Pre-Quantum

Principles of Nuclear Physics

NPE-503
“Classical Physics”
 Newtonian Mechanics (Laws of motion, Description of
machines, planetary motion …etc.)
 Heat and Thermodynamics (Heat transfer, Laws of
therodynamics…)
 Electricity and Magnetism (Ohm’s Law, Faraday’s Law...)
 Waves and Vibrations (Interference, diffraction…)
Classical Physics of the 1890s

Mechanics →

Electromagnetism
Thermodynamics

Waves & Vibrations

Modern Physics
 All we have studied so far is called classical
physics
 The nagging problems turned out to cause a
revolution
 Now we enter the “modern” era
 Quantum Mechanics
 Theory of Relativity
Particle Properties of
Waves
Black Body Radiation
Thermal Radiation
 An object at any temperature emits
electromagnetic radiation
 Sometimes called thermal radiation
 Stefan’s Law describes the total power radiated
(P=σAeT4)
 The spectrum of the radiation depends on the
temperature and properties of the object
Black-body radiation
 “Black body”
 perfect absorber (At low temperature)
 ideal body which absorbs all e.m. radiation that strikes it, any
wavelength, any intensity
 such a body would appear black  “black body”
 must also be perfect emitter (At high temperature)
 able to emit radiation of any wavelength at any intensity --
“black-body radiation”
 “Hollow cavity” (“Hohlraum”) kept at constant T
 hollow cavity with small hole in wall is good approximation to
black body
 thermal equilibrium inside, radiation can escape through hole,
looks like black-body radiation
The Black Body spectrum

 Light radiated by an object

characteristic of its temperature,
not its surface color.
 Spectrum of radiation changes
with temperature
8 Phy107 Fall 2006
The ‘color’ of a black body
 Eye interprets colors by mixing cone responses.
 Different proportions make object appear different colors.
Example Temp Color
Hot Stove 1000 K Red
Star “Betelgeuse” 2900 K Red-Orange
Our Sun 6000 K Yellow

=530 nm =580 nm
=440 nm

10 Phy107 Fall 2006

Hot bodies emit radiation
Spectrum Changes With Temperature
 The wavelength of the peak of the
blackbody distribution was found to
follow
constant
max 
Temperature

 Peak wavelength shifts with

 temperature
  max is the wavelength at the
curve’s peak
 T is the absolute temperature of
the object emitting the radiation
13 Phy107 Fall 2006
 The Ultraviolet Catastrophe
 Classical theory did not match the
experimental data. Calculations
predicted that
inverse
I ~ 1/(an _________
relationship). This matches the
longer
observed data at right for _______
wavelengths, but it is completely
0
wrong as  → ___.
 At short wavelengths, classical
theory predicted infinite energy

 At short wavelengths, experiment showed no energy

 This contradiction is called the ultraviolet catastrophe
 Planck’s quantum hypothesis
 Max Planck (Oct 1900) assumed that the radiation in the
cavity was emitted (and absorbed) by some sort of
“oscillators.” He used Boltzman’s statistical methods to arrive
at the following formula that fit the blackbody radiation data.
 Planck made two modifications to the classical theory:
1. The oscillators (of electromagnetic origin) can only have certain
discrete energies, En = n hn, where n is an integer, n is the
frequency, and h is called Planck’s constant:

h = 6.6261 × 10−34 J·s.= 4.13 10-15 eV·s

1. The oscillators can absorb or emit energy in discrete multiples of

the fundamental quantum of energy given by:

DE = hn
Wave-Particle Duality
Defied the Classical Physics
 Wave-Particle Duality
Some examples of experiments showing wave particle
duality, which could not be explained using Classical
Physics concepts are :
 Wave behaving as particles:
 Blackbody radiation
 Photoelectric effect
 Compton Scattering
 Particle behaving as waves:
 Electron Diffraction
 Specific heat of metals
 Atomic Spectra
Particles and Waves: Basic difference in behaviour

When particles collide they cannot pass through each other !

