TOPIC 1

Definition, Composition, Formation and Development of Soil

Learning objectives: At the end of this topic the students should be able to:
 Define soil and other related terms;
 Explain the composition of soil and its significance
 Classify soil-forming rocks and minerals according to its mode of formation
 Discuss how soil are formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals
 Enumerate and discuss the factors affecting soil formation

SOIL SCIENCE
It is a science that deals with the study of the soil as a natural resource on the surface
of the earth. It studies the formation of the soil, its physical properties, its classification and
mapping, its chemical, biological and fertility properties as well as its relation to the
management of crop production.

1.1 Approaches in the Study of Soil Science

1. Pedological Approach- It considers soil as a natural body with major emphasis

on its genesis and classification as it occurs in the environment.

2. Edaphological Approach- It deals with the influence of soils on living things,

particularly plants, including human use of land for plant growth.

1.2 Fields of Specialization in the Study of Soil Science

1. Soil Fertility- studies the quality of the soil to provide optimum level of nutrients
for plant growth.
2. Soil Physics- studies the characteristics, processes, or reactions of soil caused by
physical forces.
3. Soil Chemistry and Mineralogy- studies the interaction of solid, liquid and
gaseous components of the soil.
4. Soil Microbiology- studies the soil biochemical reaction carried out primarily by
microorganisms.
5. Soil Conservation and Management- deals with the protection of the soil against
physical loss caused by erosion or chemical deterioration; totality of all tillage
operations, cropping practices, fertilization, liming, etc. conducted on a soil for
crop production.
6. Soil Survey and Classification- deals with the structural characteristics, mode of
origin, and systematic arrangement of soils.
7. Land Use- deals with the utilization or allocation of lands for general or broad
purposes such as agriculture, forestry, settlement and military reservations.

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 SOIL
Soil is defined as a dynamic natural body formed from: weathering of rocks and
minerals; composed of organic matter, mineral matter, air and water and possesses distinct
characteristics which in turn influence plant growth. It serves as a medium of plant growth and
considered as a non- renewable resource because it takes about a hundred of years for natural
processes to form an inch of soil.

2.1 Uses of soil as a natural resource:

 Medium for plant growth

 System for water and purification
 Habitat for soil organisms
 Medium for waste disposal and nutrient cycling

2.2 Soil Individual

 Pedon- a hexagonal column of soil measuring from 1 to 10 m 2 in top of surface

area. It is the basic sampling unit used in soil survey.
 Polypedon- made up of multiple pedons and has distinctive characteristics that
differentiate it from surrounding polypedons.

2.2 Four Major Components of Soil

1. Mineral Matter (45%)- variable in sizes, normally composed of weathered rocks

and minerals
2. Organic Matter (5%)- decomposed organic materials by the action of
microorganisms. These are usually black or dark brown in color and colloidal in
nature.

Two kinds of soil based on soil organic matter content:

a. Mineral soil- a soil that contains < 20% (by weight) organic C
b. Organic soil- a soil that contains ≥20% (by weight) organic C

3. Soil Water (25%)- occupies the pore spaces that contain dissolved gases and
nutrients.
4. Soil Air (25%)- occupies the pore spaces not occupied by water. The gases
present are Oxygen (20%), Nitrogen (78%) and CO2 (2%).

Figure 1: Four major components of soil

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 WEATHERING AND SOIL FORMATION
Weathering is a process of a physical and chemical disintegration and decomposition of
rocks and minerals to produce the earth’s crust including the soil. There are 2 types of
weathering and these are:

a. Physical Weathering- breaking up of rocks and minerals into smaller pieces

without any drastic alteration of their chemical composition.

` Example: roots of plants grow into cracks and force cracks open.

b. Chemical Weathering- involves in the chemical structure and composition of

rocks and minerals which results into simpler products. Chemical weathering
tends to weaken rock, thereby making it easier to break.
Example: Hydrolysis, Hydration, Oxidation, Carbonation

ROCKS AND MINERALS

A. Rocks- aggregate of one or more minerals. There are 3 classifications of rocks and these
are the Igneous rocks, Sedimentary rocks and Metamorphic rocks.

