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Week6 Rolling Forging 2010

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Week6 Rolling Forging 2010

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BULK DEFORMATION

PROCESSES
IN METALWORKING

Read in Text book Chapter: 17 and 18

Many of this lecture slides are adopted from
the Text book
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
BULK DEFORMATION
PROCESSES
IN METALWORKING
1. Rolling
2. Other Deformation Processes Related to
Rolling
3. Forging
4. Other Deformation Processes Related to
Forging
5. Extrusion
6. Wire and Bar Drawing
Bulk Deformation
Metal forming operations which cause significant
shape change by deforming metal parts whose
initial form is bulk rather than sheet
 Starting forms:

 Cylindrical bars and billets,

 Rectangular billets and slabs, and similar

shapes
 These processes stress metal sufficiently to
cause plastic flow into desired shape
 Performed as cold, warm, and hot working
operations
Importance of Bulk Deformation

 In hot working, significant shape change

can be accomplished
 In cold working, strength is increased
during shape change
 Little or no waste - some operations are
near net shape or net shape processes
 The parts require little or no subsequent
machining
Four Basic Bulk Deformation
Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed
between opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped
between opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a
die opening, thereby taking the shape of
the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire
or bar is reduced by pulling it through a
die opening
Rolling of Metals
Flat-Rolling and
Shape-Rolling
Processes

Schematic outline of
various flat-rolling and
shape-rolling processes.
Source: After the
American Iron and Steel
Institute.

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

Rolling - Process

 Rolling reduces the thickness of the slab,

generally making the slab longer, but only
slightly wider.
 Rolling is one of the most important metal
working processes, with over 90% of all
materials ever deformed subjected to
rolling.
Rolled Products Made of Steel

Some of the steel products made in a rolling

mill.
Slab (Flat) Rolling
Billet Rolling
Bloom Rolling
Roll Arrangements

Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) four-high rolling mill

showing various features. The stiffness of the housing, the rolls, and the roll
bearings are all important in controlling and maintaining the thickness of the rolled
strip; (b) two-hill mill; (c) three-high mill; and (d) cluster (or Sendzimir) mill.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Rolling Mills
 Equipment is massive and expensive
 Rolling mill configurations:
 Two-high – two opposing rolls
 Three-high – work passes through rolls in
both directions
 Four-high – backing rolls support smaller
work rolls
 Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on
smaller rolls
 Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high
mills
Two-High Rolling Mill
Can be reversing or non-
reversing
Non reversing mill:
roll always rotate in the
same direction
Reversing mill:
•allows the direction of
rotation of the roll
rotation to be reversed
•Series of reduction can
be made using same set
of rolls
Various configurations of rolling mills: (a)
2-high rolling mill.
Three-High Rolling Mill
To achieve serious of
reduction the work can
pass through either side
by raising or lowering the
strip after each pass
Elevator mechanism is
required to raise or lower
the work

Various configurations of rolling mills: (b)

3-high rolling mill.
Rolling - Mills
 However, elastic deformation of the rolls can
cause gage and shape problems.
 Frequently, two additional support rolls are
used above the main rolls.
 To increase production, several mills are
placed in a line, called continuous mills.
Rolling terminology
4 – high stand
Four-High Rolling Mill
Lower the roll radius, roll-work
contact length is reduced- hence
requires lower force, torque,
power
Four High rolling mill: used two
small diameter roll to contact the
work and two back rolls behind
them
The small rolls will deflect
elastically and the back rolls will
support them

Various configurations of rolling mills: (c)

four-high rolling mill.
Cluster Mill
Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller
roll diameters

Various configurations of rolling mills: (d) cluster mill

Tandem Rolling Mill

A series of rolling stands in Typical tandem mill

sequence may have 8-10 stands
With each rolling step-
work velocity increases
Synchronizing the roll
speed at each stand is a
significant one

Various configurations
of rolling mills: (e)
tandem rolling mill.
Tandem-Rolling

An example of a tandem-rolling operation.

