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2.0 Signal Transmission

Signal Readout Element • There is a necessity in many measurement systems to
transmit measurement signals from the point of
measurement to the place where the signals are
recorded, stored and/or used in a process control
system.
• Signals can be transmitted electrically, pneumatically,
optically, or by radio-telemetry, in either analogue or
digital format

Advantages of Digital Transmission

Analog Transmission Digital Transmission • Digital technology

– Low cost LSI/VLSI technology
• Analog signal transmitted • Concerned with content
• Data integrity
without regard to content • Integrity endangered by
– Longer distances over lower quality lines
noise, attenuation etc.
• May be analog or digital data • Capacity utilization
• Repeaters are used
• Attenuated over distance – High bandwidth links economical
• Repeater receives – High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques
• Use amplifiers to boost signal signal
• Security & Privacy
• Also amplifies noise • Extracts bit pattern – Encryption
• Retransmits • Integration
• Attenuation is overcome – Can treat analog and digital data similarly
• Noise is not amplified

2.1 Electrical transmission ii. Current loop transmission

• uses currents in the range between
4 mA and 20 mA to represent the
i. Varying voltage voltage level of the analogue signal.
ii. Varying current • It requires a voltage-to-current
iii. superimposed on an ac carrier system converter commonly known as a 4–
20 mA current loop interface
i. Transmission as varying voltages • Two voltage-controlled current
sources are used: constant 4 mA
• Most measurement signals already exist as varying analogue
output that is used as the power
voltages, and can be transmitted easily in the same form
supply current and a variable 0 – 16
• Signal amplification prior to transmission is essential to obtain a
mA . The net output therefore varies
reasonable signal-to-noise ratio after transmission. Amplification at
between 4 mA and 20 mA,
the input to the transmission system is also required to compensate
corresponding to analogue signal
for the attenuation of the signal that results from the resistance of
levels between zero and the
the signal wires
maximum value.
• Shielding of the signal transmission wires is required to provide a
• Current-to-voltage conversion is
high degree of noise protection, especially against capacitive-
required at the termination of the
induced noise due to the proximity of signal wires to high-current
transmission line to change the
power conductors. Shielding consists of surrounding the signal
transmitted currents back to
wires in a cable with a metal shield that is connected to earth.
voltages. An operational amplifier
connected as shown is suitable for

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iii. Transmission using an a.c. carrier

2.2 Pneumatic transmission
• Transferring the signal onto an a.c. carrier system before
transmission and extract it from the carrier at the end of the
• consists of transmitting analogue signals as a varying pneumatic
transmission line. pressure level that is usually in the range of 200 – 1000 mbar.
• Amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) can be • The initial signal is usually in the form of a varying voltage level that is
used for this
converted into a corresponding pneumatic pressure.
• AM consists of translating the varying voltage signal into variations
• However, the signal can be in varying current form to start with, and a
in the amplitude of a carrier sine wave at a frequency of several kHz.
current to pressure converter is used to convert the 4 – 20 mA current
• FM involves translating variations in an analogue voltage signal into
signals into pneumatic signals prior to transmission.
frequency variations in a high-frequency carrier signal.
• Advantage: safe and noise levels as current loop transmission
• Disadvantage: Slow; temperature gradient may introduce noise as
pneumatic pressures varies with temp.

2.3 Fiber-optic transmission Ways of fibre-optic cables signal transmission :

Types of fibre otic i. relatively short fibre-optic cables to transmit light from
cables conventional sensors
• Monomode cable : ii. longer fibre-optic cables are used to connect remote
diam. Core – 6μm instruments to controllers in instrumentation networks.
• Multimode: 50μm iii. even longer links are used for data transmission
– 200μm
systems in telephone and computer networks.
receiver: PIN diode;
Transmitter: LED Digital Phototransistor;
photodiode Multiplexing
signal
• switching the analogue signals in turn, in a synchronized
sequential manner, into an analogue-to-digital converter that
Proportion of light entering transmitter outputs onto the transmission line
depends on: • At the other end of the transmission line, a digital-to-analogue
i. Quality of end face & how it is Receiver requires converter transforms the digital signal back into analogue form
bonded to transmitter amplification and it is then switched in turn onto separate analogue signal
ii. proper alignment of transmitter lines.
with center of the cable
• Used when there is need to transmit more than one signal

