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DMS: DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

SET THEORY
Set Theory is a branch of Mathematics that studies the collection of
objects and operations based on it. Sets are studied under the
mathematical logic division of mathematics. A set is simply a
collection of objects. The words collection, aggregate, and class are
synonymous. On the other hand element, members, and objects are
synonymous and stand for the members of the set of which the set is
comprised..
.
Set definition
Sets are defined as”a well-defined collection of objects”. Let’s say
we have a set of Natural numbers then it will have all the natural
numbers as its member and the collection of the numbers is well
defined that they are natural numbers. A set is always denoted by a
capital letter. For Example, a set of Natural Numbers is given by
N = {1, 2, 3, 4…..}. The term ‘well defined’ should be taken care
of, as if we try to make a set of best players, then the term ‘best’ is
not well defined. The concept of best, worst, beautiful, powerful, etc.
varies according to the notions, assumptions, likes, dislikes, and
biases of a person.
Elements of a Set
The objects contained by a set are called the elements of the set. For
Example, in the set of Natural Numbers 1, 2, 3, etc. are the objects
contained by the set, hence they are called the elements of the set of
Natural Numbers. We can also say that 1 belongs to set N. It is
represented as 1 ∈ N, where ∈ is the symbol of belongs to.
Cardinal Number of a Set
The number of elements present in a set is called the Cardinal
Number of a Set. For Example, let’s say P is a set of the first
five prime numbers given by P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}, then the Cardinal
Number of set P is 5. The Cardinal Number of Set P is represented
by n (P) or |P| = 5.

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Example of Sets
A Set is a well-defined collection of objects. The objects inside a set
are called members of the set. Some examples of sets are mentioned
below:
Set of Natural Numbers: N = {1, 2, 3, 4….}
Set of Even Numbers: E = {2, 4, 6, 8…}
Set of Prime Numbers: P = {2, 3, 5, 7,….}
Set of Integers: I = {…, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,….}
Some Standard Sets used in Set Theory
 Set of Natural Numbers is denoted by N
 Set of Whole Numbers is denoted by W
 Set of Integers is denoted by Z
 Set of Rational Numbers is denoted by Q
 Set of Irrational Numbers is denoted by T
 Set of Real Numbers is denoted by R

Representation of Sets
Sets are primarily represented in two forms
 Roster Form
 Set Builder Form
Roster Form
In the Roster Form of the set, the elements are placed inside braces
{} and are separated by commas. Let’s say we have a set of the first
five prime numbers then it will be represented by P = {2, 3, 5, 7,
11}. Here the set P is an example of a finite set as the number of
elements is finite, however, we can come across a set that has
infinite elements then in that case the roster form is represented in
the manner that some elements are placed followed by dots to
represent infinity inside the braces. Let’s say we have to represent a
set of Natural Numbers in Roster Form then its Roster Form is given
as N = {1, 2, 3, 4…..}.
Set Builder Form
In Set Builder Form, a rule or a statement describing the common
characteristics of all the elements is written instead of writing the
elements directly inside the braces. For Example, a set of all the
prime numbers less than or equal to 10 is given as
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P = {p : p is a prime number ≤ 10}. In another example, the set of

Natural Numbers in set builder form is given as N = {n : n is a
natural number}.
Representation of Sets
Types of Sets
There are different types of sets categorized on various parameters.
The different types of sets are explained below:
Empty Set
A set that has no elements inside it is called an Empty Set. It is
represented by Φ or {}. For Example A = {x : x ∈ N and 2 < x < 3}.
Here, between 2 and 3, no natural number exists, hence A is an
Empty Set. Empty Sets are also known as Null Sets.
Singleton Set
A set that has only one element inside it is called a Singleton Set. For
Example, B = {x : x ∈ N and 2 < x < 4} = {3}. Here between 2 and 3
only one element exists, hence B is called a Singleton Set.
Finite Set
A set that has a fixed or finite number of elements inside it is called a
Finite Set. For Example A = {x : x is an even number less than 10}
then A = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Here A has 4 elements, hence A is a finite set.
The number of elements present in a finite set is called the Cardinal
Number of a finite set. It is given as n(A) = 4.
Infinite Set
A set that has an indefinite or infinite number of elements inside it is
called a Finite Set. For Example A = {x : x is an even number l} then
A = {2, 4, 6, 8……}. Here A has unlimited elements, hence A is an
infinite set.
Equivalent Sets
If the number of elements present in two sets is equal i.e. the cardinal
number of two finite sets is the same then they are called Equivalent
Sets. For Example, A = {x : x is an even number up to 10} = {2, 4, 6,
8, 10} and B = {y : y is an odd number less than 10} = {1, 3, 5, 7,
9}. Here, the cardinal number of set A is n(A) = 5 and that of B is
given as n(B) = 5 then we see that n(A) = n(B). Hence A and B are
equivalent sets.

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Equal Sets
If the number of elements and also the elements of two sets are the
same irrespective of the order then the two sets are called equal sets.
For Example, if set A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B ={8, 4, 6, 2} then we see
that number of elements in both sets A and B is 4 i.e. same and the
elements are also the same although the order is different. Hence, A
and B are Equal Sets. Equal Sets are represented as A = B.
Unequal Sets
If at least any one element of one set differs from the elements of
another set then the two sets are said to be unequal sets. For
Example, if set A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {4, 6, 8, 10} then set A and
B are unequal sets as 2 is present in set A but not in B and 10 is
present in set B but not in A. Hence, one element differs between
them thus making them unequal. However, the cardinal number is
the same therefore they are equivalent sets.`
Overlapping Sets
If at least any one element of the two sets are the same then the two
sets are said to be overlapping sets. For Example, if set A = {1, 2, 3}
and set B = {3, 4, 5} then we see that 3 is the common element
between set A and set B hence, set A and set B are Overlapping Sets.
Disjoint Sets
If none of the elements between two sets are common then they are
called the Disjoint Sets i.e., for two sets A and B if A. For Example,
set A = {1, 2, 3} and set B = {4, 5, 6} then we observe that there is
no common element between set A and set B hence, set A and B are
Disjoint Sets.
Apart from the above-mentioned sets, there are other sets called,
Subsets, Supersets, Universal Sets, and Power Sets. We will learn
them below in detail.
Subsets
If A and B are two sets such that every element of set A is present in
set B then A is called the subset of B. It is represented as A ⊆ B and
read as ‘A is a subset of B’. Mathematically it is expressed as
A ⊆ B iff
a∈A⇒a∈B
If A is not a subset of B we write it as A ⊄ B.

