Casting – Process

Read in Text book Chapter: 10 and 11

Many of this lecture slides are adopted from
the Text book
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 METAL CASTING
PROCESSES
1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting
Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
4. Foundry Practice
5. Casting Quality
6. Metals for Casting
7. Product Design Considerations
 Ingot Casting
•The molten metal is poured from the ladle
into the ingot molds
•Gas entrapment can be lowered by
bottom pouring
ladle
•The cooled ingot is removed (stripped)
from the mold and lowered into soaking pit
•Reheated to a uniform temperature
(1200C)for subsequent processing (such
as rolling)
•Ingots may be square, rectangle, or
round in cross section
mould
•Weight range from few hundred pounds
to 40 tons
 Continuous Casting Processes
•Widely used for steel production at low cost
•The molten metal in the Ladle poured into refractory lined
intermediate pouring vessel (Tundish)
•Tundish holds as much as 3 tons of metal
•Solid starter (Or dummy bar) is inserted in the bottom of the mold
•Molten metal is poured and solidified on the starter bar
•The bar is withdrawn at the same rate the metal is poured
(along a path supported by rollers-pinch rolls)
•The cooling rate is such that the metal develop a solidified skin
(Shell-12 to 18mm) to support – during travel
•Additional cooling is provided by water spray
•The molds are coated with graphite or lubricants to reduce friction/sticking
•Continuous cast metal is cut to desired length by shearing or torch cutting
•Can also be fed into rolling mill to further reduction in thickness, or shape
rolling (channel, I beam etc)
•Continuous casting have uniform composition and properties-compared to
ingot casting
Continuous Casting
Continuous Casting
 Two Categories of Casting
Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed
to remove part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited
by time to make mold rather than casting
itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of
metal and can be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to
open mold
Near Net Shape Casting
Processes
 Expendable Molds
 Sand molds – green sand; CO2 sand;
resin-bonded sand
 Shell molds – resin-bonded sand – parts
typically have flat or elongated shape
 Vacuum molds – dry sand
 Plaster molds
 Investment molds – lost wax process
 Reusable Molds
 Permanent molds – graphite or cast iron
molds
 Die casting – steel molds; metal injected
into mold under pressure
 Centrifugal casting
Different Casting Processes

Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples

Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, poor finish & engine blocks,
cheap tolerance cylinder heads
Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher limited part size connecting rods,
production rate gear housings
Expendable Wide range of metals, sizes, patterns have low cylinder heads,
pattern shapes strength brake components
Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface non-ferrous metals, prototypes of
finish low production rate mechanical parts
Ceramic mold complex shapes, high small sizes impellers, injection
accuracy, good finish mold tooling
Investment complex shapes, excellent small parts, jewellery
finish expensive
Permanent good finish, low porosity, high Costly mold, simpler gears, gear
mold production rate shapes only housings
Die Excellent dimensional costly dies, small gears, camera
accuracy, high production rate parts, bodies, car wheels
non-ferrous metals
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good Expensive, few pipes, boilers,
quality shapes flywheels
 Overview of Sand Casting
 Most widely used casting process,
accounting for a significant majority of total
tonnage cast
 Nearly all alloys can be sand casted,
including metals with high melting
temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and
titanium
 Castings range in size from small to very
large
 Production quantities from one to millions
A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg
(1500 lb) for an air compressor frame
(photo courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).
 Casting - Sand Properties
 Cohesiveness (able to retain shape after
packing)
 Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
 Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
 Refractoriness/ Thermal stability - able to
withstand high temps and to resist cracking on
contact with molten metal
 Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow
casting to shrink without cracking the casting
 Reusability - can sand from broken mold be
reused to make other molds?
 Casting - Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other
minerals
 Good refractory properties - capacity to
endure high temperatures
 Small grain size yields better surface finish on
the cast part
 Large grain size is more permeable, allowing
gases to escape during pouring
 Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due
to interlocking, compared to round grains
 Sand casting parts

Parts of a Sand Casting:

