MODULE IV.

VIBRATION UNDER GENERAL FORCING CONDITIONS

This module is devoted to the vibration response of a single-degree-of-

freedom system under arbitrary forcing conditions. The response of the system under
a general periodic force is presented by first expanding the periodic force into a series of
harmonic forces using Fourier series and then superposing the responses due to the
individual harmonic forces. The response of the system under a nonperiodic force is
presented using the method of convolution integral. The method of convolu-tion or
Duhamel integral makes use of the impulse response function of the system. The
method is also used to find the response to base excitation. Several examples are
presented to illustrate its use. The concept of response spectra corresponding to specific
forcing func-tions and their use in finding the maximum response of the system is also
outlined.

Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this module, you should be able to do the following:

1.Use the method of convolution integral to solve vibration problems of systems

subjected to arbitrary forces.
2.Solve undamped and damped systems subjected to arbitrary forces.
3.Understand the characteristics of transient response, such as peak time, overshoot,
settling time, rise time, and decay time, and procedures for their estimation.
Introduction

In Module III, we considered the response of single-degree-of-freedom systems

subjected to harmonic excitation. However, many practical systems are subjected to
several types of forcing functions that are not harmonic. The general forcing functions
may be periodic (nonharmonic) or nonperiodic. The nonperiodic forces include forces such
as a suddenly applied constant force (called a step force), a linearly increasing force (called a
ramp force), and an exponentially varying force. A
nonperiodic forcing function may be acting for a short, long, or infinite duration. A forcing
function or excitation of short duration compared to the natural time period of the system is
called a shock. Examples of general forcing func-tions are the motion imparted by a cam to
the follower, the vibration felt by an instrument when its package is dropped from a height,
the force applied to the foundation of a forging press, the motion of an automobile when it
hits a pothole, and the ground vibration of a building frame during an earthquake.

If the forcing function is periodic but not harmonic, it can be replaced by a sum of
har-monic functions using the harmonic analysis procedure discussed in module III.
Using the principle of superposition, the response of the system can then be determined by
super-posing the responses due to the individual harmonic forcing functions.

The response of a system subjected to any type of nonperiodic force is commonly

found using the following methods:

1. Convolution integral.
2. Laplace transform.
3. Numerical methods.

The first two methods are analytical ones, in which the response or solution is expressed
in a way that helps in studying the behavior of the system under the applied force with
respect to various parameters and in designing the system. The third method, on the other
hand, can be used to find the response of a system under any arbitrary force for which an
analytical solution is difficult or impossible to find. However, the solution found is applicable
only for the particular set of parameter values used in finding the solution. This makes it
difficult to study the behavior of the system when the parameters are varied. This makes it
difficult to study the behavior of the system when the parameters are varied. This module
present the method of Convolution Integral to find the respone or solution under general forcing
condition.
 Lesson 1. Response Under a General Periodic Force

When the external force F(t) is t = 2p/v, it can be expanded in a

periodic with period Fourier series

q q
a0
F(t) = + a a j cos jv t + a bj sin jv t (4.1)
2 j=1 j=1

where
t
2
aj = F(t) cos jv t dt, j = 0, 1, 2, Á (4.2)
t L0

and
t
2
bj = F(t) sin jv t dt, j = 1, 2, Á (4.3)
t L0

The response of systems under general periodic forces is considered in this

lesson for both first order systems.

First-Order Systems

First-order systems are those for which the equation of motion is a first-
order differential equation. Similarly, second-order systems are those for which the
equation of motion is a second-order differential equation. Typical examples of first-
and second-order systems are shown in Figs. 4.1 and 4.2, respectively.
Consider a spring-damper system subjected to a periodic excitation as shown in Fig.
4.1(a). The equation of motion of the system is given by

# (4.4)
cx + k(x - y) = 0
 Rigid bar
(no mass) A
F(t) x(t)
y(t)
k

Rigid bar
Rigid bar (no mass)
(no mass) B

x(t) c
k
c

. .
cx * kx + ky(t) cx * kx + f(t)
(a) (b)

Damper (ct)

Rotor (J)

v(t) T(t)

.
Jv * ctv + T (t)

(c)

FIGURE 4.1 Examples of first-order systems.

where y(t) is the periodic motion (or excitation) imparted to the system at point A
(for example, by a cam). If the periodic displacement of point A, y(t), is expressed in
Fourier series as indicated by the right-hand side of Eq. (4.1), the equation of motion
of the system can be expressed as
q q
#
x + ax = ay = A 0 + a A j sin vjt + a Bj cos vjt (4.5)
j=1 j=1
 Rigid bar
(no mass)
f(t)
k y(t)
x(t)

m m

x(t)
c c
k

.. . .. .
mx * cx * kx + f(t) mx * cx * kx + ky(t)
(a) (b)

Torsional spring
Torsional damper (kt)
(ct)
Rotor (J)

u(t)
T(t)
.. .
Ju * ctu * ktu + T(t)
(c)

FIGURE 4.2 Examples of second-order systems.

where
k aa 0
a = , A0 = , A j = aa j, Bj = abj, vj = jv, j = 1, 2, 3, Á (4.6)
c 2
The solution of Eq. (4.5) is presented in Example 4.1.