 Since volume is constant, the sheet must be
speeded up from roll stand to roll stand.
 Tolerances of +/- 0.0001” can be held on sheets
miles long.
 Rolling speeds of up to 40 m/s (~140km/h)
Hot rolling mill
The Rolls

Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

 Pull the work into the gap between them
by friction between workpart and rolls
 Simultaneously squeeze the work to
reduce its cross section
Rolling - Process
 Based on workpiece geometry :
 Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross section
 Shape rolling - square cross section is formed
into a shape such as an I-beam
 Based on work temperature :
 Hot Rolling – most common due to the large
amount of deformation required
 Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate
stock
Rolling Mills

Source: kawasaki-steel
Spreading in Flat Rolling

Increase in strip width (spreading) in flat rolling. Note that similar

spreading can be observed when dough is rolled with a rolling pin.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Defects in Flat Rolling
Sticking: In hot
rolling when the
Coefficient of
friction is very high
(0.7)-the work
surface adhere to
the roll
Surface layer of
the work is
restricted to move
at the same speed
Figure 13.8 Schematic illustration of
typical defects in flat rolling: (a) as the roll speed-
wavy edges; (b) zipper cracks in the deformation occurs
center of the strip; (c) edge cracks;
and (d) alligatoring.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Compensation

Initially convex roll surface Initially flat roll surface

Bearing reaction forces

Applied forces
Bending of Rolls

(a) Bending of straight cylindrical

rolls caused by roll forces. (b)
Bending of rolls ground with
camber, producing a strip with
uniform thickness through the strip
width. Deflections have been
exaggerated for clarity.

 Hot Rolled Plate is rolled on large

reversing mills from cast ingots.
 Hot rolling is used to breakdown coarse
dendrite cast structure.
 Also to heal any defects or voids.
 However, surface finish is relatively rough
and tolerances are not very tight.
Effects of Hot Rolling

Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during

hot rolling. Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals for
improved strength and ductility. Cast structures of ingots or continuous
castings are converted to a wrought structure by hot working.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Rolling – Cold Rolled Sheet
 Cold Rolled Sheet (sheet < ¼”) is made by
further rolling of hot rolled plate.
 Like other cold working processes, tight
tolerances, excellent surface finish and good
mechanical strength can be achieved.
 Generally, thinner sheet requires more rolling,
and thus manufacturing costs increase.
Hot vs Cold Rolling

- Hot Rolled

- Cold Rolled
Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured cross section rather
than flat (rectangular)
 Accomplished by passing work through rolls that
have the reverse of desired shape
 Products include:

 Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams,

and U-channels
 Rails for railroad tracks

 Round and square bars

and rods

 A number of rolling mills are used to gradually

distribute the material to the final shape.
Shape Rolling of an H-section
part
Steps in the shape rolling of
an H-section part. Various
other structural sections,
such as channels and I-
beams, also are rolled by
this kind of process.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Source: kawasaki-steel
A rolling mill
for hot flat
rolling. The
steel plate is
seen as the
glowing strip
in lower left
corner
(photo
courtesy of
Bethlehem
Steel).
Thread Rolling
Bulk deformation process used to form
threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them
between two dies
 Important commercial process for mass
producing bolts and screws
 Performed by cold working in thread rolling
machines
 Advantages over thread cutting
(machining):
 Higher production rates (> 500 parts/min)

 Better material utilization

 Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance
due to work hardening
Thread-Rolling Processes

Thread-rolling processes: (a) and (c) Thread rolling with flat dies:
reciprocating flat dies; (b) two-roller
(1) start of cycle, and (2)
dies. (d) Threaded fasteners, such as
bolts, are made economically by these end of cycle.
processes at high rates of production.
Source: Courtesy of Central Rolled
Thread Die Co.
Machined and Rolled Threads

(a) Features of a machined or rolled thread. Grain flow in (b) machined and (c) rolled
threads. Unlike machining, which cuts through the grains of the metal, the rolling of
threads imparts improved strength because of cold working and favorable grain flow.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Ring Rolling

Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and

increase the diameter of a ring: (1) start, and (2)
completion of process.
Ring Rolling
Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of
smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of
larger diameter
 As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed
metal elongates, causing diameter of ring to be
enlarged
 Hot working process for large rings and cold
working process for smaller rings
 Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel
tires for railroad wheels, and rings for pipes,
pressure vessels, and rotating machinery
 Advantages: material savings, ideal grain
orientation, strengthening through cold working
Ring Rolling
Production of Steel Balls-Ball rolling

(a) Production of steel balls by the skew-rolling process. (b) Production of steel balls by
upsetting a cylindrical blank. Note the formation of flash. The balls made by these
processes subsequently are ground and polished for use in ball bearings.