 Pattern is the shape that is to be cast, about which
the Mold is made.
 Mold is the container into which liquid metal, plastic,
or other material is poured in making a casting.
 The Cope is the top half of the casting flask. The
Drag is the bottom part of the flask.
 Pouring Basin - Molten metal is poured through a
pouring basin (cup) and flows through the gating
system
 Sand casting-parts

 Sprue - vertical channel through which the molten

metal flows downward into the mold
 Runners - channel to carry molten metal from sprue to
gate
 Gates - portion of the runner through which the molten
metal enters the mold cavity, traps contaminate,
prevents gas buildup and provides for ease of
separation
 Riser (Feeder head) – let out trapped air, reservoirs to
supply the molten metal necessary to prevent
shrinkage during solidification.
 Casting - Sand Binders
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water
and bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7%

clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand
molds:
 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)

 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and

phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the
mixture to increase strength and/or
permeability
 Casting - Sand Molds
 Green -sand molds - mixture of sand,
clay, and water;
• “Green" means mold contains
moisture at time of pouring
 Dry -sand mold - organic binders rather
than clay
• And mold is baked to improve
strength
 Skin -dried mold - drying mold cavity
surface of a green;
• sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm,
using torches or heating lamps
 The Pattern
A full-sized model of the part, slightly
enlarged to account for shrinkage and
machining allowances in the casting
 Pattern materials:
 Wood - common material because it is easy
to work, but it warps
 Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts
much longer
 Plastic - compromise between wood and
metal
 Types of Patterns
Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) Solid pattern (Difficulty in determining the location of partition line Operators
judgment) and low production quantity)
(b) Split pattern -complex part geometry, moderate production quantity, partition
line is pre-determined (operators judgment –not required)
(c) match-plate pattern (high production quantity, patterns attached to wood or
metal plated, holes in the plates allow accurate alignment of cope and drag
section of mold)
(d) cope and drag pattern (same as match plate except split patterns are
attached to separate plates, cope and drag section of the mold can be
fabricated independently)
 Sand Core

Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part

 Cores are inserted into the mold cavity prior to
pouring, to form internal surfaces.
 Chaplets, made of metals with a much higher melting
temperature, hold the core in place.
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the
mold cavity and the core to form the casting's
external and internal surfaces
 Sand Casting - Process
 Place flask on pattern
board
 Ram sand mixture between
pattern and flask
(automation here is
common)
 Turn pattern board over,
place second flask on
pattern board
 Ram sand mixture between
pattern and second flask
start with a make a pattern in
CAD wood or plastic
component
place on
pattern plate;
rotate
“follow board”

Place the drag around the pattern. The bottom

must be covered with a pattern plate that holds in
the pattern and later the sand.

Sand Casting
Fill with sand
and binder Process
flip over
 Sand Casting – Process (cont)
 Remove pattern board from
two flasks
 Cut sprue, runners, gates, etc.
into mold
 Position core(s) between
flasks, if core is required
 Reassemble two flasks
 Clamp flasks together
 Lower the cope
over the drag

The cope is used to

make spure and riser

Bring in
the drag
 Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
 Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required
to improve metallurgical properties
•Remove the casting from the mould. The sand can be reclaimed and
reused.
•Cut off the runner and riser. They can be reused as scrap.

