary index: in a sequentially ordered file, the index whose
search key specifies the sequential order of the file.
! Access time
" Also called clustering index
! Insertion time
" The search key of a primary index is usually but not necessarily the
! Deletion time primary key.
! Space overhead ! Secondary index: an index whose search key specifies an order
different from the sequential order of the file. Also called
non-clustering index.
! Index-sequential file: ordered sequential file with a primary index.

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 Dense Index Files Sparse Index Files

! Dense index — Index record appears for every search-key value ! Sparse Index: contains index records for only some search-key
in the file. values.
" Applicable when records are sequentially ordered on search-key
! To locate a record with search-key value K we:
" Find index record with largest search-key value < K
" Search file sequentially starting at the record to which the index
record points
! Less space and less maintenance overhead for insertions and
deletions.
! Generally slower than dense index for locating records.
! Good tradeoff: sparse index with an index entry for every block in
file, corresponding to least search-key value in the block.

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Example of Sparse Index Files Multilevel Index

! If primary index does not fit in memory, access becomes

expensive.
! To reduce number of disk accesses to index records, treat
primary index kept on disk as a sequential file and construct a
sparse index on it.
" outer index – a sparse index of primary index
" inner index – the primary index file
! If even outer index is too large to fit in main memory, yet another
level of index can be created, and so on.
! Indices at all levels must be updated on insertion or deletion from
the file.

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 Multilevel Index (Cont.) Index Update: Deletion

! If deleted record was the only record in the file with its particular
search-key value, the search-key is deleted from the index also.
! Single-level index deletion:
" Dense indices – deletion of search-key is similar to file record
deletion.
" Sparse indices – if an entry for the search key exists in the index, it
is deleted by replacing the entry in the index with the next search-
key value in the file (in search-key order). If the next search-key
value already has an index entry, the entry is deleted instead of
being replaced.

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Index Update: Insertion Secondary Indices

! Single-level index insertion:

! Frequently, one wants to find all the records whose
" Perform a lookup using the search-key value appearing in the values in a certain field (which is not the search-key of
record to be inserted. the primary index satisfy some condition.
" Dense indices – if the search-key value does not appear in the " Example 1: In the account database stored sequentially
index, insert it. by account number, we may want to find all accounts in a
" Sparse indices – if index stores an entry for each block of the file, no particular branch
change needs to be made to the index unless a new block is " Example 2: as above, but where we want to find all
created. In this case, the first search-key value appearing in the accounts with a specified balance or range of balances
new block is inserted into the index.
! We can have a secondary index with an index record
! Multilevel insertion (as well as deletion) algorithms are simple
for each search-key value; index record points to a
extensions of the single-level algorithms bucket that contains pointers to all the actual records
with that particular search-key value.

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 Secondary Index on balance field of Primary and Secondary Indices
account
! Secondary indices have to be dense.
! Indices offer substantial benefits when searching for records.
! When a file is modified, every index on the file must be updated,
Updating indices imposes overhead on database modification.
! Sequential scan using primary index is efficient, but a sequential
scan using a secondary index is expensive
" each record access may fetch a new block from disk

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B+-Tree Index Files B+-Tree Index Files (Cont.)

B+-tree indices are an alternative to indexed-sequential files.

A B+-tree is a rooted tree satisfying the following properties:
! Disadvantage of indexed-sequential files: performance
! All paths from root to leaf are of the same length
degrades as file grows, since many overflow blocks get
created. Periodic reorganization of entire file is required. ! Each node that is not a root or a leaf has between [n/2] and
n children.
! Advantage of B+-tree index files: automatically reorganizes
itself with small, local, changes, in the face of insertions and ! A leaf node has between [(n–1)/2] and n–1 values
deletions. Reorganization of entire file is not required to ! Special cases:
maintain performance. " If the root is not a leaf, it has at least 2 children.
! Disadvantage of B+-trees:
extra insertion and deletion " If the root is a leaf (that is, there are no other nodes in the
overhead, space overhead. tree), it can have between 0 and (n–1) values.
! Advantages of B+-trees outweigh disadvantages, and they are
used extensively.

