What is the difference between a host and an end system? List several different types of end systems.

Is
a Web server an end system?

Answer : A host is an end system, and vice versa.

Types of end systems: desktops, laptops, smartphones, tablets, automobiles, various sensors, etc.

Yes, a Web server is an end system.

The word protocol is often used to describe diplomatic relations. How does Wikipedia describe
diplomatic protocol?

Answer : A protocol is described as the rules of etiquette for heads of state, for example in what order
diplomats address representatives of other nations often in order of decreasing importance and power.

Why are standards important for protocols?

Answer : Standards are important for protocols so that both communicating computers are sending and
interpreting data in the same order and manner.

List six access technologies. Classify each one as home access, enterprise access, or wide area network
access.

Answer : DSL(Digital Subscriber Line) - Home Access

Cable - Home Access

FTTH(Fiber to the Home) - Home Access

Dial-Up - Home Access

Satellite - Home Access

Ethernet - Enterprise (and Home) Access

WiFi - Enterprise (and Home) Access

3G - Wide Area Network Access

LTE - Wide Area Network Access

Is HFC transmission rate dedicated or shared among users? Are collisions possible in a downstream HFC
channel? Why or why not?

Answer : HFC (cable internet) transmission rate is shared among users. There are no collisions in the
downstream channel because all packets come from a single source, the head end.

List the available residential access technologies in your city. For each type of access, provide the
advertised downstream rate, upstream rate, and monthly price.

Answer : In most American cities, the current possibilities include: dial-up; DSL; cable modem; fiber- to-
the-home.

HFC - 300 mbps - $65

- 100 mbps - $65

- 2 mbps - $15

What is the transmission rate of Ethernet LANs?

Answer : Users - 100 mbps

Servers - 1 gbps or even 10 gbps

Ethernet LANs have transmission rates of 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps and 10 Gbps.

What are some of the physical media that Ethernet can run over?

Answer : Today, Ethernet most commonly runs over twisted-pair copper wire. It also can run over fibers
optic links.
Dial-up modems, HFC, DSL and FTTH are all used for residential access. For each of these access
technologies, provide a range of transmission rates and comment on whether the transmission rate is
shared or dedicated.

Answer : Dial up modems: up to 56 Kbps, bandwidth is dedicated; ADSL: up to 24 Mbps downstream and
2.5 Mbps upstream, bandwidth is dedicated; HFC, rates up to 42.8 Mbps and upstream rates of up to
30.7 Mbps, bandwidth is shared. FTTH: 2-10Mbps upload; 10-20 Mbps download; bandwidth is not
shared.

Describe the most popular wireless Internet access technologies today. Compare and contrast them.

Answer : There are two popular wireless Internet access technologies today:

a) Wifi (802.11) In a wireless LAN, wireless users transmit/receive packets to/from an base station (i.e.,
wireless access point) within a radius of few tens of meters. The base station is typically connected to
the wired Internet and thus serves to connect wireless users to the wired network.

b) 3G and 4G wide-area wireless access networks. In these systems, packets are transmitted over the
same wireless infrastructure used for cellular telephony, with the base station thus being managed by a
telecommunications provider. This provides wireless access to users within a radius of tens of kilometers
of the base station. .

Suppose there is exactly one packet switch between a sending host and a receiving host. The
transmission rates between the sending host and the switch and between the switch and the receiving
host are R1 and R2, respectively. Assuming that the switch uses store-and-forward packet switching,
what is the total end-to-end delay to send a packet of length L? (Ignore queuing, propagation delay, and
processing delay.)

Answer : d(end to end) = N(L/R)

d - delay

N - Number of links

L - Number of bits in packets

R - rate

d(end to end) = (L/R1)+(L/R2)

What advantage does a circuit-switched network have over a packet-switched network?

What advantages does TDM(Time Division Multiplexing) have over FDM(Frequency Division
Multiplexing) in a circuit-switched network?