2.5 Radio telemetry (radio wireless transmission)

2.4 Optical wireless telemetry
• Uses radio waves (FM) to transmit data over long distances of up
• Wireless telemetry uses either radio or light waves to carry the
to 1000km
transmitted signal across a plain air path between a transmitter and a
• The transmission involves low level of frequency modulation –
receiver
usually referred to as FM/FM system
• Optical wireless transmission consists of a light source (IR) transmitting
encoded data information across an open, unprotected air path to a light
detector
• Three distinct modes of optical telemetry:
i. Point-to-point telemetry: uses a narrowly focused, fine beam of
light, commonly used for transmission between adjacent
buildings.
• speed of 5 Mbit/s at 1000 m dist and 20 Mbit/s at 200 m
ii. Directed telemetry: transmits a slightly divergent beam of light
that is directed towards reflective surfaces, s.a walls and
ceilings
• transmission rate of 1 Mbit/s at 70 m and 10 Mbit/s fat
20m
iii. Diffuse telemetry: used more divergent beam than directed
telemetry (wider area of coverage but reduces low spedd and
range.
• maximum range of 20 m, - 500 kbit/s, and 2 Mbit/s at 10 m.

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• A voltage-to-frequency converter is used in the first FM stage to

convert each analogue voltage signal into a varying frequency around • The signal is received by an antenna of identical length some
the centre frequency of the subcarrier assigned for that channel. distance away.
• The 18 channels are then mixed into a single signal spanning the • A frequency divider converts the signal back to one across the
frequency range 0.4 kHz to 70 kHz. 0.4 kHz to 70 kHz subcarrier frequency spectrum,
• For transmission, the length of the antenna has to be one-quarter or • A series of band-pass filters are then applied to extract the 18
one-half of the wavelength. separate frequency bands containing the measurement data.
• At 10 kHz, which is a typical subcarrier frequency in an 18-channel • Finally, a demodulator is applied to each channel to return
system, the wavelength is 30 km.
each signal into varying voltage form.
• Hence, an antenna for transmission at this frequency at least 7.5 Km!
• In consequence, a second FM stage is used to translate the 0.4 kHz • The inaccuracy of radio telemetry is typically ±1%.
to 70 kHz signal into the radio frequency range as modulations on a • Thus, measurement uncertainty in transmitting a temperature
typical carrier frequency of 217.5 MHz (λ = 1.38 m; transmission measurement signal with a range of 0 – 100°C over one
antenae – 0.345 - 0.69 m) channel would be š1%, i.e. ±1°C. However, if there are unused
transmission channels
• available, the signal could be divided into two ranges (0 –
50°C and 50 – 100°C) and transmitted over two channels,
reducing the measurement uncertainty to ±0.5°C. By using ten
channels for one variable, a maximum measurement
uncertainty of ±0.1°C could be achieved

2.1 Display of measurement signals

• If the information about the measured quantity is to be

communicated to a human being for monitoring, control, or
analysis purposes, it must be put into a form recognizable by
Signal display, recording, one of the human senses.
• The element that performs this “translation" function - data-
presentation and storage presentation element.
• This function includes the simple indication of a pointer
moving over a scale and the recording of a pen moving over
a chart,
• Indication and recording also may be performed in discrete
increments (rather than smoothly),
• While the majority of instruments communicate with people
through the visual sense, the use of other senses such as
hearing and touch is certainly conceivable.
16

ii. Electronic output displays

Measurements in a form varying voltage can displayed by:
i. Cathode ray oscilloscope:
ii. Digital storage oscilloscope
• Electronic output units usually consist of a number of side-by-
iii. Electrical meters
side cells, where each cell displays one character.
• These accept either serial or parallel digital input signals, and
When the signal are in digital form, they can be the input format can be either binary-coded decimal (BCD) or
displayed by: ASCII.
• Technologies used: light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or liquid-
crystal elements.
i. Computer monitor displays

• Computers provide a cheap and highly reliable excellent

mechanism for both displaying and storing information.
• They can be used to display plant variable and status
data, plant layout diagrams, process flow layouts, real-
time Graphical displays of the behaviour of a measured
Character formats used in electronic displays: (a) seven-segment; (b) 7 x 5 dot
variable etc. matrix.

