1.

4 Classification of survey based on instruments used

Based on the instruments used, the surveys can be classified as under:
1. Chain surveying: This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear
measurements are taken with a chain or tape.
2. Compass surveying: In compass surveying, the horizontal angles are measured with the
help of a magnetic compass, in addition to the linear measurements with a chain or a
tape.
3. Levelling: This is a type of survey in which a levelling instrument is used for
determination of relative elevations (levels) of various points in the vertical plane.
4. Plane table surveys: In plane table surveys, a map is prepared in the field while viewing
the terrain after determining the directions of various lines and taking the linear
measurements with telescopic alidade.
5. Theodolite surveys: A theodolite is a very precise instrument for measuring horizontal
and vertical angles. The theodolite surveys can be broadly classified in two types:
(1) Traverse, (2) Triangulation.
6. Tacheometric surveys: A tacheometer is a special type of theodolite that is fitted with a
stadia diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs in addition to the central horizontal
hair. In tacheometric surveying horizontal angles, horizontal distances and elevations are
measured with a tacheometer.
7. Photogammetric surveys: Photogrammetry is a science of taking measurements with the
help of photographs. Photogrammetric surveys are generally used for topographic
mapping of vast areas.
8. EDM Surveys: Trilateration is a type of triangulation in which all the three sides of each
triangle are measured accurately with EDM instruments. The angles are computed
indirectly from the known sides of the triangles. Thus all the sides and angles are
determined.

1.5 Basic measurements in surveying

Surveying basically consists of the following four measurements.
1. Horizontal distance: A horizontal distance is measured in a horizontal plane. If a
distance is measured along a slope, it is reduced to its horizontal equivalent.

________________________________________________________________________________ 1
NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 2
 2. Vertical distances: A vertical distance is measured along the direction of gravity at that
point. The vertical distances are measured to determine the difference in elevations
(height) of the various points.
3. Horizontal angle: A horizontal angle is measured between two lines in a plane that is
horizontal at that point.
4. Vertical angle: Vertical angles is measured between two lines in a plane that is vertical
at a point.

1.6 Units of measurement

There are two main systems of measurements:
1) M.K.S. (meter, kilogram, second) metric system (SI=Système International)
2) F.P.S. (foot, pound, second) British system

a) The SI unit of length is the base unit meter (m).

1 decameter = 101m = 1 dam
1 hectometer = 102m = 1 hm
1 kilometer = 103m = 1 km
1 megameter = 106m = 1 Mm
1 gigameter = 109m = 1 Gm
1 terameter = 1012m = 1 Tm

1 decimeter = 10-1m = 1 dm
1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1 cm
1 millimeter = 10-3m = 1 mm
1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1 µm
1 nanometer = 10-9m = 1 nm
1 picometer = 10-12m = 1 pm

b) The SI unit for area is the derived units square meter (m2)
1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 m * 100m = 1 ha
1 square kilometer = 106m2 = 1000m * 1000m = 1km2 = 100ha

________________________________________________________________________________ 2
NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 2
 c) The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeters = 1 cubic centimeter
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic meter

d) The SI units for plane angles

There are three systems in use for angular unit, namely sexagesimal graduation, centesimal
graduation and radian.

Radian: The radian (rad) is the basic unit of measurement of angles. The radiant is defined
as that angle where the ratio between the arc length lb and the radius r of the circle equals 1
(see also figure 1.3). We are talking about a full circle if the arc length lb equals the
circumference. In a unit circle with the radius 1 the full circle equals 2 rad.

figure 1.3

Sexagesimal graduation: The circle is divided into 360 parts.

1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
10 = 1/360 full circle = 2/360 rad = /180 rad
10 = 60’ (minutes)
1’ = 60” (seconds)

Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided into 400 parts.