Cavity formation in a solid, round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube-piercing process
for making seamless pipe and tubing.
When solid cylindrical part is compressed on its
circumference-high tensile stresses is developed in
the centre fig a
Internal cracks are formed if compression is high
enough fig b
In roll piercing, it exploits the setup of Fig b.
Mandrel is used to control the size and finish of
the hole created by the action
Various Tube-Rolling Processes

Schematic illustration of various tube-rolling processes: (a) with a fixed mandrel; (b) with a
floating mandrel; (c) without a mandrel; and (d) pilger rolling over a mandrel and a pair of
shaped rolls. Tube diameters and thicknesses also can be changed by other processes, such as
drawing, extrusion, and spinning.

Figure 13.13 Two examples of the roll-forging operation, also known as cross-rolling.
Tapered leaf springs and knives can be made by this process. Source: After J. Holub.

A general view of a rolling mill. Source: Courtesy of Ispat Inland.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Forming of Solid Rocket Casings
The Space Shuttle U.S.S. Atlantis is launched
by two strapped-on solid-rocket boosters.
Source: Courtesy of NASA.

The forming processes

involved in the manufacture
of solid rocket casings for
the Space Shuttles.

(a) Schematic illustration of the steps involved in forging a knife. (b) Landing-gear
components for the C5A and C5B transport aircraft, made by forging. (c) General view of a
445 MN (50,000 ton) hydraulic press. Source: (a) Courtesy of the Mundial LLC. (b and c)
Courtesy of Wyman-Gordon Company.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Forged Parts
Microstructure as a Function of
Manufacturing Method

Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes showing grain flow. (a)
Casting by the processes described in Chapter 11. (b) Machining form a blank, described in
Part IV of this book, and (c) forging. Each process has its own advantages and limitations
regarding external and internal characteristics, material properties, dimensional accuracy,
surface finish, and the economics of production. Source: Courtesy of Forging Industry
Association.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Forging
 Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from
about 5000 B C.
 Early man would pound metal ore (copper alloys)
into useful shapes.
 Archeological evidence of knives, tools, jewelry, etc,
made through both cold and hot forging.
 Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods,
gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine
turbine parts
 Also, basic metals industries use forging to
establish basic form of large parts that are
subsequently machined to final shape and size
Forging
 Forging is defined as the controlled,
plastic deformation of metal into a pre-
defined shape by pressure or impact
blows.
 Forging has the advantage of work
hardening the part, increasing the
strength.
 Forging can be grouped into:
 Open Die Forging
 Impression Die Forging
 Closed Die Forging
Types of Forging Dies
 Open-die forging - work is compressed
between two flat dies, allowing metal to
flow laterally with minimum constraint
 Impression-die forging - die contains
cavity or impression that is imparted to
workpart
 Metal flow is constrained so that flash is
created
 Flashless forging - workpart is completely
constrained in die
 No excess flash is created
Forging Processes
Classification of Forging
Operations
 Cold vs. hot forging:
 Hot or warm forging – most common, due to
the significant deformation and the need to
reduce strength and increase ductility of
work metal
 Cold forging – advantage: increased strength
that results from strain hardening
 Impact vs. press forging:
 Forge hammer - applies an impact load
 Forge press - applies gradual pressure
Characteristics of Forging

Three types of forging: (a)

open-die forging.
Open-Die Forging
Compression of workpart between two flat dies
 Similar to compression test when workpart
has cylindrical cross section and is
compressed along its axis
 Deformation operation reduces height and
increases diameter of work
 Common names include upsetting or upset
forging
 Open Die Forging is the simplest of the forging processes.
 Hand Forging - a large hammer is used by a blacksmith to
deform heated metal.
 Modern open die forging uses pneumatic-powered or hydraulic
hammers.
Example
Open Die Forging Operations
Open-Die Forging with No Friction

Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart under ideal

conditions in an open-die forging operation: (1) start of process
with workpiece at its original length and diameter, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final size.

