Chapter 3

Behaviorism

imply what its researches yield, and the

At any one time, a science is s researches
than those problems for which effective
are nothing more methods have been
for which the times are ready. Each step ds
found and in scientific progress depen
on the previous one, and the process is g. (Boring, 1950)
not much hurried by wishin

established a practical applied d

J ohn Dewey's functional psychology
iscipline with a variety of interests.
The
ented the development of a
tolerance for a range of views prev sterile
cked organization and
discipline. However, the movement la focus; this
diffuseness proved its undoing.
Psychology, with aspirations of becoming a precise science like phys-
ics and chemistry, had yet to find a research method. Into that breach
came behaviorism, championed by its founder, John R. Watson. From the
1920s until the 1950s, behaviorism was the dominant movement in
psychology, and with it, the study of learning.

EARLY BEHAVIORIST THEORIES

The research method that initiated behaviorism was reflex or classical

conditioning. Discovered by two Russian physiologists in independent
experiments and adapted by John Watson, classical conditioning seemed to
be the precise methodology sought by psychologists. The other ap-
proach implemented in the early 20th century was Edward Thorndike's
connectionism.

32
 Chapter 3 Behaviorism 33

A Rationale for Behaviorism

of structuralism and
The inability functionalism to establish well-defined
ethods and a clearly d
research m efined subject matter established the
nge. In t
climate for cha hat context, John Watson launched the move-
ment to study behavior rather than mental processes or states.
In the 1913 article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It," Watson
made a case for the study of behavior. In some 50-odd years, said Watson,
psychology had failed to establish itself as a natural science. The focus on
consciousness and mental processes had led psychology into a dead end
where the topics are "threadbare from much handling" (Watson, 1913,
p. 174). Furthermore, when human consciousness is the reference point for
research. the behaviorist is forced to ignore all data that do not relate to
human mental processes. Other sciences, such as physics and chem-
istm he noted, do not restrict their definitions of the subject matter to
the extent that information must be discarded.
The starting point for psychology, therefore, should be the fact that all
organisms adjust to the environment through responses (Watson, 1913).
Since certain responses follow certain stimuli, psychologists should be
able to predict the response from the stimulus, and vice versa. When this
goal is achieved, according to Watson, psychology will then become an
objective, experimental science. In addition, the discipline also would
provide useful knowledge for the educator, physician, busi-
ness leader. and others.
After the appeal to study behavior, Watson discovered the motor-
reflex research of V. M. Bekheterev, a Russian physiologist. His work was
important because he had successfully manipulated simple behavioral
reactions in the laboratory. On reading the research, Watson was con-
vinced that behavioral control in the real world was within reach. His
prediction was wrong, but his views were a major force in the use of
precise methods of research and measurement by psychologists (Kra-
tochwill & Bijou, 1987).

Reflex or Classical Conditioning

ev "traine
The experiments conducted by Bekheter d" reflexes such as fi
nger retraction to respond to a variety of sights and sounds associated
with an electric shock stimulus (Murphy, 1949). The best-known exper-
iments, however, were conducted by Ivan Pavlov, for which he received the
1904 Nobel Prize.

Pavlov's Experiment
Pavlov, also a physiologist, was researching digestive processes in dogs. His
experiments involved the presentation of meat powder to dogs to measure
salivation. However, Pavlov noticed that after a time the experimental
animal began salivating before seeing or smelling the meat powder.
 •

