1.

 In what ways can the ideas of ancient thinkers about atoms be considered “scientific”? In
what ways are they not scientific? (5pts.)
- Democritus believed that atoms were uniform, solid, hard, incompressible, and
indestructible and that they moved indefinitely through empty space until they were stopped.
Dalton's atomic theory was founded on evidence and data... Furthermore, the experiments
performed by Dalton could be replicated, considered, and modified by other researchers... His
competitors and rivals, as well as his collaborators. One of the most important properties of
scientific theories is their falsifiability, which means that we can devise and carry out experiments
that show that the atomic theory is untenable. So far, no experiments have been conducted that
have pierced Dalton's main ideas.

2. What role has math played in the development of knowledge of atomic structure? (5pts.)

- Mathematics serves as the conceptual framework for modern science and technology, with
close interactions between them. Mathematics is widely used in chemistry and is required to
investigate important concepts. These calculations, and thus chemistry itself, will be extremely
difficult without some basic mathematical skills. Mathematics has been used since the beginning of
chemistry to create quantitative and qualitative models that aid in understanding the world of
chemistry by understanding the elements that comprise molecules. Protons, neutrons, and electrons are
the particles that make up an atom. The measurement of these particles is an important aspect of
chemistry. Protons, neutrons, and electrons all have mass and an electrical charge (or lack thereof),
which can be measured. Patterns in the mass and charge of atomic particles assisted chemists in
learning about the nature of atoms and the molecules they can form.

3. What are the major developments in theories about the atom? Who are the people
responsible for these developments? State and explain each theory. (20pts.)

- All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms. Dalton and others imagined the atoms
that composed all matter as tiny, solid spheres in various stages of motion.
- Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable. Atoms of an element cannot be created,
destroyed, divided into smaller pieces, or transformed into atoms of another
element. Dalton based this hypothesis on the law of conservation of mass as stated by
Antoine Lavoisier and others around 1785.
- Elements are characterized by the weight of their atoms. Dalton suggested that all atoms of
the same element have identical weights. Therefore, every single atom of an element such
as oxygen is identical to every other oxygen atom. However, atoms of different elements,
such as oxygen and mercury, are different from each other.
- In chemical reactions, atoms combine in small, whole-number ratios. Experiments
that Dalton and others performed indicated that chemical reactions proceed according to
atom-to-atom ratios which were precise and well-defined.
- When elements react, their atoms may combine in more than one whole-number
ratio. Dalton used this assumption to explain why the ratios of two elements in various
compounds, such as oxygen and nitrogen in nitrogen oxides, differed by multiples of each
other.
These are the people responsible for atomic development and their theories:

1. Democritus - All matter around us is made of indivisible tiny particles- “atomos”

2. John Dalton - Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are of one element that is
identical while atoms of different elements are different.
3. Michael Faraday - The structure of atoms is somehow related to electricity.
4. J. J. Thomson - Discovered atoms have negative particles (electrons) using a cathode ray tube.
5. Robert Millikan - Measured the charge of an electron using oil droplets.
6. Ernest Rutherford - Positive charge is not like a pudding but concentrated in the nucleus as
shown in the Gold Foil (alpha particle) experiment.
7. Henry Moseley - Each element contains a unique number of protons. (atomic #)
8. Niels Bohr - Electrons can act like particles and waves (just like light). Electrons occupy orbitals.
Orbitals are nothing like orbits. They are areas of probability (90% of electron probability)
*Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer performed experiments to support the wave mechanical
model.
9. Erwin Schrödinger - An electron does not travel in an exact orbit. We can predict where it will
probably be. We cannot say for certain where it is, but only where it ought to be. The type of
probability orbit is dependent on the energy level described by Bohr.

4. Differentiate the following

a. Accuracy and Precision( 3 pts.)

- Accuracy is defined as ‘ the degree to which the result of a dimension conforms to the correct
value or a standard ’ and basically refers to how near a dimension is to its agreed value. Precision is
defined as ‘the quality of being exact’ and refers to how close two or further measures are to each
other, anyhow of whether those measures are accurate or not. It's possible for perfection measures
to not be accurate. Both delicacy and perfection reflect how near a dimension is to a factual value,
but they aren't the same. delicacy reflects how near a dimension is to a known or accepted value,
while perfection reflects how reproducible measures are, indeed if they're far from the accepted
value. measures that are both precise and accurate are unremarkable and veritably near to true
values.
b. Physical and Chemical Change(3 pts.) - Chemical and physical changes be all the time in our
everyday lives. In a physical change, the material involved in the change is structurally the same
before and after the change. Types of physical changes are texture, shape, temperature, and a
change in the state of matter. While, A chemical change occurs when the composition of a substance
is changed, which requires the breaking and forming of chemical bonds during a chemical response.
This results in the rearranging of titles in substances to form the products of a chemical response,
which are brand-new motes that cannot be fluently regressed back to their original state.
c. Element and Compound(3 pts.)
- elements and compounds are pure chemical substances set up in nature. The difference between
an element and a compound is that an element is a substance made of the same type of titles,
whereas an compund is made of different rudiments in definite proportions. exemplifications of
rudiments include iron, bobby, hydrogen, and oxygen. exemplifications of composites include
water( H2O) and swab( Sodium Chloride- NaCl).

d. Pure Substance and Mixture (3 pts.) - A pure substance is made up solely of that substance and
cannot be separated into any other substances. A mixture can be separated into two or further pure
substances. While pure substances have easily defined physical and chemical parcels, fusions have
different parcels, depending on the proportions of the pure substances in each admixture and the
position in the admixture. Pure substances can be rudiments made up simply of one kind of snippet,
or they can be composites made up of motes that include two or further rudiments. fusions can be
homogeneous or miscellaneous depending on how finely mixed the factors are.
e. Homogenous and Heterogenous( 3 pts.) - Homogeneous mixtures have the same look and
characteristics throughout the admixture. Miscellaneous fusions are coarser with sensible
variations in appearance and parcels in the different corridors of the admixture. By combining two
or further substances, a mixture is produced. A homogeneous result tends to be identical, no matter
how you test it. Homogeneous fusions are sources of water, saline results, some blends, and bitumen.
Beach, oil painting and water, and funk pate haze are exemplifications of miscellaneous fusions.