Remove excess sand by shot blasting or by other mechanical means. •

Sand Casting
 Additional Steps After
Solidification
 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment
 Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers,
parting-line flash, fins, chaplets, and any
other excess metal from the cast part
 For brittle casting alloys and when cross
sections are relatively small, appendages
can be broken off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing,
hack-sawing, band-sawing, abrasive
wheel cutting, or various torch cutting
methods are used
 Removing the Core
If cores have been used, they must be
removed
 Most cores are bonded, and they often fall
out of casting as the binder deteriorates
 In some cases, they are removed by
shaking casting, either manually or
mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by
chemically dissolving bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed
out
 Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and
otherwise enhancing appearance of surface
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with
coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing,
buffing, and chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand
casting
 In many permanent mold processes, this step
can be avoided
 Defectsare possible in casting, and
inspection is needed to detect their presence
 Heat Treatment
 Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such
as machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service
 Casting - Machining
 Machining Allowances:
 Almost all sand castings must be
machined to achieve the required
dimensions and part features
 Additional material, called the machining
allowance, is left on the casting in those
surfaces where machining is necessary
 Typical machining allowances for sand
castings are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16
and 1/4 in)
Sand Molding Machines
 Sand Casting - Advantages
 Cheap process (inexpensive equipment)
 Amenable to all part sizes, except tiny
 Produce parts with complex geometries, both internally
and externally.
 Complex cores may be used
 Possible to net shape with no further manufacturing
required.
 Sand may be recycled
 Any production quantity
 Large parts can be produced.
 Wide choice of metals.
 Suitable for mass production.•
 Sand Casting - Disadvantages
 Poor dimensional control Poor surface finish for
some processes
 Vulnerable to contamination by loose sand
 Relatively labor intensive
 Dirty workplace
 Automation is possible, but expensive
 Porosity
 Limitation on mechanical properties
 Safety and Environmental hazard
 Example: Sand Casting
Hitch Housing for the 2 ½ and 5 Ton
Trucks

Weight 60 lb
18” x 20” x 5”
Loads up to 15,000 lbs

1- Steel Founders' Society Of America and American Foundry Society.

 Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by
release of mold gases during pouring

It occurs at or below the

casting surface
Cause: Low permeability,
poor venting and higher
moisture content of sand
mold

Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

 Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or
slightly below surface of casting

Cause: Due to release of

gases during pouring

Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

 Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold or core, causing
casting surface to consist of a mixture of
sand grains and metal

Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
sidewise relative displacement of cope and
drag

Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

 Casting Quality -
Defects (Sand Casting)
 Sand casting Defects -porosity
Porosity: cased by shrinkage or trapped gas or both
Macroporocity-Porosity by shrinkage (shrinkage cavity):
thin section cools faster than thick section (so metal
cannot enter thick section-resulting in porosity in thick
section).
Microporocity: when the liquid metal solidify and shrinks
between dendrites and between dendrites branch
•Porosity due to gas: liquid metal has much more
solubility for gases than do solids
•When the liquid solidify the dissolved gases are expelled
from the solution
•Gases may also result due to the reaction of the molten
metal with the mold material
•If the pores are spherical and has smooth walls-it is due
to trapped gas
•If the walls are rough and angular-porosity due to
shrinkage from dendrites
 Reducing porosity-methods
 Micro-porosity:
 Dissolved gases can be removed by Flushing
or pouring with inert gas or by melting and
pouring the metal in vacuum
 Deoxidize, if the dissolved gas is oxygen
(steel deoxidized with aluminum or silicon)
 Macro-porosity:
 By using internal and external chills
 Making the temperature gradient steep-mold
material having high thermal conductivity
A cast iron, T-type fitting is being produced for the oil drilling industry,
using an air-set or no-bake sand for both the mold and the core. Figure
shows a cross section of the mold with the core in place (part a), and a cross
section of the finished casting (part b). Note that there are several
significant defects. Gas bubbles are observed at one location in the base of
the tee. A penetration defect is observed near the bottom of the inside
diameter, and there is an enlargement of the casting at location “C”.

Why are these gas bubbles present only at the location noted?
What factors may have caused the penetration defect?
What factors led to the enlargement of the casting at point “C”?•
More Expendable Mold Casting
 Variation of Sand Casting
Shell Molding
Vacuum Molding (V-Process)

 Expendable Pattern
Lost Foam (Expanded Polystyrene
Process
Investment Casting (Lost Wax )

 PlasterMold and Ceramic Mold

Casting•
 Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a
thin shell of sand held together by
thermosetting resin binder
 Shell Molding
Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that
sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing
a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the
surface to form a hard shell; (3) box is
repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop
away;
 Shell Molding
Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated in
oven for several minutes to complete curing; (5)
shell mold is stripped from the pattern;
 Shell Molding

Steps in shell-molding: (6) two halves of the shell

mold are assembled, supported by sand or metal
shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished; (7) the
finished casting with sprue removed.
 shell Two examples
pattern Casting that is the result