 Ideally, when a lubricant is used, the frictional forces at the

work piece die interface can be reduced to nearly zero.
 The problem then becomes a Uniaxial stress.
Open-Die Forging with Friction
 Friction between work and die surfaces
constrains lateral flow of work, resulting in
barreling effect
 In hot open-die forging, effect is even more
pronounced due to heat transfer at and near die
surfaces, which cools the metal and increases its
resistance to deformation
 The hotter metal in the middle of the part flows
more readily than the cooler metal at the end
 The effect is more significant as the diameter to
height ratio of the work piece increases, due to
greater contact area at the work die surface
Open-Die Forging with Friction

Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open-die forging,

showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial
deformation, and (3) final shape.
 As the work material is compressed, the diameter
becomes larger (volume remains constant)
 Frictional forces at the work piece/die interface cause
“barreling” or “pancaking”-axial upsetting
Impression-Die Forging

(a) through (c) Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet. Note the formation
of flash, which is excess metal that is subsequently trimmed off (see Fig. 14.7). (d)
Standard terminology for various features of a forging die.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Impression-Die Forging
Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired part
shape
 The sides of the die are open, to allow excess material to
escape out the sides
 The excess material is referred to as flashing.

 Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into

small gap between die plates
 Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an important
function during compression:
 As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow
into gap, constraining material to fill die cavity
 In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by
cooling against die plates
Impression-Die Forging (also
called as closed die forging)

Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just

prior to initial contact with raw workpiece, (2)
partial compression, and (3) final die closure,
causing flash to form in gap between die
plates.
Forging - Impression Die

 Several forming steps often required, with

separate die cavities for each step
 Beginning steps redistribute metal for more
uniform deformation and desired
metallurgical structure in subsequent steps
 Final steps bring the part to final geometry

 Impression-die forging is often performed

manually by skilled operator under
adverse conditions
Forging - Impression Die
 Advantages of impression-die forging
compared to machining from solid stock:
 Higher production rates
 Less waste of metal

 Greater strength

 Favorable grain orientation in the metal

 Limitations:
 Not capable of close tolerances
 Machining often required to achieve
accuracies and features needed
Trimming

Cutting operation to remove flash from

workpart in impression-die forging
 Usually done while work is still hot, so a
separate trimming press is included at the
forging station
 Trimming can also be done by alternative
methods, such as grinding or sawing
Trimming After Impression-Die
Forging

Trimming flash from a forged

part. Note that the thin material
Trimming operation at the center is removed by
(shearing process) to punching.

remove the flash after

impression-die forging.
Crankshaft
Forging - Sequence

 Complex shapes often required a

sequence of forgings:
 Material is first distributed to where it is
needed. Often an open die is used in this
sequence.
 Prefore is when the workpiece is brought
closer to the final shape using a blocker die.
 Finally, a finishing die is used to bring the
workpiece to the final shape.
Connecting Rod
Forging - Sequence
Rail Road Wheels
Forging – Flashless forging

 In flashless die forging, the sides of the

die are constricted or closed.
 The work piece is completely trapped and
no flash can be created.
 “Coining” is a special type of closed die
used to mint coins
Closed-Die Forging (impression die forging)
Versus Flashless Forging

Comparison of closed-die forging with flash (left side of each illustration) and precision or
flashless forging (right side) of a round billet. Source After H. Takemasu, V. Vazquez, B.
Painter, and T. Altan.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Flashless Forging
Compression of work in punch and die tooling
whose cavity does not allow for flash
 Starting workpart volume must equal die
cavity volume within very close tolerance
 Process control more demanding than
impression-die forging
 Best suited to part geometries that are simple
and symmetrical
 Often classified as a precision forging process
Flashless Forging

Three types of forging (c) flashless

forging.
Flashless Forging

Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact

with workpiece, (2) partial compression, and
(3) final punch and die closure.
The Coining
Process

(b
)

