CHAPTER 1 (COMPUTERS & INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

By the end of this chapter, students will have a comprehensive

understanding of information technology. They will define the
scope of this field and recognize the distinctions between data and
information, as well as between records, files, and databases.
Additionally, they will grasp the impact of logical and global
computer networks on both businesses and society. Students will
also become familiar with the essential terminology related to
hardware, software, and computer systems. They will be able to
list various computer system types and their uses, understanding
their relative sizes and scopes. Furthermore, they will describe the
fundamental components and capabilities of IT systems and
discuss various computer and IT applications. Understanding how
data is stored and represented in computers, as well as the
functions and relationships of internal computer components, will
be part of their knowledge. Lastly, they will differentiate
processors based on word size, speed, and memory capacity.
Understanding the language of computers is a foundational skill
within the domain of information systems.

Proficiency in computer usage is a prerequisite for effective

participation in the world of information systems.

The ability to navigate and utilize the Internet is a valuable skill

set for anyone engaged in information systems.

Recognizing the profound impact that computers have had, and

continue to have, on society is fundamental to understanding
information systems.

Becoming a discerning and informed consumer of computers and

computer-related products is crucial within the field of
information systems.
Computers play a significant role in our daily lives, finding utility
within our homes.

Beyond their practical uses, computers also provide a platform for

recreational activities and entertainment.

In the professional sphere, computers have become indispensable

tools, integral to the modern workplace.

Educational institutions have likewise embraced computers as

essential tools for learning, making them a common presence
within schools.
The concept of digital convergence has revolutionized how we
integrate various forms of information technology into our lives.

The advent of speech recognition software has enabled computers

to understand and interpret human speech, enhancing our
interactions with technology.

Video-on-demand services have transformed how we consume

visual content, allowing us to watch what we want, when we want.

The proliferation of broadband technology has exponentially

increased the speed and accessibility of internet connections,
reshaping our online experiences.

The idea of a cashless society, fueled by electronic money, has

emerged as a potential future where financial transactions are
conducted electronically.

Electronic money has streamlined financial transactions, offering

convenience and efficiency in digital payments.

The emergence of electronic wallets has provided a secure and

convenient way to store and manage various forms of electronic
money and payment methods.
Information technology has enabled convenient shopping anytime
and anywhere through online platforms.

Telemedicine has harnessed technology to facilitate remote

medical consultations and healthcare access.

High-tech voting systems have modernized the electoral process,

enhancing the security and efficiency of voting.

In the realm of education, information technology has

revolutionized learning, making online resources and platforms
integral to modern teaching and learning.

National databases, powered by information technology, have

streamlined data management and access to crucial information on
a nationwide scale.

Telecommuting, facilitated by information technology, has

transformed the way we work, allowing employees to collaborate
and work remotely from various locations.
A computer is an electronic device capable of processing data.

It functions as an electronic machine designed to process and

manipulate information.

Computers are programmable, as they follow stored instructions,

allowing for a wide range of tasks and functions.

While computers are typically multi-purpose devices, it's

important to note that not all computers serve a variety of
functions.
Computers are renowned for their speed, enabling rapid data
processing and computation.

They exhibit remarkable accuracy in performing tasks and

calculations, minimizing errors and inaccuracies.

Consistency is a key strength of computers; they can repeatedly

execute tasks with the same precision.

Reliability is a hallmark of computers, as they can operate

continuously for extended periods without significant breakdowns.

Computers excel in facilitating communication, connecting people

and devices across the globe through various means.

Their impressive memory capability enables computers to store

vast amounts of data and access it efficiently when needed.
When it comes to output, computers excel in speed compared to
humans, as their processing capabilities far surpass human
capabilities.

Humans have a natural aptitude for recognizing patterns more

swiftly than computers, relying on intuition and contextual
understanding.

Computers boast 100% accuracy in recalling stored information,

whereas human memory can be prone to errors and lapses.

A distinctive contrast between humans and computers lies in the

realm of thinking: humans possess the capacity for complex
thought processes and creativity, whereas computers operate based
on programmed algorithms and lack true cognitive thinking.
A personal computer is a versatile device designed for individual
use.

