FLUID

MECHANICS
Fluids
■ is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged and
held together by weak cohesive forces and by forces
exerted by the walls of a container
■ a substance that has no fixed shape and yields easily to
external pressure
■ Both liquids and gases are fluids.
FLUID STATICS
FLUIDS AT REST
Density
▪ mass density
𝒎
𝝆=
𝑽
➢ units: kg/m3 (SI); g/cm3 (cgs)
▪ weight density
𝑾
𝑫=
𝑽
➢ units: N/m3 (SI); dynes/cm3 (cgs); lb/ft3 (English)
■ 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3
Serway, R. A., Jewett, J. W., & Serway, R. A. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Belmont, CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole.
Specific Gravity
■ is the ratio of its density to the density of some standard
substance
➢ The standard is usually water at 4°C (for solids and
liquids), while for gases, usually air.
➢ The density of water at 4°C (3.98°C) is 1000 kg/m3
𝝆𝒙
𝒔. 𝒈. =
𝝆𝑯𝟐 𝟎
■ a.k.a relative density of water
■ is a dimensionless quantity
Pressure
■ is the ratio of a force F to the area A over which it is applied

Force F
Pressure = ; P=
Area A
Fluid Pressure
■ Fluids do not sustain shearing stresses or
tensile stresses; thus, the only stress that can be
exerted on an object submerged in a static fluid
is one that tends to compress the object from all
sides.
■ In other words, the force exerted by a static
fluid on an object is always perpendicular to the Serway, R. A., Jewett, J. W., & Serway,

surfaces of the object. R. A. (2004). Physics for Scientists

and Engineers. Belmont, CA:
Thomson-Brooks/Cole.
Pressure vs Depth in Fluid
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
𝑚𝑔
𝑃=
𝐴
𝜌𝑉𝑔
𝑃=
𝐴
𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
𝑃=
𝐴
𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉
▪ Pressure at any point in a fluid is directly proportional to
the density of the fluid and to the depth in the fluid.
Independence of Shape & Area
■ Water seeks its own level, indicating that fluid pressure is
independent of area and shape of its container.
■ At any depth h below the surface of the water in any
column, the pressure P is the same. The shape and area are
not factors.

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Properties of Fluid Pressure

■ The forces exerted by a fluid on the walls of its container

are always perpendicular.
■ The fluid pressure is directly proportional to the depth of
the fluid and to its density.
■ At any particular depth, the fluid pressure is the same in all
directions.
■ Fluid pressure is independent of the shape or area of its
container.
Atmospheric Pressure
■ One way to measure atmospheric pressure is to fill a test tube with
mercury, then invert it into a bowl of mercury.

Density of Hg = 13,600 kg/m3

Patm = rgh h = 0.760 m

Patm = (13,600 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(0.760 m)

Patm = 101,300 Pa
Absolute Pressure
■ Absolute Pressure: The sum of the pressure due to a fluid
and the pressure due to atmosphere.
■ Gauge Pressure: The difference between the absolute
pressure and the pressure due to the atmosphere.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + 1 atm

1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi
Pascal’s Principle
“A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid
is transmitted undiminished to every point of the
fluid and to the walls of the container.”

– First recognized by Blaise Pascal, a French

scientist (1623 – 1662)
Pascal’s Principle
■ The hydraulic press is an important

application of Pascal’s Principle

■ Also used in hydraulic brakes, forklifts,

car lifts, etc.