Two halves of a shell-mould pattern

Two shells
 Casting - Shell Molding
 Advantages of shell molding:
 Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish (Surface
finish of 2.5 m can be obtained).
 Good dimensional accuracy( 0.25 mm on small to
medium size parts) - machining often not required
 Capability for automation lowers the cost for larger
quantities
 Disadvantages:
 More expensive metal pattern
 Difficult to justify for small quantities
 Shell molding-specification
Shell Mold - higher throughput due to reduced cycle times.
A heated (200 ºC / 392 ºF) metal pattern is covered with
a mixture of sand and thermoset plastic.
 Minimum wall thicknesses- Minimum thicknesses can
be as low as 1.5 mm (0.062 in) to 6.25 mm (0.25 in),
depending on the material.
 Tolerances - and dimensional tolerance of 0.5 %.
 Surface finish- complex parts with good surface finish
1.25 µm to 3.75 µm (50 µin to 150 µin) rms
 Size limits – Size limits of 30 g to 12 kg (1 oz to 25 lb).
 Typical materials – cast irons, and aluminum and copper
alloys
 Types of parts -connecting rods, gear housings, lever
arms etc.
 Vacuum Molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum
pressure rather than by a chemical binder
 The term "vacuum" refers to mold making
rather than casting operation itself
 Developed in Japan around 1970
Vacuum Mold- (V-Process)
Vacuum Mold- (V-Process)
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of vacuum molding:
 Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
 Sand does not require mechanical
reconditioning done when binders are used
 Since no water is mixed with sand,
moisture-related defects are absent
 Disadvantages:
 Slow process
 Not readily adaptable to mechanization
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene
foam pattern.
 The pattern is left in the mold, and is instantly
vaporized as the molten metal is poured.
 Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative-foam process, and full-mold
process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
 No parting lines are required, as the pattern does not
need to be removed. (Mold does not have to be
opened into cope and drag sections)
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
•Raw expandable polystyrene beads containing 5-8%
pentane (volatile hydrocarbon) are placed in a preheated
die
•The polystyrene expand and takes the shape of the die
cavity
•Die is cooled and opened,
and the pattern is removed

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (1) pattern

of polystyrene is coated with refractory
compound;
Expanded Polystyrene Process

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (2) foam

pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is
compacted around the pattern;
 Expanded Polystyrene Process

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (3) molten

metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that
forms the pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters
the mold, the polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of
the advancing liquid, thus the resulting mold cavity is
filled.
Lost Foam Casting
Casting - Expanded Polystyrene

www.castsolutions.com
 Mercury Marine foam
and casting

• BMW lost foam cylinder

head•
 Expanded Polystyrene -
specifications
 Minimum wall thicknesses - are 2.5 mm
 Tolerances - can be held to .3 % on
dimensions
 Surface finish - can be held from 2.5µm to
25µm (0.1µin to 1.0 µin) rms.
 Size limits- are from 400 g (1 lb) to several
tons. No draft allowance is required.
 Typical materials - aluminum, iron, steels,
nickel alloys, copper alloys.
 Types of parts - pump housings, manifolds,
and auto brake components.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages :
 Relatively simple process-no partition line (pattern

is not removed) ,-high design flexibility

 Polystyrene is inexpensive- can be processed into

patterns of complex shape, fine surface details.

 Casting require minimum cleaning and finishing

operations
 The operation can be automated- economical

 Disadvantages:
 A new pattern is needed for every casting

 Cost of the die used for expanding the polystrene

beads to make the pattern can be high

Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Applications:
 Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
 Automated and integrated manufacturing
systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and
then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting
operation
 Investment Casting
 Also called lost-wax process
 First used 4000 – 3000 BC
 The pattern is made of wax or of a plastic by molding or
rapid prototyping techniques
 Term investment derives from the fact that the pattern is
invested with the refractory material
 Need careful handling because they are not strong
enough to withstand the forces involved in mold making
 Wax can be recovered and reused
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax
Process)
A pattern made of wax is coated with a
refractory material to make mold, after which
wax is melted away prior to pouring molten
metal
 "Investment" comes from a less familiar
definition of "invest" - "to cover completely,"
which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern
 It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail
 Investment Casting