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Display Systems 2.2 Measurement data recording

• Although data storage in the form of pen/ink recording is
• Analogue meter often employed, some applications require a distinct data
• Digital meter storage/playback function which can easily re-create the
– Simplest system - pointer
– Best when numerical stored data upon command.
and scale.
value required • The magnetic tape recorder/reproducer is the classical
– Use for at a glance readings – Compare the use of a example here. However, many recent instruments digitize
– Use for monitoring limits - vernier calliper with a the electric signals and store them in a computer like
use colours similar device with a digital digital memory.
– Use for tuning to maximum
display. • Chart recorder - plots a signal against time
or minimum preset limits. – Don't assume that • Various types
resolution = accuracy
– Cheaper than digital - but – pen and paper
– The input signal may need
less so all the time as to be amplified or reduced
electronics become cheaper.
– pressure stylus and pressure sensitive paper
to give a direct reading
– The input signal may need • Note: Analogue and digital – UV recorder ultra-violet light deflected by mirror onto
to be amplified or reduced to direct reading meters are light sensitive paper.
give a direct reading suitable only for signals – Fibre optic recorders - fibre optics direct light from a
varying in times > 0.1s - why? fluorescent screen onto light sensitive paper.
– Can follow the direction of
changes easily
19 20

Potentionometric recorders
Potentiometric recorders have much better specifications than
galvanometric recorders, with a typical inaccuracy of ±0.1% of full
scale and measurement resolution of 0.2% f.s. being achievable.
i. Mechanical chart recorders : galvanometric,
potentiometric, circular chart recorders

Circular chart
recorders

Simple galvanometric recorder. Knife edge galvanometric recorder.

ii. Ultra-violet recorders

iii. Fibre-optic recorders (recording oscilloscopes)
• This is mirror-galvanometer system
• this mirror reflects a beam of ultra-violet light onto • uses a fibre-optic system to direct light onto light-sensitive paper.
ultra-violet sensitive paper. • they have an electron gun and focusing system that directs a stream
of electrons onto one point on a fluorescent screen, and for this
reason they are alternatively known as recording oscilloscopes

iv. Hybrid chart recorders

• Basically consist of a potentiometric chart recorder with an added

microprocessor.
• The micro-processor provides for selection of range and chart speed,
and also allows specification of alarm modes and levels to detect when
measured variables go outside acceptable limits.
• Additional information can also be printed on charts, such as names,
times and dates of variables recorded.
• Microprocessor-based, hybrid versions of circular chart recorders also
now exist.

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v. Magnetic tape recorders

• Instrumentation tape recorders typically have between four • Magnetic recording

and ten channels, allowing many signals to be recorded – The same process as is used for recording audio
simultaneously. and video signals.
• The two basic types of analogue tape recording technique are
direct recording and frequency-modulated recording. – Standard audio-tape recording used to be used
• Direct recording offers the best data bandwidth but the for data storage with computers (early BBCs,
accuracy of signal amplitude recording is quite poor, and this SPECTRUMs)
seriously limits its usefulness – Can be used for very fast data storage - up to
• The frequency-modulated technique offers better amplitude- 10MHz.
recording accuracy, with a typical inaccuracy of ±5% at signal
frequencies of 80 kHz.
– The maximum frequency recordable is related to
• In consequence, this technique is very much more common the cost of the system.
than direct recording. – Can be used to store data at high speed and
replay at much lower speeds.

A.SZUDER 26

vi. Digital recorders vii. Computers for recording and display

• Until recently, the process of recording data digitally was • The signal can be downloaded into a computer
carried out by standard computer equipment equipped with • It can be displayed and recorded in a variety of
the necessary analogue interface boards etc., and the forms - very flexible
process was known as data-logging. • Output may be recorded/displayed using
• More recently, purpose-designed digital recorders have – VDU (visual display unit)
become available for this purpose. – Plotter
• Digital recorders are usually multi-channel, and are – Printer
available from many suppliers. – Magnetic media - e.g. floppy disks, hard
• Typically, a 10-bit A – D converter is used, which gives a disks, tapes.
0.1% measurement resolution. Alternatively, a 12-bit – Computer memory
converter gives 0.025% resolution. – Optical media (CD ROM)
• Specifications typically quoted for digital recorders are
frequency response of 25 kHz, maximum sampling
frequency of 200 MHz and data storage up to 4000 data
points per channel. 28

Hard Drive Cantilever Hard Drives

• The read-write head is at the end of a cantilever.

