Chopter 3: OHM'S LAW EXPERIMENT bo» To determine resistivity Of two/three wires by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current, a eee [Larraratus AND MATERIALS REQUIRED ‘Two resistance wires (of constantan and ni ‘ ome and of about 1m length), a voltmeter (0-3 V), a milliammeter (0—500 mA), a low resistance rheostat, two dry cells (or a battery eliminator), plug key, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper, screw gauge and a metre scale. Ltconv According to Ohm’s law, the current I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference V applied across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature and Pressure) of the conductor remain unchanged, Val or V=IR or v aI where Ris the resistance of the conductor. Obviously, the graph between the current Land the applied voltage V will be a straight line passing through the origin. 1 Slope of I-V graph But the resistance Rof a wire of length I, area of cross-section Aand specific resistance p is given by 1 - Spite sn (EL l CiRCUIT DIAGRAM where ris the mean radius of the wire. DR Resistance Fig. 3.2 Assembly circuit diagram, Fig. 3.1 Circuit to study I-V relationship for a resistance wire.LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XIl I PROCEDURE (a) To measure resistance of the wire : 1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.1. 2 Let us label the two resistance wires as A (constantan wire) and B (nichrome wire) Arrange the required apparatus on the working table in accordance with Fig. 3.2. 3. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting, wires with the help of a sand paper, 4. Remove the plug from the key K and make neat and tight connections as shown in Fig. 32 Ensure that the resistance wire A is connected in series with a milliammeter mA, battery £ 4 key K and a low resistance rheostat Rh, while the voltmeter V is joined in parallel with i 5. See that the positive terminals of the milliammeter and the voltmeter have been connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the rheostat is connected through its upper terminal at one end and through one of its lower terminals at the other end. 6. Record the ranges and the least counts of the milliammeter and the voltmeter. 7. Note that the pointers of the milliammeter and the voltmeter are at the zero mark when the key Kis ‘off’ Ifitis not so, adjust their pointers to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the screw provided near the base of the front penal using a screw driver. Even then if the error persists, note the zero errors of the milliammeter and voltmeter. 8. Insert the plug in the key K and adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat at one extreme, away from the lower terminal from which one connection of the rheostat has been made. This allows only a small current to pass through the wire. If required, slightly adjusting the sliding contact so that the pointer of the milliammeter lies exactly on same marking of its Braduated scale and not in between two markings, Note the readings of the voltmeter and the ammeter. 9. Now increase the current in steps by adjusting the sliding contact of the rheostat and in each step note the readings of the voltmeter and the milliammeter for at least six-sets of such observations. Note that the plug in the key is inserted only at the time of taking a reading, so that the resistance wire does not get heated. (6) To measure length of the resistance wire 10. Mark sharp marks on the resistance wire at the points where it just comes out of the binding terminals. Measure the length 1 of the wire between these two marks with a metre scale, keeping the wire fully stretched. () To measure diameter of the resistance wire : 11. Find the pitch and least count of the screw gauge. Determine its zero error and zero correction, 12, Measure the diameter of the resistance wire with screw gauge at i Le» , four different positions of the wire and that also in two mutually ly perpendiculai directions aa’ and bb’, as shown in Fig, 3.4. 13, Find mean corrected diameter by applying zero correction to the av observed diameter. a 14. Repeat all the above observations for second wire B. ay 15. Record all the observations in a tabular form. Experimental wire Fig. 3.3 To measure length of a resistance wire.Chapter 3 : OHM’S LAW I OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS A. For determination of resistances of wires A and B Range of voltmeter = to Range of milliammeter Least count of voltmeter mA een Zero correction for voltmeter, c, =-e, Least count of milliammeter = Zero error for voltmeter, e, = Zero error for milliammeter, ¢, Zero correction for milliammeter, c, =e, Least count of metre scale = Length of the resistance wire, 1 v mA v A mA mA cm cm Table 3.1 : Voltmeter and milliammeter readings Voltmeter reading V (V) Milliammeter reading I (mA) Whe: | So: Corrected Corrected used Observed Vo - Observed I, V=V, +c. I=I, +c, 1 Wire A 2 3. 1 Wire B 2. 