oundations of Contemporary Psychology

34 Part II F

of the laboratory assistant's footsteps triggered (elicit ed) the

The sound salivation
eaction.
r
ting systematically with this situation, Pavlov sounded a tun
Experimenments before presentation of the meat powdFeirr.sAt fttehreslei r.Al
inging fork mo the salivation reaction. —such
e tuning fork alone elicited
pairings, th nt ifoofr e
.reTaosoanitse.r th saliva'
ftowood rch was importa
The resea tion
is a reflex. That is, ntaneous reaction
response it is a spo that occurs
ally at the sight or smell wrap,
automatic ',eta..
etween a stimulus and a response was viewed as a major break_
tionship b through in
the study of behavior. To manipulate even a simple reaction promise
held out the
that the causes of complex behaviors also might be cond, the research
discovered. Se
demonstrated the potential osftilma
o discover new knowledge.
tone studies t
hich new events or stimuli acquire the
The process by w Power to trigger
became known as reflex or classical conditioning. In
responses the classical
turally occurring
condition ing methodology, the na
se are unconditioned. That is, they occur together
and the reflex respon without
rred to as the unconditioned st
training and are refe imulus (UCS) and
onse (UCR). The UCS is said to e
unconditioned resp licit the
ect in the eye elicits an eye blink.
UCR; for example, a foreign obj
the reflex
After training, the new stimulus that elicits response is
CS). The reflex, f
referred to as the conditioned stimulus ( ormerly un-
e
conditioned. is known as a conditioned respons (CR) after training
(Table 3.1).
The development of classical conditioning introduced a numberpre
variables and new relationships that could be researched and
measured in the laboratory setting. Included are the amount or strength of
the response (referred to as amplitude), the length of ti between the
stimulus and the response (latency), and the tendencmey of similar
stimuli to elicit the reflex (stimulus generalization). For example, studies
indicated that a reflex conditioned to a sound pitch of 256 also is con-
ditioned to sound pitches of 255 and 257 (Murphy, 1949).
Two other relationships introduced in classical conditioning include
resistance to extinction and inhibition. Resistance to extinction is the
tendency of a response to persist after the supporting conditions are
withdrawn. Inhibition refers to the reduction in a response caused by the
introduction of extraneous stimuli.

John Watson's Behaviorism

Watson's contribution to psychology is that he organized the findings of
current research into a new perspective and persuaded other psycholo-
gists of the importance of his views. Behaviorism, as Watson viewed it,
should apply. the techniques of animal research (i.e., conditioning) to the
study of human beings. He therefore redefined mental concepts (which he
considered to be unnecessary) as behavioral responses. Thinking, for
example, was identified as subvocal speech, and feeling was defined as a
glandular reaction (Watson, 1925).

-.J
 TABLE 3.1
Examples of classical conditioning

Postexperimental (Conditioned)
Preexperimental ("Natural") Relationship Experimental Trials Relationship

UNCONDITIONED ASSOCIATED REFLEX CONDITIONED CONDITIONED

(ELICITING) STIMULUS RESPONSE PAIRED REFLEX STIMULUS REFLEX
"c.47, (UCS) (UCR) STIMULI RESPONSES (CS) (CR)

Meat powder Salivation Meat powder Salivation Tuning fork Salivation

Tuning fork
Air puff Eye blink Air puff Eye blink Bright light Eye blink
Bright light
Electric shock Finger retraction Electric shock Finger retraction Buzzer Finger retraction
Buzzer
 ns of Contemporary Psychology
36 Part II Foundatio

he human personality developed through

Watson also believed that t the
us reflexes. He maintained that the human
conditioning of vario infant at birth
hree emotional responses (Watson, 1928).
possesses only t They are fear, rage,
onse, for example, begins
and love . The fear resp with the jumping or
the body and an interruption in breath-
starting of
ant's age, crying, falling, and crawling or
ing. Then, depending on the inf
response was observed in the natural
running away follow. The fear
ss of support for the infant. Accord-
environment after a loud noise or lo
plex emotional life is the result of
ing to Watson (1928), an adult's com the
sponses to a variety of situations.
conditioning of the three basic re
ohns
Conditioning Experiments with Infants. While at J o kdiuncstUnia
Rosalie Rayner,,
versity, Watson and his graduate assistant, conducted
controversial experiment with an 11-month-old ch ild named Albert
unethical by today's stan.
(Watson & Rayner, 1920). This experiment, dards,
veral soft furry objects.
conditioned Albert's fear reaction to se
nimals and objects (s
Albert was tested first to confirm that live a uch as a
ear response. Then,
human mask and cotton) did not elicit his f for several
nd a laboratory
trials a white rat was presented to Albert, a assis-
n the first p
tant behind Albert struck a steel bar with a hammer. O airing of
the two stimuli, the infant jumped violently; on the second trial, he began
to cry. On the eighth trial, the white rat alone elicited crying and crawling
away (Watson & Rayner, 1920).
Five days later, the fear reaction also appeared in response to a white
rabbit. Nonfurry objects, such as the child's blocks, did not elicit the fear
response, but mild fear reactions occurred in response to a dog and a
sealskin fur coat. The child's emotional response had transferred to furry
animals and objects, and it persisted for longer than a month.
In recent years, questions have been raised about the experiment
because the classical conditioning model was not strictly followed. The
loud noise was not paired with the presentation of the rat; instead, the
noise occurred as Albert reached out his hand to touch the animal.
However, the experiment demonstrated that emotions could be studied by
controlled research methods, and it promoted research on condition-
ing (Kratochwill & Bijou, 1987).
A related topic, the elimination or "unconditioning" of children's fear
reactions, was pioneered by Mary Cover Jones. She found that ef-
forts to talk the child out of the fear or relying on extinction to eliminate
the fear were ineffective (Jones, 1924). Instead, a planned program was
required. The two successful strategies were (a) the child's observation of
other children's acceptance of the feared object, and (b) the gradual
presentation of the feared object during a favorite activity, such as eating.