 One-piece mold
 Dried in the air
 Heated to 90 – 175 C
 Held inverted for 12 hrs to melt out wax
 The mold is then heated to 650 – 1150 C for about 4
hrs depending on the metal to be cast to drive off the
water of crystallization
 After the metal has been poured the mold is broken
up and the cast is removed
 A number of patterns can be joined to make one mold
called a tree which increases production rate
One-piece mold - con’t
 Small parts
• The tree can be inserted on to a flask and filled with slurry
investment
• The investment is then placed into a chamber and evacuated to
remove air bubbles
• Next it is placed in a vacuum drawing machine to produce fine detail
 Not a cheap process
 Produces fine details
 Good surface finish
 Few or no finishing operations
 Can produce intricate parts from parts weighing 1g – 35Kg

• Ex : Investment die casting examples

 Schematic illustration of investment casting
1. WAX INJECTION : Wax replicas of the
desired castings are produced by
injection molding. These replicas are
called patterns.

2. ASSEMBLY : The patterns are

attached to a central wax stick, called
a sprue, to form a casting cluster or
assembly.

3. SHELL BUILDING : The shell is built by immersing

the assembly in a liquid ceramic slurry and then
into a bed of extremely fine sand. Up to eight
layers may be applied in this manner.

4. DEWAX : Once the ceramic is dry, the wax is

melted out, creating a negative impression of the
assembly within the shell.
  5. CONVENTIONAL CASTING
In the conventional process, the shell is filled
with molten metal by gravity pouring. As the
metal cools, the parts and gates, sprue and
pouring cup become one solid casting.

 6. KNOCKOUT
When the metal has cooled and solidified,
the ceramic shell is broken off by vibration or
water blasting.

 7. CUT OFF
The parts are cut away from the central sprue
using a high speed friction saw.

 8. FINISHED CASTINGS
After minor finishing operations, the metal
castings--identical to the original wax patterns--
are ready for shipment to the customer.
 Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (3)

Steps in investment casting: (1) the pattern tree is coated with a
wax patterns are produced, thin layer of refractory material,
(2) several patterns are (4) the full mold is formed by
attached to a sprue to form a covering the coated tree with
pattern tree sufficient refractory material to
make it rigid
 Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (5)

the mold is held in an inverted Steps in investment casting:
position and heated to melt the (7) the mold is broken
wax and permit it to drip out of away from the finished
the cavity, (6) the mold is casting and the parts are
preheated to a high temperature, separated from the sprue
the molten metal is poured, and it
solidifies
Summary-Investment casting (lost wax casting)

(a) Wax pattern (b) Multiple patterns

(injection molding) assembled to wax sprue

(c) Shell built 

(d) dry ceramic immerse into ceramic slurry
melt out the wax  immerse into fine sand
fire ceramic (burn wax) (few layers)

(e) Pour molten metal (gravity)

 cool, solidify (f) Break ceramic shell
[Hollow casting: (vibration or water blasting)
pouring excess metal before solidification

(g) Cut off parts

(high-speed friction saw)
 finishing (polish)
Investment Casting
 Investment Casting

–Capability to cast parts with great complexity and

intricacy.
–Close dimensional control.
–Good surface finish.
–Wax can be recovered and reused.
–Additional machining normally not required
 Investment Casting