EXAMPLE 4.1 Response of a First-Order System under Periodic Force

Find the response of the spring-damper system shown in Fig. 4.1(a) subjected to a
periodic force with the equation of motion given by Eq. (4.5).

Solution: It can be seen that the right-hand side of the equation of motion, Eq. (4.5), is a
constant plus a linear sum of harmonic (sine and cosine) functions. Using the principle of
superposition, the steady-state solution of Eq. (4.5) can be found by summing the steady-
state solutions corresponding to the individual forcing terms on the right-hand side of Eq.
(4.5).
The equation of motion corresponding to the constant force A0 can be expressed, using x 0
for x, as #
x0 + ax0 = A 0 (E.1)

The solution of Eq. (E.1) is given by (can be verified by substituting in Eq. (E.1)):
A0
x0(t) = (E.2)
a

The equation of motion under the force Aj sin vj t can be expressed as

#
xj + axj = A j sin vjt (E.3)

in which the steady-state solution of Eq. (E.3) can be assumed in the form

xj(t) = Xj sin(vjt - fj) (E.4)

where the magnitude Xj and the phase angle fj denote the unknown constants to be determined.

The solution in Eq. (E.4) can be expressed as the imaginary part of the following solution in
complex form: x (t) = Im :X ei(vj t - fj) ; = X ei vj te-ifj = U eivj t (E.5)
j j j j

where Uj denotes the complex number:

Uj = Xj e -ifj (E.6)

Noting that the time derivative of x j(t) is given by

#
xj(t) = ivj Uj eivj t (E.7)

Eq. (E.3) can be expressed with the forcing term in complex form (with the
understanding that we are interested only in the imaginary part of the solution):
#
xj + axj = Aj eivj t = A j (cos vj t + i sin vj t) (E.8)

By inserting Eqs. (E.5) and (E.7) into Eq. (E.8), we obtain

ivj Uj eivjt + aUj eivj t = A j eivjt (E.9)

Since eivj t Z 0, Eq. (E.9) can be reduced to

ivj Uj + aUj = A j (E.10)

or
Aj
Uj = (E.11)
a + ivj
Equations (E.6) and (E.11) yield
Aj
Uj = Xj e -i fj = (E.12)
a + ivj
1
By expressing a + ivj
as

1 a - ivj 1 a vj
= = B - i R (E.13)
a + ivj (a + ivj)(a - ivj) 2 2 2 2
2a + vj 2a + vj 2
2a + v2j

Eq. (E.13) can be rewritten as

1 1 1
= [cos fj - i sin fj] = e -i fj (E.14)
a + ivj 2 2
2a + vj 2
2a + v2j

where
vj
fj = tan -1 ¢ (E.15)
a

By using Eq. (E.14) in Eq. (E.12), we find that

Aj vj
Xj = , fj = tan -1 ¢ (E.16)
2a + 2
v2j a

The solution of Eq. (E.3) is thus given by Eq. (E.4) with and Xj fj given by Eq. (E.16). The equation
of motion under the force Bj cos vj t can be expressed as
#
x
j + axj = Bj cos vj t (E.17)

By assuming the steady-state solution of Eq. (E.17) in the form

xj(t) = Yj cos(vj t - fj) (E.18)

the constants Yj and fj can be determined, by proceeding as in the case of the solution of Eq.
Bj vj
Yj = , fj = tan -1 ¢ (E.19)
(E.3), as 2a 2 + v2j a

The complete steady-state (or particular) solution of Eq. (4.5) can be expressed as
q Aj vj
A0
xp(t) = + a sin b vjt - tan -1 ¢ r
a j = 1 2a 2 + v2
j
a

q Bj vj
+ a cos b vj t - tan -1 ¢ r (E.20)
j=1 2a 2 + v2j a

where a, A0, Aj, Bj, and vj are given by Eq. (4.6).