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For Example, if A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} then we see that all the
elements of A are present in B, hence A ⊆ B. There are two kinds of
subset Proper Subset and Improper Subset.
Proper Subset
If a subset doesn’t contain all the elements of the set or has fewer
elements than the original set then it is called the proper subset. For
example, in set A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}, the subset A doesn’t
contain all the elements of the original set B, hence A is a proper
subset of B. It is represented as A ⊂ B. Empty set is a proper subset
of a given set as it has no elements.
Improper Subset
If a subset contains all the elements that are present in the original
set then it is called an Improper Subset. For Example, if set A = {1,
2, 3, 4} and set B = {1, 2, 3, 4} then A is the improper subset of set
B. It is mathematically expressed as A ⊆ B. Thus we deduce that two
sets are equal iff A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. It should be noted that an empty
set is an improper subset of itself.
Some Important Results on Subset
 Every set is a subset of itself
 An empty Set is a subset of every set.
 The number of possible subsets for a given finite set with ‘n’
number of elements is equal to 2n.
 N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R and T ⊂ R where N is a set of Natural
Numbers, W is a set of Whole Numbers, Z is a set of integers, Q
is a set of Rational Numbers, T is a set of irrational numbers and
R is set of real numbers.
Superset
If all the elements of set A are present in set B then set B is called
the Superset of set A. It is represented as B ⊇ A. Let’s say if A = {2,
3, 4} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} then we see that all elements of set A are
present in set B, hence B ⊇ A. If a superset has more elements than
its subset then it is called a proper or strict superset. A Proper
Superset is represented as B ⊃ A. Some of the Properties of
Supersets are mentioned below:
 Every set is a superset of itself.
 Every set is a superset of an empty set.

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 Total number of possible supersets for a given subset is infinite

 If B is a superset of A then A is a subset of B
Universal Set
The set that contains all the sets in it is called a Universal Set. Let’s
say set A = {1, 2, 3}, set B = {4, 5}, and set C = {6, 7} then
Universal Set is given as U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Another Example
of a Universal Set is U = {Set of All Living Beings} then which
includes both floras and faunas. Flora and fauna are the subsets of
Universal Sets U.
Power Set
A set that contains all the subsets as its element is called the Power
Set. For Example, if set A = {1, 3, 5} then its subsets are {Φ}, {1},
{2}, {3}, {1, 3}, {3, 5}, {1, 5} and {1, 3, 5} then its Power Set is
given as P(A) = {{Φ}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 3}, {3, 5}, {1, 5}, {1, 3,
5}}. As we know the number of possible subsets for a finite set
containing n elements is given by 2n then the number of elements in
the power set is also 2n
Set Theory Symbols
There are various symbols that are used in Set Theory. The symbol
and their explanation are tabulated below:
Symbol Explanation

{} Set

x∈A x is an element of set A

x∉A x is not an element of set A

∃ or ∄ There exist or there doesn’t exist

Φ Empty Set

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Symbol Explanation

A=B Equal Sets

n(A) Cardinal Number of Set A

P(A) Power Set

A ⊆ B A is a subset of B

A ⊂ B A is the Proper subset of B

A ⊈ B A is not a subset of B

B ⊇ A B is the superset of A

B ⊃ A B is a proper superset of A

B ⊉ A B is not a superset of A

A ∪ B A union B

A ∩ B A intersection B

A’ Complement of Set A

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Sets Operation
The sets undergo various operation which includes their union of
sets, the intersection of sets, the difference of sets, the complement
of sets, and the Cartesian Product of Sets. We will learn them briefly
below:
Union of Sets
Union of Sets basically refers to uniting two sets and writing their
elements in a single set without repeating elements if common
elements are present. The union of sets is given by A ∪ B.
For Example if Set A = {2, 4} and Set B = {4, 6} then A ∪ B = {2,
4} ∪ {4, 6} = {2, 4, 6}
Intersection of Sets
Intersection of sets refers to finding the common elements between
two sets. It is given by A ∩ B. For Example if set A = {2, 4} and B =
{4, 6} then A ∩ B = {2, 4} ∩ {4, 6} = {6}.
Difference of Sets
Difference of Sets refers to the deletion of common elements of two
sets and writing down the remaining elements of two sets. It is
represented as A – B. For Example if et A = {2, 4} and B = {4, 6}
then A – B = {2, 6}
Complement of Set
Compliment of Set refers to the set of elements from the universal set
excluding the elements of the set of which we are finding the
compliment. It is given by A’. For Example, if we have to find out
the complement of the set of Natural Numbers then it will include all
the numbers in the set from the Real Numbers except the Natural
Numbers. Here Real Number is the Universal set of Natural
Numbers.
Cartesian product of Sets
Cartesian Product of Sets refers to the product between the elements
of two sets in ordered pair. It is given as A ✕ B. For Example if set
A = {2, 4} and B = {4, 6} then A ✕ B = {(2,4), (2,6), (4,4), (4,6)}.