Desktop computers are stationary systems intended for use on a

desk or workstation.

Laptops offer portability, allowing users to carry their computing

power wherever they go.

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) are handheld devices designed

for managing personal information and basic tasks.

Notebooks provide a compact and lightweight option for mobile

computing.

Sub-notebooks, even smaller and lighter, are optimized for

maximum portability.

Workstations are high-performance computers used for

specialized tasks like graphic design and scientific simulations.

Servers are dedicated machines that provide services, resources,

and data to other computers over a network.
Mainframes are powerful computers used for handling large-scale
processing and data management tasks.

Minicomputers are mid-sized systems, suitable for handling

multiple users and tasks concurrently.

Supercomputers represent the peak of computing power, used for

complex simulations and computations.

Embedded devices are integrated into other systems and objects,

performing specific functions within a broader context.
Software can be defined as a set of instructions that a computer
executes to perform specific tasks.

Typically, these instructions are executed sequentially, one after

another, by the computer.

When software is run, it is stored in primary memory, where the

computer accesses and executes the instructions as needed.
Computers are utilized for the purpose of processing data.

Data essentially comprises facts and information.

Data manifests in a variety of forms, encompassing text,

numerical values, images, and music.

To a computer, all data is considered equal and consists of a

collection of bits, such as 00010100101010111101010101010.

A bit represents the smallest unit of data.

It has only two possible states: 0 or 1.

In a computer, bits are typically represented using switches or

transistors.

These switches can be either on (1) or off (0).

A collection of bits, in various combinations, can be used to

represent any form of data.
A system is essentially a collection of various components or
parts.

These components work in conjunction with one another.

They collaborate to achieve a specific, defined purpose or

function.

A system is characterized by having a distinct boundary that

separates it from its external environment.

Computer systems encompass the combination of hardware,

software, and data required to address real-world problems
effectively.

The specific components of a computer system are contingent

upon the nature and requirements of the problem being addressed.

Hardware comprises all the tangible and visible components of a

computer system. It's often categorized into input devices and
output devices, but can also be viewed from different perspectives,
including communications, storage, and processing. Input
peripherals, output peripherals, and the processor are key elements
of computer hardware.
The Language of Computers:
Analogue data is continuously variable, while digital data has only
two states, 0 or 1. In the digital language, binary is the two-digit
numbering system where 1 represents "on" and 0 represents "off."
Each 1 or 0 is called a bit, which is short for binary digit.

Data and Information:

Data consists of raw facts or symbols. Computers work with data
and manipulate groups of binary digits, carrying out precisely
what we instruct them to do. Information, on the other hand, is
data placed within a context. To make sense of data, we need
information, and computers provide this by converting data into
meaningful contexts.

Examples:
- 231189 is data, where the numbers could represent anything.
- 23/11/89 becomes information when it is seen in the context of a
date.
In today's world, the use of common rules has made progress
happen faster. This comes in two main types:

- Proprietary rules, which are like the special rules of companies

like Microsoft. They created things like Windows and Office.

- Open source rules, which are like open-to-everyone rules. Linux

and Apache are examples. They let people work together and
create things without secret rules.

CHAPTER 1 CONCLUSION
In summary, chapter one covers a wide range of topics related
to computers, technology, and information systems. They
emphasize the importance of understanding computer
fundamentals, such as hardware, software, and data, and
highlight the impact of technology on various aspects of our
lives, from education and work to communication and
entertainment. Additionally, they touch upon concepts like
data vs. information, the role of binary in computing, and the
significance of standards in technology development. Overall,
they provide a glimpse into the multifaceted world of IT and
its pervasive influence on modern society.
 CHAPTER 2 (STORAGE AND
INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES)
GOALS:

- LEARN ABOUT DIFFERENT KINDS OF

MAGNETIC DISK STORAGE DEVICES.
- FAMILIARIZE YOURSELF WITH THE
VARIOUS TYPES OF OPTICAL LASER
DISC STORAGE DEVICES.
- GAIN AN UNDERSTANDING OF
COMMON INPUT DEVICES.
- GET TO KNOW COMMON OUTPUT
DEVICES.
Mass storage includes various types:

- Magnetic storage, such as hard disk drives.