1 full circle = 400 gon
1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2/400 rad = /200 rad
1 gon = 100 cgon (centigon)
1 cgon = 10 mgon (milligon)
1 mgon = 10 cc (centi centigon)

________________________________________________________________________________ 3
NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 2
 Conversion of units
a) Conversion of length
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 foot = 0.3048m
1 mile = 1.6093 km

b) Conversion of area
1 sq in = 6.4516 sq cm
1sq ft = 0.0929 sq m
1 sq mile = 2.59 sq km

c) Conversion of volume
1 cu in = 16.387 cu cm
1 cu ft = 0.0283 c um

d) Conversion of angles
1 gon = 9/10 deg
1 deg = 10/9 gon

example:
from gon to degree: 48.0488 gon
48.0488 gon * 9/10 = 43.2439
from degree to gon: 43.2439
43.2439 * 10/9 = 48.0488 gon
from degree decimal value to degree, minutes, seconds: 43.2439
43 + 0.2439
0.2439 * 60 = 14.6340’
0.6340’* 60 = 38”
result: 43 14’ 38”
from degree, minutes, seconds to degree decimal value: 43 14’ 38”
43 + 14’/60 + 38”/ 3600 = 43.2439

________________________________________________________________________________ 4
NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 2
 1.7. Scales
Plan. A plan graphically represent the features on or near the earth’s surface as projected on a
horizontal plan.

Map. If the scale of the graphical projection on a horizontal plane is small the plan is termed
map. In addition a map generally shows some additional features, such as reliefs, hachures and contour
lines to indicate undulation on the ground.

The plan of a house, school, factory, office, bridge, dam or the map of a town, city, country,
world cannot be prepared in full size on a drawing sheet. Hence a reduced measuring instrument to
measuring instrument to measure the linear measurements is used which is known as scale. The actual
feature is drawn on the drawing sheet with the help of the scale, to a reduced size, this operation being
known as drawing to scale.

1.7.1 Scale of a map

Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the corresponding distance on
the ground. Scales of a map are generally classified as large, medium and small.

Large scale 1:1000 or less

Medium scale 1:1000 _ 1:10000
Small scale 1:10000 or more

1.7.2 Representation of scale

The following three methods are used to represent the scale of a map.

1. By statement (engineer’s scale)

2. By representative fraction
3. By Graphical scale

________________________________________________________________________________ 5
NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 2
 1. By statement (engineer’s scale). For example 1cm= 50m. According to this scale, a specified
distance on the map represents the corresponding distance on the ground. In this example, 1 cm
on the map represents 50m on the ground.
2. By representative fraction. (R.F). It is indicated by a ratio. The representative fraction is the
ratio of the distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground. For example, for a
scale of 1cm=50m, 1cm on the map represents 50m (5000cm) on the ground. Therefore, the
representative fraction (R.F) is 1/5000 or 1:5000.
3. By graphical scale. A graphical scale is a line drawn on the map so that its map distance
corresponds to a convenient units of length on the ground. A graphical scale is constructed on
the map by drawing a line and marking the ground distances directly on it.

1.7.3 Type of measuring scales.

1. Plain scale
2. Comparative scale
3. Diagonal scale
4. Vernier scale

1. Plain scale. A plain scale represents either two units or only one unit and its fraction. It
consists of a line divided into suitable number of equal parts of units, the first of which is sub
divided into smaller parts.

2. Comparative scale. The scales having the common representation fraction but graduated
comparatively to read different units are called comparative scales, such as the scales showing
comparatively inches and centimeters, miles and kilometers, degree and radians, time and
distance moved, etc. The advantage of comparative scale is that measurements are taken
directly in the desired units with out any calculations.

3. Diagonal scale. A diagonal scale represents either three units or only one unit and its fraction
up to second place of decimal point. It consists of a line divided in to suitable number of equal
parts. The first parts is sub-divided into suitable number of equal parts, each of which is
further divided into smallest parts by diagonals.
________________________________________________________________________________ 6
NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 2
4. Vernier scle. A vernier scsle, invented by Pierre vernier 1631, used to measure very small unit with
with greater accuracy.

________________________________________________________________________________ 7
NCTTE-Surveying Department SUT171 handout 2