This control problem is a remarkable feat of
engineering.

29 30

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viii. Storage oscilloscope

2.3.0 Presentation of data
• Storage oscilloscopes exist in both analogue and digital forms
• An analogue storage oscilloscope is a conventional oscilloscope with a
special phosphorescent coating on its screen that allows it to ‘hold’ a
trace for up to one hour. This can be photographed if a permanent record 1. Paper presentation : tabular, graphical (image)
of the measured signal is required. 2. Computer screen presentation: tabular, graphical
• The digital storage oscilloscope (digital oscillo-scope), is merely a (image)
conventional analogue oscilloscope that has digital storage capabili-ties.
• The input analogue measurement signal is converted to digital form by
and stored in memory as a record of the amplitude/time history of the
2.3.1 Tabular data presentation
measured signal.
• Subsequently, the digital signal is converted back into an analogue signal
• tabular presentation allows data values to be recorded in
that has the same amplitude/time characteristics as the original signal,
that can be displayed without ‘flicker’ a precise way that exactly maintains the accuracy to which
• Advantages: storage and real-time display; can compute many wave the data values were measured.
form parameters, • Besides recording the raw data values as measured,
tables often also contain further values calculated from the
raw data.

Table 1 Sample tabular presentation of data

2.3.2 Graphical presentation of data

• Presentation of data in graphical form involves some

compromise in the accuracy to which the data are recorded,
as the exact values of measurements are lost.
• However, graphical presentation has important advantages
over tabular presentation.
i. Graphs provide a pictorial representation of results that is more
readily compre-hended than a set of tabular results.
ii. Graphs are particularly useful for expressing the quantitative
significance of results and showing whether a linear relationship
exists between two variables.
iii. Graphs can sometimes show up a data point that is clearly outside
the straight line or curve that seems to fit the rest of the data points
(probably due either to a human mistake in reading an instrument or
else to a momentary malfunction in the measuring instrument itself).
If the graph shows such a data point, repeat that particular
measurement and then discard the original data point if the mistake
or malfunction is confirmed.

Fitting curves to data points on a graph

• Any line between the data points is mathematically

acceptable as a graphical representation of the data if the
maximum deviation of any data point from the line is within
the boundaries of the identified level of possible
measurement errors.
• However, within the range of possible lines that could be
drawn, only one will be the optimum one.
• This optimum line is where the sum of negative errors in data
points on one side of the line is balanced by the sum of
positive errors in data points on the other side of the line.
• The nature of the data points is often such that a perfectly
acceptable approximation to the optimum can be obtained by
drawing a line through the data points by eye. I
Fig. 2 Sample graphical presentation of data: graph of stress against • n other cases, however, it is necessary to fit a line
strain. mathematically, using regression techniques.

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Quadratic least squares regression

Linear least squares regression
• If a linear relationship between y and x exists for a set
• Quadratic least squares regression is used to estimate the
ofnmeasurements y1. ..yn, x1. ..xn, then this relationship can be
parameters of a relationship y = a + bx + cx2 between two sets of
expressed as y = a + bx, where the coefficients a and b are
measurements y1...yn, x1.. .xn.
constants.
• The deviation of each point xi,yi from the line can be expressed as
• The purpose of least squares regression is to select the optimum
di, where di = yi (a+bxi +cxi)2
values f or a and b such that the line gives the best fit to the
• The best-fit line is obtained when the sum of the squared deviations
measurement data.
S, is a minimum, i.e. when
• The deviation of each pointxi,y from the line can be expressed as
di,where di = yi (a+ bxi)
• The best-fit line is obtained when the sum of the squared
deviations,S, is a minimum, i.e. when
is a minimum.
• The minimum can be found by setting the partial derivatives ∂S/∂a,
is a minimum ∂S/∂b and ∂S/∂c to zero and solving the resulting simultaneous
equations, as for the linear least squares regression case above.
• Standard computer programs to estimate the parameters a, b and c
The minimum can be found by setting the partial derivatives ∂S/∂a and by numerical methods are widely available
∂S/∂b to zero and solving the resulting two simultaneous (normal)
equations:

Polynomial least squares regression Confidence tests in curve fitting by least squares
regression
• Polynomial least squares regression is used to estimate the parameters • the level of confidence that the mathematical relationship fitted is correct
of the pth order relationship y = a0+a1x + a2x 2 + --- +apxp between must be expressed in some way.
two sets of measurements y1...yn, x1... xn. i. Check whether the fundamental requirement for the validity of
• The deviation of each point xi,yi from the line can be expressed asdi, regression techniques is satisfied, i.e. whether the deviations of
where: data points from the fitted line are all less than the maximum error
level predicted for the measured variable. If this condition is
violated by any data point that a line or curve has been fitted to,
The best-fit line is obtained when the sum of the squared deviations then use of the fitted relationship is unsafe and recourse must be
given by made to tabular data presentation.
ii. The second check concerns whether or not random errors affect
both measured variables
is a minimum
Correlation tests
Where both variables in a measurement data set are subject to random
fluctuations, correlation analysis is applied to determine the degree of
association between the variables

Data:
• A representation of phenomena, facts, concepts, or
Data instructions in a formalized manner suitable for
communication, interpretation, or processing by
human beings or by automatic means
1.Text
• Analog data take on all possible values. Voice and
2. Image video are continuously varying patterns of intensity
3. Sound • Digital data take on finite (countable) number of values.
Example, ASCII characters, integers
4. Smell
5. Taste
Information:
6. Emotions • The meaning that is currently assigned to data by
means of the conventions applied to those data
"Knowledge may give weight, but accomplishments
give lustre, and many more people see than weigh."
- Earl of Chesterfield

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Data Acquisition System Functions of Data Acquisition System

Block Diagram
A data acquisition system consists of many components
that are integrated to:

i. Sense physical variables (use of transducers)

ii. Condition the electrical signal to make it readable by an
A/D board
iii. Convert the signal into a digital format acceptable by a
computer
iv. Process, analyze, store, and display the acquired data with
the help of software

1. Sensors/Transducers 3. Analog to Digital (A/D) Converter

Sense physical phenomena and translate it into electric
signals.
Examples: Things to consider:
i. Input Signal
• Temperature • Displacement
• Pressure • Input signal
• Level
• Light • Sampling rate • Analog
• Electric signals – Signal is continuous
• Force • Throughput
• ON/OFF switch – Example: strain gage. Most
• Resolution
2. Signal Conditioning transducers produce analog
• Range signals
Electrical signals are conditioned so they can be used by • Gain
an analog input board: • Digital
– Signal is either ON or OFF
– Amplification – Filtering – Example: light switch.
– Isolation – Linearization

ii. Sampling Rate

• Aliasing
• Determines how often conversions take place. – Acquired signal gets distorted if sampling rate is too
• The higher the sampling rate, the better. small.

Analog
Input

4 Samples/cycle 16 Samples/cycle

8 Samples/cycle

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iii. Throughput v. Resolution

• Effective rate of each individual channel is inversely
proportional to the number of channels sampled.

• Example:
– 100 KHz maximum.
– 16 channels.
100 KHz/16 = 6.25 KHz per channel.

iv. Range
• Minimum and maximum voltage levels that the A/D
converter can quantize
The resolution of a converted signal is the number
– Ranges are selectable (either hardware or software) of bits that are used to store each sample of data.
to accurately measure the signal

4. Data Acquisition Software i. Programmable Software

• It can be the most critical factor in obtaining • Involves the use of a programming language,
reliable, high performance operation. such as:
• Transforms the PC and DAQ hardware into a – C++, Visual C++
complete DAQ, analysis, and display system. – BASIC, Visual Basic + Add-on tools (such as
• Different alternatives: VisuaLab with VTX)
– Fortran
– Programmable software.
– C#
– Data acquisition software packages.
• Advantage: flexibility
• Disadvantages: complexity and steep learning
curve

ii. Data Acquisition Software Package

Designing a DAS: Factors to Consider

• Does not require programming. i. Is it a fixed or a mobile application?

• Enables developers to design the custom ii. Type of input/output signal: digital or
instrument best suited to their application. analog?
iii. Frequency of input signal ?
• Examples: TestPoint, SnapMaster, LabView, iv. Resolution, range, and gain?
DADISP, DASYLAB, etc. v. Continuous operation?
vi. Compatibility between hardware and
software. Are the drivers available?
vii. Overall price.