- Disk storage, which utilizes spinning disks in hard drives.
- Tape storage, involving magnetic tapes on spools.
- Optical laser storage, including technologies like CDs and DVDs
that use lasers for data reading and writing.
Access in data storage can be divided into two main methods:

Random or direct access: In this method, a computer can

immediately access the desired information, which is common
with devices like magnetic disks or optical laser discs.

Sequential access: With this method, data must be accessed in

sequence, meaning that data located before the desired
information must be read first. This is typically the case with
storage devices like magnetic tapes.

Types of Magnetic Disks:

- Interchangeable: These disks can be moved between different
computers.
- Fixed: These disks are permanently attached to a single
computer.

Availability to the Computer System:

- Offline: These disks are not accessible to the computer system.
- Online: These disks are readily accessible to the computer
system.
The hard disk consists of two essential components:

- Read/Write Head: This component accesses or places data on the

disk.
- Access Arms: These are where the read/write heads are mounted.
The hard disk can come in various forms, including:

- Portable hard disk: This type connects to a computer through a

USB or FireWire port.
In disk organization:
- Tracks are concentric circles on the disk where data is stored.
- Track density is measured as tracks per inch (TPI).
- Recording density is measured in megabits per inch.
- Sectors are pie-shaped areas on the disk.
- Sector organization involves grouping sectors into clusters,
which are adjacent to one another.
- Disk address refers to the number of the first cluster in a file.
- A cylinder consists of the same-numbered tracks on each
recording surface.
- Zone recording involves grouping tracks into zones for efficient
disk access.

The File Allocation Table (FAT) includes:

- Virtual File Allocation Table (VFAT): VFAT is responsible for

keeping track of the location of each cluster on the disk. It helps
manage the file system's organization and file storage.
To keep a disk in good condition, maintenance tasks include:
- ScanDisk: This utility scans the disk to locate and repair lost
clusters.
- Defragmentation: It reorganizes the disk to optimize its storage
and performance.

To make a disk ready for use, you can:

- Format it: This process prepares the disk for use with a specific
operating system. It creates sectors and tracks, as well as an area
for the Virtual File Allocation Table (VFAT).

Disk speed is characterized by:

- Access time: This refers to the time interval between when a
computer requests data transfer and when the operation is
completed. It's a measure of how quickly data can be retrieved
from the disk.
- Data transfer rate: This measures how fast data moves between
RAM and storage, or vice versa. It indicates the speed at which
data can be read from or written to the disk.
- Disk caching: This technique involves using RAM to store
frequently accessed software or data, which can significantly
improve overall system performance by reducing the need to
repeatedly access the slower disk storage.
Virtual memory involves the following:
- The operating system divides programs into pages.
- Only the pages currently in use are loaded into RAM (Random
Access Memory), while others remain on the disk until needed.
This allows efficient use of memory resources and enables larger
programs to run on systems with limited physical RAM.