3. Choosing suitable scales, plot current-voltage graphs by taking corrected values of V along X-axis and corrected values of I along Y-axis for both wires A and B. We obtain straight line graphs passing through the origin, as shown in Fig. 35 and 3.6, respectively. From V-I graph for wire A Vemma Al _1 Slope of the graph = OVE 2 AV _AC_(V,-VV 4 AT BC (I, -1,)mA VV toll hoo hesy aso as ToT % a Le Moy > Fig. 3.5 Graph between current J and potential difference V for wire A.LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII From V-I graph for wire B —s om =025V "| Along X-axis: 11cm = Along Y-axis :1.cm = 50 nA. Slope of the graph =! i av AV _ PR _(Vy-VyV Al QR (I,—1,)mA Ry (V,-V,)V (I, -1,)*107 A =. Q Fig. 3.6 Graph between current J and potential difference V for wire B, B. For determination of specific resistances of wires A and B Length of the wire A, 1, om=__m Length of the wire B, |, an=___m Pitch of the screw gauge =___cm Number of divisions on circular scale = 100 Pitch 00 Least count of the screw gauge = Zero error of the screw gauge, ¢= Zero correction of the screw gauge, Table 3.2 : Diameter of the resistance wires Ti 2 3. 1. Wire B 2 3, For wire A: Mean observed diameter, dy = Mean corrected diameter, d=d, +c= en, cm Mean radius of the resistance wire, rf = cos: oh 2 Specific resistance of the material of the wire, p= Ra" _ Om pe Standard value from the table of specific resistances, p, = Qm % Error =P P0199 = % PoChopter 3 : OHM’S LAW For wire Mean observed diameter, dy Mean corrected diameter, d=d,+ Mean radius of the resistance wire, + ‘ Specific resistance of the material of the wire, p = « am Standard value from the table of specific resistances, pg Qm % Error = 2-P0.199 = % Po 1. The current through the given resistance wire varies linearly with the potential difference across its ends. 2. Specific resistance of wire A = Qm 3. Specific resistance of wire B = Qm I PRECAUTIONS 1. All the connections should be neat and tight 2. The ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned with a sand paper. 3. The resistance wire should be wound on a card-board strip (-3 cm x 6 cm) so that two distant points on it may not get short-circuited. 4, Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel with the circuit. The pointers of the ammeter and the voltmeter should be adjusted for zero deflection when no current passes through them. Ifit is not possible, then zero corrections should be determined for the two meters. 5. Always connect the positive terminals of the ammeter and voltmeter to the positive terminal of the battery, so that current enters at a +ve terminal and leaves at a -ve terminal. 6. Use a low resistance rheostat to change the current and not a resistance box as smooth variation of current is possible only with a rheostat and not with a resistance box. 7. The ammeter and voltmeter used should be of suitable range. For low currents, a milliammeter should be used. 8 Current should be passed for a short time only while taking a set of readings, otherwise the resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating. 9. The length of only that portion of the experimental wire should be measured which lies outside the binding terminals. 10. As the diameter of the wire is a small quantity and its second power occurs in the expression for specific resistance, it should be measured accurately at a number of places along the length of the wire and that also along two mutually perpendicular directions. Lsourcts OF ERROR 1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section. 2. Resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating. 3. There may be an error in the measurement of length 1 if the wire is not taut or it is not along, the scale in the metre bridge. 4. There may be an error in the measurement of radius of the wire due to backlash error in the screw gauge.eet. | LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xil Thus, when a number of resistances are connected in Series, their equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances, Resistances in Parallel. Figure 4.4 shows three resistances Ry, R, and R, connected in parallel between points A and B. Let V be the potential difference applied across the combination. Ry Afi .R, B book Ae yI I v Fig. 4.4, Resistances in parallel. Let I 1; and ly be the currents through the resistances R, R, and R, respectively. Then the ‘current in the main circuit must be I=h+h+h Since al the resistance have been connected beng, the same two points 4 and B therefore, potential dry V is same across each of them. By Ohi’s law 2 currents through the individual resistances will be Vv - Vv Be erage SR + ‘3 IE R, is the equivalent resistance of the parle combination, then we must have But or or Thus, when a number of resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of the Parallel combination is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. ed EXPERIMENT [ag To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre bridge, l APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, a resistance is to be determined), resistance wire about 1 m long (of material whose resistance box, a dry cell (or a battery eliminator), plug key, jockey, connecting wires, sand paper and a screw gauge. Liitony With the known resistance Pin the left gap and the unknown resistan metre bridge, suppose the null point Bis obtained at a distance of lew principle of Wheatstone bridge, P Q Resistance of wire AB a Resistance of wire BC or R 15: R ‘Ss R Ss or [+ Resistance « Length of wire]Chopter 4 : METRE BRIDGE I CircUIT DIAGRAMS l PROCEDURE 1 2. 