Principle of Superposition

“The resultant stress or displacement at a point can be

estimated by algebraically summing the stress or
displacement caused by each load component applied
separately to the member.”
Two conditions must be satisfied:
• The loading linearly relates to the stress or
displacement.
• The loading do not change the original geometry
or configuration of the member significantly
 Principle of Superposition
The direction and location of the applied forces and their moment
arms will change in case significant changes occur:

P = P1 + P2
If P causes the rod to deflect a large amount

The moment of the load about its support, Pd, will not equal the sum of the
moments of its component loads:

Pd = Pd
1 1 + P2 d 2
 Axially Loaded Member: Statically
Indeterminate
Equilibrium requires: RA + RB = P
• The equilibrium equation(s) will not be sufficient
to determine the two reactions
• on the bar. Such problems are statically
indeterminate.
• Additional equations will be required
• Equations can be added by analyzing the
geometric fit/compatibility
• equation which specifies the conditions for
displacement is known as a compatibility or
kinematic condition.
• the end supports are fixed, then δ A/ B = 0

LCB LAC
RA = P ; RB = P
L L
 General Procedure for Analysis
Equilibrium
• Draw a free-body diagram and identify all the forces
• If the number of unknown reactions are greater than equilibrium equations, the
problem is statically indeterminate
• Write the equations of equilibrium
Geometric Compatibility
• Draw a displacement diagram to investigate the way the member will elongate or
contract.
• Express compatibility conditions in terms of displacements •
• Use a load–displacement relation
• Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the
• reactions.
• A negative numerical indicates that the force acts in the opposite sense of
direction
 Thermal Stress and Strain
• Change in temperature can cause a body to change
its dimensions
• Temperature increases, body will expand, the
Temperature decreases, body will contract.
• Expansion or contraction is linearly related to the
temperature increase or decrease
• material is homogeneous and isotropic, then the
displacement of a member having a length L can be
calculated as:
δ T = α∆TL
α is linear coefficient of thermal expansion
Source: https://www.tf.uni-
kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_8/illustr/s8_4_4.html
 Thermal Stress and Strain
Thermal Stresses are induced in a statically
indeterminate member when thermal
displacements are constrained using the
supports
Equilibrium
RA = RB = P
Compatibility
δ A/ B = 0 = δT − δ P
PL RA RB
0 = α∆TL −
AE
P
α∆T = Source: https://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_8/illustr/s8_4_4.html
AE
P
α∆TE = = σ σ = α∆TE P = α∆TEA
A
Relationship between elastic constants
Relationship between elastic constants
Elongation of bar due to self weight
Bar of Uniform Strength
The three A-36 steel bars shown in Figure are pin connected to a rigid member.
If the applied load on the member is 15 kN, determine the force developed in
each bar. Bars AB and EF each have a cross-sectional area of 50 mm2 and bar
CD has a cross-sectional area of 30 mm2
The bolt shown in Figure is made aluminum alloy and is tightened so it compresses a cylindrical
tube made of magnesium alloy. The tube has an outer radius of 0.5 inch and it is assumed that
both the inner radius of the tube and the radius of the bolt are 0.25 inch. The washers at the top
and bottom of the tube are considered to be rigid and have a negligible thickness. Initially the
nut is hand tightened snugly; then, using a wrench, the nut is further tightened one-half turn. If
the bolt has 20 threads per inch, determine the stress in the bolt.
Stress vector/Traction
Stress at a Point
Stress at a Point
Stress at a Point
Strain at a Point
Strain at a Point
 PLANE STRESS

A shear stress is positive when the directions associated with its

subscripts are plus-plus or minus-minus; the stress is negative
when the directions are plus-minus or minus-plus.
Examples of Plane Stress Problems