(a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. The earliest coins were made by open-die
forging and lacked precision and sharp details. (b) An example of a modern coining
operation, showing the workpiece and tooling. Note the detail and superior finish that can
be achieve in this process. Source: Courtesy of C & W Steel Stamp Co., Inc.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Upsetting and Heading
Forging process used to form heads on
nails, bolts, and similar hardware products
 More parts produced by upsetting than
any other forging operation
 Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines
called headers or formers
 Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end
is headed, then piece is cut to length
 For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then
used to form threads
Upset Forging

An upset forging operation to form a head on a

bolt or similar hardware item The cycle
consists of: (1) wire stock is fed to the stop,
(2) gripping dies close on the stock and the
stop is retracted, (3) punch moves forward,
(4) bottoms to form the head.
Upsetting
 Upsetting may be done
in one or more strokes
•
Heading (Upset Forging)

Examples of heading (upset forging) operations:

(a) heading a nail using open dies, (b) round
head formed by punch, (c) and (d) two
common head styles for screws formed by die,
(e) carriage bolt head formed by punch and
die.
Heading

(a) Heading operation to form heads on fasteners, such as nails and rivets. (b) Sequence
of operations to produce a typical bolt head by heading.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Grain
Flow in
Forging

Manufacturing,
Engineering & A pierced round billet showing
Technology, Fifth grain-flow pattern (see also
Edition, by Serope Fig 14.12c). Source: Courtesy
Kalpakjian and Steven of Ladish Co., Inc.
R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. ©
2006 Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, NJ. All
rights reserved.
Swaging
Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece
radially inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies
 Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock

 Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of

internal diameter of tubular parts

Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the dies rotate as they
hammer the work In radial forging, the workpiece rotates
while the dies remain in a fixed orientation as they hammer
Swaging Workpieces usually
have a symmetrical
cross-section
Workpiece may be hot
or cold
Produces a smooth
surface finish
A cold working
process for reducing
cross sectional area of
solid rod or tube
Outside is always
round, but inside can be
conformed to an
internal die
Work piece limited to
about 6 inches Dia.

(a) Schematic illustration of the rotary-swaging process. (b) Forming internal profiles on a
tubular workpiece by swaging. (c) A die-closing swaging machine showing forming of a
stepped shaft. (d) Typical parts made by swaging. Source: Courtesy of J. Richard Industries.
Swaging with and without a Mandrel

(a) Swaging of tubes without a mandrel; note the increase in wall thickness in the die gap.
(b) Swaging with a mandrel; note that the final wall thickness of the tube depends on the
mandrel diameter. (c) Examples of cross-sections of tubes produced by swaging on shaped
mandrels. Rifling (internal spiral grooves) in small gun barrels can be made by this process.

Examples of defects in forged parts. (a) Laps formed by web buckling during forging; web
thickness should be increased to avoid this problem. (b) Internal defects caused by an
oversized billet. Die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the center flows past
the filled regions as the die closes.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Speed Ranges of Forging
Equipment

Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines. (a) Mechanical

press with an eccentric drive; the eccentric shaft can be replaced by a crankshaft to
give the up-and-down motion to the ram. (b) Knuckle-joint press. (c) Screw
press. (d) Hydraulic press.

 Gravity drop hammers - impact energy

from falling weight of a heavy ram
 Power drop hammers - accelerate the
ram by pressurized air or steam
 Disadvantage: impact energy
transmitted through anvil into floor of
building
 Commonly used for impression-die
forging
Forging Hammers
Equipment m/s
Gravity Drop Hammer 3.6-4.8
Power Drop Hammer 3.0-9.0
Counterblow Hammer 4.5-9.0
Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and
heating units at the right of the scene
(photo courtesy of Chambersburg
Engineering Company).
Forging - Presses

 Apply gradual pressure to accomplish

compression operation
 Types:
 Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive
motor into linear motion of ram
 Hydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates
ram
 Screw press - screw mechanism drives ram
Hydraulic-Forging Presses-
• Expensive to buy, easier to maintain
• Forces of up to 80,000 tons can be generated
• Slow forging speed causes high heat transfer
to the die
• Speed 0.06-0.30 m/s•