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 B+-Tree Node Structure Leaf Nodes in B+-Trees

! Typical node
Properties of a leaf node:
! For i = 1, 2, . . ., n–1, pointer Pi either points to a file record with
search-key value Ki, or to a bucket of pointers to file records,
each record having search-key value Ki. Only need bucket
" Ki are the search-key values structure if search-key does not form a primary key.
" Pi are pointers to children (for non-leaf nodes) or pointers to records ! If Li, Lj are leaf nodes and i < j, Li’s search-key values are less
or buckets of records (for leaf nodes). than Lj’s search-key values
! The search-keys in a node are ordered ! Pn points to next leaf node in search-key order
K1 < K2 < K3 < . . . < Kn–1

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Non-Leaf Nodes in B+-Trees Example of a B+-tree

! Non leaf nodes form a multi-level sparse index on the leaf nodes.
For a non-leaf node with m pointers:
" All the search-keys in the subtree to which P1 points are less than K1
" For 2 ≤ i ≤ n – 1, all the search-keys in the subtree to which Pi points
have values greater than or equal to Ki–1 and less than Km–1

B+-tree for account file (n = 3)

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 Example of B+-tree Observations about B+-trees

! Since the inter-node connections are done by pointers, “logically”

close blocks need not be “physically” close.
! The non-leaf levels of the B+-tree form a hierarchy of sparse
indices.
! The B+-tree contains a relatively small number of levels
(logarithmic in the size of the main file), thus searches can be
conducted efficiently.
B+-tree for account file (n - 5)
! Insertions and deletions to the main file can be handled
efficiently, as the index can be restructured in logarithmic time
! Leaf nodes must have between 2 and 4 values
(as we shall see).
(!(n–1)/2" and n –1, with n = 5).
! Non-leaf nodes other than root must have between 3
and 5 children (!(n/2" and n with n =5).
! Root must have at least 2 children.

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Queries on B+-Trees Queries on B+-Trees (Cont.)

! Find all records with a search-key value of k. ! In processing a query, a path is traversed in the tree from
1. Start with the root node the root to some leaf node.
1. Examine the node for the smallest search-key value > k. ! If there are K search-key values in the file, the path is no
2. If such a value exists, assume it is Kj. Then follow Pi to the longer than ! log!n/2"(K)".
child node ! A node is generally the same size as a disk block,
3. Otherwise k ≥ Km–1, where there are m pointers in the typically 4 kilobytes, and n is typically around 100 (40
node. Then follow Pm to the child node. bytes per index entry).
2. If the node reached by following the pointer above is not a leaf ! With 1 million search key values and n = 100, at most
node, repeat the above procedure on the node, and follow the log50(1,000,000) = 4 nodes are accessed in a lookup.
corresponding pointer.
! Contrast this with a balanced binary free with 1 million
3. Eventually reach a leaf node. If for some i, key Ki = k follow
pointer Pi to the desired record or bucket. Else no record with search key values — around 20 nodes are accessed in a
search-key value k exists. lookup
" above difference is significant since every node access
may need a disk I/O, costing around 20 milliseconds!

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 Updates on B+-Trees: Insertion Updates on B+-Trees: Insertion (Cont.)

! Find the leaf node in which the search-key value would appear ! Splitting a node:
! If the search-key value is already there in the leaf node, record is " take the n(search-key value, pointer) pairs (including the one being
added to file and if necessary a pointer is inserted into the inserted) in sorted order. Place the first ! n/2 " in the original node,
bucket. and the rest in a new node.
" let the new node be p, and let k be the least key value in p. Insert
! If the search-key value is not there, then add the record to the
(k,p) in the parent of the node being split. If the parent is full, split it
main file and create a bucket if necessary. Then: and propagate the split further up.
" If there is room in the leaf node, insert (key-value, pointer) pair in the
! The splitting of nodes proceeds upwards till a node that is not full
leaf node
is found. In the worst case the root node may be split increasing
" Otherwise, split the node (along with the new (key-value, pointer) the height of the tree by 1.
entry) as discussed in the next slide.

Result of splitting node containing Brighton and Downtown on

inserting Clearview

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Updates on B+-Trees: Insertion (Cont.) Updates on B+-Trees: Deletion

! Find the record to be deleted, and remove it from the

main file and from the bucket (if present)
! Remove (search-key value, pointer) from the leaf node
if there is no bucket or if the bucket has become empty
! If the node has too few entries due to the removal, and
the entries in the node and a sibling fit into a single
node, then
" Insert all the search-key values in the two nodes into a
single node (the one on the left), and delete the other
node.
" Delete the pair (Ki–1, Pi), where Pi is the pointer to the
deleted node, from its parent, recursively using the
above procedure.