Archimedes' Principle
“Any object completely or partially
submerged in a fluid experiences an
upward buoyant force whose magnitude
is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.”
𝑭𝑩 = 𝑾𝑫𝑭
■ It also follows that the volume of the
displaced fluid is equal to the volume
of the submerged object.
Buoyant Force
■ whether an object sinks or float depends upon the relationship
between the buoyant force and the weight of the object
■ The object’s composition is not a factor in the buoyant force because
the buoyant force is exerted by the fluid.
Calculating Buoyant Force
■ The buoyant force FB is due to the difference of
pressure ΔP between the top and bottom surfaces
of the submerged block.
𝐹𝐵
∆𝑃 = = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝐴
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐴(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐴(𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ1 )
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝐴(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑭𝑩 = 𝝆𝒇 𝒈𝑽𝑫𝑭
Archimedes’ Principle: Floating Object
■ The object is in static equilibrium
■ The upward buoyant force is balanced by the
downward force of gravity
■ Volume of the fluid displaced corresponds to
the volume of the object beneath the fluid level
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑉𝐷𝐹 ; 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑥 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑥 𝑉𝑥 𝑔
𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑉𝐷𝐹 = 𝜌𝑥 𝑉𝑥 𝑔
𝝆𝒙 𝑽𝑫𝑭
=
𝝆𝒇 𝑽𝒙
■ the fraction of the volume of a floating object
that is below the fluid surface is equal to the
ratio of the density of the object to that of the
fluid
Archimedes’ Principle: Totally
Submerged Object
■ Examine the darker region
– It has a cross-sectional area A
– Extends to a depth h below the surface
■ Three external forces act on the region
■ The upward buoyant force is
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓𝑉𝑥𝑔
■ The downward gravitational force is
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑥 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑥𝑉𝑥𝑔
■ The net force is
𝑭𝑩 − 𝑾 = (𝝆𝒇 − 𝝆𝒙)𝑽𝒙𝒈
Totally Submerged Object
If the object is less dense than If the object is more dense than
the fluid, the object experiences the fluid, the object experiences
a net upward force a net downward force
Apparent Loss of Weight
• Weight is equal to the magnitude of force of
gravity that acts on an object.
• When an object is immersed partly or
completely in any liquid then there is an
apparent loss in weight due to buoyant force or
upward thrust exerted by that liquid in which it
is immersed.
• Buoyant force is that which causes objects to
float. It is caused due to the differences in
pressure acting on opposite sides of the object
that is immersed in liquid.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A cylinder of brass 6 cm high and 4 cm2 in cross-sectional area is suspended in water by means of a string so
that its upper surface is 7cm below the surface of the water. Determine:
a. the force acting on top of the cylinder
b. the force acting on the bottom of the cylinder
c. the buoyant force acting on this cylinder
d. compare this buoyant force with the weight of the displaced water 7 cm

Solution:
a. force on top of the cylinder c. buoyant force 6 cm
𝐹1 = 𝑃1 𝐴 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹1
𝐹1 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 𝐴 𝐹𝐵 = 50 960 − 27 440
𝐹1 = (1)(980)(7)(4) 𝑭𝑩 = 𝟐𝟑 𝟓𝟐𝟎 𝐝𝐲𝐧𝐞𝐬
𝐹𝐵
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟐𝟕 𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝐝𝐲𝐧𝐞𝐬

b. force at the bottom of the cylinder d. weight of the displaced fluid

𝐹2 = 𝑃2 𝐴 𝑊𝐷𝐹 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑜 𝑔
𝐹2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 𝐴 𝑊𝐷𝐹 = (1)(4)(6)(980)
𝐹2 = (1)(980)(13)(4) 𝑾𝑫𝑭 = 𝟐𝟑 𝟓𝟐𝟎 𝐝𝐲𝐧𝐞𝐬
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎 𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝐝𝐲𝐧𝐞𝐬
Hence, the buoyant force is equal to
the weight of the displaced fluid.
2. The cross-sectional area of the smaller piston 3. The hydraulic press in example 2 is now filled
of a hydraulic press is 129 cm2 while the area of with oil to a height of 8 m, calculate the new
the larger piston is 2580 cm2 . Calculate the force force needed at the smaller piston.
to be applied at the smaller piston if the larger
piston is to overcome a force of 20 kN.

𝐴2 = 2580 cm2
𝐹2 = 20 kN
𝐴1 = 129 cm2 h=8m oil
𝐹1 = ?