Watson's Predictions. Watson concluded from his experiment that bhav e-

In h for livingiorism was the
mechanism that could provide a foundation
for conis usual persuasive style, Watson (1925) made the folloditioning: cg laimin sw
 Chapter 3 Beha% torism 37

Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified

world to bring them up in, and I'll guarantee to take any one at random
specialist might select—doctor, law-
yer, artist, merchant-chief—regardless of his talents, penchants, tenden-
cies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. (p. 65)

Needless to say, behaviorism became immediately popular. The sim-

plicity of the method for conditioning responses and the novelty of the pro-
a multitude of
cedure led to applications and experiments. In the 1920s,
almost every psychologist seemed to be a behaviorist, and none appeared to
agree with any other (Boring, 1950). The term behaviorism became attached to
several developments, including a particular research method, objective data
ral, a mater
in gene ialistic view of psychology, and others.
1Vatson also believed that behaviorism would place psychology in the
ranks of the "true" sciences, along with zoology, physiology, physical
others. T
chemistry, and hese same views on the potential of behaviorism
were to be reiterated in the 1950s by B. F. Skinner.
In fact, conditioned responses were not shown to add up to complex
voluntary behavior. However, it was believed that they would, very likely
because the resulting conception of psychology responded to the general
scientism of the times (Baars, 1986, p. 53).

Conditioned Emotional Reactions

Through paired association, positive and negative reactions may be con-
d events.
ditioned to a variety of objects an For example, a whiff of the
paste used to fasten labels to bottles brought back painful memories of a
the well-known aut
miserable childhood for hor Charles Dickens (Acker-
uptcy of Dicken's
man, 1990). The bankr father had driven him to aban-
a workhouse whe
don the young Charles to re such bottles were made.
Emotional reactions may, in certain situations, be conditioned in a
single pairing of stimuli. An example is the automobile driver who nar-
rowly misses a fatal accident with a large truck on a particular S-shaped
rapid pulse, sweating palms, and increased
curve. He experiences a blood
, on appro aped
pressure. A few days later aching the same S-sh curve, he
same physiological reaction.
experiences the
However, "pure" examples of classical conditioning to aversive stim-
ural setting. Ty dividuals are
uli are difficult to find in the nat pically, in not
ng stimuli. ge instead
"trapped- by emotion-produci They may enga
in escape behaviors that may, in some situations, produce satisfying out-
comes. For example, Albert's fear responses of crying and whin ing (con-
llowed
ditioned response) to the furry object (conditioned stimulus) was fo by
the baby's
crawling away (escape behavior). In the natural setting, mother
ock him
would likely pick him up and comfort him, perhaps even r a few
ling
minutes. Thus, a selected response, the escape behavior of craw away, is
fort.
followed by receiving the mother's attention and com
A positive example of classical conditioning is the nostalgic reaction
(response) to a song (conditioned stimulus) that was a hit during a
former love affair. The song has acquired the power to elicit some of the
 ycholog
38 Part II Foundations of Contemporary Ps