B+-Tree before and after insertion of “Clearview”

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 Updates on B+-Trees: Deletion Examples of B+-Tree Deletion

! Otherwise, if the node has too few entries due to the removal,
and the entries in the node and a sibling fit into a single node,
then
" Redistribute the pointers between the node and a sibling such that
both have more than the minimum number of entries.
" Update the corresponding search-key value in the parent of the
node.
! The node deletions may cascade upwards till a node which has
!n/2 " or more pointers is found. If the root node has only one
pointer after deletion, it is deleted and the sole child becomes the
root.

Before and after deleting “Downtown”

! The removal of the leaf node containing “Downtown” did not
result in its parent having too little pointers. So the cascaded
deletions stopped with the deleted leaf node’s parent.

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Examples of B+-Tree Deletion (Cont.) Example of B+-tree Deletion (Cont.)

Deletion of “Perryridge” from result of previous example

! Node with “Perryridge” becomes underfull (actually empty, in this special case)
and merged with its sibling. Before and after deletion of “Perryridge” from earlier example
! As a result “Perryridge” node’s parent became underfull, and was merged with its ! Parent of leaf containing Perryridge became underfull, and borrowed a
sibling (and an entry was deleted from their parent) pointer from its left sibling
! Root node then had only one child, and was deleted and its child became the new
root node ! Search-key value in the parent’s parent changes as a result
Database System Concepts 12.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 B+-Tree File Organization B+-Tree File Organization (Cont.)

! Index file degradation problem is solved by using B+-Tree

indices. Data file degradation problem is solved by using
B+-Tree File Organization.
! The leaf nodes in a B+-tree file organization store records,
instead of pointers.
! Since records are larger than pointers, the maximum
number of records that can be stored in a leaf node is less
than the number of pointers in a nonleaf node.
! Leaf nodes are still required to be half full. Example of B+-tree File Organization
! Insertion and deletion are handled in the same way as
! Good space utilization important since records use more space than
insertion and deletion of entries in a B+-tree index. pointers.
! To improve space utilization, involve more sibling nodes in redistribution
during splits and merges
" Involving 2 siblings in redistribution (to avoid split / merge where possible)
results in each node having at least #2n / 3$ entries

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B-Tree Index Files B-Tree Index File Example

! Similar to B+-tree, but B-tree allows search-key values to
appear only once; eliminates redundant storage of search
keys.
! Search keys in nonleaf nodes appear nowhere else in the B-
tree; an additional pointer field for each search key in a
nonleaf node must be included.
! Generalized B-tree leaf node

B-tree (above) and B+-tree (below) on same data

! Nonleaf node – pointers Bi are the bucket or file record

pointers.

Database System Concepts 12.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 B-Tree Index Files (Cont.) Static Hashing
! Advantages of B-Tree indices:
! A bucket is a unit of storage containing one or more records (a
" May use less tree nodes than a corresponding B+-Tree.
bucket is typically a disk block).
" Sometimes possible to find search-key value before reaching leaf
node. ! In a hash file organization we obtain the bucket of a record
directly from its search-key value using a hash function.
! Disadvantages of B-Tree indices:
! Hash function h is a function from the set of all search-key
" Only small fraction of all search-key values are found early
values K to the set of all bucket addresses B.
" Non-leaf nodes are larger, so fan-out is reduced. Thus B-Trees
typically have greater depth than corresponding ! Hash function is used to locate records for access, insertion as
B+-Tree well as deletion.
" Insertion and deletion more complicated than in B+-Trees ! Records with different search-key values may be mapped to
" Implementation is harder than B+-Trees. the same bucket; thus entire bucket has to be searched
sequentially to locate a record.
! Typically, advantages of B-Trees do not out weigh disadvantages.

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Example of Hash File Organization (Cont.) Example of Hash File Organization

Hash file organization of account file, using branch-name as key
(see previous slide for details).
Hash file organization of account file, using branch-name as key
(See figure in next slide.)

