Section 1.

2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

A Catalog of Essential Functions

In this course we consider 6 groups of important functions:
1. Linear Functions
2. Polynomials
3. Power functions
4. Rational functions
5. Trigonometric functions
6. Exponential/Logarithmic functions

EXAMPLES:
1. Linear Functions
f (x) = mx + b
where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. Its graph is a straight line:

2. Polynomials:
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
where an , an−1 , . . . , a2 , a1 , a0 are constants called the coefficients of P (x) and n is the degree of
P (x) (if an 6= 0).
(a) If an > 0 and n is even, then its graph is

3 3
For example, here is a graph of P (x) = x4 + x3 − 2 x2 − x + 1 with a4 = 1 > 0 and even
2 2
degree= 4.

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

(b) If an < 0 and n is even, then its graph is

9 1 1
For example, here is a graph of P (x) = −x4 − x3 + x2 + x − with a4 = −1 < 0 and even
4 4 2
degree= 4.
(c) If an > 0 and n is odd, then its graph is

9 5 15 2 7
For example, here is a graph of P (x) = x5 + x4 + x3 − x − x + 3 with a5 = 1 > 0 and
2 2 2 2
odd degree= 5.
(d) If an < 0 and n is odd, then its graph is

9 5 15 2 7
For example, here is a graph of P (x) = −x5 − x4 − x3 + x + x − 3 with a5 = −1 < 0
2 2 2 2
and odd degree= 5.

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

3. Power functions:
f (x) = xa
where a is a constant. Here we distinguish three main cases:
(i) a = n, where n is a positive integer

(ii) a = 1/n, where n is a positive integer

(iii) a = −1

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

4. Rational functions:
P (x)
f (x) =
Q(x)
where P (x), Q(x) are polynomials.

1 x+1 3x2 − 5x + 1
EXAMPLES: f (x) = , g(x) = , h(x) = , etc.
x x−3 x3 + 1

5. Trigonometric functions:
In this course it is important to know graphs and basic properties of the following trigonometric
functions:
sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

6. Exponential and Logarithmic functions:

f (x) = ax , f (x) = loga x

where a is a positive constant.

IMPORTANT: Do NOT confuse power functions and exponential functions!

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

Transformations of Functions

Vertical and Horizontal Shifts: Suppose c > 0. To obtain the graph of

y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units upward
y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units downward
y = f (x − c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to the right
y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to the left

Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting: Suppose c > 0. To obtain the graph
of
y = cf (x), stretch the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c
y = (1/c)f (x), compress the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c
y = f (cx), compress the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c
y = f (x/c), stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c
y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis
y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the y-axis

EXAMPLES:
1. Given the graph of f (x) = x2 , use transformations to graph f (x) = (x + 1)2 .

Step 1: f (x) = x2 Step 2: f (x) = (x + 1)2 (horizontal shift)

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -3 -2 -1 0 1
x x

2. Given the graph of f (x) = x2 , use transformations to graph f (x) = x2 − 2.

Step 1: f (x) = x2 Step 2: f (x) = x2 − 2 (vertical shift)

4 2

3 1

2 0
-2 -1 0 1 2
x

1 -1

0 -2
-2 -1 0 1 2
x

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

3. Given the graph of f (x) = x2 , use transformations to graph f (x) = −x2 .

Step 1: f (x) = x2 Step 2: f (x) = −x2 (reflection about the x-axis)

x
-2 -1 0 1 2
4 0

3 -1

2 -2

1 -3

0 -4
-2 -1 0 1 2
x

√ √
4. Given the graph of f (x) = x, use transformations to graph f (x) = −x.
√ √
Step 1: f (x) = x Step 2: f (x) = −x (reflection about the y-axis)
1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
x

√ √
5. Given the graph of f (x) = x, use transformations to graph f (x) = 1 − 1 + x.
√ √
Step 1: f (x) = x Step 2: f (x) = 1 + x (horizontal shift)

√ √
Step 3: f (x) = − 1 + x (reflection) Step 4: f (x) = 1 − 1 + x (vertical shift)

√ √
6. Given the graph of f (x) = x, use transformations to graph f (x) = 1 − 1 − x.

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

√ √
6. Given the graph of f (x) = x, use transformations to graph f (x) = 1 − 1 − x.
√ √
Step 1: f (x) = x Step 2: f (x) = 1 + x (horizontal shift)

√ √
Step 3: f (x) = − 1 + x (reflection) Step 4: f (x) = 1 − 1 + x (vertical shift)

√
Step 5: f (x) = 1 − 1 − x (reflection about the y-axis)

7. Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = 1 − 2(x − 3)2 .

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

Combinations of functions

Two functions f and g can be combined to form new functions f + g, f − g, f g, and f /g in a

manner similar to the way we add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers.

√ √
EXAMPLE: The domain of f (x) = x√is A = [0, ∞), the domain of g(x) = 1 − x is
B = (−∞, 1], and the domain of h(x) = x − 1 is C = [1, ∞), so the domain of
√ √
(f − g)(x) = x − 1 − x is A ∩ B = [0, 1]
and √ √
(f − h)(x) = x− x − 1 is A ∩ C = [1, ∞)

EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x − 1, then the domain of the rational function
(f /g)(x) = x2 /(x − 1) is {x | x 6= 1} or (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)

There is another way of √combining two functions to obtain a new function. For example,
suppose that y = f (u) = u and u = g(x) = x2 + 1. Since y is a function of u and u is, in turn,
a function of x, it follows that y is ultimately a function of x. We compute this by substitution:
√
y = f (u) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 + 1) = x2 + 1
The procedure is called composition because the new function is composed of the two given
functions f and g.

EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x − 3, find the following.

(a) f ◦ f (b) f ◦ g (c) g ◦ f (d) g ◦ g (e) f (g(2)) (f) g(f (2))

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x − 3, find the following.

(a) f ◦ f (b) f ◦ g (c) g ◦ f (d) g ◦ g (e) f (g(2)) (f) g(f (2))
Solution: We have  
2
 f (x + 1) 
 
(a) f ◦ f = f (f (x)) = or = (x2 + 1)2 + 1 = (x2 )2 + 2 · x2 · 1 + 12 + 1 = x4 + 2x2 + 2
 (f (x))2 + 1 
 
 
 f (x − 3) 
 
(b) f ◦ g = f (g(x)) = or = (x − 3)2 + 1 = x2 − 2 · x · 3 + 32 + 1 = x2 − 6x + 10
 (g(x))2 + 1 
 
 
2
 g(x + 1) 
 
(c) g ◦ f = g(f (x)) = or = (x2 + 1) − 3 = x2 − 2

 f (x) − 3 
 
 g(x − 3) 
 
(d) g ◦ g = g(g(x)) = or = (x − 3) − 3 = x − 6

 g(x) − 3 

(e) f (g(2)) = (2 − 3)2 + 1 = (−1)2 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2

(f) g(f (2)) = 22 − 2 = 4 − 2 = 2

EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x and g(x) = 1, then

f ◦f =x f ◦g =1 g◦f =1 g◦g =1

REMARK: You can see from the Examples above that sometimes f ◦ g = g ◦ f, but, in general,
f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f .

The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all x in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f.
In other words, (f ◦ g)(x) is defined whenever both g(x) and f (g(x)) are defined.
√
EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x, then
√ √
q
2 2 4
f ◦ f = (x ) = x f ◦ g = x, x ≥ 0 g ◦ f = |x| g◦g = x= 4
x
√
(of course, the domain of g ◦ g = 4 x is all nonnegative numbers).
√
EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x3 and g(x) = 3
x, then
√ √
q
3 3 9 3
f ◦ f = (x ) = x f ◦g =x g◦f =x g◦g = 3
x= 9
x

√ √
EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x and g(x) = 2 − x, find each function and its domain.
(a) f ◦ g (b) g ◦ f (c) f ◦ f (d) g ◦ g

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

√ √
EXAMPLE: If f (x) = x and g(x) = 2 − x, find each function and its domain.
(a) f ◦ g (b) g ◦ f (c) f ◦ f (d) g ◦ g
Solution:
(a) We have
√ √ √
q
4
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( 2 − x) = 2−x= 2−x
The domain of f ◦ g is {x | 2 − x ≥ 0} = {x | x ≤ 2} = (−∞, 2].
(b) We have
√ √
q
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g( x) = 2 − x
√ p √ √
For x to√ be defined we must have x ≥ 0. For 2 − x to be defined we must have 2− x ≥ 0,
that is, x ≤ 2, or x ≤ 4. Thus we have 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, so the domain of g ◦ f is the closed interval
[0, 4].
(c) We have
√ √ √
q
(f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x)) = f ( x) = x= 4x
The domain of f ◦ f is [0, ∞).
(d) We have
√ √
q
(g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x)) = g( 2 − x) = 2 − 2 − x
√
This expression is defined when both 2√ −x ≥ 0 and 2 − 2 − x ≥ 0. The first inequality means
x ≤ 2, and the second is equivalent to 2 − x ≤ 2, or 2 −x ≤ 4, or x ≥ −2. Thus −2 ≤ x ≤ 2,
so the domain of g ◦ g is the closed interval [-2, 2].

It is possible to take the composition of three or more functions. For instance, the composite
function f ◦ g ◦ h is found by first applying h, then g, and then f as follows:

(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x)))

EXAMPLE: Find f ◦ g ◦ h if f (x) = x/(x + 1), g(x) = x10 , and h(x) = x + 3.

Solution: We have
(x + 3)10
(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x))) = f (g(x + 3)) = f ((x + 3)10 ) =
(x + 3)10 + 1

So far we have used composition to build complicated functions from simpler ones. But in
calculus it is often useful to be able to decompose a complicated function into simpler ones, as
in the following example.

1
EXAMPLE: Given F (x) = , find functions f, g, and h such that F = f ◦ g ◦ h.
(x + 9)2

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Section 1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions 2010 Kiryl Tsishchanka

1
EXAMPLE: Given F (x) = , find functions f, g, and h such that F = f ◦ g ◦ h.
(x + 9)2
Solution 1: The formula for F says: First add 9, then square x + 9, and finally divide 1 by the
result. So we let
1
f (x) = , g(x) = x2 , h(x) = x + 9
x
Then
1
(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x))) = f (g(x + 9)) = f ((x + 9)2 ) = = F (x)
(x + 9)2

Solution 2: Here is an other way to look at F : First add 9, then divide 1 by x + 9, and finally
square the result. So we let
1
f (x) = x2 , g(x) = , h(x) = x + 9
x
Then
   2
1 1 1
(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x))) = f (g(x + 9)) = f = = = F (x)
x+9 x+9 (x + 9)2

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