2ND GRADING

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

GREEK VIEW OF MATTER MOTION AND UNIVERSE

 Over a period of centuries, ancient Greeks developed an elaborate view of Earth and Universe.
 They were the 1st to explain the motion of heavens using pure observations without incorporating
mysticism or myths.

THE SCHOOL OF ATHENS

 A Fresco painted by the Italian Renaissance artist between 1509 and 1511
 Stanze di Rafaello or Rafaello Santi or Raphael Sanzio
 Where: Stanza della Segnature (Room of the Signature)
 It symbolizes the marriage of art, philosophy and science.
 Some of the prominent intellectual figures who has marveled about heavens (Anaximander,
Phythagoras, Plato, Ptolemy and Aristotle – at the center).

THREE (3) TYPES OF TERRESTIAL MOTION

 Diurnal Motion – This motion due to the Earth’s rotation from west to east, which causes
celestial bodies to have apparent motion from east to west.
 Annual Motion – Is the apparent yearly movement of the stars as observed from Earth as a direct
effect of the Earth’s revolution around the sun. The sun revolves 360 degrees a year around a path
on the celestial sphere called ecliptic.
 Precession of the Equinox – As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, it intersects the celestial
equator twice during a year at two points. These points are called the equinoxes: Vernal and
Autumal.
- During an equinox, the length of night time is almost equal to the length of night time.
- Vernal or spring equinox happens every March 20.
- Autumal Equinox occurs every September 22.
- The Gravitational Force of the sun and the moon on Earth causes the cyclic precession of
“wobbing” of the Earth’s axis or rotation. Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion
of the equinoxes along the ecliptic as Earth “wobbing”, and this motion happens about 26,000
years.

GREEK MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE

 Earth Spherical – During the time of Pythagoras that it was 1st thought of to be spherical in
shape. Sphere is considered the perfect geometric shape and the Greeks believed that the most
important objects in the universe – Earth.
 Universe according to Plato – Are appropriately described as spherical.
1. When shops sail and out from the harbor, the mast of the ship is the 1st appear and last to
disappear.
2. As you travel north or south, the altitude of the celestial pole changes.
 3. During a Lunar eclipse, the shadow of the Earth is always round that only can produce.
 Anaximander – Made use some idea of Thales and proposed a cylindrical model of the Earth
that was stationary at the center of the universe, The Earth was surrounded by air, then one or
more spherical shells with holes in them. The holes appeared as stars because beyond the solid
sphere lay in rim shape.
 Pythagoras - He claim that the sphere is perfect geometric shape it became widely accepted
notion that Earth is a sphere in a universe that is also spherical in shape. He placed greater
importance on the power and aesthetics of geometry and mathematics over observations and
experiments.
 Herakleides – Student of Plato and Aristotle but greatly influenced by Pythagoras, improved the
ideas of Phildaus (450-385 B.C) in creating a model of the Universe with a spherical Earth
rotating on its axis. Mercury and Venus revolved around the Earth. The stars were fixed on a
revolving crystalline sphere.
 Aristarchus of Samos – He focused on the heliocentric model of the Universe. He proposed a
model that placed the Sun at the center of the Universe. In this theory, all planets, including
Earth, revolved around the Sun in circular orbits and the Earth rotated once a day on its axis and
the Moon revolved around the Earth.
- Not widely accepted
- His original writings were lost when the Great Library of Alexandria was destroyed.
- Copernicus was the failure to observe any stellar parallax.
- Under his model, the closer the star should show periodic shift in position to and against more
distant starts over the course of a year as the Earth orbited the Sun.

CONSTRAINTS ON THE GREEK MODEL “PLATO’S SAVING APPEARANCE’

While the Greek models were aesthetically descriptive of the Earth and the Universe because of
the power of geometry and mathematics, they were still, constrained by the fact that models rare mirror
reality “perfectly”.
RETROGADE MOTION
Observation showed that planets shift slightly eastward from night to night, drifting slowly
against fixed star background. From time to time they change direction, and for a few months the planets
will head west before going back around the resume easterly course.