3. Fig. 4.5 Measurement of resistance by a metre bridge. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4.5(a). ‘Assemble the required apparatus on the working table in accordance with Fig. 4.5(b). Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper. Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by giving them a gentle twist. ‘Connect the resistance box R.B. across the left gap ab and the unknown resistance $ across the right gap a,b, of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer between the points Band D. Connect a dry cell between the points A and C through a plug key K This arrangement forms the Wheatstone bridge shown in Fig. 4.5(c). To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box RB. and insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the right end C of the metre bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite directions. If there is one-sided deflection, check up the circuit again, particularly the continuity of the junctions.LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XiI 6. Take out a suitable resistance R from the resistance box so that when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire (ie, between 30-70 cm divisions), there is no deflection in the galvanometer. Note the position of the null point B from the metre scale. Also note the resistance R introduced from the resistance box RB. If the current through the galvanometer is large and its deflection gets out of scale, a shunt of a low resistance wire should be connected across the galvanometer for obtaining an approximate null point, | However, the shunt must be removed for obtaining the exact balance point. ‘ore times by changing slightly the value of resistance R and lies between 30 ~ 70 cm divisions. 7. Repeat the experiment three m taking care that the null point always 8 Record all the observations in a tabular form. l OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Mean value of $= a. RESULT Resistance of the given wire = 2 l PRECAUTIONS 1. All the connections should be neat and tight. 2. The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting. 3. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the uniformity of the metre bridge wire. 4, The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire and reverse order should be followed at the time of break. 5. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire. 6. The current through the bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essential for getting a null point. 7. The known resistance R should always be adjusted in such a way so wll point between 30-70 cm divisions. ya 8o get the mull po 8. The galvanometer should be shunted by a low resistance wire to avoid excessive current and be shunt ive current an hence out of scale deflection in it when the bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be removed while getting the exact balance point. l SOURCES OF ERROR 1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.Chapter 4 : METRE BRIDGE 2. End corrections. The resistance offered by the copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire are called end resistances, errors due to these resistances are called end errors and corrections are called end corrections. To avoid this error, the balance point should be obtained near the midpoint of the wire. This error can be totally eliminated by interchanging positions of resistances Rand S. 3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes. 4, The galvanometer pointer may not be exactly at the zero mark. It must be adjusted to zero by gently moving the screw at the bottom of the front panel with the help of a screw driver. a S « nl EXPERIMENT Lex Lapraratus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, resistance coils R, and R,), a resistance box, a jockey, a plug key, a dry cell or battery el thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. To verify the law of series combination of resistances using a metre bridge. two resistance wires about 50 cm each (or two liminator, Litscory (@) Measurement of unknown resistance. With the known resistance R in the left gap and the unknown resistance S(R, or R, or series combination of R, and R,) in the right gap of the metre ‘suppose the balance point is obtained at a distance | cm from the left end, then the es) bridge, unknown resistance is given by 7 (b) Law of series combination of resistances. When two resistances R, and R, are connected in series, their equivalent resistance R, is given by: R,=R, + Ry Lorcurr piacram wy Jockey T z }——— [cm 40 (100-1) cm >} Fig. 4.6 Circuit to study law of resistances in series. °ELAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XIl I PROCEDURE 1. Draw neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4.6 and assemble the required apparatus on the working table accordingly. Connect the resistance box R.B. across the left gap ab and the unknown resistance Ry across the right gap a,b, of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer between the points Band D. Connect a dry cell between the points A and C through plug key K 3. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box RB. and insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the right end C of the bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite directions, 4. Adjust the resistance R from the resistance box R.B. in such a way that the balance point is obtained nearly in the middle of the wire AC. Note the value of the resistance R and the position of the balance point B Take three sets of observations by slightly changing the value of resistance R every time. 5. Now connect resistance R, across the right gap a,b, in place of resistance Ry. Obtain null point for it. Again take three sets of observations for resistance R,. 6. Now connect both the resistances R, and R, in series (end to end), as shown in Fig. 46, across the right gap a,b,. Ensure that the effective length of each resistance wire remains unchanged. This means that at the point where the two wires are joined end to end, the lengths of the ends that were inserted into the binding terminals in steps 5 and 6 should be twisted together. Take three sets of observations for the null point of this combination. 7. Record your all observations in a tabular form. l OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS 1. 2 3. 1 2: 3. R, and | 1. Else in series | 3. Experimental value of series combination of resistances R, Q Theoretical value of series combination of resistances R) = R, + Ry =___Q Difference = R, ~ R! = 2 l Resutt Within imi i yi Se Hints of experimental error, the experimental and the theoretical values of the serieS ibinat ‘ances are equal. So the law of combination of series stands verified.a aa Chopter 4 METRE BRIDGE [pnecaurions 4. All the connections should be neat and tight 2, The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving, them a gentle twist after inverting, them. 3, The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the uniformity of the metre bridge wire. 4, The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing, the jockey on the bridge wire and reverse order should be followed at the time of break. 5. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire 6. The current through the bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essential for getting a null point. 7. The known resistance R should always be adjusted in such a way so as to get the null point between 30-70 cm divisions 8. The galvanometer should be shunted by a low resistance wire to avoid excessive current and hence out of scale deflection in it when the bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be removed while getting the exact null point. 9. Ensure that the same lengths of resistance wires R, and R, are used for determining R, as have been used for determining R, and R, individually. [sources oF ERRoR 1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length. 2. There may be end errors due to resistances of copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire: 3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the resistance wires may get heated up and their resistances may change. The effective lengths of the resistance wires used while measuring , may not be exactly same as those used while measuring R, and R, individually. «Ke « pa EXPERIMENT Law To verify the law of parallel ‘combination of resistances using a metre bridge, Levraratus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED ‘A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance wires about 50 cm each (or two resistance coils R, and R,),a resistance box, a jockey, a plug key, a dry cell or battery eliminator, thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. Linconr (@) Measurement of unknown resistance. With the known resistance R unknown resistance $(R, or Ry or parallel combination of Ry and. Ry) the left gap and the in the right gap of the aLAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII metre bridge, suppose the balance point is obtained at a distance I cm from the left end, then the unknown resistance is given by S=R Fe) 1 (0) Law of parallel combination of resistances. When two resistances R, and R, are connected in parallel, their equivalent resistance R,, is given by ta m re Fig. 4.7 Circuit to study law of resistances in parallel. G Jockey J fan ———e — (100-1) cm —} Leroceoure 1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4.7 and assemble the required apparatus on the working table accordingly. 2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper. Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by giving them a gentle twist. 