 Igneous Rocks- are original rocks formed from the solidification of molten
magma within or outside the earth’s crust. There are 2 kinds of Igneous rocks
and these are Intrusive Igneous rocks and Extrusive Igneous rocks.
 Intrusive Igneous Rocks- are formed when magma solidifies WITHIN the
earth’s crust. The rocks formed are coarse-grained.
Example: Granite, Diorite and Gabbro
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks- happens when the magma is ejected out of the
earth’s crust through volcanic eruption and solidifies on the surface. The
rocks formed are fine-grained.
Example: Basalt, Andesite and Rhyolite

Figure2: Granite, Diorite and Gabbro are examples of Intrusive Rocks while Andesite and Basalt
are examples of Extrusive Rocks

 Sedimentary Rocks- formed from other existing rocks through fragmentation,

transport, recementation, deposition or compaction. It is concentrated near the
crust’s surface, thus exert a dominant effect on many soils of the world.
Example: Limestone, Dolomite, Siltstone, Sandstone, Shale

Figure 3: Limestone, Siltstone and Sandstone

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  Metamorphic Rocks- formed from other existing rocks through the process of
remelting and recrystallization under very high temperature and pressure.
Example: Marble, Gneiss, Quartzite, Slate

Figure 3: Quartzite, Slate and Marble

B. Minerals- a naturally occurring inorganic substance with more or less definite chemical
composition and specific physical properties. It serves as the building block of rocks.
 Primary Minerals- minerals that persist from the original rocks and appear
prominently in the soil. It contributes the sand and silt fractions of the soil.
Example: Quartz, Feldspar, Mica, Amphibole, Apatite

 Secondary Minerals- arise from the chemical breakdown of the least resistant
primary minerals. It contributes the clay fraction of the soil.
Example: Gypsum, Calcite, Montmorillonite, Kaolinite, Dolomite

FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION

A. Dokuchaev (1846-1903)- Russian pedologist; Given the credit for having been the first
to publish a soil forming factor equation which is as follows:
S = f (cl, o, r, p, t ...) Climate
Organic factor (Living organisms)
Relief or topography
Parent material
Time
o Climate
 Primarily precipitation and temperature
 Climate components that strongly influence soil development
o Temperature- weathering of rocks and minerals and biochemical
reaction increases with increasing temperature
o Precipitation or rainfall- with more rainfall, greater leaching
therefore faster rate of soil development
o Organisms
 Especially vegetation, microbes and soil animals

o Relief/Topography
 Refers to soil’s position in the landscape
 Effects of Topography
o Steep Slopes: less water to soak the soil but more runoff to erode
the surface
o Flat Lowland: develop thicker solum due to accumulation of
moisture and deposition of soil materials from uplands.

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 o Parent Material
 Partly weathered mineral from which true soil is formed
 Inorganic (rocks and minerals) and organic where soils may originate.
 Types of Parent Material
o Residual- developed in place and formed where it is found
o Transported- transported by various agents and deposited in
other sites where they form the soil (alluvium, colluviums,
volcanic tuff, glacial till, marine and aeolian).

o Time
 The length of time for the soil to form
 Effects of time:
o Young soil has minimal soil development and few horizons.
o Older Soil, the less it reflects the properties of the parent
materials. It have thick solum and generally acidic and low in
fertility.

B. Basic Processes of Soil Formation

 Transformation
o When soil constituents are chemically or physically modified or destroyed and
others are synthesized from precursor materials. Changes to soil structure,
development of clay minerals, weathering of minerals to elements, chemical Rx.
 Translocation
o The movement of organic and inorganic materials horizontally or vertically
across pedon. Movement from one horizon to another of O.M. Clay, Water, Iron,
and Nutrients in colloidal size (very small particles) - clay films on peds are
evidence of this translocation = clay (film) coating
 Additions
o Inputs of materials from outside sources (i.e. plant litter, H2O, organic matter,
air, soil particles, and salt)
 Losses
o Materials that are removed from the soil profile by leaching or erosion. H2O,
organic matter, CO2, nutrients by plant removal

SOIL PROFILE

 Soil Profile- a vertical cross section of the soil exposing all of its horizon
 Soil Horizon- a layer of soil approximately parallel to the land surface and
differing from other horizon in physical, chemical and biological properties.

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Major Soil Horizon

1. O Horizon  Organic Layer; dominated by organic materials

2. A Horizon  Surface Layer; Organic rich mineral horizon adjacent to the surface.
3. E Horizon  Eluviation Layer; Mineral horizon of maximum eluviation.
4. B Horizon  Subsoil; Mineral horizon of maximum illuviation
5. C Horizon  Parent Material; Weathered material
6. R Horizon  Solid Bedrock

References:

Canatoy, R. (2018). Soil Physics. Central Mindanao University.

Daquiado, N. P. (2018). Physical Properties of Soil. Central Mindanao University.

Green Empire. (2015). Soil Science. GE KNOWLEDGE BANK.

Hilborn, R. (2013). Soils in Agriculture. University of Washington.

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