! There are 10 buckets,

! The binary representation of the ith character is assumed to
be the integer i.
! The hash function returns the sum of the binary
representations of the characters modulo 10
" E.g. h(Perryridge) = 5 h(Round Hill) = 3 h(Brighton) = 3

Database System Concepts 12.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Hash Functions Handling of Bucket Overflows
! Worst has function maps all search-key values to the same ! Bucket overflow can occur because of
bucket; this makes access time proportional to the number of " Insufficient buckets
search-key values in the file. " Skew in distribution of records. This can occur due to two
! An ideal hash function is uniform, i.e., each bucket is assigned reasons:
the same number of search-key values from the set of all ! multiple records have same search-key value
possible values. ! chosen hash function produces non-uniform distribution of key
! Ideal hash function is random, so each bucket will have the values
same number of records assigned to it irrespective of the actual ! Although the probability of bucket overflow can be reduced, it
distribution of search-key values in the file. cannot be eliminated; it is handled by using overflow buckets.
! Typical hash functions perform computation on the internal
binary representation of the search-key.
" For example, for a string search-key, the binary representations of
all the characters in the string could be added and the sum modulo
the number of buckets could be returned. .

Database System Concepts 12.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Handling of Bucket Overflows (Cont.) Hash Indices

! Overflow chaining – the overflow buckets of a given bucket are
chained together in a linked list. ! Hashing can be used not only for file organization, but also for
index-structure creation.
! Above scheme is called closed hashing.
! A hash index organizes the search keys, with their associated
" An alternative, called open hashing, which does not use overflow
record pointers, into a hash file structure.
buckets, is not suitable for database applications.
! Strictly speaking, hash indices are always secondary indices
" if the file itself is organized using hashing, a separate primary hash
index on it using the same search-key is unnecessary.
" However, we use the term hash index to refer to both secondary
index structures and hash organized files.

Database System Concepts 12.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example of Hash Index Deficiencies of Static Hashing
! In static hashing, function h maps search-key values to a fixed
set of B of bucket addresses.
" Databases grow with time. If initial number of buckets is too small,
performance will degrade due to too much overflows.
" If file size at some point in the future is anticipated and number of
buckets allocated accordingly, significant amount of space will be
wasted initially.
" If database shrinks, again space will be wasted.
" One option is periodic re-organization of the file with a new hash
function, but it is very expensive.
! These problems can be avoided by using techniques that allow
the number of buckets to be modified dynamically.

Database System Concepts 12.45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Dynamic Hashing General Extendable Hash Structure

! Good for database that grows and shrinks in size
! Allows the hash function to be modified dynamically
! Extendable hashing – one form of dynamic hashing
" Hash function generates values over a large range — typically b-bit
integers, with b = 32.
" At any time use only a prefix of the hash function to index into a
table of bucket addresses.
" Let the length of the prefix be i bits, 0 ≤ i ≤ 32.
" Bucket address table size = 2i. Initially i = 0
" Value of i grows and shrinks as the size of the database grows and
shrinks.
" Multiple entries in the bucket address table may point to a bucket.
" Thus, actual number of buckets is < 2i
! The number of buckets also changes dynamically due to
coalescing and splitting of buckets. In this structure, i2 = i3 = i, whereas i1 = i – 1 (see
next slide for details)

Database System Concepts 12.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Use of Extendable Hash Structure Updates in Extendable Hash Structure
! Each bucket j stores a value ij; all the entries that point to the To split a bucket j when inserting record with search-key value Kj:
same bucket have the same values on the first ij bits. ! If i > ij (more than one pointer to bucket j)
! To locate the bucket containing search-key Kj: " allocate a new bucket z, and set ij and iz to the old ij -+ 1.
1. Compute h(Kj) = X " make the second half of the bucket address table entries pointing
2. Use the first i high order bits of X as a displacement into bucket to j to point to z
address table, and follow the pointer to appropriate bucket " remove and reinsert each record in bucket j.
! To insert a record with search-key value Kj " recompute new bucket for Kj and insert record in the bucket (further
" follow same procedure as look-up and locate the bucket, say j. splitting is required if the bucket is still full)

" If there is room in the bucket j insert record in the bucket. ! If i = ij (only one pointer to bucket j)
" Else the bucket must be split and insertion re-attempted (next slide.) " increment i and double the size of the bucket address table.
! Overflow buckets used instead in some cases (will see shortly) " replace each entry in the table by two entries that point to the same
bucket.
" recompute new bucket address table entry for Kj
Now i > ij so use the first case above.