Regarding storage and input/output devices, there are rewritable

optical laser disc options:
- CD-R (compact disc-recordable): Users can record data on it, but
once recorded, the data cannot be changed.
- CD-RW (compact disc-rewritable): Users can record data and
have the flexibility to change or rewrite it as needed.
Optical discs used in your PC may include:
- DVD-ROM/CD-RW combination drive: This drive can read
DVDs and CDs, and it also has the capability to write data onto
CD-RW discs.
- DVD+RW/CD-RW combination drive: This drive can both read
and write data on DVD+RW and CD-RW discs. It's particularly
useful for recording original videos onto DVDs.
- Flash memory: This is affordable and reliable solid-state
memory.
- Mini USB drive: It's a small storage device that can be plugged
into a computer's USB port. These drives are typically about the
size of your thumb and provide convenient, portable storage.
Speech recognition technology comes in two main types:
- Speaker-dependent: This type can interpret spoken words but is
limited to understanding the speech of only one specific person.
- Speaker-independent: In contrast, this type accepts spoken words
from anyone but often has a restricted vocabulary or set of
recognized words and phrases.
Input Devices:
1. Keyboard: Used for typing text and entering commands into the
computer.
2. Mouse: Provides a pointing and clicking interface for selecting
and interacting with on-screen elements.
3. Touchscreen: Allows users to input commands and interact with
the computer by touching the screen directly.
4. Trackpad: Common on laptops, it functions like a mouse for
cursor control.
5. Scanner: Converts physical documents or images into digital
format.
6. Microphone: Captures audio input, enabling voice commands
and recording.
7. Webcam: Captures video input, often used for video
conferencing and recording.
8. Joystick: Commonly used in gaming, it provides precise control
for certain applications.
9. Graphics Tablet: Used by artists and designers for drawing and
creating digital art.
10. Barcode Reader: Scans barcodes to input product information
or data.
Output Devices:
1. Monitor/Display: Shows visual information and output from the
computer.
2. Printer: Produces hard copies of documents, images, and
graphics.
3. Speaker: Provides audio output, allowing users to hear sound,
music, and voice.
4. Headphones: Deliver audio output directly to the user, often for
private listening.
5. Projector: Projects computer screen content onto a larger screen
or surface for group viewing.
6. Plotter: Used for high-precision printing of technical drawings
and designs.
7. Braille Display: Converts digital text into Braille for visually
impaired users.
8. Haptic Feedback Devices: Provide tactile feedback, such as
vibrating controllers in gaming.
9. LED Indicators: Display status information, like power and
connectivity, with light signals.
10. E-book Reader: Displays digital books and documents in an
electronic format.
 CHAPTER 2 CONCLUSION
In this extensive overview of mass storage, disk organization,
maintenance, and various storage options, we've delved into the
intricate world of data storage and access. We explored the diverse
landscape of mass storage mediums, from magnetic and optical
storage to the dynamic realm of virtual memory. Understanding
disk organization, with its tracks, sectors, and addressing,
illuminates the precise mechanisms behind data retrieval.
Additionally, we touched on essential maintenance tasks to keep
storage systems in optimal condition.

Moreover, we ventured into the realm of input and output devices,

recognizing their pivotal role in the interaction between humans
and computers. Finally, we examined speech recognition
technology, showcasing its two distinct types based on speaker
recognition. This comprehensive exploration underscores the
significance of efficient data storage, access, and interaction in the
modern computing landscape, further reinforcing the pivotal role
of technology in our lives.
 CHAPTER 3 (COMPUTER SOFTWARE) LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
The learning objectives for this topic encompass a wide range of
crucial software-related concepts. Students will gain an
understanding of various aspects of software, including its
categories, acquisition methods, and licensing considerations.
They will delve into the realm of integrated and application
software, exploring their types and practical applications.
Moreover, the topic delves into compatibility issues and the
significance of system software. To aid in software selection, it
introduces criteria that students can reference, ensuring they
possess a well-rounded comprehension of the software landscape.
These objectives equip students with essential knowledge to
navigate the complex world of software effectively.
There are two primary types of software: application software and
system software. Each of these types can be further categorized
into different specialized areas to serve various functions and
purposes.

Application software refers to the category of software that

empowers users to utilize a computer for specific purposes,
encompassing various activities such as work-related tasks,
communication, and leisure activities. Within this category, there
exists a diverse array of application software types, each tailored
to fulfill distinct requirements related to work, communication,
and leisure. These applications serve as tools to facilitate and
enhance user experiences across different computer activities.

EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

COMMONLY USED FOR WORK:

Word processing and desktop publishing software allows users to

create and format text documents like reports and letters.

Spreadsheet software assists in calculations, chart creation, and

numerical data management.
Database and Management Information Systems (MIS) software
help organize and manage data, enabling data-driven decision-
making for businesses.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software is utilized by engineers

and designers to create detailed drawings and models.

Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) software is used for

simulating and analyzing engineering designs, such as structural
analysis and fluid dynamics.