3. Connect the resistance box R.B. across the left gap ab and the unknown resistance R, across the right gap a,b, of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer between the points Band D. Connect a dry cell between the points A and C through a plug key K 4, To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box RB. and insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the right end Cof the metre bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite directions. 5. Adjust the resistance R from the resistance box R.B. in such a way that the balance point is obtained in the middle of the wire AC, Note the value of the resistance R and the position of the balance point B Take three sets of observations by slightly changing the value of resistance R every time. 6 Now connect resistance R, across the gap a,b, in place of resistance R,. Obtain null point for . Again take three sets of observations for resistance R,. 7. Now connect both the resistances R, and R, in parallel in the same gap a,b, of the metre bridge. Ensure that the effective length of each wire is same as it was while taking the observations of these resistances separately, ie., the length at the ends of each of which is inserted into the binding terminals should be kept the same. Take three sets of observations for the null point of this parallel combination. 8, Record all your observations in a tabular form,eee Chopter 4 > METRE BRIDGE ERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Table 4.3 : For determining resistances R,, R, and Rp Lo [Ratio arms Pa Ui | ese Length Length AB=1 | BC =(100-1) (cm) (cm) 1 2 i 1 R 2 3. R, and |b R 2 R a in series |_3. oe Experimental value of parallel combination of resistances, R, Q Theoretical value of parallel combination of resistances, Ri, - pe Q + Difference = R,, — R, = Qa 1 2 Liesu LT Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental and the theoretical values of the parallel ‘combination of resistances are equal. So the law of parallel combination of resistances stands verified. Lexceaumons 1. All the connections should be neat and tight. 2. The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting. 3, The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the uniformity of the metre bridge wire. ‘The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire and reverse order should be followed at the time of break. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire. The current through the bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essential for getting a null point. The known resistance R should always be adjusted in such a way so as to get the null point between 30-70 cm divisions. The galvanometer should be shunted by a low resistance wire to avoid excessive current and hence out of scale deflection in it when the bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be removed while getting the exact null point. Lsources OF ERROR 1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length. 2. There may beend errors due to resistances of copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire. 3. Due to prolonged flow of current, the resistance wires may get heated up and their resistances may change. 4. The effective lengths of the wires used while measuring R, may not be exactly same as those used while measuring R, and R, individually.a Power of a Lens The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length, expressed in metres. 1 i SL unit of power is m™™, also called dioptre (D). One dioptre is the power of a Tens whose principal focal length is L metre. Lens Combinations When lenses are used in combination, each lens magnifies the image formed by the preceding lens. The total magne ga se ot PlOduct magnifications produced by the individual, €OF the lense Im, X Mh, X My x : The combined focal length f of two thin te ns focal lengths f, and f, placed in contact ig Biveny Hae fhih When the two thin lenses are separated j, distance d, theit equivalent focal length f is eel a jee a i" fh h hh or Power, P=Ph+R+dxhxh ae EXPERIMENT Las To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between + and +. TASASy I APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED ‘An optical bench, three uprights with clamps, two sharp-edged needles, convex lens of foc length less than 20 cm, index needle/knitting needle and a half-metre scale. I THEORY/WORKING FORMULA 1. If an object needle is placed between f and 2 f of a convex lens, its real, inverted and magnified image is formed beyond 2 f on the other side of the lens. By placing anotht needle, called image needle there, we can locate the image of the first needle by removits the parallax between the image and the second needle itself. 