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Updates in Extendable Hash Structure Use of Extendable Hash Structure:

(Cont.) Example
! When inserting a value, if the bucket is full after several splits
(that is, i reaches some limit b) create an overflow bucket instead
of splitting bucket entry table further.
! To delete a key value,
" locate it in its bucket and remove it.
" The bucket itself can be removed if it becomes empty (with
appropriate updates to the bucket address table).
" Coalescing of buckets can be done (can coalesce only with a
“buddy” bucket having same value of ij and same ij –1 prefix, if it is
present)
" Decreasing bucket address table size is also possible
! Note: decreasing bucket address table size is an expensive
operation and should be done only if number of buckets becomes
much smaller than the size of the table

Initial Hash structure, bucket size = 2

Database System Concepts 12.51 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.52 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example (Cont.) Example (Cont.)
Hash structure after insertion of Mianus record
! Hash structure after insertion of one Brighton and two Downtown
records

Database System Concepts 12.53 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.54 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Example (Cont.) Example (Cont.)

! Hash structure after insertion of Redwood and Round Hill

records

Hash structure after insertion of three Perryridge records

Database System Concepts 12.55 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.56 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Extendable Hashing vs. Other Schemes Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing

! Benefits of extendable hashing: ! Cost of periodic re-organization

" Hash performance does not degrade with growth of file ! Relative frequency of insertions and deletions
" Minimal space overhead ! Is it desirable to optimize average access time at the expense of
! Disadvantages of extendable hashing worst-case access time?
" Extra level of indirection to find desired record ! Expected type of queries:
" Bucket address table may itself become very big (larger than " Hashing is generally better at retrieving records having a specified
memory) value of the key.
! Need a tree structure to locate desired record in the structure! " If range queries are common, ordered indices are to be preferred
" Changing size of bucket address table is an expensive operation
! Linear hashing is an alternative mechanism which avoids these
disadvantages at the possible cost of more bucket overflows

Database System Concepts 12.57 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.58 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Index Definition in SQL Multiple-Key Access

! Use multiple indices for certain types of queries.
! Create an index ! Example:
create index <index-name> or <relation-name> select account-number
<attribute-list>)
from account
E.g.: create index b-index on branch(branch-name)
where branch-name = “Perryridge” and balance - 1000
! Use create unique index to indirectly specify and enforce the
! Possible strategies for processing query using indices on
condition that the search key is a candidate key is a candidate
key. single attributes:
1. Use index on branch-name to find accounts with balances of
" Not really required if SQL unique integrity constraint is supported
$1000; test branch-name = “Perryridge”.
! To drop an index 2. Use index on balance to find accounts with balances of $1000;
drop index <index-name> test branch-name = “Perryridge”.
3. Use branch-name index to find pointers to all records pertaining to
the Perryridge branch. Similarly use index on balance. Take
intersection of both sets of pointers obtained.

Database System Concepts 12.59 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.60 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Indices on Multiple Attributes Grid Files
Suppose we have an index on combined search-key ! Structure used to speed the processing of general multiple
(branch-name, balance). search-key queries involving one or more comparison
! With the where clause operators.
where branch-name = “Perryridge” and balance = 1000 ! The grid file has a single grid array and one linear scale for
the index on the combined search-key will fetch only records each search-key attribute. The grid array has number of
that satisfy both conditions. dimensions equal to number of search-key attributes.
Using separate indices in less efficient — we may fetch many
! Multiple cells of grid array can point to same bucket
records (or pointers) that satisfy only one of the conditions.
! To find the bucket for a search-key value, locate the row and
! Can also efficiently handle
column of its cell using the linear scales and follow pointer
where branch-name - “Perryridge” and balance < 1000
! But cannot efficiently handle
where branch-name < “Perryridge” and balance = 1000
May fetch many records that satisfy the first but not the
second condition.