Answer : A circuit-switched network can guarantee a certain amount of end-to-end bandwidth for the
duration of a call. Most packet-switched networks today (including the Internet) cannot make any end-
to-end guarantees for bandwidth.

In a packet switched network, the packets from different sources flowing on a link do not follow any
fixed, pre-defined pattern. In TDM circuit switching, each host gets the same slot in a revolving TDM
frame.

What advantage does packet switched network have over a circuit switched one?

Answer: More efficient use of the network. Nodes in the core do not need to be aware of the
connections. Allows communication without setting up a connection.
it's simpler, more efficient, and less costly than circuit-switched network and it offers better sharing of transmission
capacity than circuit. and it's connectionless (doesn't need connection establishment).
Suppose users share a 2 Mbps link. Also suppose each user transmits continuously at 1 Mbps when
transmitting, but each user transmits only 20 percent of the time. (See the discussion of statistical
multiplexing in Section 1.3.)

a. When circuit switching is used, how many users can be supported?

b. For the remainder of this problem, suppose packet switching is used. Why will there be essentially no
queuing delay before the link if two or fewer users transmit at the same time? Why will there be a
queuing delay if three users transmit at the same time?

c. Find the probability that a given user is transmitting.

d. Suppose now there are three users. Find the probability that at any given time, all three users are
transmitting simultaneously. Find the fraction of time during which the queue grows.

Answer : a) two users can be supported because each user requires half of the bandwidth

b)Since each user requires 1Mbps when transmitting, if two or fewer users transmit simultaneously, a
maximum of 2Mbps will be required. Since the available bandwidth of the shared link is 2Mbps, there
will be no queuing delay before the link. Whereas, if three users transmit simultaneously, the bandwidth
required will be 3Mbps which is more than the available bandwidth of the shared link. In this case, there
will be queuing delay before the link.
c) Probability that a given user is transmitting = 0.2
(0.2)^3 = 0.008

d) Probability that all three users are transmitting simultaneously = 3 33 1 3 3 pp = (0.2)3 = 0.008. Since
the queue grows when all the users are transmitting, the fraction of time during which the queue grows
(which is equal to the probability that all three users are transmitting simultaneously) is 0.008.

Why will two ISPs at the same level of the hierarchy often peer with each other? How does an ISP earn
money?

Answer : If the two ISPs do not peer with each other, then when they send traffic to each other they
have to send the traffic through a provider ISP (intermediary), to which they have to pay for carrying the
traffic. By peering with each other directly, the two ISPs can reduce their payments to their provider
ISPs. An Internet Exchange Points (IXP) (typically in a standalone building with its own switches) is a
meeting point where multiple ISPs can connect and/or peer together. An ISP earns its money by
charging each of the the ISPs that connect to the IXP a relatively small fee, which may depend on the
amount of traffic sent to or received from the IXP.

Some content providers have created their own networks. Describe Google's network. What motivates
content providers to create these networks?

Answer : Google's private network connects together all its data centers, big and small. Traffic between
the Google data centers passes over its private network rather than over the public Internet. Many of
these data centers are located in, or close to, lower tier ISPs. Therefore, when Google delivers content
to a user, it often can bypass higher tier ISPs. What motivates content providers to create these
networks? First, the content provider has more control over the user experience, since it has to use few
intermediary ISPs. Second, it can save money by sending less traffic into provider networks. Third, if ISPs
decide to charge more money to

highly profitable content providers (in countries where net neutrality doesn't apply), the content
providers can avoid these extra payments.

Consider sending a packet from a source host to a destination host over a fixed route. List the delay
components in the end-to-end delay. Which of these delays are constant and which are variable?
 Answer : The delay components are processing delays, transmission delays, propagation delays, and
queuing delays. All of these delays are fixed, except for the queuing delays, which are variable

Visit the Transmission Versus Propagation Delay applet at the companion Web site. Among the rates,
propagation delay, and packet sizes available, find a combination for which the sender finishes
transmitting before the first bit of the packet reaches the receiver. Find another combination for which
the first bit of the packet reaches the receiver before the sender finishes transmitting.