n in the former re
same feelings originally associated with the perso la..
awa
tionship. Such emotional reactions often occur w ithout the reness of the
to identify.
individual; thus, their origin may be difficult
isements also make use
Television commercials and magazine advert of
emotional reactions to a
paired association in efforts to elicit positive
s a soft teddy bear hug..
product. One advertisement, for example, show ging a
ng beside the product, a
blanket (conditioned stimulus) and sitti plastic bottle
d stimulus).
of fabric softener (unconditione
e Classroom
Classical Conditioning in th
iation of literature, art, sci-
An essential step in developing the apprec
ng students' early experiences
ence, and other subjects is that of associati with
ver, the problem is that neg-
positive reactions (Estes, 1989). Howe
d to the same situations
ative emotional reactions may become attache and
pathy and "tuning out:'
lead to the passive escape behaviors of a
stablished relationships that
One strategy is to make use of already-e elicit
ned reading is an important
positive reactions. For example, sustai activity in
Carpeting one corner of the
learning to appreciate literature. room and
hions to create an area for
furnishing it with large sofa cus sustained reading
tive reactions to the free-time
may, over time, elicit posi reading included in the
daily schedule.
in situations in which
Such strategies are particularly important a
a negative reaction.
particular setting or activity is expected to elicit For
school may b
example. the anxiety of children on the first day of ecome
lt activity is
associated with certain subjects, particularly if a difficu intro-
duced the first day. Positive strategies observed in some elementary school
classes included greeting the children warmly as they arrived and starting
the day with drawing or coloring activities (Emmer, Evertson, & Ander-
son, 1980). In addition, no difficult activities were introduced the first
week while the children were becoming accustomed to classroom rou-
tines. The potential for anxiety is reduced by repeatedly pairing the un-
familiar setting with warm greetings and enjoyable activities (Figure 3.1).

Edward Thorndike's Connectionism

Like Pavlov's classical conditioning, Thorndike's research also required a
behavioral reaction from the subjects in the experiments. However, a
major difference is that the behavior researched by Thorndike was not
that of reflexes; it was voluntary behavior. Animals were confined in
cages or food was placed in a latched box. The task for the hungry
animal was to open the box or cage and get to the food. Thorndike
referred to his experiments as instrumental conditioning to reflect this
difference. The theory also is known as connectionism because connec-

ptions were established between particular stimuli and voluntary behaviors.The research was designed to determine whether anirob als "solved"m a
lem through reasoning or by a more basic process. Research was
 Chapter 3 Behaviorism 39

Established Relationships
New Association
(a)
New, unfamiliar • Anxiety
situations reaction First day Anxiety
of school reaction

Difficult
mathematics
exercise
(b)
Activities such Feelings of
as coloring or pleasantness Coloring or Feelings of
drawing and relaxation drawing activities -DP" pleasantness
and procedures and relaxation
for easing the
children into the
new situation

Firs day
of school

FIGURE 3.1
Applying classical conditioning in the classroom.

needed, according to Thorndike, because objective data were lacking.

"Dogs get lost hundreds of times and no one ever notices it or sends an
account of it to a scientific magazine. But let one find his way from
Brooklyn to Yonkers and the fact immediately becomes a circulating
anecdote" (Thorndike, 1911, p. 24).
Experimental Procedure
Thorndike experimented with baby chicks, dogs, fish, cats, and monkeys.
However, while he was a student at Harvard, his landlady forbid him to
continue hatching chicks in his room. William James offered the base-
ment of his home for Thorndike's research, to the dismay of Mrs. James
and the excitement of the children.
The typical experimental procedure required each animal to escape
from a confined space in order to reach food. A puzzle box was used that
required the tripping of a latch or some other mechanism in order to
effect escape (Figure 3.2).
When confined, the animal often engaged in a variety of behaviors,
including scratching, biting, clawing, and rubbing against the sides of the
box. Sooner or later the animal tripped the latch and escaped to the food.
Repeated confinements were characterized by a decrease in the behav-
iors unrelated to escape and, of course, a shorter escape time. The most
dramatic change was observed with monkeys. In one experiment, a box
containing a banana was placed inside the cage. The monkey took 36
minutes to pull out the nail that held the wire fastener closed. On the
 40
Part II Foundations of Contemporary Psychology

FIGURE 3.2
periments.
Puzzle cage used in some of Thor-ndike's ex

released the fastener in only 2

second trial, the monkey successfully
minutes 20 seconds (Thorndike, 1911).
es of trials were recorded as a
The experimental data from a seri learning
ape times. Thorndike concluded
curve illustrating the faster esc from this data
e gradually became associated with
that the escape respons the stimulus
rror learning. For this reason, his
situation in trial-and-e theory is referred to
ion theory.
as an associat