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Set Theory Formulas

The set theory formulas are given for two kinds of sets overlapping
and disjoint sets. Let’s learn them separately
Given that two sets A and B are overlapping, the formulas are as
follows:

n(A ∪ B) n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

n(A ∩ B) n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∪ B)

n(A) n(A ∪ B) + n(A ∩ B) – n(B)

n(B) n(A ∪ B) + n(A ∩ B) – n(A)

n(A – B) n(A ∪ B) – n(B)

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n(A ∪ B) n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

n(A – B) n(A) – n(A ∩ B)

n(A ∪ B ∪ n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩B) – n(B∩C) – n(C∩A)

C) + n(A∩B∩C)

If two sets A and B are disjoint sets

n(A ∪ B) n(A) + n(B)

(A ∩ B) Φ

n(A – B) n(A)

Properties of Sets
The various properties followed by sets are tabulated below:
Property Expression

Commutative Property A ∪ B = B ∪ A
A∩B=B∩A

Associative Property (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

Distributive Property A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

Identity Property A∪Φ=A

A∩U=A

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Property Expression

Complement Property A ∪ A’ = A

Idempotent Property A ∪ A = AA ∩ A = A

De Morgan’s Law
De Morgan’s Law is applicable in relating the union and intersection
of two sets via their complements. There are two laws under De
Morgan’s Law. Let’s learn them briefly
De Morgan’s Law of Union
De Morgan’s Law of Union states that the complement of the union
of two sets is equal to the intersection of the complement of
individual sets. Mathematically it can be expressed as
(A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’

De Morgan’s Law of Intersection

De Morgan’s Law of Intersection states that the complement of the
intersection of two sets is equal to the union of the complement of
individual sets. Mathematically it can be expressed as
(A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’

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Proof of De-Morgan Laws:

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Venn Diagram
Venn Diagram is a technique for representing the relation between
two sets with the help of circles, generally intersecting. For Example,
two circles intersecting with each other with the common area
merged into them represent the union of sets, and two intersecting
circles with a common area highlighted represents the intersection of
sets while two circles separated from each other represents the two
disjoint sets. A rectangular box surrounding the circle represents the
universal set. The Venn diagrams for various operations of sets are
listed below:

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Operations on Sets
Intersection and Union of Sets
Intersection
The intersection of two sets A and B is a set that contains all the
elements that are common to both A and B. Formally it is written as

In the following image, the shaded area is the intersection of sets A

and B

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Example:
If A = {2, 3, 5, 7} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
then the intersection of set A and B is the set A ∩ B = {2, 3, 5}
In this example 2, 3, and 5 are the only elements that belong to both
sets A and B.
Union
Union of two sets A and B is a set that contains all the elements that
are in A or in B or in both A and B. Formally it is written as
In the following image, the shaded area is the union of sets A and B.

Example:
If A = {2, 4, 8} and B = {2, 6, 8}
then the union of A and B is the set A ∪ B = {2, 4, 6, 8}
In this example, 2, 4, 6, and 8 are the elements that are found in set
A or in set B or in both sets A and B

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Subset and Proper Subset

Subset
For two set A and B, A is a subset of B if every element in A is also
in B. A can be equal to B. This is formally written as In the
following image, set A is a subset of B

Example:
If A = {2, 4} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
then A is a subset of B
In this example, A is a subset of B, because all the elements in A are
also in B
Notes:
1. An empty set (or null set) is a subset of every set.
Example:
∅ is a subset of the set {1, 2, 3, 4}
2. For a set A, the number of possible subsets is 2|A|.
Where |A| = number of elements in A.
Example:
For the set C = {1, 2, 3}, there are 23 = 8 possible subsets
they are ∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 3}, {1, 2, 3}

Proper subset (also called strict subset)

For two sets A and B, A is a proper subset of B, if A is a subset of B
and A is not equal to B. Formally it is written as

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Example:
For a set B = {1, 2, 3},
∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 3} are all proper subsets of B
Note that {1, 2, 3} is not a proper subset of B, because they are equal

Superset and Proper Superset

Superset
For two sets A and B, if A is a subset of B then B is the superset of
A. A can be equal to B. Formally it is denoted as
In the following image, set B is the superset of set A

Examples:
If A = {2, 4} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
then B is the superset of A, because A is a subset of B
If A = {11, 12} and B = {11, 12 } then B is the super set of A
Proper superset (also called strict superset)
For two sets A and B, if A is a subset of B and A is not equal to B,
then B is the proper superset of A. Formally it is written as
Examples:
 If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}then B is a proper
superset of A, because A is a subset of B and A ≠ B

 If A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {2, 4, 6} then B is not a proper superset

of A, because A = B

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Relative Complement or Difference Between Sets

The relative complement or set difference of two sets A and B is the
set containing all the elements that are in A but not in B. Formally
this is written as Sometimes this is also written as A \ B. In the
following image, the shaded area represents the difference set of set
A and set B

Note: A – B is equivalent to A ∩ B’ i.e., A – B = A ∩ B’

Example:
If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and B = {2, 3, 5, 7}
then A – B = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}
and further B – A = ∅
Universal Set and Absolute Complement
Universal set
A universal set is the set of all objects currently under consideration.
It is usually denoted by the upper-case letter U. For example for a set
of vowels, the universal set may be the set of alphabets.
Note: A set is always a subset of the universal set.
Absolute complement
The absolute complement of a set A is the set of all elements that are
in U but not in A. It is denoted as A’. In the following image, the
shaded area represents the complement of set A

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The absolute complement is sometimes just called complement.

Note: A’ is equivalent to U – A i.e., A’ = U – A
Example:
If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 2, 3}
then A’ = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} = U – A
Bringing the Set Operations Together
De Morgan’s laws
1. The complement of the union of two sets is equal to the
intersection of their complements
i.e., (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’
2. The complement of the intersection of two sets is equal to the
union of their complements
i.e., (A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’

Formula for the Cardinality of Union and Intersection

The formula for the Cardinality of Union and Intersection is given

below:
∣A ∪ B∣ = ∣A∣ + ∣B∣ − ∣A ∩ B∣

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Proof:
We can write
|A ∪ B| = |A – B| + |A ∩ B| + |B – A| —- by the sum of
disjoint sets, refer to the Venn diagram above
|A ∪ B| = (|A| – |A ∩ B|) + |A ∩ B| + |B – A| —- Substitute |A –
B| = |A| – |A ∩ B|
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B – A| —- Simplify
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| – |A ∩ B| —- Substitute |B –
A| = |B| – |A ∩ B|)
Practical Problems on Union and Intersection of Two sets
Problem 1: There are 100 students in a class, 45 students said that
they liked apples, and 30 of the students said that they liked both
apples and oranges. Every student has to choose at least one of the
two fruits. Find how many students like oranges.
Solution:
Let U = set of all students in the class
A = set of students that like apples
B = set of students that like oranges
Given:
|A| = 45
|A ∩ B| = 30
|U| = |A ∪ B| = 100 (because every student has to choose)
We need to find how many like oranges. i.e., |B|
The formula to be used is,
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| – |A ∩ B| —-(i)
Subtract |A| – |A ∩ B| from both sides in (i) to get
|A ∪ B| – (|A| – |A ∩ B|) = |B|
or |B| = |A ∪ B| – (|A| – |A ∩ B|)
Substitute the given values and simplify,
|B| = |A ∪ B| – (|A| – |A ∩ B|)
= 100 – ( 45 -30 )
= 85
Thus the number of students that like oranges is 85.