Operator
Mechanical Forging Presses
Screw Forging Presses

Equipment m/s
Hydraulic Press 0.06-0.30
Mechanical Press 0.06-1.50
Screw Press 0.6-1.2
Gravity Drop Hammer 3.6-4.8
Power Drop Hammer 3.0-9.0
Counterblow Hammer 4.5-9.0
Cost-per-piece in Forging

Typical (cost-per-piece) in forging; note how the setup and the tooling costs-per-piece
decrease as the number of pieces forged increases if all pieces use the same die.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Costs of a Rod Made by Forging
and Casting
Relative unit costs of a small
connecting rod made by
various forging and casting
processes. Note that, for
large quantities, forging is
more economical. Sand
casting is the most
economical process for
fewer then about 20,000
pieces.

Figure 14.13 (a) The stepped pin. (b) Illustration of the manufacturing steps used to
produce the stepped pin. Source: Courtesy of National Machinery, LLC.

(a) The Lotus Elise Series 2 Sportscar; (b) illustration of the original design for the
vertical suspension uprights, using an aluminum extrusion; (c) retrofit design, using a
steel forging; (d) optimized steel forging design for new car models. Source: Courtesy
of Lotus Engineering and the American Iron and Steel Institute.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Comparison of Suspension
Designs for the Lotus

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Extrusion and Drawing of Metals
Extrusion
 Door and window frames
 Railings for sliding doors
 Tubing with various cross-section
 Structural and architectural shapes•
Extrusion
Compression forming process in which work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening
to produce a desired cross-sectional shape
 Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out
of a toothpaste tube
 In general, extrusion is used to produce long
parts of uniform cross sections
 Two basic types:

 Direct extrusion (or forward extrusion)

 Indirect extrusion (or backward/reverse
extrusion)
Extrusions and Products Made from
Extrusions

Extrusions and examples of

products made by sectioning off
extrusions. Source: Courtesy of
Kaiser Aluminum.

Solid Semi-Hollow Hollow

Advantages of Extrusion
 Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot
extrusion
 Limitation: part cross section must be uniform
throughout length
 Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold
and warm extrusion
 Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
extrusion
 In some operations, little or no waste of material
Extrusion - Forward/Reverse

 Two different types of extrusion are

possible:
 Forward Extrusion (Direct Extrusion) - the
product emerges in the same direction as the
movement of the ram.
 Reverse Extrusion (Indirect Extrusion) - the
product is extruded in the opposite direction
of the ram.
Direct/Forward-Extrusion

Schematic illustration of the direct-extrusion process.

Process variables in direct extrusion. The die angle, reduction in cross-section, extrusion
speed, billet temperature, and lubrication all affect the extrusion pressure.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Comments on Direct Extrusion
 Also called forward extrusion
 As ram approaches die opening, a small
portion of billet remains that cannot be
forced through die opening
 This extra portion, called the butt, must
be separated from extrudate by cutting it
just beyond the die exit
 Starting billet cross section usually round
 Final shape of extrudate is determined by
die opening
Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes

(a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or

semi-hollow cross sections; (b) hollow and (c)
semi-hollow cross sections.
Indirect Extrusion

Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a

solid cross section and (b) a hollow
cross section.
Backward Extrusion(Indirect)
Comments on Indirect Extrusion

 Also called backward extrusion and

reverse extrusion
 Limitations of indirect extrusion are
imposed by
 Lower rigidity of hollow ram
 Difficulty in supporting extruded product as
it exits die
Other-Types of Extrusion

Figure 15.3 Types of extrusion: (a) indirect; (b) hydrostatic; (c) lateral;

9-MN (1000-ton) Hydraulic Extrusion Press

Extrusion - Process

 Similar to forging, the extrusion process

begins by loading a billet into a container.
 A ram is used to apply a press force,
upsetting the billet to such an extend that
the material is extruded through a die.
 Extrusion can either take place as cold-
extrusion or hot-extrusions.
Hot vs. Cold Extrusion

 Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to

above its recrystallization temperature
 Reduces strength and increases ductility of
the metal, permitting more size reductions
and more complex shapes
 Cold extrusion - generally used to produce
discrete parts
 The term impact extrusion is used to
indicate high speed cold extrusion
Hot Extrusion