Answer : a) 1000 km, 1 Mbps, 100 bytes

b) 100 km, 1 Mbps, 100 bytes

How long does it take a packet of length 1,000 bytes to propagate over a link of distance 2,500 km,
propagation speed •* 108m/s
2.5 *10^8
speed 2.5 m/s, and transmission rate 2 Mbps? More generally, how long does it take
a packet of length L to propagate over a link of distance d, propagation speed s, and transmission rate R
bps? Does this delay depend on packet length? Does this delay depend on transmission rate?

Answer : 10msec;
Propagation delay
Propagation delay
d/s; Answer : Transmission delay = L/R = 8 bits/byte * 1,000 bytes / 2,000,000 bps = 4 ms = 0.004s
Propagation delay = d/s = 2,500 / 2.5×10^5 = 10 ms = 0.01s
no; Therefore, the total time = 4ms + 10 ms = 14 ms = 0.014s
No, it doesn't depend on the packet length.
No, it doesn't also depend on the transmission rate.
no it depends on the distance and the speed

Suppose Host A wants to send a large file to Host B. The path from Host A to Host B has three links, of
rates R1 = 500 kbps, R2 = 2 Mbps, and R3 = 1 Mbps.

a. Assuming no other traffic in the network, what is the throughput for the file transfer?

b. Suppose the file is 4 million bytes. Dividing the file size by the throughput, roughly how long will it
take to transfer the file to Host B?

c. Repeat (a) and (b), but now with R2 reduced to 100 kbps.

Answer : a) 500 kbps the smallest transmission rate is the throughput >> bottleneck
 >> 500kbps >> 500*1000bit/8 = 62500 byte per second
transmission delay = L/R = 4000000/62500byte/s = 64 seconds
b) 64 seconds

c) 100kbps; 320 seconds a) the smallest transmission rate is the throughput (it's 100kbps here) >> bottleneck
b) 100kbps >> 100*1000bit/8 = 12500 byte per second
transmission delay = L/R = 4000000/12500byte/s = 320 seconds

Suppose end system A wants to send a large file to end system B. At a very high level, describe how end
system A creates packets from the file. When one of these packets arrives to a packet switch, what
information in the packet does the switch use to determine the link onto which the packet is forwarded?
Why is packet switching in the Internet analogous to driving from one city to another and asking
directions along the way?

Answer : End system A breaks the large file into chunks. It adds header to each chunk, thereby
generating multiple packets from the file. The header in each packet includes the IP address of the
destination (end system B). The packet switch uses the destination IP address in the packet to determine
the outgoing link. Asking which road to take is analogous to a packet asking which outgoing link it should
be forwarded on, given the packet's destination address.

Visit the Queuing and Loss applet at the companion Web site. What is the maximum emission rate and
the minimum transmission rate? With those rates, what is the traffic intensity? Run the applet with
these rates and deter- mine how long it takes for packet loss to occur. Then repeat the experiment a
second time and determine again how long it takes for packet loss to occur. Are the values different?
Why or why not?

Answer : The maximum emission rate is 500 packets/sec and the maximum transmission rate is 350
packets/sec. The corresponding traffic intensity is 500/350 =1.43 > 1. Loss will eventually occur for each
experiment; but the time when loss first occurs will be different from one experiment to the next due to
the randomness in the emission process.

List five tasks that a layer can perform. Is it possible that one (or more) of these tasks could be
performed by two (or more) layers?

Answer : Five generic tasks are error control, flow control, segmentation and reassembly, multiplexing,
and connection setup. Yes, these tasks can be duplicated at different layers. For example, error control
is often provided at more than one layer.
What are the five layers in the Internet protocol stack? What are the principal responsibilities of each of
these layers?