They can bounce or they can shatter
Before collision After collision

Another after
collision state
shatter
Particles and Waves: Basic difference in behaviour
Wavelength Frequency
Spread in space and time
Waves
Can be superposed – show
interference effects

Pass through each other

Localized in space and time

Particles
Cannot pass through each other -
they bounce or shatter.
 Wavelength dependence

Short wavelength: Long wavelength:

electrons ejected NO electrons ejected
Threshold depends
on material

Hi-energy photons Lo-energy photons

30 Phy107 Fall 2006
 The Nature of Light
Huygens promoted the wave theory.

He realized that light propagates as a

wave from the point of origin.
He realized that light slowed down on
Christiaan
entering dense media.
Huygens
(1629-1695)

He explained polarization, reflection,

refraction, and double refraction.

Double refraction
Wave behavior of light: interference

32
 Diffraction confirmed light to be a wave.
While scientists of Newton’s time
thought shadows were sharp, Young’s
two-slit experiment could only be
explained by light behaving as a
wave. Fresnel developed an accurate
theory of diffraction in the early 19th
century.
Diffraction patterns

One slit

Augustin Fresnel
Two slits
 The Nature of Light

 Newton promoted the corpuscular

(particle) theory
 Particles of light travel in straight
lines or rays
 Explained sharp shadows
 Explained reflection and refraction
Newton
Neither wave nor particle
 Light in some cases shows properties typical of
waves
 In other cases shows properties we associate with
particles.
 Conclusion:
 Light is not a wave, or a particle, but something we
haven’t thought about before.
 Reminds us in some ways of waves.
 In some ways of particles.
41
Particles and Waves: Basic difference in behaviour

Can be explained in Can be explained in

Phenomenon Can be explained in Canterms
be explained in
Phenomenon terms of waves. of particles.
terms of waves. terms of particles.

Reflection
Reflection
Refraction
Refraction
Interference
Interference
Diffraction
Diffraction
Polarization
Polarization

Photoelectric effect

Principles of Nuclear Physics (NPE-503) 42

Particle Properties of
Waves
Photoelectric Effect
Photon properties of light
 Photon of frequency f has energy hf
 Red light made of ONLY red photons
 The intensity of the beam can be increased
by increasing the number of photons/second.
 Photons/second = energy/second = power

Interaction with matter

• Photons interact with matter one at a time.
• Energy transferred from photon to matter.
• Maximum energy absorbed is photon energy.

44
 Why is all this so important?
 Makes behavior of light wave
quite puzzling.
 Said that one photon interacts with
one electron, electron ejected. Light hitting
 If this wavefront represents one metal
photon, where is the photon?
 Which electron does it interact with?
 How does it decide?

45
The Photoelectric Effect
 The details of the
photoelectric effect were
in direct contradiction to
the expectations of very
well developed classical
physics.
 The explanation marked
one of the major steps
toward quantum theory.

18-Apr-17 Principles of Nuclear Physics (NPE-503) 46

Photoelectric Effect
 A metal is a bucket holding electrons
 Electrons need some energy in order to jump out of
the bucket.
Light can supply this energy.
Energy transferred from the
light to the electrons.
Electron uses some of the
A metal is a
energy to break out of bucket.
bucket of
Remainder appears as energy electrons.
of motion (kinetic energy).
47
 Unusual experimental results
 Not all kinds of light work
 Red light does not eject electrons

More red light doesn’t either

No matter how intense the red

light, no electrons ever leave the
metal

Until the light wavelength

passes a certain threshold, no
electrons are ejected.
48
 Features Not Explained by Classical
Physics/Wave Theory

 No electrons are emitted if the incident light

frequency is below some cutoff frequency that is
characteristic of the material being illuminated
 The maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons is independent of the light
intensity
More Features Not Explained
 The maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons increases with increasing light
frequency
 Electrons are emitted from the surface almost
instantaneously, even at low intensities
Einstein’s explanation
 Einstein said that light is made up of photons,
individual ‘particles’, each with energy hf.
 One photon collides with one electron
- knocks it out of metal.
 If photon doesn’t have enough energy,
cannot knock electron out.
 Intensity ( = # photons / sec)
doesn’t change this.