𝑃1 = 𝑃2
Solution by Pascal’s Principle:
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 𝐹1 𝐹2
= + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐴1 𝐴2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐹1 20 000 N 3 9.8 m/s 2 8 m
𝐹1 20 kN = + 800 kg/m
2
= 0.0129 m2 0.258 m2
129cm 2580cm2
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟏 𝐤𝐍 𝑭𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏 𝐤𝐍
4. Find the volume of copper which has a mass of 400 g if the specific gravity of copper is 8.9.
• specific gravity: • density:
𝜌𝐶𝑢 𝑚
𝑠. 𝑔. = 𝜌=
𝜌𝐻20 𝑉
𝜌𝐶𝑢 400 𝑔
8.9 = 8.9 =
1 g/cm3 𝑉
𝑉 = 44.94cm3
𝜌𝐶𝑢 = 8.9 g/cm3

5. A wooden block in the form of a cube 20 cm on the edge is submerged to ¾ of its volume in water. Find:
a. the weight of the block
b. the specific gravity of the block

a. weight of the block b. specific gravity of the cube

𝜌𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑉𝐷𝐹
𝑊𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 𝑊𝐷𝐹 = 𝜌𝐹 𝑉𝐷𝐹 𝑔 𝑠. 𝑔. = =
𝜌𝐻20 𝑉𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝑊𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 1 980 6 000 6000
𝑠. 𝑔. =
𝑾𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒆 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐝𝐲𝐧𝐞𝐬 8000
𝑉𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 𝑠3 = 20 3 =8 000cm3
𝒔. 𝒈. = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓
3 3 3 3
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 = 𝑠 = 20 = 6 000cm3
4 4
6. A solid weighs 100 grams in air, 60 grams when immersed in water, and 80 grams when immersed in oil. Find:
a. the density of the solid
b. the density of oil

Solution:
a. density of the solid b. density of oil
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑙
• apparent loss of weight when submerged in water: 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑚𝐻20 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝜌𝐻20 = 100 − 80
𝑉𝐷𝐹 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
100 − 60 40
1= 𝝆𝒐𝒊𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐠/𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝑉𝐷𝐹
𝑉𝐷𝐹 = 40 cm3 --- equal to the volume of the object
• hence,
𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
100
𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
40
𝝆𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝐠/𝒄𝒎𝟑
 FLUID
DYNAMICS
FLUIDS IN MOTION
Fluids in Motion

All fluids are assumed in this

treatment to exhibit streamline
(steady/laminar) flow.

Streamline flow is the motion of a fluid in

which every particle in the fluid follows the
same path past a particular point as that
followed by previous particles.
Assumptions for Ideal Fluid Flow
1. The fluid is nonviscous. In a nonviscous fluid, internal friction is neglected. An
object moving through the fluid experiences no viscous force.
2. The flow is steady. In steady (laminar) flow, the velocity of the fluid at each point
remains constant.
3. The fluid is incompressible. The density of an incompressible fluid is constant.
4. The flow is irrotational. In irrotational flow, the fluid has no angular momentum
about any point. If a small paddle wheel placed anywhere in the fluid does not
rotate about the wheel’s center of mass, then the flow is irrotational.

Streamline flow Turbulent flow

Rate of Flow, R
■ is defined as the volume V of a fluid that passes a
certain cross-section A per unit of time t
𝑽
𝑹=
𝒕
■ The volume V of fluid is given by the product of
area A and vt
𝑽 = 𝑨𝒗𝒕
■ Hence, the rate of flow is:
𝐴𝑣𝑡
𝑅=
𝑡
𝑹 = 𝑨𝒗
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/flow-rate-and-its-relation-to-velocity/
Equation of Continuity
■ the product of the area and the fluid speed at all points along a pipe is constant for
an incompressible fluid.
■ that is, the velocity increases when the cross-section decreases

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/chapter/flow-rate-and-its-relation-to-velocity/

𝑹 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Work on a Fluid
v2 F2 = P2A2 Net work done on a
fluid is the sum of
A2 work done by input
v1
F1 = P1A1 force F1 less the
A1 s2 h2 work done by
h1 s1 resisting force F2, as
shown in figure.