 Plato adopted ideas of Pythagoras and came up with his own model of the Universe. Since he
believed that spheres and circles constitute perfection in geometrical shapes, he argued that
“bodies in heaven” should be appropriately defined and described by perfect shape, including
how they move. He modeled the orbit of a planet as perfectly described by a circle and that
planets, just like stars, move in a circular motion at constant speed. Even with his new model,
Plato was not able to address retrograde motion.
 In order to “save appearances”, Plato challenged his students and the astronomers and
mathematician of his time posing before them his question “How to account for (save) the
seemingly irregular planetary phenomena (appearances) using only uniform circular motion?”
OBSERVATION OF ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA
 Euxodus
- Student of Plato
 - Used geometry to envision a model which could explain the irregular motion of the planets
without going away from the notion of perfectly uniform and circular motion of planets.
- His model describes structure of spheres within spheres, sharing common center.
- He was able to explain to roughly the apparent motion of the planets as seen from the Earth.
The actual positions of the planets were predicted to be close to the actual approximations
even without the use of telescopes. Even though the model was far from the actual model of
the Universe, using pure mechanical observations and geometry alone, that is, free from
mysticism or myths.
PRE-KEPLER MODELS OF ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMA
 Aristotelian Model of the Universe
- During his time, Plato only presumed in his theory of the origin and nature of the cosmos that
the Earth was the center of the Universe. His pupil Aristotle proposed that the Earth was
indeed the center of the Universe and that Motion, planets and stars revolved around it. This
model was derived from the ideas of Euxodus.
- According to Aristotle, the Universe was composed of a series of 53 concentric crystalline,
transparent spheres rotation on different axes with the Earth as their center, he believed that
the Moon serves as a boundary between an ever changing Earth and Heavens, which was
unchanging and constant. He believed that all matter was composed of combinations of 4
elements = Fire, Air, and Water and that the Stars were made of the fifth element: Aether.
The motion in heavens was natural and circular, allowing the other Planets and the Sun to
orbit around the spherical Earth.
 Ptolemaic Model of the Universe, Claudius Ptolemy
- Developed model of the Universe by combining his works and the observation made by the
earlier astronomers. His model accepted until 1600’s, naturally places a stationary Earth at
the center of the Universe and 10,000 Earth diameters from the center was the celestial
spheres where the stars are located. The celestial sphere rotated around the Earth once every
24 hours. The motion of the Sun and other planets can be described by epicycles, deferent,
and the eccentric positions.
- Epicycles refers to the circular path taken by the planet orbiting point X, a point anywhere in
the deferent.
- Deferent refers to the circular path around the point C, the center of the motion, travelled by
point X. Note that the location of point C is not the same as that of the Earth.
- Eccentric refers to the angle between point C and location of the Earth with point X as the
vertex.
 In Ptolemy’s Model, different planets have different eccentric, epicycles and deferent. In spite of
its complexity, Ptolemy’s model was widely accepted because it worked in predicting the position
of the planets and it accounted for the observation planetary motion, retrograde motion and
variations in brightness.
 It satisfied the Aristotelian philosophy that Earth is the center of the Universe. His model could
accurately explain the Motions of heavenly bodies and it became the model for understanding the
structure of the solar system.
 Copernican Heliocentric Model, Nicolaus Copernican
- Developed his model of the Universe when the observed a discrepancy in Ptolemy’s
prediction table.
- Influenced by Aristarchus and Neoplatonism.
- He proposed a model that put the Sun at the center of the Universe.
 - He explained that the Earth rotated daily on its axis at the same time, along with the center
planets, it revolved around the Sun in circular paths.
- These movements accounted for the daily and annual patterns of celestial motions.
- The model was able to explain the retrograde motion of planets by relative motion between
them and the Earth.
- Retrograde motion occurs whether a planet that passes by Earth is passed by another planets.
The distances between planets and sun, as well as the orbital periods, could be accurately
determined.
- It could be also explain the different between the inferior planets (Mercury and Venus) and
the superior planets (Mars, Jupiter and Saturn).
- The model preserved the concept of uniform circular motion and spheres.
- It was still not enough to replace the widely accepted Ptolemaic Model.
- The model required a moving Earth and it failed to present laws of Motion that would replace
that of Aristotle’s.
- His model was more complicated than Ptolemy’s that he had to introduce more devices to fit
his observations.
 Galileo’s Observations
- Improving the telescopes
- Discovered three of Jupiter’s four largest moon: Lo, Europa and Ganymede.
- He presumed that these satellites orbit the planets since they would occasionally disappear.
- He interpreted that these observations were due to the fact that these moons were behind the
planet, Jupiter.
- Using telescope, he was able to observe Venus going through a full set of phases, just like the
Moon. Under Ptolemaic System, Venus would have only been allowed the new and crescent
phases as it would never be possible that Venus to be on the far side of the Sun, which is
impossible in the Ptolemaic System where Venus orbit around the Earth.
- These observations essentially ruled out the Ptolemaic System and was compatible only with
the Copernican System.
- Galileo’s observation of Venus phases proved that Venus orbited around the Sun.
- It only lent supported but did not prove the heliocentric theory proposed by Copernicus.
 Tycho Brahe’s Observations, Tycho Brahe
- Known to have extensive and more accurate observations of planets and stars even without
the use of telescopres, observed a new star appear in the constellation Cassiopeia. The
absence of observable movement with respect to nearby stars led to him believed that this
particular heavenly bodies was a star and not a comet.
- Years later, he observed a bright comet and recognized no parallax, these observations
contradicted the Aristotelian notion that stars were unchanging and comets were confined to
sub-lunary sphere between Earth and Moon. These observation prompted Brahe to develop
his own model based on the ideas of Copernicus but excluding the idea of the Earth moving.
In his model, the Earth was placed at the center of the Universe with the Moon orbiting
around it.
- Stars on a rotating sphere revolved around the Earth once every day. His model use of the
concept of epicycles, deferents, and equarts. His model was accepted only a few years
because it would later replaced by Johannes Kepler’s model was an assistant of Tycho Brahe.
 Johannes Kepler’s Observations, Johannes Kepler
- A German astronomer who lived at about the same time as Galileo.
- He also believed in the heliocentric model of the universe.
 - Kepler's model showed mathematically that a sun-centered system worked well if planet's
motion is along off-center ellipses.