The Laws of Learn ing

xperiment, the correct response was
During the series of trials in the e
d. Incorrect responses were weak-
gradually "stamped in" or strengthene
words, problem solving involves estab-
ened or "stamped out." In other
tween the stimulus
lishing associations or connections be (the problem) and
appropriate responses.
Thorndike originally identified three major laws of learning to ex-
plain this process. They are the law of effect, the law of exercise, and the
law of readiness. The law of effect states that a satisfying state of affairs
following the response strengthens the connection between the stimulus
and the behavior, whereas an annoying state weakens the connection.
Thorndike later revised the law so that punishment was not equal to
reward in its influence on learning.
The law of exercise describes the conditions implied in the adage
"Practice makes perfect." Repetition of the experience, in other words,
increases the probability of a correct response. However, repetition of a
 Chapter 3 Behaviorism
41

h as drawing lines blindfold

task, sucof a satisfying state of affairs ed, does not enhance learning in the
absence (Thorndike, 1913b, p. 20).
aw
The l of"satisfying"
readinessordescribes the conditions that govern the states
referred to as "annoying" (Thorndike, 1913a). Briefly
cution
summarized, the exe of an action in response to a strong impulse is
g, whereas the blocking of
satisfyin that action or forcing it under other cond
itions is annoying

Applications to School Learning

aboratory, Thorndike researched t
In the l he relationship between physical stimuli
l actions, a e
and physica nd his interpretations of learning were based on thes
behavioral studies. However, his ents.
theory also includes references to mental ev
It thus occupied a mid
dle ground between the concerns of functionalism and
the "pure" behaviorism of other researchers.
Thorndike described human mental life as composed of both mental
nd movements with connections be
states a tween each type (Thorndike, 1905, p.
12). In his view, connections between ideas accounted for the major
n of "knowledge" in its
portio popular sense (Thorndike, 1913b,
s of learning, in
p. 19). The proces other words, is simply that of con-
necting : "The mind is man's connection system" (Thorndike, 1913b,
p. 122). Examples include numerical problems and their answers, such as
9 x 5 = 45; events and dates, such as Columbus and 1492; and persons
and characteristics, such as John and blue eyes.
Of particular interest to the educator is Thorndike's description of his
inor laws in relation to school learning. r
five m As the first efforts to account fo
the complexity of human learning, these laws were believed with the laws
to interact
of effect and exercise. These subsidiary laws and ations are summarized in
their applic
Table 3.2.

Of major importance to education is Thorndike's research on trans-

rning. A series of studies conducted by Thorndike and Wood-
fer of lea
worth (1901 ) found that training in particular tasks facilitated the later
of similar tasks, not dissimilar ones.
learning only
nant appr ehavior in
In summary, the two domi oaches to the study of b the
f the 20th century were classical conditioning and Thorndike's
first half o
attempted to make applications of classical condi-
connectionism. Watson
otional life of human beings. Thorndike applied his theory
tioning to the em to the
of school subjects and the design of curriculum.
analysis

O THE LABORATORY (1930-1950)

THE RETREAT T
autioned his fellow psychologists that the proper
Edward Thorndike c
rch was the classroom and the appropriate experi-
laboratory for resea tudent
mental subject was the s (Shulman, 1970). For the most part,
m
however, the theorists fro 1930 to 1950 ignored Thorndike's advice.
 Psychology
42 Part II Foundations of Con temporary

TABLE 3.2
to education
Application of Thorndike's minor laws

Law Descript ion Example

re- Pronunciation of a
1. Multiple response A variety of
en occurs foreign language
or varied reaction sponses oft
stimulus Skill in tennis
initially to a
Coherence in Eng
lish
composition

2. Attitudes, disposi- f the Individual competing

Condition o
tions, or states influences to throw a ball the
learner that
g; includes longest distance or
the learnin
udes and throw a player out in
stable attit
factors of a baseball game
temporary
n Instructions for the
the situatio
problem
7
6
to add or to subtract
3. Partial or piece- to re- Responses to the
The tendency
meal activity of a rticular qualities of shape,
spond to pa
situation eatures color, number, use,
elements or f
of a stimulus
situation intent, and others
as Responses to rela-
(also referred to
) tions of space, time,
analytic learning
causation, and others
4. Assimilation of re- The foreigner pro-
The tendency of s itu-
sponse by analogy nouncing English
ation B to arouse in
part the same re-
sponse as situation A
5. Associative shifting Successively altering abcde is altered to
the stimulus until the abcdef to abcdefg and
response is bound by so on
a new stimulus