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Problem 2: There are a total of 120 students in a class. 70 of them

study mathematics, 40 study science, and 10 students study both
mathematics and science. Find the number of students who
i) Study mathematics but not science
ii) Study science but not mathematics
iii) Study mathematics or science
Solution:
Let,
U = set of all students in the class
M = set of students that study mathematics
S = set of students that study science
Our universal set here has 120 student i.e, |U| = 120
Given,
|M| = 70
|S| = 40
|M ∩ S| = 10 (number of students that study both mathematics
and science)
i) Finding the number of students that study mathematics but not
science. In the following image, the shaded area represents the set of
students that study mathematics but not science.

We are required to find |M – S|

By the Venn diagram, we can see that |M – S| can be written as |M| –
|M ∩ S|
thus,
|M – S| = |M| – |M ∩ S|
= 70 – 10
= 60

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Thus the number of students who study mathematics but not science
is 60
ii) Finding the number of students that study science but not
mathematics. In the following image, the shaded area represents the
set of students that study science but not mathematics

We are required to find |S – M|

By the Venn diagram, we can see that |S – M| can be written as |S| –
|M ∩ S|
thus,
|S – M| = |S| – |M ∩ S|
= 40 – 10
= 30
Thus the number of students who study science but not mathematics
is 30
iii) Finding the number of students who study mathematics or
science. In the following image, the shaded area represents the set of
students that study mathematics or science.

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We are required to find |M ∪ S|

By using the formula, |M ∪ S| = |M| + |S| – |M ∩ S|
|M ∪ S| = |M| + |S| – |M ∩ S|
= 70 + 40 – 10
= 100
Thus the number of students who study science or mathematics is
100.
Computer Representation of Sets
Method for storing elements using an arbitrary ordering of the
elements of the universal
set.Specify an arbitrary ordering of the elements of U, for
instance a1, a2, . . . , an. Represent a
subset A of U with the bit string of length n, where the ith bit in
this string is 1 if ai belongs to A
and is 0 if ai does not belong to A.
Example1: Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
i) What bit strings represent the subset of all odd integers in U?
The bit string that represents the set of odd integers
in U, {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, has a one bit in the First, third, fifth, seventh,
and ninth positions. It is 10 1010 1010.
ii) What bit strings represent the subset of all even integers in U?
The bit string that represent the subset of even integers in U,
{2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. It is 01 0101 0101.
iii) What bit strings represent the subset of integers not exceeding 5
in U?
The set of all integers in U that do not exceed 5, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, is
represented by the String 11 1110 0000.
To find the bit string for the complement of a set from the bit string
for that set, change each 1 to 0 and each 0 to 1.
Example 2: The bit string for the set {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} (with universal
set {1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}) is 10 1010 1010.
What is the bit string for the complement of this set?
The bit string for the complement of this set is obtained by replacing
0s with 1s.

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This yields the string 01 0101 0101, which corresponds to the set
{2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
To obtain the bit string for the union and intersection of two sets we
perform bitwise Boolean Operations on the bit strings
representing the two sets.
Example 3: The bit strings for the sets {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and
{1, 3, 5, 7, 9} are 11 1110 0000 and 10 1010 1010.
The bit string for the union of these sets is 11 1110 0000 ∨ 10 1010
1010 = 11 1110 1010, Which corresponds to the set
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}.If either of the bits in the ith position in the two
strings is 1 (or both are 1), the bit in the ith position of the bit string
of the union is 1. When both bits are 0, is 0. Hence, the bit string for
union is the bitwise OR of the bit strings for the two sets.
The bit string for the intersection of these sets is11 1110 0000 ∧ 10
1010 1010 = 10 1010 0000, which corresponds to the set {1, 3, 5}.
When the bits in the corresponding position in the two strings are
both 1, the bit in the ith position of the bit string of the intersection is
1. When either of the two bits is 0 (or both are 0), is 0. Hence, the bit
string for the intersection is the bitwise AND of the bit strings for the
two sets.
MULTISETS
We recall that a set is a collection of distinct objects. There are many
occasions, however, when we encounter collections of nondistinct
objects. For example, consider the names of the students in a class.
We might have two or more students who have the same name, and
we might wish to talk about the collection of the names of the
students. We define a multiset to be a collection of objects that are
not necessarily distinct. Thus, {a, a, a, b, b, c}, {a, a, a, a}, {a,
b, c}, and { } are examples of multisets. The multiplicity of an
element in a multiset is defined to be the number of times the
element appears in the multiset. Thus, the multiplicity of the element
a in the multiset {a, a, a, c, d, d} is 3. The multiplicity of the
element b is 0, the multiplicity if element c is 1, and the multiplicity
of the element d is 2. Not that sets are merely special instances of
multisets in which the multiplicity of an element is either 0 or 1.