Minimum frequency
(maximum wavelength)
required to eject electron
51
 Einstein’s Theory: Photons
Einstein suggested that the electro-magnetic
radiation field is quantized into particles called
photons. Each photon has the energy quantum:

E  hn
where n is the frequency of the light and h is Planck’s
constant. It is an extension of Planck’s idea of
quantization to electromagnetic radiation,

Alternatively, E   h / 2
Einstein’s Theory

Electron kinetic energy

Conservation of energy
yields:

hn  f  12 mv2
where f is the work function of the metal (potential energy
to be overcome before an electron could escape).
In reality, the data were a bit more
complex. Because the electron’s energy
can be reduced by the emitter material, hn  f  12 mv2max
consider vmax (not v):
Explanation of Classical “Problems”
 The effect is not observed below a certain cutoff
frequency since the photon energy must be
greater than or equal to the work function
 Without this, electrons are not emitted, regardless of
the intensity of the light
 The maximum KE depends only on the
frequency and the work function, not on the
intensity
More Explanations
 The maximum KE increases with increasing
frequency
 The effect is instantaneous since there is a one-
to-one interaction between the photon and the
electron
 Verification of Einstein’s Theory

 Experimental observations
of a linear relationship
between KE and frequency
confirms Einstein’s theory
 The x-intercept is the cutoff
frequency
Summary of Photoelectric effect
 Explained by quantized light.
 Red light is low frequency, low energy.
 (Ultra)violet is high frequency, high energy.

 Red light will not eject electron from metal,

no matter how intense.
 Single photon energy hf is too low.

 Need ultraviolet light

57
Particle Properties of
Waves
X-Rays
 X-Ray Production: Theory
 An energetic electron
passing through matter will
radiate photons and lose kinetic Ei
energy, called bremsstrahlung. Ef
 Since momentum is conserved,
the nucleus absorbs very little hn
energy, and it can be ignored.
 The final energy of the electron
is determined from the
conservation of energy to be: E f  Ei  hn
 X-Ray Production: Experiment
Current passing through a filament produces copious
numbers of electrons by thermionic emission.
these electrons are focused by a cathode structure into a
beam and are accelerated by potential differences of
thousands of volts
As they impinge on a metal anode surface, they produce x
rays by bremsstrahlung as they stop in the anode material.
 Inverse Photoelectric Effect
Conservation of energy requires that
the electron kinetic energy equal the
maximum photon energy (neglect the
work function because it’s small
compared to the electron potential
energy). This yields the Duane-Hunt
limit, first found experimentally. The
photon wavelength depends only on
the accelerating voltage and is the
same for all targets.
hc
eV0  hn max 
min
Particle Properties of
Waves
Compton Effect
Photons also have momentum!
Use our expression for the
relativistic energy to find the
momentum of a photon, which has
no mass:

E  (mc )  p c
2 2 2 2 2

E hn h
 p  
c c 
The Compton Effect
 Compton directed a beam of x-rays toward a
block of graphite
 He found that the scattered x-rays had a slightly
longer wavelength that the incident x-rays
 This means they also had less energy
 The amount of energy reduction depended on
the angle at which the x-rays were scattered
 The change in wavelength is called the Compton
shift
 Compton scattering
 Photon loses energy, transfers it to electron
 Photon loses momentum transfers it to electron
 Total energy and momentum conserved

Before collision
After collision

Photon energy E=hf

Photon mass = 0
Photon momentum p=E/c
65
 Compton scattering
 Photons can transfer energy to
beam of electrons.
 Determined by conservation of
momentum, energy.
 Compton awarded 1927 Nobel
prize for showing that this occurs
just as two balls colliding.

Arthur Compton,
Jan 13, 1936
66 Phy107 Fall 2006
 Compton Scattering

18-Apr-17 Principles of Nuclear Physics (NPE-503) 67

Compton Scattering, final
 The quantity h/mec is called the Compton
wavelength
 Compton wavelength = 0.00243 nm
 Very small compared to visible light
 The Compton shift depends on the scattering
angle and not on the wavelength
 Experiments confirm the results of Compton
scattering and strongly support the photon
concept
Waves Properties of
Particles
Electron Diffration
Louis de Broglie

 1892 – 1987
 Discovered the
wave nature of
electrons
 Awarded Nobel
Prize in 1929
Wave Properties of Particles
 In 1924, Louis de Broglie postulated that
because photons have wave and particle
characteristics, perhaps all forms of matter
have both properties
 Furthermore, the frequency and wavelength of
matter waves can be determined
de Broglie Wavelength
and Frequency

 The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is

h h
 
p mv
 The frequency of matter waves is

E
ƒ
h
Dual Nature of Matter
 The de Broglie equations show the dual nature
of matter
 Each contains matter concepts
 Energy and momentum
 Each contains wave concepts
 Wavelength and frequency
Diffraction
Interference
Interference Fringes on a Screen
Double-Slit Experiment
to illustrate wave nature of light
Double-Slit Experiment
with electron gun and detector

Trying to detect which slit the electrons pass

through causes them to behave like particles
Double-Slit Experiment
with a machine gun!
Double-Slit Experiment
with electron gun

Electrons behave like waves!