Project management software aids in planning, organizing, and

tracking tasks and resources for project management.

These software applications support various work-related

activities and enhance productivity in different industries and
professions.
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE
COMMONLY USED FOR COMMUNICATIONS:

- Electronic mail (email)

- Short messaging service (SMS) and multimedia messaging
service (MMS)
- Social networking platforms
- Personal assistants like Siri and Cortana
- Videoconferencing and teleconferencing software
- Blogging and vlogging tools
- Podcasting applications
- Wikis for collaborative content creation

These communication-focused software applications facilitate

various forms of interaction and information exchange in both
personal and professional contexts.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE COMMONLY USED FOR
LEISURE AND ENTERTAINMENT:

- Gaming software, including video games and computer games.

- Multimedia applications that allow users to enjoy audio and
video content.
- Animation software used for creating animated videos and
cartoons.
- Graphics software for designing and editing visual graphics.
- Image editing software, which enables users to enhance and
manipulate images.

These leisure-focused software applications offer a wide range of

entertainment options for users to enjoy during their free time.
Certain application software can be versatile and fall into multiple
categories. Examples of such multi-category software include:

- Email applications that serve communication and productivity

purposes.
- Multimedia software capable of handling various types of media
content.
- Virtual reality applications that can be used for entertainment,
gaming, and simulations.
- Artificial intelligence software used across diverse fields for
tasks like data analysis, automation, and decision-making.

These applications demonstrate their adaptability by catering to

different needs and functions across various categories.
Software can be obtained in various ways, including:

1. Closed source, proprietary, commercial, or off-the-shelf

software, which is developed by companies and available for
purchase. Examples include Microsoft Office and Adobe
Photoshop.

2. Open source software (OSS) and public domain software. Open

source software is freely available and can be modified by anyone,
while public domain software has no copyright restrictions.

3. Custom, bespoke, or tailored software, which is designed to

meet specific organizational or individual needs.

4. Software as a Service (SaaS) or on-demand software, where

applications are hosted by third-party providers and accessed over
the internet through subscriptions. Examples include Google
Workspace and Salesforce.

5. Freeware, which is freely available for use and distribution,

often without the ability to modify its source code. Some antivirus
programs fall into this category.
6. Shareware, which allows users to try software for free before
requiring a purchase to continue using it. WinZip is an example of
shareware.

7. In-app purchases, commonly found in mobile apps, where users

can download the app for free and then make purchases for
additional features, content, or virtual goods within the app.

Additionally, software can be embedded in various devices, such

as smartphones, smart appliances, and automobiles, to provide
specific functionalities.
Software licenses are designed to safeguard software companies
and writers from unauthorized software use. Various types of
software licenses are available, including:

- End User License Agreement (EULA)

- Proprietary license
- GNU General Public License (GPL)
- Workstation licenses
- Site licenses
- Perpetual licenses
- Non-perpetual licenses

These licenses outline the terms and conditions under which users
can legally use the software, ensuring compliance and protection
for both software providers and users.
When selecting application software, several essential criteria
should be considered, including:

- Compatibility with your operating system and hardware.

- Price, considering your budget and any licensing fees.
- Source, whether it's obtained from a reputable vendor or open-
source community.
- Alignment with user requirements, meeting the needs of the
intended users.
- Suitability for business requirements if intended for work-related
tasks.
- Ease of use, ensuring that users can efficiently navigate and
utilize the software.

Evaluating software based on these criteria helps ensure that it

meets your specific needs and integrates seamlessly into your
computing environment.
System software is essential for enabling a computer to perform
its fundamental functions, including input, processing, storage,
and output. This category of software includes operating systems,
utilities, and drivers, all of which are crucial for facilitating
various essential tasks on a computer.