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The cardinality of a multiset is defined to be the cardinality of the set

it corresponds to, assuming that the elements in the multiset are all
distinct.
Let P and Q be two multi sets. The union of P and Q, denoted P ∪ Q,
is a multiset such that the multiplicity of an element in P ∪ Q is
equal to the maximum of the multiplicities of the element in P and
in Q. thus, for P = {a, a, a, c, d, d} and Q = {a, a, b, c, c}
P ∪ Q = {a, a, a, b, c, c, d, d}
The intersection of P and Q, denoted P ∩ Q, is a multiset such that
the multiplicity of an element in P ∩ Q is equal to the multiplicities
of the element in P and in Q. Thus, for
P = {a, a, a, c, d, d} and Q = {a, a, b, c, c}
P ∩ Q = {a, a, c}
The difference of P and Q, denoted P – Q, is a multiset such that the
multiplicity of the element in Q if the difference is positive, and is
equal to 0 if the difference is 0 or is negative. For example, Let
P = {a, a, a, b, b, c, d, d, e} and Q = {a, a, b, b, b, c, c, d, d,
f}. We have,
P – Q = {a, e}
Finally we define the sum of two multisets P and Q, denoted P + Q,
to be a multiset such that the multiplicity of an element in P + Q is
equal to the sum of the multiplicities of the element in P and in Q.
note that there is no corresponding definition of the sum of two sets.
For example, let P = {a, a, b, c, c} and Q = {a, b, b, d}. We
have P + Q = {a, a, a, b, b, b, c, c, d}. As another example,
let R be a multiset containing the account numbers of all the
transactions on the next day. R and S are multisets because an
account might have more than one transaction in a day. Thus R +S
Is a combined record of the account numbers of the transactions in
these two days?

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FUNCTIONS
Functions are an important part of discrete mathematics. This article
is all about functions, their types, and other details of functions. A
function assigns exactly one element of a set to each element of the
other set. Functions are the rules that assign one input to one output.
The function can be represented as f: A ⇢ B. A is called the domain
of the function and B is called the codomain function.

Functions:

 A function assigns exactly one element of one set to each element

of other sets.
 A function is a rule that assigns each input exactly one output.
 A function f from A to B is an assignment of exactly one element
of B to each element of A (where A and B are non-empty sets).
 A function f from set A to set B is represented as f: A ⇢ B where
A is called the domain of f and B is called as codomain of f.
 If b is a unique element of B to element a of A assigned by
function F then, it is written as f(a) = b.
 Function f maps A to B means f is a function from A to B i.e. f:
A⇢B
Domain of a function:
 If f is a function from set A to set B then, A is called the domain
of function f.
 The set of all inputs for a function is called its domain.
Codomain of a function:
 If f is a function from set A to set B then, B is called the codomain
of function f.
 The set of all allowable outputs for a function is called its
codomain.
Pre-image and Image of a function:
A function f: A ⇢ B such that for each a ∈ A, there exists a unique b
∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ R then, a is called the pre-image of f and b is
called the image of f.

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Types of function:
One-One function ( or Injective Function):
A function in which one element of the domain is connected to one
element of the codomain.
A function f: A ⇢ B is said to be a one-one (injective) function if
different elements of A have different images in B.

f: A ⇢ B is one-one
⇒ a ≠ b ⇒ f(a) ≠ f(b) for all a, b ∈ A
⇒ f(a) = f(b) ⇒ a = b for all a, b ∈ A

ONE-ONE FUNCTION

Many-One function:
A function f: A ⇢ B is said to be a many-one function if two or more
elements of set A have the same image in B.
A function f: A ⇢ B is a many-one function if it is not a one-one
function.
f: A ⇢ B is many-one
⇒ a ≠ b but f(a) = f(b) for all a, b ∈ A

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MANY-ONE FUNCTION

Onto function( or Surjective Function):

A function f: A -> B is said to be onto (surjective) function if every
element of B is an image of some element of A i.e. f(A) = B or
range of f is the codomain of f.
A function in which every element of the codomain has one pre-
image.
f: A ⇢ B is onto if for each b∈ B, there exists a∈ A such that f(a)
= b.

ONTO FUNCTION

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Into Function:
A function f: A ⇢ B is said to be an into a function if there exists an
element in B with no pre-image in A.
A function f: A⇢ B is into function when it is not onto.

INTO FUNCTION

One-One Correspondent function( or Bijective Function

or One-One Onto Function):
A function which is both one-one and onto (both injective and
surjective) is called one-one correspondent(bijective) function .
f : A ⇢ B is one-one correspondent (bijective) if:
 one-one i.e. f(a) = f(b) ⇒ a = b for all a, b ∈ A
 onto i.e. for each b ∈ B, there exists a ∈ A such that f(a) = b.

ONE-ONE CORRESPONDENT FUNCTION

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One-One Into function:

A function that is both one-one and into is called one-one into
function.

ONE-ONE INTO FUNCTION

Many-one onto function:

A function that is both many-one and onto is called many-one onto
function.

MANY-ONE ONTO FUNCTION

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Many-one into a function:

A function that is both many-one and into is called many-one into
function.

MANY-ONE INTO FUNCTION

Inverse of a function:
Let f: A ⇢ B be a bijection then, a function g: B ⇢ A which
associates each element b ∈ B to a different element a ∈ A such that
f(a) = b is called the inverse of f.
f(a) = b ↔︎ g(b) = a

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Composition of functions :-
Let f: A ⇢ B and g: B ⇢ C be two functions then, a function gof:
A ⇢ C is defined by (gof)(x) = g(f(x)), for all x ∈ A
is called the composition of f and g.

Note:
Let X and Y be two sets with m and n elements and a function is
defined as f : X->Y then,
m
 Total number of functions = n
n
 Total number of one-one function = Pm
 Total number of onto functions = n – C1(n-1) + C2(n-2) –
m n m n m

………….. + (-1)n-1nCn-11m if m ≥ n.
For the composition of functions f and g be two functions :
 fog ≠ gof
 If f and g both are one-one function then fog is also one-one.
 If f and g both are onto function then fog is also onto.
 If f and fog both are one-one function then g is also one-one.
 If f and fog both are onto function then it is not necessary that g is
also onto.
 (fog)-1 = g-1o f-1
 f-1o f = f-1(f(a)) = f-1(b) = a
 fof-1 = f(f-1(b)) = f(a) = b
problem :Let f and g be the functions from the set of integers to
the set of integers defined by
f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x + 2. What is the composition of f and
g? What is the compositionof g and f ?
Solution: Both the compositions f ◦g and g◦f are defined.
Moreover,
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( f ◦g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3 = 6x + 7

and
(g◦f )(x) = g( f (x)) = g(2x + 3) = 3(2x + 3) + 2 = 6x + 11.