2. The relation between the object distance u, image distance v and focal length f of a com lens is given by the thin lens formula, id, fovu According to new Cartesian sign convention, wis negative and vis positive when a convex E : Jens forms a real image. Also, f is positive for a convex lens. [ray DIAGRAM See Fig. 9.11 wo fee u-v Ia nell Fig. 9.11 Ray diagram for finding the foal lenath of a comes adChapter 9 : SPHERICAL LENSES ‘To find rough focal length of the convex lens 4, Hold the convex lens in the right hand, Obta on a wall (or at the back of your practical n jeasure the distance bet Zz oe a between the lens and the sharp image with a half- distance gives a rough value for the focal length of the conver lens, eee ex lens. [NOTE Dom see the image of the sun directly as it may hurt your eyes, To locate the image formed by convex lens ‘in a sharp image of thi i srs thee nage ofthe mu or distant object 3, Place the optical bench horizontally on the working table, \t : 4. Mount the on = a in the clamp of central upright and the two needles O and I in the remaining uprights. Make the plane of the lens L vertical so that its principal axis becomes paral to othe length ofthe optical bench, Aust the ips ofthe to needles and he optical centre of the lens to the same height Fix a small piece of whit th i eo. piece of white paper on the tip of the object 5. Mark points F and 2F with a chalk piece on the both sides of the lens, at distances equal to rough focal length and twice the rough focal length from the lens 1, respectively, 6. Place the object needle O between F and 2F but closer to 2F on one side of the lens L. It will form a real, inverted and magnified image on the other side of the lens. Adjust the height of the needle I till its tip coincides with the tip of the image needle O. Moving the needle I forward or backward, remove the parallax between the image of needle O and the needle I iteoll. Note the positions of the three uprights on the scale of the optical bench. 7. Now move the object needle 2 cm closer to the lens Land locate the new position of the image, Moving the object nedle closerto the lens Leach time take three or four such sts of readings. Check that the object needle always remains between F and 2 Note thatthe image moves way from te ns a the ject rede moves cose he lens and vce esa. Record all these observations in a tabular form. Find u and v in each case. 9. Write the observations at serial numbers 4-6 by just interchanging the values of u and vin vpeervations at serial numbers 1-3. This makes use of the property of conjugate ‘Oc. To determine the index correction 10. Measure the length of the index/knitting he tip of the object fi itt the centre of the convex lens and the tip Hold the Knitting needle betwee Ur {vo uprights on the scale on the optical Bench, Let it needle O.Read the distance between the t h be y cm, Determine the index correction (x-y) for the object er : an s f the lens and tip of the image needle I. 12. Now hold the knitting needle between the centre © P ; le Note i eisesiee iereeel the two uprights. Let it be z.cm Determine the index correction (x-2) for the image distance ?. a 1B. After adding the respective index correction’ recor find the values of 1 and in each case: ny needle with a half-metre scale. Let it be x cm. he corrected values of wand e. Also Lows RVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Rough focal length of the convex lens = —— Actual length of the needle, ¥=_——°™ cma LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI Observed length of the knitting needle between object needle and the convex lens, ‘Observed length of the knitting needle between image needle and the convex lens Index correction for object distance u=e, =x-y cm cm Index correction for image distance v=e, =x: Table 9.1: Determination of u, v and f for the convex lens Positions of uprights Cheerved | Corrected distances Focal Object | Concave | Image | oy | ray |weu'te,|v=v't sw lobew Wie | ove {Men eo [ee | eo | | || | | Mean value of f =. cm _ NOTE Use the standard table of reciprocals for writing the values of wand 2 Determination of f by Graphical Methods 1. Focal length from graph between u and v. Choosing a suitable and same scale for both the axes, plot the wv graph by taking the wvalues along negative X-axis and v-values along posite Y-axis because u is negative and v is positive in this experiment according to the Cartesian sign convention. As the values of uand vare greater than the focal length, the origin Oshould be given 2 value close to the rough focal length on both the axes which enables us to choose a larger scale for the graph. The graph will be a rectangular hyperbola, as shown in Fig. 9.12. Draw a line from the origin O making an angle of 45° with the X-axis, It meets the wo graph at point P. Obviously, for any point on this line Mean value of f = en Fig. 9.42 Graph between u and v for a convex lens:Chapter Pier 9 : SPHERICAL LENSES 2. Focal length from #0 lines. Choosing joy along negative X-axis and those of valony snd Same scal tyylty,@te; Of the X-axis and the correspon, Hose as ae ir Within the limits of the experimental en Ing Poi have coordinates (~f, f). So or, these li a le for both axes, mark the values of w oo aw straight lines joining the points u 1/27, ete; of the Y-axis. [See Fig. 9.13] ines nt 'S meet at a common point Q which should f = Esvordinate of point Q+y-coordinate of =e soordinate of ie sai tds fu ven leas ey es eater Teeny L Scale X-axis: 1 div. Y-axis: 1 div. + My ae | ‘Mal - Goeekee aa =e | Bxite-A eo |Chapter 10 : REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS PRISM As i increases, 6 first decreases, becomes minimum and then increases. In the position of minimum deviation 8,, , the ray of light passes symmetrically, i.c., parallel to the base so that izeand r=r. 2. The relation between p and 3,, is Loucrams Angle of deviation 7 ime e o Fig. 10.4 (a) Refraction of light through a prism (b) Variation of A with 8 for a glass prism. 1. Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board with drawing pins/cellotape. 2. Using a sharp pencil, draw a long straight line XY in the middle and parallel to the length of the paper. 3. Mark seven points O,, Op, - 4, Draw normals N,O;,N20>, , at equal distances of 6 cm on the line XY. NjO, on the line XY. 5. Using a protractor, draw straight lines P,O,, P,O,,, P,O, corresponding to the incident rays making angles of incidence at 30°, 35°, 40°, 50°, 55° and 60° respectively with the normals. 6. By keeping a ruler along a line XY, place the prism along the ruler 90 that its refracting face “Ablies on the line XY with point O, in the middle of AB as shown in Fig. 10.5. Draw the boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil. My Ny Fig. 10.5 Angle of deviations for different angles of incidence.LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-Xil 7. Fix two alpins P, and P, vertically, more than 6 em apart, on the incident ray line P.O, sug, that pin P, is close to point O,. 8. Close the left eye. Looking into the prism from the opposite refracting face AC, position the right eye in line with images of the feet of pins P, and P,. Now fix pins P, and P, in line with P, and P, as viewed through the prism. Eye should be kept at some distance from the pins so that all the pins can be seen in clear focus simultaneously, as shown in Fig. 10.6. Distances P,P, and P,P, should not be less than 6 cm so as to locate the Fig, 10.6 How to trace the path of directions of the incident ray and the emergent a ray through a prism. ray with an accuracy of the order of 1°. 9. Remove the alpins and encircle their pin pricks with a sharp pencil. Draw the line joining P, and P,. Produce lines P, P, (forward) and P,P, (backward) so that they meet point M Draw arrowheads on P,P, and P,P, to indicate the directions of incident and emergent rays respectively. 10. Using a protractor, measure the angle of incidence i= ZP,O,N, and also the angle of deviation 8 = ZP,MS. 11. By placing the prism at locations O,, 3, Q4, Os, O, and O,, repeat the experiments for angles of incidence 35°, 40°, 45°, 50° 55° and 60°, respectively. Measure the corresponding angle of deviation in each case and indicate the values of these angles in the diagram. 12. Measure the angle of prism A between the refracting faces ABand AC. 13. Record all observations in a tabular form. I OBSERVATIONS Angle of prism, A=60° Table 10.1 : Different values of i and 6 for a prism— Lo Laesutr HAND CALCULATIONS Chapter 10 : REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS PRISM Choosing suitable scales, plot a graph z between iand & Take angle of incidence i % along X-axis and angle of deviation 8 slong Y-axis. Draw free hand smooth curve passing through the maximum number of plotted points. Draw a tangent on the lowest point of the curve parallel to the X-axis. Read the angle of minimum deviation 5,, on the Y-axis of the graph. ‘Angle of minimum deviation, 5, =. (aegrees) > | ‘deviation | + T Anatd of Seale X-axis :1 div.=1° Y-axis :1 div.~ 0.2" Refractive index, At, | re: 20. 30 0. 50 oO 7 xX Z Seles ‘Anigig|ot incidence / (degrees) —r | 2 Fig. 10.7 Variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence for a prism. 1. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation first decreases, re is obvious from the i versus 8 graph. 2. Angle of minimum deviation, 6, = 3, Refractive index of the prism material, aches a minimum value and then again increases, as [Lerecautions racting angle A from the other 1. An ink mark should be put on the prism to distinguish the re ‘same angle of the prism should be used throughout. angles and the as the ray may get totally reflected inside the 2. The angle of incidence should notbe less than 30% prism. any two pins should not be less than 6 cm. 3. For prism of side 25 or 3 cm, the distance between 4. Alpins should be fixed vertically and the pin pricks should be encircled immediately after they are removed. 5. While fixing alpins, straight line. In order to locate the incident and emergent rays accurately, the pin separations P, P, and P,P, should be more than 6 cm Indicate the path of the incident, the refracted and the emergent rays by arrowheads ‘A smooth best fitting curve should be drawn through the plotted points. the feet of pins (and not their heads) must be adjusted in the same a 8 Lsources OF ERROR 1. Alpins may not be vertical 2. The feet of the alpins may not be in a straight line 3. The distances between the pins may be small 4. Position of the prism might have disturbed during a given set of observations. 5. Measurement of angles may not be accurate.