A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate

airfoils made by investment casting (photo
courtesy of Howmet Corp.).
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of investment casting:
 Parts of great complexity and
intricacy can be cast
 Close dimensional control and good
surface finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for
reuse
 Additional machining is not normally
required - this is a net shape
process
 Disadvantages
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process
 Plaster Mold Casting
Similar to sand casting except mold is made
of plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
 In mold-making, plaster and water mixture
is poured over plastic or metal pattern and
allowed to set
 Wood patterns not generally used due to
extended contact with water
 Plastermixture readily flows around
pattern, capturing its fine details and good
surface finish
 Plaster Mold Casting-process
Plaster Mold – investment material is plaster,
works only with plastics or low-melting-point
nonferrous metals or alloys.
 This slurry is sprayed on the polished surfaces
of the pattern halves (usually brass). The slurry
sets in less than 15 minutes to form the mold.
 The mold halves are extracted carefully from the
pattern, and then dried in an oven.
 The mold halves are carefully assembled, along
with the cores. The molten metal is poured in the
molds. After the metals cools down, the plaster
is broken and the cores washed out.
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of plaster mold casting:
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Capability to make thin cross-sections
 Disadvantages:
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture,
which can cause problems in casting
 Mold strength is lost if over-baked
 Plaster molds cannot stand high
temperatures, so limited to lower melting
point alloys
Plaster Mold Casting-specification
 Minimum wall thicknesses- section thickness can
be as small as 0.6 mm (0.025 in)
 Tolerances - 0.2 % linear
 Surface finish- is 1.25 µm to 3 µm (50 µin to 125
µin) rms.
 Size limits - usually small to medium size, ranging
in weight from 30 g (1 oz) to 7 kg (15 lb) the draft
allowance is 0.5-1.0 degree.
 Typical materials - Low temperature melting
materials such as aluminum, copper, magnesium
and zinc.
 Types of parts -used to make quick prototype
parts as well as limited production parts.
 Ceramic Mold Casting
Similar to plaster mold casting except that
mold is made of refractory ceramic
material that can withstand higher
temperatures than plaster
 Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and
other high-temperature alloys
 Applications similar to those of plaster
mold casting except for the metals cast
 Advantages (good accuracy and finish)
also similar
Thermal Methods of Change of
Form
 Minimum wall thicknesses- as small as
1.25 mm (.050 in)
 Tolerances - can be held to 0.4 %,
 Surface finish- can be better than 2 - 4 µm (.075
- .15 µin). Add 0.3 mm (.012 in) for parting line
tolerances.
 Size limits - from 60 g (2oz) to a ton. Draft
allowance of 1° is recommended.
 Types of parts - Typical parts made from this
process include impellers made from stainless
steel, bronze, complex cutting tools, plastic mold
tooling
This process is expensive, but can eliminate
secondary machining operations.
Net Shape Casting Processes
 Permanent mold casting
PERMANENT MOLD
 Instead of using sand as the mold material, a metal is
used as a mold. Typically cast iron or Meehanite (a
dense cast iron) is used as the mold material and the
cores are made from metal or sand. Cavity surfaces are
coated with a thin layer of heat resistant material such as
clay or sodium silicate.
 Permanent mold casting-
specifications
Permanent mold castings permanent mold castings produce a
lower price per piece
 Minimum wall thicknesses-(such as 3mm for lengths
under 75 mm), radius (inside radius = nominal wall
thickness, outside radius = 3 x nominal wall thickness), draft
angles (1 to 3º on outside surfaces, 2 to 5º on inside
surfaces) etc all apply.
 Tolerances - Typical tolerances are 2 % of linear
dimensions.
 Surface finish- ranges from 2.5 µm to 7.5 µm (100 µin to
250 µin).
 Size limits – Typical part sizes range from 50 g to 70 kg
(1.5 ounces to 150 lb).
 Typical materials – small and medium sized parts made
from aluminum, magnesium and brass and their alloys.
 Types of parts - gears, splines, wheels, gear housings,
pipefittings, fuel injection housings, and automotive engine
pistons.
 Permanent Mold Casting
Processes
 Economic disadvantage of expendable
mold casting: a new mold is required for
every casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is
reused many times
 The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting
 The Basic Permanent Mold
Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two
sections designed for easy, precise
opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower melting point
alloys are commonly made of steel or cast
iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be
made of refractory material, due to the
very high pouring temperatures
 Permanent Mold Casting

Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is

preheated and coated
 Permanent Mold Casting

Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if

used) are inserted and mold is closed, (3)
molten metal is poured into the mold, where it
solidifies.
Permanent Mold Casting -
Basic Permanent Mold
 Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages of permanent mold casting:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings
are stronger
 Economical for large production quantities
 Thin sections are possible
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand
casting because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
Applications of Permanent Mold
Casting
 Due to high mold cost, process is best
suited to high volume production and can
be automated accordingly
 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump
bodies, and certain castings for aircraft
and missiles
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum,
magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast
iron
Permanent Mold Casting
Permanent Mold Casting:
Gravity Die Casting
 Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which
molten metal is injected into mold cavity
under high pressure
 Pressure is maintained during
solidification, then mold is opened and part
is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called
dies; hence the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into
die cavity is what distinguishes this from
other permanent mold processes
Permanent Molds - Mold Steels
 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good
refractory qualities) used to die cast steel
and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from
die when it opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking
 Die Casting
 Molten metal is forced into the die cavity at pressures
ranging from .7MPa – 700MPa
 Parts made from here range from:
 Hand tools

 Toys

 Appliance components

 There are two basic types of die casting machines

 Hot-chamber - involves the use of a piston to push

molten metal in to the die cavity

 Cold-chamber – molten metal is poured in to the

injection chamber & the shot chamber is not heated

 Die Casting Machines
 Designed to hold and accurately close
two mold halves and keep them closed
while liquid metal is forced into cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine
Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (2) plunger

forces metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
Hot chamber Die-casting process
 1. The die is closed and
the piston rises, opening
the port and allowing
molten metal to fill the
cylinder.

 2. The plunger moves

down and seals the port
pushing the molten metal
through the gooseneck
and nozzle into the die
cavity, where it is held
under pressure until it
solidifies.
 3. The die opens and the
cores, if any, retract. The
casting remains in only one
die, the ejector side. The
plunger returns, allowing
residual molten metal to
flow back through the
nozzle and gooseneck.

 4. Ejector pins push the

casting out of the ejector
die. As the plunger
uncovers the filling hole,
molten metal flows through
the inlet to refill the
gooseneck, as in step (1).
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container,
and a piston injects liquid
metal under high pressure
into the die
 High production rates - 500
parts per hour not uncommon
 Applications limited to low
melting-point metals that do
not chemically attack plunger
and other mechanical
components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead,
and magnesium
Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with

die closed and ram withdrawn, molten
metal is poured into the chamber
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces

metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure
during cooling and solidification.
 Cold-Die casting process

 1. The die is closed and the

molten metal is ladled into the
cold-chamber shot sleeve.

 2. The plunger pushes the

molten metal into the die cavity
where it is held under pressure
until solidification.
  3. The die opens and the
plunger advances, to ensure
that the casting remains in the
ejector die. Cores, if any,
retract.

 4. Ejector pins push the

casting out of the ejector die
and the plunger returns to its
original position.
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated
chamber from external melting
container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
 High production but not usually as
fast as hot-chamber machines
because of pouring step
 Casting metals: Al, brass, and
magnesium alloys
 Advantages of hot-chamber
process favor its use on low
melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
 Die casting-Features
 Die is cooled by circulating oil or water.
 High cost of manufacturing and maintaining a

permanent mold.
 Used for high-volume production runs.

 Hot-chamber die casting is used for low-melting

temperature casting materials.

 Cold-chamber die cast is used for higher melting

temperature alloys.
•800 ton hot chamber die casting machine, DAM 8005. This is the largest
hot chamber machine in the world and costs about $1.25 million.
Permanent Mold - Die Casting
 Molds for Die Casting
 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good
refractory qualities) used to die cast steel
and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from
die when it opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking
 Other Permanent Mold
Castings
Slush Casting: Slush Casting is a special type of
permanent mold casting, where the molten metal is
not allowed to completely solidify. After the desired
wall thickness is obtained, the not yet solidified molten
metal is poured out. This is useful for making hollow
ornamental objects such as candlesticks, lamps,
statues etc.
 Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
Utilizes the inertial forces caused by rotation to
distribute the molten metal in to the mold cavities
 The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
 Centrifuge casting
 True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a
tubular part
 Centrifugal Casting: In centrifugal casting, a permanent
mold is rotated about its axis at high speeds (300 to
3000 rpm) as the molten metal is poured. The molten
metal is centrifugally thrown towards the inside mold
wall, where it solidifies after cooling.
 In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring rather than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces
 True Centrifugal Casting

Setup for true centrifugal

casting.