Answer : The five layers in the Internet protocol stack are - from top to bottom - the application layer,
the transport layer, the network layer, the link layer, and the physical layer. The principal responsibilities
are outlined in Section 1.5.1.

What is an application-layer message? A transport-layer segment? A network- layer datagram? A link-

layer frame?

Answer : Application-layer message: data which an application wants to send and passed onto the
transport layer; transport-layer segment: generated by the transport layer and encapsulates application-
layer message with transport layer header; network-layer datagram: encapsulates transport-layer
segment with a network-layer header; link-layer frame: encapsulates network- layer datagram with a
link-layer header.

Which layers in the Internet protocol stack does a router process? Which layers does a link-layer switch
process? Which layers does a host process?

Answer : Routers process network, link and physical layers (layers 1 through 3). (This is a little bit of a
white lie, as modern routers sometimes act as firewalls or caching components, and process Transport
layer as well.) Link layer switches process link and physical layers (layers 1 through2). Hosts process all
five layers.

What is the difference between a virus and a worm?

Answer : A virus requires some form of user interaction to infect a system.

A worm on the other hand, requires no interaction. Instead a hacker may send a piece of malware to a
vulnerable network application, and have the application run it, creating the worm.

a) Virus Requires some form of human interaction to spread. Classic example: E-mail viruses.

b) Worms No user replication needed. Worm in infected host scans IP addresses and port numbers,
looking for vulnerable processes to infect
Describe how a botnet can be created, and how it can be used for a DDoS attack.

Answer : Creation of a botnet requires an attacker to find vulnerability in some application or system
(e.g. exploiting the buffer overflow vulnerability that might exist in an application). After finding the
vulnerability, the attacker needs to scan for hosts that are vulnerable. The target is basically to
compromise a series of systems by exploiting that particular vulnerability. Any system that is part of the
botnet can automatically scan its environment and propagate by exploiting the vulnerability. An
important property of such botnets is that the originator of the botnet can remotely control and issue
commands to all the nodes in the botnet. Hence, it becomes possible for the attacker to issue a
command to all the nodes, that target a single node (for example, all nodes in the botnet might be
commanded by the attacker to send a TCP SYN message to the target, which might result in a TCP SYN
flood attack at the target).

Suppose Alice and Bob are sending packets to each other over a computer network. Suppose Trudy
positions herself in the network so that she can capture all the packets sent by Alice and send whatever
she wants to Bob; she can also capture all the packets sent by Bob and send whatever she wants to
Alice. List some of the malicious things Trudy can do from this position.

Answer : Trudy can pretend to be Bob to Alice (and vice-versa) and partially or completely modify the
message(s) being sent from Bob to Alice. For example, she can easily change the phrase "Alice, I owe
you $1000" to "Alice, I owe you $10,000". Furthermore, Trudy can even drop the packets that are being
sent by Bob to Alice (and vise-versa), even if the packets from Bob to Alice are encrypted.
Internet depends on ___
Select one:
data switching
circuit switching
packet switching
both packet switching and circuit switching

Which one of the following protocol is not used in internet?

Select one:
HTTP
FTP
DNS
None of the mentioned

forwarding: move packets from router’s input to appropriate router output

Select one:
True
False

define format, order of messages sent and received among network entities, and actions taken on
message transmission and receipt is not the definition of the protocol
Select One:
True
False
Router can be called (End system)
Select one:
True
False

Wireless transmission can be done via ___

Select one:
radio waves
microwaves
bluetooth
all of the mentioned

The functionalities of presentation layer includes___

Select one:
Data compression
Data encryption
Data description
All of the mentioned

Which transmission media has the highest transmission speed in a network?

Select one:
electrical cable
coaxial cable
fiber optic
twisted pair cable
To join the internet, the computer has to be connected to a ____
Select one:
internet architecture board
internet society
different computer
internet service provider

The number of layers in Internet protocol stack ___

Select one:
5 layers
7 layers
6 layers
None of the mentioned