Davisson and Germer Experiment
 Assuming the wave nature of electrons we
can use de Broglie’s approach to calculate
wavelengths of a matter wave
corresponding to electrons in this
experiment
 V = 54 V  E = 54 eV = 8.64×10-18J
p2 h
E , p  2mE , B 
2m 2mE
6.63 10 34 J - sec 
B   1.67 A
31 18
2  9.110 kg  8.6 10 J

This is in excellent agreement with wavelengths of

X-rays diffracted from Nickel!
The Davisson-Germer Experiment
 They scattered low-energy electrons from a nickel
target
 They followed this with extensive diffraction
measurements from various materials
 The wavelength of the electrons calculated from the
diffraction data agreed with the expected de Broglie
wavelength
 This confirmed the wave nature of electrons
 Other experimenters have confirmed the wave nature
of other particles
Davisson-Germer Experiment
 If particles have a wave nature, then under
appropriate conditions, they should exhibit
diffraction
 Davisson and Germer measured the wavelength
of electrons
 This provided experimental confirmation of the
matter waves proposed by de Broglie
Electron Diffraction, Experiment
 Parallel beams of mono-energetic electrons that
are incident on a double slit
 The slit widths are small compared to the
electron wavelength
 An electron detector is positioned far from the
slits at a distance much greater than the slit
separation
Davisson and Germer Experiment
 Electrons were directed
onto nickel crystals
 Accelerating voltage is
used to control electron
energy: E = |e|V
 The scattering angle
and intensity (electron
current) are detected
 φ is the scattering angle
Davisson and Germer Experiment

 If electrons are “just” particles, we expect a smooth

monotonic dependence of scattered intensity on
angle and voltage because only elastic collisions
are involved
 Diffraction pattern similar to X-rays would be
observed if electrons behave as waves
Electron Diffraction, Set-Up
Interference Pattern of Electrons
 Determines the probability of an electron arriving
at a certain spot on the screen

 After many electrons,

resembles the inter-
ference pattern of light

Electron interference pattern after (a) 8 electrons, (b) 270 electrons, (c) 2000
electrons, and (d) 6000 electrons
 Electron Diffraction, cont.
 If the detector collects
electrons for a long enough
time, a typical wave
interference pattern is
produced
 This is distinct evidence that
electrons are interfering, a
wave-like behavior
 The interference pattern
becomes clearer as the
number of electrons reaching
the screen increases
Davisson and Germer Experiment
 For X-ray Diffraction on Nickel 2d sin   
Electron Diffraction, Equations
 A maximum occurs when d sin θ  mλ
 This is the same equation that was used for light
 This shows the dual nature of the electron
 The electrons are detected as particles at a localized
spot at some instant of time
 The probability of arrival at that spot is determined by
calculating the amplitude squared of the sum of all
waves arriving at a point
 Davisson and Germer Experiment:
Observations

 Intensity was stronger for

certain angles for specific
accelerating voltages (i.e.
for specific electron
energies)
 Electrons were reflected in
almost the same way that
X-rays of comparable
wavelength
 The Electron Microscope
 The electron microscope
depends on the wave
characteristics of electrons
 Microscopes can only
resolve details that are
slightly smaller than the
wavelength of the radiation
used to illuminate the
object
 The electrons can be
accelerated to high
energies and have small
wavelengths
Electron Diffraction Explained
 An electron interacts with both slits simultaneously
 If an attempt is made to determine experimentally
through which slit the electron goes, the act of
measuring destroys the interference pattern
 It is impossible to determine which slit the electron goes
through
 In effect, the electron goes through both slits
 The wave components of the electron are present at
both slits at the same time
Summary
 Waves and particles exhibit very different
behaviour
 Yet, light sometimes behaves like particles
 spectrum of blackbody radiation
 photoelectric effect
 And electrons sometimes behave like waves
 interference pattern of electrons
 In quantum theory, the distinction between
waves and particles is blurred