Module – 1: Power Semiconductor Devices

I N TR O D U C T I O N TO P O WE R E LE C TR O N I C S AN D I TS AP P LI C ATI O N S , TY P E S
O F P O WE R S E M I C O N D U C TO R D E V I C E S AN D TH E I R C O N TR O L
C H AR AC TE R I S TI C S
Power Electronics –Power+Electronics+Control
Power electronics is the art of converting electrical energy from one form to another
in an efficient,clean,compact and robust manner for the energy utilization to meet
the desired needs.
Power: Power equipment(Static/Rotating) for the generation,transmission&distribution of
electrical energy.
Electronics:Solid state devices and circuits to process the signal to meet the desired objectives.
Control:Steady state and dynamic characteristics of closed loop systems.
The relationship between power,electronics and control is as shown in Fig.
Applications:
Heat controls
Light controls
Motor controls
Power supplies
Vehicle propulsion systems
HVDC systems
 Characteristics

Control characteristics of power switching devices is as shown ;

Types of power electronic circuits:
Diode Rectifiers:
Converts ac voltage into fixed dc voltage.
Output voltage is a pulsating dc. Average output voltage Vo=2Vm/𝜋
Following fig shows rectifier circuit and associated waveforms.
DC to DC converters or Choppers
Fig shows a DC to DC converter.
When IGBT is on (Vge=1) V0=Vs.
When IGBT is off (Vge=0) V0=0.
V0(avg)=t1Vs/T=δVs
Average output voltage can be varied by varying duty cycle δ.δ=t1/T
T1 is on period of switch and T is chopping period.
Single phase Dc to Ac converter or
Inverter
Fig shows a single phase transistor inverter.
When switches M1 and M2 are turned on by applying gate voltages ,DC input voltage Vs appears
across load ie. V0=+Vs.
When switches M3 and M4 are turned on by applying gate voltages ,DC input voltage Vs appears
across load ie. V0= -Vs.
If M1 and M2 conducts for one half of the period and M3 and M4 for the other half output
voltage is alternating form.
RMS value of the output voltage V0(rms)=Vs.
As seen from the waveform output contains harmonics.
Ac to Dc converters or Controlled Rectifiers.
Fig shows Ac to Dc converter with two naturally commutated thyristors.
Thyristor is turned on by applying a gate pulse of small duration.
When current through the thyristor falls to zero it switches off naturally.
T1 is switched on at ωt=α where α is the firing delay angle.
T1 switches off naturally at ωt=π when current becomes zero.
T2 is switched on at ωt=π +α.
T2 switches off naturally at ωt=2π when current becomes zero.
Average output voltage V0(avg)=(1+cosα)Vm/π.
At α=0 ,coverter behaves as diode rectifier.
Average value of output voltage can be controlled by varying firing delay angle α .
AC to AC converters or AC Voltage
Controllers.
These converters convert fixed ac input to variable ac output.
Ac to Ac converter using TRIAC is as shown in fig.
TRIAC allows current flow in both the directions.
By applying gate pulses at ωt=α and at ωt= π +α to TRIAC waveform as shown is obtained.
A typical power converter system’
Mains1 supplies load through static bypass switch.
Rectifier charges the standby battery from Mains2.
Inverter supplies emergency power to the load through an isolating transformer..
Mains1 & Mains2 are normally connected to same supply.
 Thyristors
Thyristors are operated as bistable switches.
Thyristors conduct when it is forward biased, and a gate trigger is
applied.(controlled turn on)
Thyristor is switched off when current through it is made zero.
Gate Controlled turn on and Gate controlled turn off capability is
exhibited by GTOs-Gate Turn off Thyristors.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
• SCR is referred to as conventional thyristor i.e.. A device with controlled gate turn on capability.
• SCR s a four-layer semiconductor device of PNPN structure with three PN junctions J1,J2,J3 as shown in fig.
Operating
principle
• The cross section of a
thyristor is as shown.
Cross section can be split
into two sections of NPN
and PNP as shown.
• When anode voltage (terminal A) is made +ve with respect to cathode
(terminal K) (VAK)junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2
is reverse biased and a small leakage current flows from anode to
cathode.This state of thyristor is forward blocking state or off state.
Leakage current is off state current ID
• If anode to cathode voltage VAK is increased to a sufficiently large value
,reverse biased junction J2 breaksdown and there is free movement of
carriers across all the three junctions resulting in a large forward anode
current.The corresponding anode to cathode voltage VAK is forward
breakdown voltage V BO .This state is conducting state or on state.
• For the devise to remain in on condition anode current should be
greater than latching current I L..
• Latching current is the minimum anode current that is required to
maintain the thyristor in on state immediately after a thyristor has been
turned on and the gate signal has been removed.
• If the forward current is reduced below a level known as holding current I H , a
depletion region develops around junction J2 and thyristor enters blocking
state.
• Holding current is less than latching current.
• Holding current is the minimum anode current to maintain the thyristor in on
state.
• When cathode voltage is +ve with respect to anode,junction J2 is forward
biased but junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased.This is like two series
connected diodes with reverse voltage across them.The thyristor is in reverse
blocking state and a reverse current IR flows through the device.
• Turning on the thyristor by increasing forward voltage beyond VBO could be
destructive and not in practice.
• In practice the forward voltage is maintained below V BO and thyristor is turned
on by applying a positive voltage between its gate (G) and cathode(K)
• Once the device is turned on and anode current is greater than holding current
the device the device continues to conduct even if the gating signal is removed.
VI
Characteristics
of SCR
Dotted line shows thyristor
conduction with gate trigger
 Two transistor model of a thyristor
Regenerative or Latching action due to positive feedback is illustrated with the help
of a two-transistor model of a thyristor.
Thyristor is represented by two complementary transistors ,one PNP transistorQ1
and other NPN transistor Q2 as shown below.
• Collector current Ic,Emitter current IE and collector to base leakage
current I CBOare related according to equation shown where α =Ic/IE is
the common base current gain.