3 Laws of Planetary Motion by Kepler

1. Law of Ellipse
- The orbit of the planets is an ellipse with the sun at one of the foci of the ellipse the closest
point to the sun in a planet's orbit is the perihelion. The farthest point is called the aphelion.
2. Law of Equal Areas
- The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps over equal areas in equal times as the planet
travels around the orbit, this means the planet moves fastest at the perihelion and slowest at the
aphelion.
3. Law of Period (Harmonic Law)

- The square of the period revolution of a planet around the sun is proportional to the cube of the
average distance of the planet from the sun.

LIGHT AS A PARTICLE
 Plato and Pythagoras
- The two first persons who theorized about the concept of light.
- They believed that light came from collecting probes from far objects.
 Alhazen
- Believed that vision occurs when light bounces on an object and then is directed to one's
eyes.
- Became the Father of Optics because of his perspective that we saw objects from ray of light
and also for his book.

SOURCE OF LIGHT
 Source of Light is very important, because all the things came from source of light it just
happened that light is reflecting to the object going to our eyes.
 We have two sources of light one is natural and the another one is artificial source of light.
 NATURAL SOURCE OF LIGHT
- Example of natural source of light are sun and stars.
 ARTIFICIAL SOURCE OF LIGHT
- These are the object produce light using electric discharge, incandescence, phosphorescence
and fluorescence.
1. Incandescence
- The emission of light from a body caused by heating it. A blacksmith heats a horseshoe and it
emits red light. A high-resistance Nichrome wire toaster element glows red. A light bulb
filament operates similarly. But since it is heated to a greater degree, it emits so-called white
light.
 2. Phosphorescence
- Nighttime sidewalk lights are phosphorescent objects. Star stickers on a bedroom ceiling are
another example. In fact, most glow-in-the-dark objects are based on the principle of
phosphorescence. Similar to fluorescence, except the radiation takes place slowly over an
extended time period. Heat and combustion are not involved
3. Fluorescence
- Fluorescence is the rapid, even immediate emission of radiation, visible or invisible,
proceeding the absorption of higher frequency (higher energy, shorter wavelength) radiation
such as ultraviolet light. Certain rocks and minerals as well as marine biological specimens
are fluorescent emitters.
 Electric Charge
- An electric discharge is the process by which a gas releases light because of electricity
passing through it.
SPEED OF LIGHT