Net Work = P1V - P2V = (P1 - P2) V

Bernoulli’s Equation
■ The work done on a unit volume of fluid by the
surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of the changes in
kinetic and potential energies per unit volume that occur
during the flow.

P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v12 = Const

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟏 + 𝝆𝒗𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟐 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
Bernoulli’s Theorem (Horizontal Pipe)
P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v12 = P2 + r gh2 + ½ r v22

Horizontal Pipe (h1 = h2)

P1 − P2 = ½ r v22 − ½ r v12

Now, since the difference in pressure DP = rgh,

Horizontal
DP = r gh = ½ r v22 − ½ r v12
Pipe
Bernoulli’s Theorem (Fluids at Rest)

For many situations, the fluid remains at rest so that v1 and v2 are
zero. In such cases we have:
P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v = P2 + r gh2 + ½ r v
2
1
2
2

P1 - P2 = rgh2 - rgh1 DP = rg(h2 - h1)

This is the same relation seen earlier for finding the pressure P at
a given depth ℎ = (ℎ2 − ℎ1) in a fluid.
The Venturi Meter
■ is a flow measurement instrument which uses a converging section of
pipe to give an increase in the flow velocity and a corresponding
pressure drop from which the flowrate can be deduced

A C
B
PA - PB = rgh
Torricelli’s Theorem

v2  0

h2 h
v = 2 gh
h1
Torricelli’s Theorem

v = 2 gh

• Discharge velocity increases with depth.

• Maximum range is in the middle. v

• Holes equidistant above and below midpoint will v
have same horizontal range. v
Viscosity, η
■ The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate.
■ For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example,
syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
■ The SI unit of viscosity is the Pascal-second [Pa-s]
■ The most common unit of viscosity is the dyne-second per square centimeter
[dyne-s/𝐜𝐦𝟐 ], which is given the name poise [P] after the French physiologist Jean
Poiseuille (1799–1869)
– 1 Pa-s = 10 P
– 1000 mPa-s = 10 P
– 1 mPa-s = 0.01 P
– 1 mPa-s = 1 cP
Poiseuille’s Law
■ a description of the pressure of a fluid as it travels through
a cylindrical pipe of radius r and length L; the rate of flow is
given by:
𝝅𝒓𝟒 (𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐 )
𝑱=
𝟖𝜼𝑳
– where: Pi – Po is the pressure difference between the two
ends of the pipe
■ Resistance to flow:
𝟖𝜼𝑳
𝑹=
𝝅𝒓𝟒
Reynold’s Number, 𝑵𝑹
■ is a dimensionless number that applies to a fluid of viscosity η and
density ρ flowing with speed v through a pipe (or past an obstacle)
with diameter d:
𝝆𝒗𝒅
𝑵𝑹 =
𝜼

■ For systems of the same geometry, flows will be similar provided

their Reynolds numbers are close.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Water flows through a tube of varying cross section and varying elevation at the rate of 22.2
m3 /min. At one section of the pipe 3 m from the ground, the radius of the pipe is 36 cm and the
pressure is 120 kPa. What is the pressure at a section where the radius of the pipe is 18 cm and is
0.7 m from the ground level?
Solution:
m3 1 min Solve for the velocities:
𝑅 = 22.2 x = 0.37 m3 /s 𝑅 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 𝑅 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
min 60 s
0.37 = 𝜋(0.36)2 𝑣1 0.37 = 𝜋(0.18)2 𝑣2
Section 1 Section 2
𝑣1 = 0.91 m/s 𝑣2 = 3.64 m/s
h 3m 0.7 m
r 36 cm 18 cm
v ? ?
P 120 kPa ?