Source: Thornlike (1913b, chap, 3, pp. 19-31)

Research was conducted instead on animals and human beings in arti-

ficially contrived situations: Rats ran mazes, rats escaped from boxes, and
humans were given puzzles to solve.
The goal of the research also shifted in this period. In this "era of
grand theories," the goal was to integrate all known facts around the
principal theme of describing, predicting, and controlling learning
(DiVesta,
1987, p. 207). In other words, the purpose of research
was to develop the one comprehensive theory that would explain all
learning.
 Chapter 3 Behaviorism
43

The Refinement of Behaviorism

movem
The dominant ent in the 1930s and
1940s continued to be be-
haviorism. However, it was by no means a unitary theory, nor was it the
approach to behavioral analysis. S
only ome psychologists, influenced by
und Freud's psychoanalytic theory, we
Sigm re searching for deeper
s in behavior beyond observ
meaning ed relationships between events and
nses. Included were Robert Woodwor
respo th's "dynamic psychology" and
William McDougall's "hormic psychology." McDougall described "drives"
as behavioral activators. For e
xample, the "thirst drive" activates the go-to-
echa
water m nism (Boring, 1963, p. 723). In contrast, McDou-
an extensi
gall developed ve list of instincts that he identified as goal
d flight, fear, reproduction, etc.).
directe rk(
Clark Hull (1933, p. 491), a Yale psychologist, was concerned about the
mber of competing positions. He proposed
nu a rigorous method of theory
development in order to solve this problem: the hypothetico-
ve method (Hull,
deducti 1935, 1937). This method of hypothesis testing was
ed by Hull in the development
appli of his behavioral system. Others,
however, continued to develop theory in a less rigorous man-
. Skinner, in fact, disregarded theory de
ner. B. F velopment completely because
he believed it was counterproductive to sci
entific progress in psvcmhorloege■
'theories emerged from the 1930s and 1940s. They are Clark
vior system, Edwin Guthrie's contiguity the
Hull's beha ory, and B. F.
s operant conditioning. They are referred to as S-R theories be-
Skinner'
define learning as an associative link between a particular s
cause they stimulu
and a particular response. They differ, however, in the identi-
f the specific factors believed to be of primary importance in
fication o learning.
Hull's theory emphasized processes within the organism, spe-
ntervening variables. Guthrie, however, maintained that the
cifically, i temporal
elationship between the stimulus and the response was the tor in
r critical fac
learning. Skinner, on the other hand, began with Ed-

ward Thorndike's law of effect. He redefined "reward" as reinforcement

d behavioral change as a function of response consequences.
and describe These
theorists also are known as "neobehaviorists," to distinguish from
three their work
that of Thorndike and John Watson.

Two S-R Theories

ral system and Guthrie's contiguity theory are in sharp
Hull's behavio contrast
ther. Hull's theory is rigorous, abstract, and complex; y
to each o Guthrie's theor
is informal and loosely organized. Practical advice for rs also
parents and teache
was included in Guthrie's work.

Clark Hull's Behavior System

the rigorous method that he recom-
Hull's theory is an example of
mended for theory developmen t, the hypothetico-deductive method.
 ndations of Contemporary Psychology
44 Part II Fou