 Note: The total solution of Eq. (4.5) is given by the sum of the homogeneous
and particular (or steady-state) solutions:
x(t) = xh(t) + xp(t) (E.21)

where the particular solution is given by Eq. (E.20) and the homogeneous solution
of Eq. (4.5) can be expressed as
xh(t) = Ce -at (E.22)

where C is an unknown constant to be determined using the initial condition of

the system. The total solution can be expressed as
q q
A0
x(t) = Ce -at + + a Xj sin(vj t - fj) + a Yj cos(vj t - fj) (E.23)
a j=1 j=1

When the initial condition x(t = 0) = x 0 is used in Eq. (E.23), we obtain

q q
A0
x0 = C + - a Xj sin fj + a Yi cos fj (E.24)
a j=1 j=1

which yields

q q
A0
C = x0 - + a Xj sin fj - a Yj cos fj (E.25)
a j=1 j=1

Thus the total solution of Eq. (4.5) becomes

q q
A0
x(t) = B x0 - + a Xj sin fj - a Yj cos fj R e -at
a j=1 j=1

q q
A0
+ + a Xj sin(vdt - fj) + a Yj cos(vdt - fj) (E.26)
a j=1 j=1

The features of the response of the system can be studied by considering a

simpler type of forcing function through the following example.

E X A M P L E 4 . 2Response of a First-Order System

Determine the response of a spring-damper system, similar to the one shown in

Fig. 4.1(a), with the equation of motion:
#
x + 1.5x = 7.5 + 4.5 cos t + 3 sin 5t

Assume the initial condition as x(t = 0) = 0.

Solution: The equation of motion of the system is given by
#
+ 1.5x = 7.5
x + 4.5 cos t + 3 sin 5t (E.1)

We first find the solution of the differential equation by considering one forcing
term at a time given on the right-hand side of Eq. (E.1) and then adding the solutions to find
the total solution of Eq. (E.1). For the constant term, the equation to be solved is
# (E.2)
x + 1.5x = 7.5
The solution of Eq. x(t) = 7.5/1.5 = 5. For the cosine term, the equation to be solved is
(E.2) is given by
# (E.3)
x + 1.5x = 4.5 cos t
Using the steady-state solution indicated in Eq. (E.21) of Example 4.1, we can express the
solution of Eq. (E.3) as
x(t) = Y cos(t - f) (E.4)

where
4.5 4.5
Y = = = 2.4961 (E.5)
2(1.5)2 + (1)2 23.25

and
1
f = tan -1 a b = 0.5880 rad (E.6)
1.5

Similarly, for the sine term, the equation to be solved is

#
x + 1.5x = 3 sin 5 t (E.7)

Using the steady-state solution indicated in Eq. (E.4) of Example 4.1, we can express the
solution of Eq. (E.7) as
x(t) = X sin(5 t - f) (E.8)

where
3 3
X = = = 0.5747 (E.9)
2 2
2(1.5) + (5) 227.25
and
5
f = tan-1 a b = 1.2793 rad (E.10)
1.5
Thus the total particular solution of Eq. (E.1) is given by the sum of the solutions of Eqs.
(E.2), (E.3) and (E.7):

x(t) = 5 + 2.4961 cos(t - 0.5880) + 0.5747 sin(5 t - 1.2793) (E.11)

 10
Forcing function
9
First two terms All three
8
of x(t) terms of x(t)
7

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

FIGURE 4.3

The forcing function given by the right-hand-side expression in Eq. (E.1) and
the steady-state response of the system given by Eq. (E.11) are shown graphically
in Fig. 4.3. The first two terms of the response (given by the first two terms on the
right-hand side of Eq. (E.11)) are also shown in Fig. 4.3. It can be seen that
system does not filter the constant term. However, it filters the lower-frequency
*
(cosine term) to some extent and the higher-frequency (sine time) to a larger
extent.

Lesson 2. Response Under a Nonperiodic Force

We have seen that periodic forces of any general waveform can be represented by
Fourier series as a superposition of harmonic components of various frequencies. The response
of a linear system is then found by superposing the harmonic response to each of the exciting
forces. When the exciting force F(t) is nonperiodic, such as that due to the blast from an
explosion, a different method of calculating the response is required. Various methods can be
used to find the response of the system to an arbitrary excitation. In this lesson ,we shall discuss
the convolution integral method method.
Convolution Integral