▪ By Bernoulli’s Equation:
1 2 1 2
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣2
2 2
1 1
120000 + (1000)(9.8)(3) + (1000) 0.91 2 = 𝑃2 + (1000)(9.8)(0.7) + (1000)(3.64)2
2 2
149814.05 = 𝑃2 + 13484.8
𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔. 𝟑𝟑 𝐤𝐏𝐚
2. Water flowing at 4 m/s passes through a Venturi tube. If h = 12 cm, what is the velocity of the
water in the constriction?
Solution:
▪ Note that a Venturi tube is a horizontal pipe,
1
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝜌 𝑣22 − 𝑣12
2
9.8 0.12 = 0.5 𝑣22 − 42
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟖 𝐦/𝐬
3. A cylindrical water tank is 6 m high and full of water. An orifice 1 m from the top is opened. How
far from the bottom of the tank will the jet strike the ground?
Solution:
▪ By Toricelli’s Theorem,
𝑣 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣 = 2(9.8)(1)
𝑣 = 4.43 m/s
▪ By Projectile Motion,
1 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖𝑥 𝑡
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑖𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2 𝑥 = (4.43 cos 0°)(1.01)
−5 = 4.43 sin 0° 𝑡 + (0.5)(−9.8)𝑡 2 𝒙 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟕 𝐦
𝑡 = 1.01 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠
4. Find the maximum amount of water that can flow through a 3 cm internal diameter pipe per
minute without turbulence. Take the maximum Reynold’s number for non turbulent flow to be
2000. For water at 20◦C, viscosity is 1.0 x 10-3 Pa-s.
Solution:
𝑉
= 𝑅 = 𝐴𝑣 =?
𝑡
▪ solving for the velocity:
𝜌𝑣𝑑
𝑁𝑅 =
η
1000 𝑣(0.03)
2000 =
1.0 x 10−3
𝑣 = 0.067 m/s
▪ solving for the rate of flow:
𝑅 = 𝐴𝑣
𝜋
𝑅 = 0.03 2 (0.067)
4
m 3 60 s
𝑅 = 4.712 x 10−5 x
s 1 min
𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐦𝟑 /𝐦𝐢𝐧
References
■ https://www.slideserve.com/dorjan/chapter-15a-fluids-at-rest
■ https://onebyzeroelectronics.blogspot.com/2015/10/what-is-buoyant-force.html
■ https://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/topics/forces/pressure_in_fluiids.htm
■ https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/collegephysics/chapter/flow-rate-and-its-
relation-to-velocity/
■ Serway, R. A., Jewett, J. W., & Serway, R. A. (2004). Physics for Scientists and
Engineers. Belmont, CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole.
Try These:
1. A solid which has density of 3.7 g/cm3 has a cavity inside. When it is
weighed in air, it is found to have a mass of 322 g and when weighed
in water, its mass appears to be 150 g. What is the volume of the
hidden cavity?
2. For the system shown, the cylinder of the left, at L, has a mass of 600
kg and a cross-sectional area of 800 cm2. The piston on the right, at
S, has a cross sectional area of 25 cm2 and a negligible weight. If the
apparatus is filled with oil with density of 0.78 g/cm3, find the force
F required to hold the system in equilibrium.
Try These:
3. A pipe has a diameter of 16 cm at section 1 and 10 cm at section 2.
At section 1 the pressure is 200 kPa. Point 2 is 6 m higher than point
1. When oil of density 800 kg/m3 flows at the rate of 0.030 m3/s,
find the pressure at point 2 if viscous effects are negligible.
4. (a) Calculate the absolute pressure at an ocean depth of 1000 m.
Assume the density of seawater is 1024 kg/m3 and that the air
above exerts a pressure of 101.3 kPa. (b) At this depth, what force
must the frame around a circular submarine porthole having a
diameter of 30.0 cm exert to counterbalance the force exerted by the
water?
5. The mass of a block of aluminum is 50 g. What will be the tension in
the string that suspends the block when the block is totally
submerged in water? The density of aluminum is 2700 kg/m3.