Sample Questions:

Ques 1: Show that the function f : R ⇢ R, given by f(x) =

2x, is one-one and onto.
Sol: For one-one:
Let a, b ∈ R such that f(a) = f(b) then,
f(a) = f(b)
⇒ 2a = 2b
⇒a=b
Therefore, f: R ⇢ R is one-one.
For onto:
Let p be any real number in R (co-domain).
f(x) = p
⇒ 2x = p
⇒ x = p/2
p/2 ∈ R for p ∈ R such that f(p/2) = 2(p/2) = p
For each p∈ R (codomain) there exists x = p/2 ∈ R (domain) such
that f(x) = y
For each element in codomain has its pre-image in domain.
So, f: R ⇢ R is onto.
Since f: R ⇢ R is both one-one and onto.
f : R ⇢ R is one-one correspondent (bijective function).

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Ques 2: Let f : R ⇢ R ; f(x) = cos x and g : R ⇢ R ; g(x) =

x3 . Find fog and gof.
Sol: Since the range of f is a subset of the domain of g and the range
of g is a subset of the domain of f. So, fog and gof both exist .
gof (x) = g(f(x)) = g(cos x) = (cos x)3 = cos3x
fog (x) = f(g(x)) = f(x3) = cos x3
Ques 3: If f : Q ⇢ Q is given by f(x) = x2 , then find f-1(16).
Sol:
Let f-1(16) = x
f(x) = 16
x2 = 16
x=±4
f-1(16) = {-4, 4}

Ques 4 :- If f : R ⇢ R; f(x) = 2x + 7 is a bijective function

then, find the inverse of f.
Sol: Let x ∈ R (domain), y ∈ R (codomain) such that f(a) = b
f(x) = y
⇒ 2x + 7 = y
⇒ x = (y -7)/2
⇒ f-1(y) = (y -7)/2

Thus, f-1 : R ⇢ R is defined as f-1(x) = (x -7)/2 for all x∈ R.

Ques 5: If f : A ⇢ B and |A| = 5 and |B| = 3 then find total
number of functions.
Sol: Total number of functions = 3 5 = 243

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Graph of function
We can associate a set of pairs in A × B to each function from
A to B. This set of pairs is called the graph of the function and is
often displayed pictorially to aid in understanding the behaviour of
the function.
Let f be a function from the set A to the set B. The graph of the
function f is the set of ordered pairs {(a, b) ∣ a ∈ A and f (a)=b}.

Some important function

The floor function, denoted
f(x)=[x]
is the largest integer less than or equal to x
The ceiling function, denoted
f(x)=[x]
is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x
ex; [3.5]=4[3.5]=3
[-1.5]=-1 [-1.5]=-2

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Floor and ceiling function

Proving properties of function

Ex: Prove that x is a real number, then
⌊2x⌋= ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋!
Solution: Let x = n + ε, where n is an integer and 0 ≤ ε< 1.
Case 1: ε < 1/2
2x= 2n + 2ε and ⌊2x⌋ = 2n, since 0 ≤ 2ε< 1.
⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n, since x + . = n + (1/2 + ε ) and 0 ≤ ½ +ε< 1.
Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + n = 2n.

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Case 2: ε ≥ .1/2
2x= 2n + 2ε = (2n + 1) +(2ε − 1) and ⌊2x⌋ =2n + 1, since
0 ≤ 2 ε - 1< 1.
⌊x + 1/2⌋ = ⌊ n + (1/2 + ε)⌋ = ⌊ n + 1 + (ε – 1/2)⌋ = n + 1 since 0 ≤ ε–
1/2< 1.
Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n + 1 and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + (n + 1) = 2n + 1.

Factorial function
Definition: f: N → Z+ , denoted by f(n) = n! is the product of the
first n positive integers when n is a nonnegative integer.
f(n) = 1 · 2 ··· (n – 1) · n, f(0) = 0! = 1
Examples:
f(1) = 1! = 1
f(2) = 2! = 1 · 2 = 2
f(6) = 6! = 1 · 2 · 3· 4· 5 · 6 = 720
f(20) = 2,432,902,008,176,640,000.
Stirling’s Formula
n! ∼√2𝜋n(n∕e)n
f (n) ∼ g(n)= limn→∞ f (n)∕g(n) = 1

PARTIAL FUNCTION
Definition: A partial function f from a set A to a set B is an
assignment to each element a in a subset of A, called the
domain of definition of f, of a unique element b in B.
The sets A and B are called the domain and codomain of f,
respectively. We day that f is undefined for elements in A that are
not inthe domain of definition of f. !When the domain of definition
of f equals A, we say that f isa total function.
Example: f: N → R where f(n) = √n is a partial function from
Z to R where the domain of definition is the set of
nonnegative integers. Note that f is undefined for negative
integers.

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SEQUENCES AND SUMMATIONS

Introduction
 Sequences are ordered lists of elements.
 1, 2, 3, 5, 8!
 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …….
Sequences arise throughout mathematics, computer
science, and in many other disciplines, ranging from
botany to music.
We will introduce the terminology to represent
sequences and sums of the terms in the sequences.
SEQUENCES
Definition: A sequence is a function from a subset of
the integers (usually either the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …..} or
{1, 2, 3, 4, ….} ) to a set S.
● The notation an is used to denote the image of the
integer n. We can think of an as the equivalent of
f(n) where f is a function from {0,1,2,…..} to S. We
call an a term of the sequence
ex:

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GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
Definition: A geometric progression is a sequence of the form
:where the initial term a and the common ratio r are real
Numbers

Examples:
Let a = 1 and r = −1. Then:
{bn}={b1,b2,b3,b4…….}={-1,1,-1,1…….}
Let a = 2 and r = 5. Then:
{Cn}={c0,c1,c2,c3,c4…….}={-1,1,-1,1…….}
Let a = 6 and r = 1/3. Then:
{dn}={d1,d2,d3,d4…….}={6,2,2/3,2/9.2/27…….}

Arithmetic progression

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Strings
Definition: A string is a finite sequence of characters
from a finite set (an alphabet).!
● Sequences of characters or bits are important in
computer science.
● The empty string is represented by λ.
● The string abcde has length 5.