A nonperiodic exciting force usually has a magnitude that varies with time; it acts
for a specified period and then stops. The simplest form is the impulsive force a force that has
a large magnitude F and acts for a very short time ¢t. From dynamics we know that
impulse can be measured by finding the change it causes in momentum of the system . If
#
x1 and x2 denote the velocities of the mass m before and after the application of the
#

impulse, we have

# # (4.7)
Impulse = F¢t = mx2 - mx1

By designating the magnitude of the impulse F¢t by F, we can write, in general,

t + ¢t
F = F dt (4.8)
Lt

A unit impulse acting at t = 0 (f) is defined as

t + ¢t
f = lim F dt = F dt = 1 (4.9)
¢t: 0 Lt

It can be seen that in order for F dt to have a finite value, F tends to infinity (since dt tends to
zero).
The unit impulse, f = 1, acting at t = 0, is also denoted by the Dirac delta function as
f = f d(t) = d(t) (4.10)

and the impulse of magnitude F, acting at t = 0, is denoted as1

F = F d(t) (4.11)

1
The unit impulse, f, acting at t = 0, is also denoted by the Dirac delta function, d(t). The Dirac delta function at
time t = t, denoted as d(t - t), has the properties

d(t - t) = 0 for t Z t;
q q
d(t - t) dt = 1, d(t - t)F(t) dt = F(t)
L0 L0
where 0 6 t 6 q . Thus an impulse of magnitude F, acting at t = t, can be denoted as F(t) = F d(t - t)
Response to an Impulse
We first consider the response of a single-degree-of-freedom system to an impulse excitation;
this case is important in studying the response under more general excitations. Consider a viscously
damped spring-mass system subjected to a unit impulse at t = 0, as shown in Figs. 4.4(a) and (b).
For an underdamped system, the solution of the equation of motion
$ #
mx + cx + kx = 0 (4.12)
is given by
#
x0 + zvnx0
x(t) = e - zvnt b x0 cos vdt + sin vdt r (4.13)
vd

where
c
z = (4.14)
2mvn
2
k c
vd = vn 21 - z2 = - ¢ (4.15)
Cm 2m

k
vn = (4.16)
Am
#
If the mass is at rest before the unit impulse is applied (x = x = 0 for t 6 0 or at t = 0- ),
we obtain, from the impulse-momentum relation,
Impulse = f = 1 = mx# (t = 0) - mx# (t = 0- ) = mx# 0 (4.17)

Thus the initial conditions are given by

x(t = 0) = x0 = 0 (4.18)
# # 1
x(t = 0) = x0 = (4.19)
m

F(t) x(t) g(t)

c k
F t 1
O t

m
O t 2p
t vd
F(t)
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4.4 A single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to an impulse.

In view of Eqs. (4.18) and (4.19), Eq. (4.18) reduces to
e - zvnt
x(t) = g(t) = sin vdt (4.20)
mvd
Equation (4.20) gives the response of a single-degree-of-freedom system to a unit impulse,
which is also known as the impulse response function, denoted by g(t). The function g(t),
Eq. (4.25), is shown in Fig. 4.6(c).
#
If the magnitude of the impulse is F instead of unity, the initial velocity x0 is F/m and
the response of the system becomes

Fe - zvnt
x(t) = sin vdt = Fg(t) (4.21)
mvd

If the impulse F is applied at an arbitrary time t = t, as shown in Fig. 4.5(a), it will change
the velocity at t = t by an amount F/m. Assuming that x = 0 until the impulse is applied,
the displacement x at any subsequent time t, caused by a change in the velocity at time t, is
given by Eq. (4.21) with t replaced by the time elapsed after the application of the
impulset that is, - t. Thus we obtain
x(t) = Fg(t - t) (4.22)
This is shown in Fig. 4.5(b).

F(t)

F
F +t , F

t
O
t +t

(a)
x(t)

Fg(t *t)

t
O t

(b)

FIGURE 4.5 Impulse response.

E X A M P L E 4 . 7 Response of a Structure Under Impact

In the vibration testing of a structure, an impact hammer with a load cell to measure the impact force
is used to cause excitation, as shown in Fig. 4.6(a). Assuming m = 5 kg, k = 2000 N>m, c = 10 N-
s>m, and F = 20 N-s, find the response of the system.

Solution: From the known data, we can compute

k 2000 c c 10
vn = = = 20 rad/s, z = = = = 0.05
A m A 5 cc 2 2km 2 22000(5)
vd = 21 - z2 vn = 19.975 rad/s

Assuming that the impact is given at t = 0, we find (from Eq. (4.21)) the response of the system as

e - zvn t
x1(t) = F sin vd t
mvd
20
= e - 0.05(20)t sin 19.975 t = 0.20025 e - t sin 19.975 t m (E.1)
(5) (19.975)
Note: The graph of Eq. (E.1) is shown in Example 4.33.

Load cell
signal, x(t)
F(t) m

Impact
hammer k k
F(t) 2 2

t
0
(a)

F1
F2

t
t t*t
(b)

FIGURE 4.6 Structural testing using an impact hammer.