 Derivation of Speed of Light

- The first person who conceptualized the speed of light is OLAF ROEMER. He did this by
measuring the length of time an eclipse occurred in one of Jupiter’s moons.
- In 1849 the French physicist A.H.C. Fizeau developed the first non-astronomical method of
measuring the speed of light using apparatus.
- Then Foucault's toothed wheel in 1862.
But the successful one who accurately measure the speed of light using the same method as
Foucault's does is
- A.A. MICHELSON he calculated the speed of light at the value of 2.99 x 10⁸ m/s which at
present in a vacuum it is accepted approximately at 3.00 x 10⁸ m/s.
LIGHT AS A PARTICLE
ISAAC NEWTON

 Newton was the first person who theorized that light is made up of tiny particles called
CORPUSCLES.
 Newton believed that he had proof that will explain on his theory.
CORPUSCULAR THEORY

 Reflection
- NEWTON believed that light is made up of particles because of the experiment of light
passing through a smooth surface of plane mirror, as the light pass through it bounce away in
reversed image.
 Refraction
- also NEWTON discussed about the refraction which his idea is, as the light pass through a
another medium(water) some particles bounce away and some particles decide to go into the
medium(water).
 Rectilinear Propagation
- “HIGHER SPEED, LESSER CURVE PATH”
 THE PHYSICS OF ARISTOTLE VERSUS THE PHYSICS OF GALILEO
 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)
- Account of motion can be found in the Physics.
- Explained the behaviour of an object, such as a rock, in terms of the “essential nature” of that
object.
- Non-measurable force existed within an object that compelled it to behave in a certain
manner
“ROCKS WILL NORMALLY DOWNWARD”

 According to Aristotle, the motion of physical bodies have two types : NATURAL MOTION
and VIOLENT MOTION
1. NATURAL MOTION – elements tend to seek their natural places
2. VIOLENT MOTION – any forced motion that opposes natural motion (Push or Pull) the
speed of the moving object is directly proportional to the force moving it.
 ESSENTIALS
- He believed that a stone fell to the ground because the stone and the ground were similar in
substance (in terms of the 4 basic elements, they were mostly "earth").
- smoke rose away from the Earth because in terms of the 4 basic elements it was primarily air
(and some fire), and therefore the smoke wished to be closer to air and further away from
earth and water.
- Aristotle held that the more perfect substance (the "quintessence") that made up the heavens
had as its nature to execute perfect (that is, uniform circular) motion.
- He also believed that objects only moved as long as they were pushed. Thus, objects on the
Earth stopped moving once applied forces were removed, and the heavenly spheres only
moved because of the action of the Prime Mover, who continually applied the force to the
outer spheres that turned the entire heavens.
 Before Galileo
- Since Aristotle (300 B.C), most people believed that projectiles moved in straight lines until
their “impetus” ran out, at which point they fell to the ground.
- During the renaissance people began observing things carefully and realised this was not
correct.
- The invention of cannons also made people realize that projectile motion is parabolic.
 GALILEO’S CONTRIBUTION
- Galileo built an inclined plane on a bench with adjustable height. By varying the height of the
table and the position of the ball on the incline, he could determine the trajectory.
- FREE FALL – THE LAW OF FALLING BODIES- GRAVITY
- Galileo disproved Aristotle’s Theory
- He dropped stones of different weights to the ground from a top the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
He proved that objects of different weights fell at the same speed.
 FREE FALL
- Free fall is the downward motion under the influence of gravity (neglect the air resistance).
- If air resistance is disregards, all objects dropped near the surface of a planet fall with the
same constant acceleration. This acceleration is due to gravitational force, and the motion is
referred as to free fall.
- The acceleration due to gravity is denoted with the symbols ag (generally) or g (on Earth’s
Surface). The magnitude of g is about 9.8 m/s2 .
- Example:
1. Motion of bungee jumper
2. Motion of skydivers
- Note:
1. Free fall does not mean that the object is falling down only
2. Objects thrown upward or downward and those released from rest are all the examples of
free fall.
 PROJECTILE MOTION
- ARISTOTLE - initial impetus is supplied to an object, making it move a new region.
- GALILEO – a projectile moves in constant horizontal motion simultaneously with a constant
vertical acceleration.
- Projectile Motion – a combination of vertical and horizontal motions that are completely
independent of each other.
- Is a form of motion experienced by an object or particle that is thrown near the earth’s surface
and moves along a curve path under the action of gravity only.
- Projectile – an object or body thrown with an initial velocity and whose motion is influenced
by the pull of gravity.
- Trajectory – the curved path of a projectile; it is principally determined by two types of
motion; vertical and horizontal motion.
- Range ( dx ) – the horizontal displacement of a projectile
- Height (HX) – the vertical displacement of a projectile
 LIGHT IS A WAVE
 CHRISTIAN HUYGENS
- Huygen’s believed that WAVES through space and the energy is distributed equally
in all direction.
- Also HUYGENS believe that light is more proven as a wave because of the property
of refraction.