Thin Plate With

Central Hole

Circular Plate Under

Edge Loadings
PLANE STRAIN
 Examples of Plane Strain Problems
y

x
x

Long Cylinders Semi-Infinite Regions

Under Uniform Loading Under Uniform Loadings
STRESS TRANSFORMATION
 STRESS TRANSFORMATION

the state of plane stress at the point is uniquely

represented by two normal stress components and
one shear stress component acting on an element that
has a specific orientation at the point.
Procedure for Analysis
Principal Stresses and Maximum
In-Plane Shear Stress
Principal Stresses and Maximum
In-Plane Shear Stress
Principal Stresses and Maximum
In-Plane Shear Stress

no shear stress acts on the principal

planes
Principal Stresses and Maximum
In-Plane Shear Stress
• Maximum or minimum in-plane normal stress
acting at a point,
• This particular set of values are called the in-
plane principal stresses
• The corresponding planes on which they act
are called the principal planes of stress
Maximum In-Plane Shear Stress

maximum shear stress will be 45° from the position of an element that
is subjected to the principal stress.
 Points to Remember
• The principal stresses represent the maximum and
minimum normal stress at the point.
• When the state of stress is represented by the principal
stresses,
• No shear stress will act on the element.
• The state of stress at the point can also be represented in
terms of
• the maximum in-plane shear stress. In this case an
average normal stress will also act on the element.
• The element representing the maximum in-plane shear
stress with the associated average normal stresses is
oriented 45° from the element representing the principal
stresses.
Mohr’s Circle—Plane Stress
Mohr’s Circle—Plane Stress
Mohr’s Circle—Plane Stress
Mohr’s Circle—Plane Stress
General Equations of Strain
Transformation
General Equations of Strain Transformation:
Normal Strain
General Equations of Strain Transformation:
Normal Strain
General Equations of Strain Transformation:
Shear Strain
General Equations of Strain Transformation:
Shear Strain
 Strain Rosettes
the normal strain in the material is measured using an
electrical resistance strain gauge
wire grid or piece of metal foil bonded to the specimen
strains at a point on its free surface are determined using a
cluster of three electrical-resistance strain gauges, arranged in
a specified pattern.
This pattern is referred to as a strain rosette
Impact loading
 Torsion
• Torque is a moment that tends to twist a member
about its longitudinal axis
• primary concern in the design of axles or drive
shafts used in vehicles and machinery
• the circles and longitudinal grid lines originally
marked on the shaft tend to distort into the
pattern
• twisting causes the circles to remain circles
• each longitudinal grid line deforms into a helix
that intersects the circles at equal angles
• cross sections from the ends along the
• shaft will remain flat
• radial lines remain straight during the
deformation
• angle of twist is small, the length of the shaft and
its radius will remain unchanged
 Angle of Twist
shaft is fixed at one end and a
torque is applied to its other
end
Plane distort into a skewed
form
a radial line located on the
cross section at a distance x
from the fixed end of the shaft
will rotate through an angle
It is called the angle of twist
are the same for all elements located at points on the cross section at x
are the same for all elements located at points on the cross section at x
The Torsion Formula
Solid Shaft

• the internal torque T develop a linear distribution of shear stress along each
radial line
• an associated shear-stress distribution is developed along an axial plane
 Solid Shaft

• Shafts made from wood tend to split along the axial plane when subjected to
excessive torque
• Shear resistance parallel to its grains or fibers, directed along the axis of the
shaft, is much less than its resistance perpendicular to the fibers
Tubular Shaft
 Absolute Maximum Torsional Stress
Internal torque T at each section along the axis of the
shaft by drawing a torque diagram, which is a plot of
the internal torque T versus its position x along the
shaft’s length
Power Transmission
Shaft Design
Angle of Twist (Revisited)
Multiple Torques
Multiple Torques
Statically Indeterminate
Torque-Loaded Members
 Solid Noncircular Shafts
• Shafts that have a noncircular cross-
section.
• Shafts are not axisymmetric, and so their
cross sections will bulge or warp when
the shaft is twisted
• the way grid lines deform on a shaft
having a square cross section when the
shaft is twisted
• shear-stress distributions vary in a
complex manner, the shear strains they
create will warp the cross section
 Solid Noncircular Shafts