• For the transistors Q1 and Q2 the corresponding equations are:

• From the equivalent circuit

• Also I K = I A + I G
• Rearranging and simplifying the above equations I A is obtained as
shown.
Typical variation of current gain α with emitter current I E is as shown
below.Increase in I E increases α and increase in α increases I E due to
regenerative or +ve feedback effect.

• I c = β I B and
• I E = I C+ I B
• Increase in I B
increases I C and
increase in I C
increases I E
 Two transistor model of SCR
• Increase in I G increases IA which
tends to increaseα1 and α 2 .
• Increase in α1 and α 2 further
increases I A and this is a cumulative
action due to +ve feedback or
regenerative effect. If α 1+α 2
approaches unity, increase in I A will
be very large and thyristor turns on
with a small gate current.
• Cj1,Cj2,C j3are the junction capacitors
.If a thyristor is in blocking state and a
rapidly rising voltage is applied across
the device, a high junction current
through the internal junction
capacitor may damage the
device.Hence applied dv/dt must be
less than the rated value.
Power MOSFETs
• MOSFETs are voltage controlled devices.
• MOSFETs have very high input impedance.
• Gate current drawn is very less and of the order of nanoamperes.
• Current gain(ratio of drain current to gate current I D/I G)is very high
(10 9) .
• Enhancement MOSFETs are used as Power MOSFETs.
Transfer Characteristics

• Transconductance is the ratio of

drain current to gate voltage and
defines the transfer characteristics.
Output characteristics.

• Cut off region: V GS<=V T

• Pinch off or saturation
region:V DS>=V GS- V T
• Linear region:V DS<=V GS- V T
• Pinch off occurs at
V DS=V GS- V T
• Power MOSFETS are operated in linear region for switching
action.
• Steady state switching model is as shown below.
Switching
waveforms
• t d(on) : turn on delay time – Time
required to charge input
capacitance to threshold voltage
level
• t r: rise time-Gate charging time
from threshold level to 90% of V
GS which is required to drive the
transistor in linear region.
• t d(off) : Turn off delay time – Time
required for the input
capacitance to discharge from
overdrive gate voltage VG to 90%
of V GS .
• t f :Fall time is the time required
for the input capacitance to
discharge from 90% of V GS to V T.
Switching model of MOSFETs
 IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
• An IGBT is a voltage-controlled device similar to power MOSFET.
• The three terminals are gate, collector and emitter.
• IGBT is turned on by applying a + ve gate voltage and turned off by
removing the gate voltage.
• Needs a simple driver circuit.
• Good peak current capability and rugged device.
• Circuit and characteristics are as shown.
• Typical ratings:6500 V ,2400 A , Switching frequency 20 kHz.
• Medium power applications such as ac and dc motor drives, power
supplies, solid state relays and contractors.
IGBT
characteristics.
• Parameters and
symbols are
similar to
MOSFETS except
the subscripts for
source and drain
are changed to
emitter and
collector
respectively.
Thyristor turn on:
• Different ways of turning on thyristor are
1. Thermals: At high thyristor temperatures there is an increase in
electron hole pairs which increases the leakage currents. This
increase in currents causes α 1and α 2 to increase. Due to
regenerative action α 1+ α 2 may tend to unity and thyristor may be
turned on. This type of turn on may result in thermal runaway and
hence avoided.
2. Light: If light is allowed to strike the junctions of a thyristor the
electron hole pairs increase, and the thyristor is tuned on. The Light
Activated thyristors are turned on by this method.
• High Voltage: If forward anode to cathode is greater than the forward
breakdown voltage V BO sufficient leakage current flows to initiate
regenerative turn-on. This type of turn-on is destructive and avoided.
• dv/dt :If rate of rise of anode to cathode voltage is high, the charging
current of capacitive junctions is enough to turn on thyristors. A high
value of charging current may damage the device and device must be
protected against high dv/dt. Manufacturers will specify maximum
allowable dv/dt.
• Gate current: If a thyristor is forward biased, the injection of gate
current by applying positive voltage between gate and cathode
terminals turn on the thyristor. AS the gate current is increased
forward blocking voltage is reduced. This is shown in following fig.
Thyristor turn on characteristics:

• t on : Time interval
from 10%of gate
current I Gto 90% of
thyristor current I T.
• t on = t d + t r.
• td :delay timeinterval
is between 10%of I G
to 10% of I T.
• t r :rise time of anode
current : time interval
from 10% of I T to 90%
of I T .
Precautions to be taken in designing gate
control circuit:
1.Gate signal should be removed after the thyristor is turned on.
Continuous gate signal would increase power loss in gate junction.
2.Gate signal should be removed when the thyristor is reverse biased,
because thyristor may fail due to increased leakage current.
3. Pulse width I G should more than turn on time of the thyristor.
Thyristor Turn off:
• Thyristor is turned off by reducing the forward current to a level
below the holding current I H for sufficiently long time so that all the
excess carriers in the four layers are recombined.
• Different techniques for turning off thyristors or commutation
techniques are
1.Line commutation &
2.Forced commutation.
Line Commutation

• Input voltage is a alternating voltage.

• A reverse voltage appears across the
thyristor immediately after the forward
current goes through the zero value.
This reverse voltage accelerates the
turn off process by sweeping out excess
carriers from the junctions.
Forced
commutation
• Input voltage is DC.
• Main thyristor T1 is
commutated by tuning on
T2.
• When T2 is turned on
reverse voltage ie, voltage
across C is applied across
T1 .
Turn off time t q = Reverse Recovery time t rr +
Recombination time t rc .
• t rr : The amount of time current flows in the reverse direction.
• t rc : The time taken for recombination of excess carriers. This time
depends on the magnitude of reverse voltage.
• t q : Time interval between the instant when the on state current has
decreased to zero to the instant when the thyristor is capable of
withstanding the forward voltage without turning on.
Gate drive circuits for power MOSFETs &
IGBTs

• A gate driver is a power amplifier that accepts

a low power input and produces a high current
gate drive for a power device.
• The gate of a MOSFET or IGBT is the
electrically isolated control for each device.
• To operate a MOSFET/IGBT, typically a voltage
has to be applied to the gate that is relative to
the source/emitter of the device. In order to
drive these switching devices into conduction ,
the gate terminal must be made positive with
respect to its source/emitter.
MOSFET gate drive:

• MOSFETS are Voltage controlled

devices with high input impedance and
gate draws a very small leakage
current(nano amperes).
• Gate drive circuits are designed such
that turn on and turn off of device
takes less time.
• Turn on time of a MOSFET depends on
the charging time of the input or gate
capacitance.The turn on time can be
reduced by connecting an RC circuit as
shown.
• Initial charging current of the capacitance is I G = V G / R s
• Steady state gate voltage is V GS = R G V G / ( R s +R 1 + R G )
• To achieve switching speeds of the order of 100 ns or less the gate
drive circuit should have a low output impedance and ability to sink
and source relatively large currents.
• This is achieved by using totem pole arrangement as shown in fig.
NPN and PNP transistors act as
emitter followers and offer a low
output impedance.These
transistors operate in linear region
there by reducing delay time.
Gate signal to MOSFET is
generated by an op-amp.
Feedback via capacitor C regulates
rate of rise and fall of gate voltage
there by controlling rate of rise
and fall of the MOSFET drain
current.
A diode across C allows the gate
voltage to rise . rapidly in only one
direction.
 Isolation of gate and base drive circuits
Isolation is electrical separation between various functional
circuits in a system such that there is no direct conduction
path available between them.Signal/power can still pass
between isolated circuits using inductive,capacitive or optical
methods.
For operating Power transistors /IGBTs as switches an
appropriate base current or gate voltage must be
applied to drive the device into saturation mode.
The control voltage should be applied between the
gate and source terminals or between base and
emitter terminals.
The power converters generally has multiple switches
and each switch must be gated individually.
Following fig. shows topology of single-phase inverter and logic circuit
that generates firing pulses.This circuit demonstrates the necessity of
isolation:
• Logic generator common C and Ground terminal G may be
connected by dashed lines as shown.
•.
For switches M1 and M3 gate signal has to be applied
between G1-S1 and G3-S3 respectively but not between
G1-G and G3-G Hence there is a need for isolation and
interfacing circuits between the logic circuit and power
circuits.
Swithes M2 and M4 can be gated directly without
isolation or interfacing circuits
Hence a separate gate isolation circuit is necessary.
Time delayed firing pulses are as shown.
•.
• Another configuration which
demonstrates the need for
isolation circuit is shown in
the adjacent fig. where V GS
=VG-IDRL..Effective value of
VGSdecreases as transistor
turns on and VGS reaches a
steady value.Effective value
of VGSis unpredictable and
such an arrangement is not
suitable.Hence the gate
circuit has to be isolated.
 There are two ways of floating or isolating the control or gate signal with
respect to ground. They are 1.Using Pulse transformers or 2.Using
Optocouplers.
• 1.Isolation using pulse transformers: Following diagram illustrates
pulse transformer isolation. Pulse transformers have one or more
secondary windings. Multiple secondary windings allow simultaneous
gating signals to series and parallel connected transistors.The
transformer should have low leakage inductance and output pulse
should have low rise time. Otherwise transformer will saturate and its
output will be distorted for a long pulse and low switching frequency.
2.Optocoupler isolation: Following fig.illustrates optocoupler
isolation.Optocoupler consists of an infrared light emitting diode(ILED)
and a silicone photo transistor.
• Input is applied to ILED and output is taken from the
phototransistor. Photo transistor can be a Darlington pair.
Photo transistors need separate power supply and this
increases cost, complexity and weight of drive circuits.
di/dt and dv/dt limitations.
• Transistors require certain turn-on and turn-off times.Typical voltage
and current waveforms of a transistor switch are as shown in fig.
• During turn on collector current rises ie., di/dt (rate of change of
current) and during turn off collector emitter voltage rises ie.,dv/dt-
(rate of change of voltage) is given by following equations.
The conditions as set by device switching characteristics must be satisfied
during turn on and turn off. Protection circuits are normally required to
keep the operating di/dt and dv/dt within the allowable limits.

• A typical transistor switch with

di/dt and dv/dt protection is as
shown.
• The Rs Cs network across the
transistor is known as snubber
circuit or snubber and limits
dv/dt.
• The inductor Ls which limits di/dt
is called series snubber.
Gate voltage VG, Supply
current i and
freewheeling current if
waveforms are as shown:
• At steady state load current IL is
freewheeling through diode and
Q1 is off.
• At t=0 +,Q1 is turned on,current
through Q1 increases and
freewheeling current through
diode decreases.
Equivalent circuit during turn on is as shown:

• From the circuit Vs =LS di/dt.

• di/dt=VS /LS ......(1)
• We know that during turn on
di/dt=IL/tr=ICS/tr………..(2)
• Equating equations (1) and (2)
• VS /LS =IL/tr
• LS=(𝑉S tr)/I L
During turn off capacitor CS charges by the load
current and equivalent circuit is as shown:
• From the circuit I L =C S dvS /dt.
Or dvs /dt=iL/C s……………(1)
• Also we know that
dvs/dt=V S/tf=VCS/tf ………..(2)
• Equating equations (1) and (2)
dVs/dt=IL/CS.=Vs/tf
Or C S=ILtf /V S
Once the capacitor is charged to VS
the free-wheeling diode turns
on.Due to energy stored in LS the
circuit behaves as a damped R L C
resonant circuit. Equivalent circuit
is as shown.

• Analysis of this circuit

for critical damping
yields
The capacitor Cs discharges through the transistor. A discharge time
of one third the switching period TS is considered (RS CS =T S/3)
Discharge current waveform is as shown in fig.

• 3RS CS =T S =1/fS.
Or
RS=1/(3fSCS)
 Generalized power converter
• Operation of power converters depends on switching of power
semiconductor devices.
• Switching of devices at different instants introduce harmonics into the
supply system and on the output of converters.
• Hence filters are introduced at input and output of a typical converter
system to reduce the harmonic level to an acceptable magnitude.
• Inputs to power converters can be either ac or dc.
• Factors such as total harmonic distortion(THD),displacement
factor(DF),Input Power factor(IPF) are measures of quality of a
waveform. The quality of a power converter is judged by the quality of
current and voltage waveforms.
• The control strategy for power converters may be aimed to reduce
waveform distortion and harmonic generation.
• Radio frequency interference due to electromagnetic radiation can be
avoided y proper grounded shielding.
• In a converter system there are two levels of waveform. One
waveform is at power level and another low level signal from gating
circuit. These two voltage levels must be isolated so that they will not
interfere with each other.
• Block dia. Of a generalized power converter and typical converter are
as shown in following figures.
Generalized power converter system.
Typical power electronic converter
Power ratings of commercially available
power semiconductors.