BASIC PARTS OF A WAVE

 WAVELENGTH (nm)
- It is a distance between to successive crest or trough in an electromagnetic wave.
 FREQUENCY (Hz)
- It refers to the number of waves that pass a given point in one second. The unit for
frequency is cycles per second, also called hertz (Hz).
 AMPLITUDE
- The maximum value of the wave displacement
 WAVE SPEED
- The speed at which a wave travels. Wave speed is related to wavelength, frequency,
and period by the equation wave speed = frequency x wavelength. The most
commonly used wave speed is the speed of visible light, an electromagnetic wave.
 REFLECTION
- The law of reflection idealized the concept of a plane mirror which light will pass
through the mirror. This concept said that the:
- Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection
 REFRACTION AND LAW OF REFRACTION
- When a ray of light passes from one medium to another, it changes direction (bends)
at the interface because of the difference in speed of the wave in the media. The ratio
of this speed difference is called the index of refraction (n).
 DIFFRACTION
- This property was a subsequent of the young's experiment the double slit which in
this case a single slit obstacle was use. The strong beliefs of HUYGENS was proven
here because as the light pass through the obstacle the light spread out and widen it's
360 broadness.
 INTERFERENCE
- Also known as double slit experiment by THOMAS YOUNG.
- When two light waves superpose with each other in such a way that the crest of one
wave falls on the crest of the second wave, and trough of one wave falls on the trough
of the second wave, then the resultant wave has larger amplitude and it is called
constructive interference.
 But they don't knew that NEWTON and HUYGENS are the same correct because light
behave as a WAVE and as a PARTICLE, these are the proof
 MATTER OF WAVES
 De Broglie Waves (BROGLIE, LOUIS (VICTOR PIERRE RAYMOND) DE)
- Photon as:
1. Energy of a Photon

hf hc
E  
c 
2. Momentum of a Photon

E hf h
p  
c f 
3. Wavelength of a Photon

h
 
p
 Double Slit Experimentation
- Thomas Young’s experiments with his “double-slit” apparatus at the beginning of the 19th
Century had shown that light caused interference, a characteristic property of waves, and he
was even able to determine its wavelength.
 Why we can’t observe the wavelength of the other particle?
- For us to observe the wavelength of a particle, its wavelength must be comparable to the
dimensions to interacts with.
 WHAT KIND OF WAVES IS DE BROGLIE WAVES?
- Light behaves as a wave on one hand and as particle on the other hand. This nature of light is
known as Dual Nature. While this property of light is known as wave-particle duality.
- De Broglie, suggested that dual nature is not only of light but each moving material particles
has dual nature. He assumed that a wave to be associated with each moving material particle
is called “MATTER WAVE”
 COMPARISON AND DIFFRENCE OF DE BROGLIE WAVES AND
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 WHAT EXACTLY DE BROGLIE TELL ABOUT US?
- De Broglie proposed that just as light both wave-like and particle like properties, electrons
also have wave-like properties.
- By rearranging the momentum equation stated , we find a relationship between the
wavelength associated with an electron and its momentum through the plank’s constant.
 PARTICLE HAS WAVELENGTH

h h
  
p mv