• maximum shear stress occurs at a point on the

edge of the cross section that is closest to the
center axis of the shaft
• shaft having a circular cross section is most
efficient, since it is subjected to both a smaller
maximum shear stress and a smaller angle of
twist than a corresponding shaft having a
noncircular cross section and subjected to the
same torque
 Thin-Walled Tubes Having Closed
Cross Sections
• construct light-weight frameworks such as
those used in aircraft
• Tube having a constant yet arbitrary cross
sectional shape, and variable thickness t, will
be analyzed
• average shear stress is assumed to be
uniformly distributed across the thickness of
the tube at any given point
Thin-Walled Tubes Having Closed
Cross Sections

the product of the average shear stress times the

thickness of the tube is the same at each point on the
tube’s cross-sectional area. This product is called shear
flow
the shear flow measures the force per unit length along the
tube’s cross-sectional area

the shear flow and the average stress to always be directed

tangent to the wall of the tube, such that it contributes to
the resultant internal torque T
Average Shear Stress.
Angle of Twist
Helical Springs
Helical Springs
Helical Springs
 Transverse Shear

• If the top and bottom surfaces of each board are

smooth, and the boards are not bonded together, then
application of the load P will cause the boards to
slide relative to one another
• if the boards are bonded together, then the
• longitudinal shear stresses acting between the boards
will prevent their relative sliding, and consequently
the beam will act as a single unit
 Transverse Shear

This non-uniform shear-strain distribution will cause the cross section to

warp.
 The Shear Formula
• When a beam is subjected to both bending and shear, the cross section will
not remain plane.
• Generally assume the cross-sectional warping due to shear is small enough
so that it can be neglected.
• Will develop the shear formula in an indirect manner.
• Consider the horizontal force equilibrium of a portion of the element.
The Shear Formula
The Shear Formula
 Limitations on the Use of the Shear Formula.
• shear stress is uniformly distributed
over the width t at the section
• the average shear stress is calculated
across the width
• if the beam’s cross section is
rectangular, the shear-stress
distribution across the neutral axis as
calculated from the theory of
elasticity varies as shown
 Limitations on the Use of the Shear Formula.
• shear formula will not give accurate results when used to
determine the shear stress at flange–web junction of a wide-
flange beam, since this is a point of sudden cross-sectional
change and therefore a stress concentration occurs
• Most often engineers must only calculate the average
maximum shear stress in the beam, which occurs at the
neutral axis, where the (b/h) ratio for the web is very small.
• calculated result is very close to the actual maximum shear
stress
Limitations on the Use of the Shear Formula.
 Limitations on the Use of the Shear Formula.

the shear formula does not give accurate results when

applied to members having cross sections that are
short or flat, or at points where the cross section
suddenly changes.
should not be applied across a section that intersects
the boundary of the
member at an angle other than 90°.
Determine the distribution of the shear stress over the cross section of the beam
 Shear Flow in Built-Up Members

• members are “built up” from several

composite parts in order to achieve a
greater resistance to loads.
• members to bend, fasteners such as
nails, bolts, welding material, or glue
may be needed to keep the component
parts from sliding relative to one
another
• shear force that must be resisted by
the fastener
• This loading, when measured as a
force per unit length of beam, is
referred to as shear flow q.
A box beam is constructed from four boards
nailed together as shown. If each nail can
support a shear force of 30 lb, determine
the maximum spacing s of the nails at B and at
C so that the beam will support the force of 80
lb.
Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members
Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members
Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members
Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members
Points
• the directional sense of q is such that the shear
appears to “flow” through the cross section
• inward at the beam’s top flange, “combining” and
then “flowing” downward through the web, since it
must contribute to the shear force V, and then
separating and “flowing” outward at the bottom
flange
Points
• the value of q changes over the cross section, since
Q will be different for each area segment
• vary linearly along segments (flanges) that are
perpendicular to the direction of V
• parabolically along segments (web) that are
inclined or parallel to V
• q will always act parallel to the walls of the member
• the directional sense of q is such that the shear
appears to “flow” through the cross section
 Shear Centre

It was assumed that the internal shear V was applied along a principal centroidal axis of
inertia. In this section we will consider the effect of applying the shear along a principal
centroidal axis that is not an axis of symmetry