Recurrence Relations
Definition: A recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is an
equation that expresses an in terms of one or more of the
previous terms of the sequence, namely, a0, a1, …, an-1, for
all integers n with n ≥ n0, where n0 is a nonnegative integer.
● A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence relation if its
terms satisfy the recurrence relation.
● The initial conditions for a sequence specify the terms that
precede the first term where the recurrence relation takes
effect.

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Questions on Recurrence
Relations
Example 1: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence
relation an = an-1 + 3 for n = 1,2,3,4,…. and suppose that
a0 =2.
What are a1 , a2 and a3
[Here a0 = 2 is the initial condition.]
Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that
a1 = a0 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
a2 = 5 + 3 = 8
a3 = 8 + 3 = 11

Example 2: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the

recurrence relation an = an-1 – an-2 for n = 2,3,4,…. and
suppose that a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. What are a2 and a3?
[Here the initial conditions are a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. ]
Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that!
a2 = a1 - a0 = 5 – 3 = 2
a3 = a2 – a1 = 2 – 5 = –3

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Fibonacci Sequence
Definition: Define the Fibonacci sequence, f0 ,f1 ,f2,…, by:
● Initial Conditions: f0 = 0, f1 = 1
● Recurrence Relation: fn = fn-1 + fn-2
Example: Find f2 ,f3 ,f4 , f5 and f6 .
Answer:
f2 = f1 + f0 = 1 + 0 = 1,
f3 = f2 + f1 = 1 + 1 = 2,
f4 = f3 + f2 = 2 + 1 = 3,
f5 = f4 + f3 = 3 + 2 = 5
f6 = f5 + f4 = 5 + 3 = 8.

Solving Recurrence Relations

● Finding a formula for the nth term of the sequence
generated by a recurrence relation is called solving the
recurrence relation.
● Such a formula is called a closed formula.
● Here we illustrate by example the method of iteration in
which we need to guess the formula.

Iterative Solution Example

Method 1: Working upward, forward substitution
Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation
an =an-1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that a1 = 2.
a2 = 2 + 3
a3 = (2 + 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 · 2
a4 = (2 + 2 · 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 · 3
.an = an-1 + 3 = (2 + 3 · (n – 2)) + 3 = 2 + 3(n – 1)

Method 2: Working downward, backward substitution

Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an =
an-1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that a1 = 2.
an = an-1 + 3
= (an-2 + 3) + 3 = an-2 + 3 · 2
= (an-3 + 3 )+ 3 · 2 = an-3 + 3 · 3
.= a2 + 3(n – 2) = (a1 + 3) + 3(n – 2) = 2 + 3(n – 1

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Financial Application
Example: Suppose that a person deposits $10,000.00 in
a savings account at a bank yielding 11% per year
with interest compounded annually. How much will
be in the account after 30 years?
Let Pn denote the amount in the account after 30
years. Pn satisfies the following recurrence relation:
Pn = Pn-1 + 0.11Pn-1 = (1.11) Pn-1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000
Pn = Pn-1 + 0.11Pn-1 = (1.11) Pn-1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000
Solution: Forward Substitution
P1 = (1.11)P0
P2 = (1.11)P1 = (1.11)2P0
P3 = (1.11)P2 = (1.11)3P0
Pn = (1.11)Pn-1 = (1.11)nP0 = (1.11)n 10,000
Pn = (1.11)n 10,000
P30 = (1.11)30 10,000 = $228,992.97
Special Integer Sequences (opt)
● Given a few terms of a sequence, try to identify the
sequence.Conjecture a formula, recurrence relation, or some other
rule.
● Some questions to ask?
● Are there repeated terms of the same value?
● Can you obtain a term from the previous term by adding an
amount or multiplying by an amount?
● Can you obtain a term by combining the previous terms insome
way?!
● Are they cycles among the terms?
● Do the terms match those of a well known sequence
Questions on Special Integer
Sequences (opt)
Example 1: Find formulae for the sequences with the following
first five terms: 1, ., ., 1/8, 1/16
Solution: Note that the denominators are powers of 2. The sequence
with an = 1/2n is a possible match. This is a geometric progression
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with a = 1 and r = 1/2

Example 2: Consider 1,3,5,7,9
Solution: Note that each term is obtained by adding 2 to the previous
term. A possible formula is an = 2n + 1. This is an arithmetic
progression with a =1 and d = 2.
Example 3: 1, -1, 1, -1,1
Solution: The terms alternate between 1 and -1. A possible sequence
is an = (−1)n . This is a geometric progression with a = 1 and r = −1.

Some useful sequences

Guessing Sequences (optional)

Example: Conjecture a simple formula for an if the first
10 terms of the sequence {an} are 1, 7, 25, 79, 241, 727,
2185, 6559, 19681, 59047.
Solution: Note the ratio of each term to the previous
approximates 3. So now compare with the sequence
3n . We notice that the nth term is 2 less than thecorresponding
power of 3. So a good conjecture is that an = 3n – 2

Integer Sequences (optional)

● Integer sequences appear in a wide range of contexts the number of
ways to order n discrete objects the number of moves needed to solve
the Tower of Hanoi puzzle with n disks and the number of rabbits
on an island after n months

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● Integer sequences are useful in many fields such as biology,

engineering, chemistry and physics.
● On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OESIS)
contains over 200,000 sequences. Began by Neil Stone in the
1960s (printed form). Now found at http://oeis.org/
Spuzzle.html
Here are three interesting sequences to try from the OESIS site. To
solve each puzzle, find a rule that determines the terms of the
sequence.Guess the rules for forming for the following sequences:
● 2, 3, 3, 5, 10, 13, 39, 43, 172, 177,
● Hint: Think of adding and multiplying by numbers to generate this
sequence.0, 0, 0, 0, 4, 9, 5, 1, 1, 0, 55, ...
● Hint: Think of the English names for the numbers representing the
position in the sequence and the Roman Numerals for the same
number. 2, 4, 6, 30, 32, 34, 36, 40, 42, 44, 46, ...
● Hint: Think of the English names for numbers, and whether or not
they have the letter‘e.’The answers and many more can be found at
http://oeis.org/Spuzzle.html