d
this procedure was intened to lead to the identifica
Application of tion, 1935).
y laws of psychology (Hull
of the primar
ico-Deductive Method. The starting point for a th
The Hypothet a set of explicitly stated assuroptioheory,
ull (1935), is
according to H
operational definitions of basic terms. Then propnsi.s, or
postulates and ons
re deduced from the postulates with careful rigor, du
(hypotheses) a c"-
rocess of deduction. The propositions, however, (In
menting the p of the theory until they passw the test of controlled ex not
become a part (1937, p. 8), "henever a theorem
failPer- Hull's view
imentation. In s tot
relevant facts, the postulates which give rise to it mos
check with the d until agreement is reached. If agreement cannot be
ruthlessly revise
tem must be abandoned" In the final version of Hul beps
attained, the sys
were combined to form 133 theorems.
theory, 17 postulates
minded his colleagues of the advantages of
Hull (1937) also re the-
losophical systems. Both are derived from b
oorreettiiccaall systems over phi asic
h include hypothetical statements. However,
assumptions, and bot only theories
through scientific investigation. Therefore,
can be verified only theories can
the development of empirical knowledge.
contribute to
by the concept of evolution, Hull (1943)
Major Concepts. Influenced
ions to ensure the organism's su
maintained that behavior funct rvival.
n his theory revolve around bi
Therefore, the central concepts i ological needs
essential for survival. N
and need satisfaction, which is eeds were
conceptualized by Hull (1943, 1952) as "drives," such as hunger, thirst,
li, referred to
sleep, relief from pain, and others. Stimu as drive stimuli
(SD), are associated with primary drives and therefore "motivate" b ehav-
ior. For example, stimuli associated with pain, such as the sounds of a
dentist's drill, can also arouse fear, and the fear motivates behavior.
Reinforcement also was incorporated into the theory; however, re-
inforcement is a biological condition. Satisfaction of the biological need,
known as drive reduction, strengthens the link between the drive stim-
ulus and the response.
Also, for example, the act of eating (reinforcement) becomes associ-
ated with the behavior that immediately precedes the reinforcement,
such as seeing the food from a distance. In the future, the sight of the
food would serve as a stimulus for responses such as salivation, referred to
as anticipatory goal responses. These responses in turn associate with even
earlier responses, thus building a chain of associations from the
reinforcement (food) to the first act in the chain of behavior.
The strength of an S-R link or habit can be measured on a 1.00-point
scale. Since learning is incremental, according to Hull (1943), habit
strength increases to a maximum of 1.00.
Also included in the system are concepts such as incentive, general-
sized habit strength, the power of a stimulus to elicit a particulapon rer -
se, and others. However, the testable propositions in the theory
4
 Chapter 3 Behaviorism
45

verified. Moreov
often were notsetting beyond er, the complex theory did not generalize to
the learning the laboratory. Although dominant into the
1940s,
cond Hull's system was eclipsed in the 1950s by Skinner's operant
(discussed
itioning ii n chapter 6).

Edwin Guthrie's Contiguity Theory

ast to oth
A refreshing contr er theories of this period, contiguity theory
rated one major learning principle.
incorpo Known as the law of conti-
at a combination w
guity, it states th of stimuli accompanied by a movement ill
tend to be followed by the same movem
ent on its recurrence (Guth-
differentiated b
rie' G19u5t21;ripe. a213s)o. etween movements and acts. Move-
scle contractions, and acts
ments are mu are combinations of movements.
a
Examples of acts are dr wing a picture, reading a book, and so on. Acts
re the components of skills, such as playing golf gh
also a or typewriting. Althou
a single movement may be acquired in one l
earning trial, time and practice are
required to learn all the associations in a skill.
ement, however, is not an
Reinforc essential factor in learning.
ccurs
instead, learning o because the last movement that is made
es the stimulus situation and no other response can occur.
chang mFor example,
tes
in solving a puzzle, the last action changes the stimulus (i.e., comple
the puzzle). Therefore, in the same situation aga be
in, the same response will
repeated. Reinforcement si
mply protects the new
unlearning by preventing t
learning from he acquisition of new re-
uthrie, 1942. 1952).
sponses (G
g Habits. A habit is defined in the theory as a response that is ted
Breakin associa
with several different stimuli (Guthrie, 1952). The greater the of
number
associations, the stronger the habit because the response is many
"cued" on
different occasions. Smoking is an example of a strong e so many
habit becaus
different cues trigger lighting up a cigarette. Such de finishing a meal, taking
cues inclu
a coffee break, sitting down with the aper, and so on.
evening p
e s breaking the associations between t
Breaking habits r quire he cues
uli) and the response. The three methods suggested by
(eliciting stim Guthrie
8) are the threshold method, the fatigue method, and the
(193 incompatible
sponse method.
re
s are summarized in Table 3.3. They are equiv-
These three method
Guthrie (1938, p.
alent, according to 62), because they all involve pre-
senting the cues that e licit a particular response while preventing the
e.
performance of the respons
role for punishment in altering
Uses of Punishment. An important
unishment, if delivered appro-
behavior is identified by Guthrie (1952). P
riate behavior,
priately in the presence of a stimulus that elicits inapprop can
ie (1935) describes
cause the subject to do something different. Guthr
 emporary Psychology
46 Part II Foundations of Cont