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Example Grid File for account Queries on a Grid File

! A grid file on two attributes A and B can handle queries of all

following forms with reasonable efficiency
" (a1 ≤ A ≤ a2)
" (b1 ≤ B ≤ b2)
" (a1 ≤ A ≤ a2 ∧ b1 ≤ B ≤ b2),.
! E.g., to answer (a1 ≤ A ≤ a2 ∧ b1 ≤ B ≤ b2), use linear scales to
find corresponding candidate grid array cells, and look up all the
buckets pointed to from those cells.

Database System Concepts 12.63 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan Database System Concepts 12.64 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Grid Files (Cont.) Bitmap Indices
! During insertion, if a bucket becomes full, new bucket can be ! Bitmap indices are a special type of index designed for efficient
created if more than one cell points to it. querying on multiple keys
" Idea similar to extendable hashing, but on multiple dimensions
! Records in a relation are assumed to be numbered sequentially
" If only one cell points to it, either an overflow bucket must be from, say, 0
created or the grid size must be increased
" Given a number n it must be easy to retrieve record n
! Linear scales must be chosen to uniformly distribute records
! Particularly easy if records are of fixed size
across cells.
! Applicable on attributes that take on a relatively small number of
" Otherwise there will be too many overflow buckets.
distinct values
! Periodic re-organization to increase grid size will help.
" E.g. gender, country, state, …
" But reorganization can be very expensive. " E.g. income-level (income broken up into a small number of levels
! Space overhead of grid array can be high. such as 0-9999, 10000-19999, 20000-50000, 50000- infinity)
! R-trees (Chapter 23) are an alternative ! A bitmap is simply an array of bits

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Bitmap Indices (Cont.) Bitmap Indices (Cont.)

! In its simplest form a bitmap index on an attribute has a bitmap ! Bitmap indices are useful for queries on multiple attributes
for each value of the attribute " not particularly useful for single attribute queries
" Bitmap has as many bits as records ! Queries are answered using bitmap operations
" In a bitmap for value v, the bit for a record is 1 if the record has the " Intersection (and)
value v for the attribute, and is 0 otherwise
" Union (or)
" Complementation (not)
! Each operation takes two bitmaps of the same size and applies
the operation on corresponding bits to get the result bitmap
" E.g. 100110 AND 110011 = 100010
100110 OR 110011 = 110111
NOT 100110 = 011001
" Males with income level L1: 10010 AND 10100 = 10000
! Can then retrieve required tuples.
! Counting number of matching tuples is even faster

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 Bitmap Indices (Cont.) Efficient Implementation of Bitmap Operations

! Bitmap indices generally very small compared with relation size ! Bitmaps are packed into words; a single word and (a basic CPU
" E.g. if record is 100 bytes, space for a single bitmap is 1/800 of space
instruction) computes and of 32 or 64 bits at once
used by relation. " E.g. 1-million-bit maps can be anded with just 31,250 instruction
! If number of distinct attribute values is 8, bitmap is only 1% of ! Counting number of 1s can be done fast by a trick:
relation size " Use each byte to index into a precomputed array of 256 elements
each storing the count of 1s in the binary representation
! Deletion needs to be handled properly
! Can use pairs of bytes to speed up further at a higher memory
" Existence bitmap to note if there is a valid record at a record location cost
" Needed for complementation " Add up the retrieved counts
! not(A=v): (NOT bitmap-A-v) AND ExistenceBitmap ! Bitmaps can be used instead of Tuple-ID lists at leaf levels of
! Should keep bitmaps for all values, even null value B+-trees, for values that have a large number of matching
records
" To correctly handle SQL null semantics for NOT(A=v):
" Worthwhile if > 1/64 of the records have that value, assuming a
! intersect above result with (NOT bitmap-A-Null) tuple-id is 64 bits
" Above technique merges benefits of bitmap and B+-tree indices

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Partitioned Hashing
! Hash values are split into segments that depend on each
attribute of the search-key.
(A1, A2, . . . , An) for n attribute search-key
! Example: n = 2, for customer, search-key being
(customer-street, customer-city)
search-key value hash value
End of Chapter (Main, Harrison) 101 111
(Main, Brooklyn) 101 001
(Park, Palo Alto) 010 010
(Spring, Brooklyn) 001 001
(Alma, Palo Alto) 110 010
! To answer equality query on single attribute, need to look
up multiple buckets. Similar in effect to grid files.

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 Sequential File For account Records Deletion of “Perryridge” From the B+-Tree of
Figure 12.12

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Sample account File

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