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Data Transmission Terminology

• Transmitter : send out the data • Simplex
signal
– One direction
• Receiver : receives the data signal • e.g. Television
• Medium: Conduit for data • Half duplex
– Guided medium – Either direction, but
Data Transmission • e.g. twisted wire, optical fiber only one way at a
time
– Unguided medium
• e.g. police radio
Transmitting data signals from point of • e.g. air, water, vacuum
• Full duplex
acquisition/measurement to point of • Direct link – Both directions at the
storage/processing/ interaction response – No intermediate devices same time
• e.g. telephone
• Point-to-point
• internet
• Wired linkage : telephone – Direct link
• wireless linkage : Bluetooth, radio, lazer, IR – Only 2 devices share link
• Optical fiber • Multi-point
– More than two devices share the
link

Frequency, Spectrum and

Analogue & Digital Signals Periodic Signals
Bandwidth
Frequency
Time domain concepts
– Analog signal
• Varies in a smooth way over time
– Digital signal
• Maintains a constant level then changes to another
constant level
– Periodic signal
• Pattern repeated over time
– Aperiodic signal
• Pattern not repeated over time

Sine Wave Wavelength

• Peak Amplitude (A) • Distance occupied by one cycle

– maximum strength of signal • Distance between two points of corresponding
– volts phase in two consecutive cycles
• Frequency (f) • 
– Rate of change of signal
– Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
• Assuming signal velocity v
– Period = time for one repetition –  = vT
(T) – f = v
– T = 1/f
• Phase ()
– c = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light in free space)
– Relative position in time

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Frequency Domain Concepts Spectrum & Bandwidth

• Signal usually made up of many • Spectrum

frequencies – range of frequencies contained in signal
• Absolute bandwidth
• Components are sine waves
– width of spectrum
• Can be shown (Fourier analysis) that any • Effective bandwidth
signal is made up of component sine – Often just bandwidth
waves – Narrow band of frequencies containing most
• Can plot frequency domain functions of the energy
• DC Component
– Component of zero frequency

Data Rate and

Bandwidth Analog and Digital Signals
• Any transmission system has a limited band of frequencies
• This limits the data rate that can be carried Means by which data are propagated
• Analog
Analog and Digital Data Analog and Digital Data – Continuously variable
Transmission – Various media
• Analog • wire, fiber optic, space
• Data : Entities that convey meaning
• Signals: Electric or electromagnetic
– Continuous values
– Speech bandwidth 100Hz to 7kHz
representations of data within some interval
• Transmission: Communication of data by – e.g. sound, video – Telephone bandwidth 300Hz to 3400Hz
propagation and processing of signals • Digital – Video bandwidth 4MHz
– Discrete values • Digital
– e.g. text, integers – Use two DC components

Advantages & Disadvantages of Digital Signals Attenuation of Digital Signals

• Signal strength falls off with distance
• Depends on medium
• Cheaper
• Received signal strength:
• Less susceptible to noise
– must be enough to be detected
– must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received
• Greater attenuation without error
– Pulses become rounded and smaller • Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency
– Leads to loss of information

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Binary Digital Data

• From computer terminals etc. Data and Signals
• Two dc components
• Bandwidth depends on data rate • Usually use digital signals for digital data
and analog signals for analog data
Conversion of PC Input to Digital Signal
• Can use analog signal to carry digital data
– Modem
• Can use digital signal to carry analog data
– Compact Disc audio

Analog Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Digital Signals Carrying Analog and Digital
Data Data

Transmission Impairments Noise

• Signal received may differ from signal
• Additional signals inserted • Crosstalk
transmitted between transmitter and
receiver – A signal from one line is
• Analog - degradation of signal quality picked up by another
• Thermal
• Digital - bit errors: Caused by – Due to thermal agitation • Impulse
of electrons – Irregular pulses or spikes
– Attenuation and attenuation distortion – Uniformly distributed – e.g. External
– Delay distortion – White noise electromagnetic
• Intermodulation interference
– Noise – Signals that are the sum – Short duration
and difference of original – High amplitude
• Delay distortion frequencies sharing a
medium
– Only in guided media
– Propagation velocity varies with frequency

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Channel Capacity Data Storage devices

Data is stored for:
o Future reference
• Data rate o Historical data
o Archiving
– In bits per second o Data bank
Digital printer
– Rate at which data can be communicated
• Bandwidth
Strip chart recorder or
– In cycles per second of Hertz recording oscillograph Magnetic tape
– Constrained by transmitter and medium recorder.

electronic memory

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