TABLE 3.3
g habits
Summary of three methods for breakin
Example
Method Characteristic
a hor
Breaking se to the
Threshold 1. Introduce the eliciting saddle: B
egin w
ith a light
method stimulus at weak blanket , then heavier
strength and , a
se the blankets, finally
2. Gradually increa
th, light sadd le
stimulus streng
it
always keeping
nse
below the respo
th
"threshold" (i.e ., streng
he re-
that will elicit t
sponse)
esponse in a horse:
Fatigue "Exhaust" the r Breaking Throw
f the eliciting e on the
method the presence o the saddl horse
m until
stimulus and ride hi he quits
kicking, backing, and try-
ing to throw the rider; the
saddle and rider become
the stimulus for walking
and trotting calmly
timulus Overcome fear and avoid-
Incompatible Pair the eliciting s
opriate
response (S') for the inappr ance by pairing the fright-
imulus
method behavior with a st ening object, such as a
propriate
(S2) that elicits ap large toy tiger, with a stim-
priate
responses; the appro ulus that elicits warm feel-
with S2
behavior associated ings, such as mother
becomes linked to S'

the example of the girl who came home repeatedly from school each day
and threw her hat and coat on the floor. The girl's mother made her put
her hat and coat back on, go back outside, come in again, and hang up her
wraps. After a few occasions, the response of hanging up the coat and hat
became associated with the stimulus of entering the house.

Suggestions for Educators. Associating stimuli and responses appro-

priately is the core of Guthrie's advice to teachers. The student must be
led to perform what is to be learned. Students, in other words, learn
only what the stimuli in lectures or books cause them to do (Guthrie,
1942, p. 55). Therefore, if students use notes or textbooks simply to rote
learning.memorize quantities of information, books will be the stimuli that
cue

directivIn managing the classroom, the teacher is cautioned note givo et a

that is permitted to be disobeyed. A request for silence, if followed by
a disturbance, will become the cue for disruptive behavior.
 Chapter 3 Behaviorism
4:.

SUMMARY
At the beginning of the
20th century, functionalism proposed thAL
logy should address the orga
psycho nism's adaptation to the environ-
ctionalism, however, w
ment. Fun as broad, diverse, and undisciplined.
he efforts to address preci
During t sely the role and scope of psycholo ►,
merged as a major foc
learning e us. Behaviorism, championed by John
ecame the dominant p
vk'atson,b erspective, although Thorndike's con-
nection ism and Gestalt theory (discussed in chapter 4) also were applied
in the educational setting. Classical conditioning, advocated by Watson.
ses to new sti
linked respon muli, whereas Thorndike's connectionism
ental conditioning) linked new resp
(instrum onses to a particular stimu-
ation.
lus situ
rch
Laboratory resea was dominant in the period from 1930 to World
The dichotomy between behaviorism a
War II. nd Gestalt psycholop
ued, and each group attempted to explain the wh
contin ole of learning within
ne theory. The behaviorist theories of this pe eories
o riod are identified as S-R th
because they described learning as a li
nk between a stim-
nd a response. Included are Clark Hull's hypothetic
ulus a o-deductive system,
Edwin Guthrie's contiguity learning, and B. F. Skinner's oning. These
operant conditi
theorists also are known as neobehaviorists, to
d is-
shtheir work from that of Thorndike, Pavlov, and Watson. Al-
tingui
m was dom
though Hull's syste inant during the 1940s, it was eclipsed 1.)\
s principles in the next decade.
Skinner'

CHAPTER QUESTIONS
e lications for the classroom inherent in the major
1. What are th imp
tween Thorndike's connectionism and classical condi-
differences be
tioning?
r camp. a spider is thrust in a child's face at the same time
2. At summe
cream and shout, "Boo!" The next night, the girls
that some girls s
turns down the sheet and finds a spider. Diagram
scare her just as she
edict the outcome of these experiences.
these events and pr
mercials and/or print advertisements that pair ob-
3. Describe two com
actions for the object.
jects to elicit positive re
tivity that may tend to elicit negative reactions.
4. Identify a school ac
be the basis for this reaction?
What prior relationship may
mpatible response method" to address the
5. Apply Guthrie's "inco
problem in Question 2.
 oundations of Contemporary Psychology
48 Part H F

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