- permanent mold
- rotated about its axis at 300 ~
3000 rpm
- molten metal is poured

- Surface finish: better along outer diameter than inner,

- Impurities, inclusions, closer to the inner diameter (why ?)
 Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid
castings rather than tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to
supply feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater
in outer sections than at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of
casting is machined away, thus eliminating
the portion where quality is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys
 Semi centrifugal Casting Process

(a) Schematic illustration of the semi centrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes
can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The
molds are placed at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into
the molds by centrifugal force.
 Centrifugal casting-
Specification
 Minimum wall thicknesses-. 2.5 mm to 125 mm (0.1 - 5.0
in).
 Tolerances - OD can be as good as 2.5 mm (0.1 in) and on
the ID can be 3.8 mm (0.15 in).
 Surface finish- from 2.5 mm to 12.5 mm (0.1 - 0.5 in) rms.
 Size limits –up to 3 m (10 feet) diameter and 15 m (50 feet)
length
 Typical materials –iron, steel, stainless steels, and alloys of
aluminum, copper and nickel. Two materials can be cast by
introducing a second material during the process.
 Types of parts - pipes, boilers, pressure vessels, flywheels,
cylinder liners and other parts that are axi-symmetric

Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process

 Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located
away from axis of rotation, so that molten
metal poured into mold is distributed to
these cavities by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as
in other centrifugal casting methods
 Casting Quality
 There are numerous opportunities for
things to go wrong in a casting operation,
resulting in quality defects in the product
 The defects can be classified as follows:
 General defects common to all casting
processes
 Defects related to sand casting process
 General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before
completely filling mold cavity

Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

 General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but
there is a lack of fusion due to
premature freezing

Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

 General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid
globules form and become entrapped in
casting

Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused
by solidification shrinkage that restricts
amount of molten metal available in last
region to freeze

Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

 Foundry Inspection Methods
 Visual inspection to detect obvious defects
such as misruns, cold shuts, and severe
surface flaws
 Dimensional measurements to insure that
tolerances have been met
 Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and
other tests concerned with quality of cast
metal
Product Design Considerations
 Geometric simplicity:
 Although casting can be used to produce
complex part geometries, simplifying the part
design usually improves castability
 Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
• Simplifies mold-making
• Reduces the need for cores
• Improves the strength of the casting
 Product Design Considerations

 Corners on the casting:

 Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since
they are sources of stress concentrations and may
cause hot tearing and cracks
 Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners
and sharp edges should be blended
 Product Design Considerations
A small Draft will
enable removal of
pattern without
damage

 Draft Guidelines:
 In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates removal of
pattern from mold
• Draft = 1 for sand casting
 In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in
removal of the part from the mold
• Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes
 Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used
Draft Angles and Corners
 Product Design Considerations
Draft
 Minorchanges in part design can reduce
need for coring

Design change to eliminate the need for using a

core: (a) original design, and (b) redesign.
Product Design Considerations
Proper design of parting line
- “flattest” parting line is best
Promote Directional
Solidification
Parting Line
Riser Sizing and Placement
Gating System
Final Pattern
The Finished Casting
Product Design Considerations
 Dimensional Tolerances and Surface
Finish:
 Significant differences in dimensional
accuracies and finishes can be achieved in
castings, depending on process:
• Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for
sand casting
• Good dimensional accuracies and finish
for die casting and investment casting
Product Design Considerations
 Shrinkage: To avoid cracking of the
casting during cooling, allowance should
be made for shrinkage during
solidification.
 Flat Area: Large flat area (plain surface)
should be avoided-
 To prevent wrap during cooling
 Poor surface finish because of uneven flow of
metal during pouring
Product Design Considerations
 Machining Allowances:
 Almost all sand castings must be machined
to achieve the required dimensions and part
features
 Additional material, called the machining
allowance, is left on the casting in those
surfaces where machining is necessary
 Typical machining allowances for sand
castings are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and
1/4 in)