SUMMATIONS
Sum of the terms from the sequence

The notation

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The variable j is called the index of summation. It runs

through all the integers starting with its lower limit m and
ending with its upper limit n.
More generally for a set S:

Sometimes it is useful to shift the index of summation in a sum. This

is often done when two sums need to be added but their indices of
summation do not match. When shifting an indexof summation, it is
important to make the appropriate changes in the corresponding
summand.This is illustrated by Example

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Product notation

Geometric progression

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Some important summations

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MATRICES
Introduction
Matrices are used throughout discrete mathematics to express
relationships between elements in sets. In subsequent chapters we
will use matrices in a wide variety of models. For instance,
matrices will be used in models of communications networks and
transportation systems. Many algorithms will be developed that use
these matrix models. This section reviews matrix arithmetic that
will be used in these algorithms.

Definition 1 A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. A

matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m × n matrix. The
plural of matrix is matrices. A matrix with the same number of
rows as columns is called square. Two matrices are equal if they
have the same number of rows and the same number of columns
and the corresponding entries in every position are equal

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Matrix Arithmetic
The basic operations of matrix arithmetic will now be
discussed, beginning with a definition of matrix addition.
Definition 3 Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be m × n matrices. The
sum of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the m × n matrix that has aij
+ bij as it’s (i, j) th element. In other words, A + B = [aij + bij].

The sum of two matrices of the same size is obtained by adding

elements in the corresponding positions. Matrices of different sizes
cannot be added, because such matrices will not both have entries
in some of their positions

Matrix multiplication
Let A be an m × k matrix and B be a k × n matrix. The product of
A and B, denoted by AB, is the m × n matrix with its (i, j)th entry
equal to the sum of the products of the corresponding elements
from the ith row of A and the jth column of B. In other words, if
AB = [cij], then

cij = ai1b1j + ai2b2j +⋯+ aikbkj.

The product of two matrices is not defined when the number of

columns in the first matrix and the number of rows in the second
matrix are not the same.

We now give some examples of matrix products

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Solution: Because A is a 4 × 3 matrix Extra and B is a 3 ×

2 matrix, the product AB is defined and is a
Examples 4 × 2 matrix. To find the elements of AB, the
corresponding elements of the rows of A and the columns of B are
first multiplied and then these products are added. For instance, the
element in the (3, 1)th position of AB is the sum of the products of
the corresponding elements of the third row of A and the first
column of B; namely, 3 ⋅ 2 + 1 ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ 3 = 7. When all the
elements of AB are computed, we see that

Although matrix multiplication is associative, as can easily be

proved using the associativityof addition and multiplication of real
numbers, matrix multiplication is not commutative. Thatis, if A
and B are two matrices, it is not necessarily true that AB and BA
are the same.

In fact, itmay be that only one of these two products is defined. For
instance, if A is 2 × 3 and B is 3 × 4, then AB is defined and is 2 ×
4; however, BA is not defined, because it is impossible to multiply
3 × 4 matrix and a 2 × 3 matrix.

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In general, suppose that A is an m × n matrix and B is an r × s

matrix. Then AB is defined only when n = r and BA is defined
only when s = m. Moreover, even when AB and BA are both
defined, they will not be the same size unless m = n = r = s. Hence,
if both AB and BA are defined and are the same size, then both A
and B must be square and of the same size.

Furthermore, even with A and B both n × n matrices, AB and BA

are not necessarily equal, as

Transpose of matrix
Transpose of a matrix is a matrix that is obtained by swapping the
rows and columns of the given matrix or vice versa, i.e., for the given
matrix the elements in rows are interchanged with the elements in
columns. For any given matrix A its transpose is denoted as At, or AT.
Let, A is a matrix of order m × n then At be the transpose of matrix A
with order n × m,
A = [a(ij)]m × n
At = [a(ji)]n × m
here i, j present the position of a matrix element, row- and column-
wise, respectively, such that,1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
If At = [bij], then bij = aji for i =1,2,…,n

and j = 1,2, ...,m

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Matrices that do not change when their rows and columns are
interchanged are often important

A square matrix A is called symmetric if A = At. Thus, A = [aij] is

symmetric if aij = aji for all i and j with 1 ≤ i ≤ n and 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

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Power matrix
Definition: The identity matrix of order n is the m n
matrix In = [δij], where δij = 1 if i = j and δij = 0 if i≠j.

Multiplying a matrix by an appropriately sized identity matrix does

not change this matrix. In other words, when A is an m × n matrix,
we have
AIn = ImA = A.

Powers of square matrices can be defined because matrix

multiplication is associative.

When A is an n × n matrix, we have

ZERO-ONE MATRICES
Definition: A matrix all of whose entries are either 0or 1 is called a
zero-one matrix
Algorithms operating on discrete structures represented by zero-one
matrices are based on Boolean arithmetic defined by the following
Boolean Operations ∧ and ∨, which operate on pairs of bits, defined
by

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BOOLEAN PRODUCT OF ZERO-ONE MATRIX

Let A = [aij] be an m × k zero–one matrix and B = [bij] be a k × n
zero–one matrix. Then the Boolean product of A and B, denoted by A
⊙B, is the m × n matrix with (i, j)th entry cij
where

cij = (ai1 ∧ b1j) ∨ (ai2 ∧ b2j) ∨⋯∨ (aik ∧ bkj).

the Boolean product of A and B is obtained in an analogous way to

the ordinary product of these matrices, but with addition replaced with
the operation ∨ and with multiplication replaced with the operation
∧. We give an example of the Boolean products of matrices.

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BOOLEAN POWER OF ZERO-ONE MATRIX

Boolean powers of a square zero–one matrix. These powers will be
used in our subsequent studies of paths in graphs, which are used to
model such things as communications paths in computer networks.

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