 Forces involved in hot extrusion are less,

thus a wider variety of shapes can be
manufactured.
 These shapes can be classified into three
groups.
 Solid Shapes - are produced by extruding
through a stationary die.
Hot Extrusion
 Hollow Shapes - are formed through the use of die
insert that produces the hollow in the extrusion.
Typically a mandrel is fixed to the punch, or
moving inside of the punch. Alternatively, the
mandrel can be fixed to the die with a spider.
 Semi-Hollow Shapes - a portion of the internal
shape is connected to the die.
Cold - Extrusion

 Generally a process performed at room

temperature and without prior heating of
the work material.
 Cold extrusion is used to produce finished
parts with increased strength.
 Parts range from bolts to truck axles.
Cold Extrusions
 Advantages to Cold Extrusion:
 Improved mechanical properties from work
hardening.
 Close tolerances.
 Good surface finish.
 Disadvantages:
 High stresses on machinery & die.
 Excessive die wear without proper
lubrication
 Steel, typically only used in annealed state.
Cold Extrusion Examples

Two examples of cold extrusion. Thin arrows indicate the direction of metal flow
during extrusion.

Figure 15.12 Production steps for a

cold-extruded spark plug. Source:
Courtesy of National Machinery
Figure 15.13 A cross-section
Company.
of the metal part in Fig 15.12
showing the grain-flow
pattern. Source: Courtesy of
National Machinery Company.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Extrusion Temperature Ranges

 The quality and mechanical properties of

the part are dependant on the flow
pattern during extrusion.
 Dead Zones are areas in the container
where material flow is essentially zero.
Can be due to poor die design and friction
between the metal and container wall.
Types of Metal Flow in Extrusion
with Square Dies

Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies. (a) Flow pattern obtained at low friction
or in indirect extrusion. (b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet-chamber
interfaces. (c) Pattern obtained at high friction or with coiling of the outer regions of the
billet in the chamber. This type of pattern, observed in metals whose strength increases
rapidly with decreasing temperature, leads to a defect known as pipe (or extrusion) defect.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Impact-Extrusion Process

Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The extruded parts are

stripped by use of a stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch.

(a) Impact extrusion of a collapsible tube by the Hooker process. (b) and (c) Two
examples of products made by impact extrusion. These parts also may be made by
casting, forging, or machining. The choice of process depends on the materials
involved, part dimensions, and wall thickness, and the product properties desired.
Economic considerations also are important in final process selection.

Poor and good examples of cross-sections to be extruded. Note the importance of

eliminating sharp corners and of keeping section thicknesses uniform. Source: J.G.
Bralla (ed.); Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing. New York: McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, 1986. Used with permission.

 Simplest cross section shape is circular die

orifice
 Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure
 As cross section becomes more complex,
higher pressure and greater force are
required
 Effect of cross-sectional shape on pressure
can be assessed by means the die shape
factor Kx
Extrusion in Creation of Intricate
Parts

(a) An extruded 6063-T6 aluminum-ladder lock for aluminum extension ladders. This part
is 8 mm (5/16 in.) thick and is sawed from the extrusion. (b-d) Components of various
dies for extruding intricate hollow shapes. Source: (b-d) After K. Laue and H. Stenger

(a) Aluminum extrusion used as a heat sink for a printed circuit board. (b) Die and
resulting heat sink profiles. Source: Courtesy of Aluminum Extruders Council.

 Either horizontal or vertical

 Horizontal more common
 Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically
driven, which is especially suited to
semi-continuous direct extrusion of long
sections
 Mechanical drives - often used for cold
extrusion of individual parts
9-MN (1000-ton) Hydraulic-
Extrusion Press

General view of a 9-MN (1000-ton) hydraulic-extrusion press. Source:

Courtesy of Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Wire & Bar Drawing
 Typical products of drawing range from
electrical wiring, wire frame structures,
nails, bolts, seamless tubing.

www.cuprofil.fr
Wire and Bar Drawing
Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is
reduced by pulling it through a die
opening
 Similar to extrusion except work is pulled
through die in drawing (it is pushed
through in extrusion)
 Although drawing applies tensile stress,
compression also plays a significant role
since metal is squeezed as it passes
through die opening
Wire & Bar Drawing
 Generally, drawn parts have a circular
cross sections.
 However, square, rectangular and shaped
sections can also be made.
 Usually, drawing is performed in the cold
state.
 As a result, drawing gives good surface finish,
increased strength and hardness.
Wire Vs. Bar Drawing
 Difference between bar drawing and
wire drawing is stock size
 Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod
stock
 Wire drawing - small diameter stock -
wire sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.)
are possible
 Although the mechanics are the same,
the methods, equipment, and even
terminology are different
Area Reduction in Drawing

Change in size of work is usually given by

area reduction:
Ao  Af
r
Ao

where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao

= original area of work; and Ar = final
work
Wire Drawing Process
 Continuous drawing machines consisting
of multiple draw dies (typically 4 to 12)
separated by accumulating drums
 Each drum (capstan) provides proper force
to draw wire stock through upstream die
 Each die provides a small reduction, so
desired total reduction is achieved by the
series
 Annealing sometimes required between dies
to relieve work hardening
Wire Drawing Process

 The maximum attainable reduction is

limited by the breakage of the wire.
 Usually, several reductions are required to
reach the final diameter.
 Drawing speeds can range from 1 m/s to
50 m/s. However, higher speeds generate
more heat, which can be detrimental to
the wire and the process.
Drawing
 pros
 length
 Surface finish
 cons
 multiple dies
and take up
rolls •
•Reduction per
pass
ranges from
near zero to
45%•
Continuous Wire Drawing
Multistage Wire-drawing
Machine

Two views of a multistage wire-drawing machine that typically is used in the making
of copper wire for electrical wiring. Source: After H. Auerswald

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Drawing Equipment
Wire Drawing Process
• Pointing – to reduce diameter of starting end
to allow insertion through draw die

 Structural damage in the form of voids can

result from poorly design dies.
 Surface cracking can result as a
consequence of longitudinal tension
stresses.
Drawing Practice and Products
 Drawing practice:
 Usually performed as cold working
 Most frequently used for round cross
sections
 Products:
 Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences,
coat hangers, and shopping carts
 Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and
springs
 Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging,
and other processes
Bar Drawing

 Accomplished as a single-draft
operation - the stock is pulled through one
die opening
 Beginning stock has large diameter and is
a straight cylinder
 Requires a batch type operation
Bar Drawing Bench

Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing

metal bars.
Bar Drawing - Tube

 In tube drawing, the diameter and

thickness of the tube can be reduced.
Tube-Drawing Operations

Examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without an internal mandrel. Note

that a variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced from the same
initial tube stock (which has been made by other processes).

No mandrel

Fixed mandrel

Floating mandrel
Drawing Dies

Terminology of a typical die Tungsten-carbide die insert in a steel

used for drawing a round rod or casing. Diamond dies used in
wire. drawing thin wire are encased in a
similar manner.

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Preparation of Work for Drawing
 Annealing – to increase ductility of stock
 Cleaning - to prevent damage to work
surface and draw die
 Pointing – to reduce diameter of starting
end to allow insertion through draw die
Drawing - Lubrication

 Lubrication not only reduces friction

during drawing, but also reduces the
resulting temperature rise.
 Lubrication also improves the surface
finish of the product.
Drawing - Lubrication

 The basic types of lubrication are:

 Wet Drawing – where the drawing process is
performed completely immersed in oil.
 Dry Drawing – the wire or bar is coated with
lubricant by passing it through a “box” filled
with oil (stuffing box).
 Coating – the wire or bar is coated with a soft
metal (copper or tin) that acts as a lubricant.
Max reduction per pass
 Why more than one step for reduction-
why cant it be done in a single pass
 As the reduction increases, the draw
stress increases
 If the reduction is large enough the draw
stress will exceed the yield strength of
the existing metal-will elongate the draw
wire instead of new material being
squeezed through the die opening
 Hence maximum draw stress must be less
than the yield strength of existing metal