The purpose of operating system software is multifaceted. It

manages and controls the computer's hardware components,
ensuring their smooth operation. Additionally, it serves as a
platform on which application software can run, enabling users to
perform various tasks. Operating systems often offer user-friendly
interfaces, making it easier for users to interact with and command
the computer efficiently. Essentially, it acts as a bridge, facilitating
communication and interaction between users and the computer,
making it accessible and usable.
Functions of an operating system:

The functions of an operating system encompass a wide range of

responsibilities. This includes managing memory allocation for
various tasks and ensuring its efficient use. It oversees processes,
including the flow of data to and from a hard disk during input and
output operations. Additionally, the operating system recognizes
and manages external devices such as memory sticks and printers.
It also takes care of the organization and management of files and
folders, handles errors, and issues, and provides information to
users when problems arise. Security management is another
critical aspect, protecting the computer system. The OS is
responsible for loading and executing application software and
facilitating effective communication between application software
and the hardware of the system, ensuring seamless operation.
OPERATING SYSTEM CATEGORIES

Operating systems can be categorized into various types based on

their functionalities:
Single User Operating System: This type of OS is designed to
cater to the needs of a single user, managing their tasks and
interactions with the computer.
Multi-User Operating System: Multi-user operating systems are
tailored for environments where multiple users require access to
shared resources, typically in a networked setting.
Single Processor Operating System: Operating systems falling
under this category are responsible for overseeing computer
systems that utilize a single central processing unit (CPU).
Multiprocessing Operating System: A multiprocessing operating
system is specialized in managing computer systems equipped
with multiple processors, facilitating parallel processing and
enhancing overall performance.
An operating system that permits multiple programs to run
simultaneously is known as a multitasking operating system.
An operating system that enables different segments of a single
program to run concurrently is referred to as a multithreading
operating system.
An operating system that responds instantly to input is termed a
real-time operating system.
Frequently utilized operating systems encompass:

- Windows
- OS X
- Linux
- Android
- iOS

Closed source operating system software examples comprise:

- Windows
- OS X and iOS

Open source operating system software examples encompass:

- Android
- Linux
- Ubuntu
Operating systems exhibit compatibility with specific types of
computer systems:

- Windows OS (Microsoft) - compatible with personal computers

and laptops
- Android (Google) - compatible with smartphones and tablet
computers
- OS X (Apple) - compatible with personal computers and laptops
made by Apple
- iOS (Apple) - compatible with smartphones and tablet computers
produced by Apple
- Linux/Ubuntu - potentially compatible with various personal
computers, laptops, and some smartphones and tablets
- Fire OS (Amazon) - compatible with Amazon's Fire tablets.

Operating systems have various interfaces for user interaction and

command input, including:

- Graphical User Interface (GUI)

- Touchscreen Interface (Menu Driven/WIMP)
- Voice Recognition
- Command Line Interface (CLI)/Command Driven
Utility software serves several essential functions for a computer
system, including:

- Maintaining the system

- Enhancing security
- Analyzing performance
- Optimizing resources

Utility software encompasses a variety of useful tools for

computer systems, such as:

- Anti-virus programs
- Backup tools
- Data compression applications
- Disk cleaning software
- Disk compression utilities
- Disk defragmentation tools
- Archive software
- File management applications
- Cryptographic utilities
Driver software plays a crucial role in computer systems by
facilitating communication between hardware devices and
operating systems. It controls and enables the proper functioning
of hardware components. It's essential to install the correct driver
software for hardware devices to work correctly. Regular updates
to driver software help resolve hardware issues and enhance
device and computer system performance.

Driver software serves a variety of hardware devices, including

but not limited to:

- Printers
- USB devices
- Modems
- Computer mice
- Keyboards
When selecting system software, it's important to consider the
following criteria:

- Compatibility
- Processing requirements
- Price
- Source of acquisition
- User requirements
- Business requirements if used for work
- Ease of use
 CHAPTER 3 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, various aspects of software were explored. It began
with an examination of the main software types, encompassing
application and system software, and delved into methods of
software acquisition. Integrated software packages, the types and
uses of application software, and software licensing were
discussed. Moreover, criteria for choosing application software
were outlined. The lecture then shifted focus to system software,
clarifying its role in facilitating essential computer tasks.
Functions of operating systems, categories of operating systems,
and common OS examples were presented, along with
compatibility considerations. Different types of interfaces for
interacting with operating systems were examined. The lecture
also touched on utility software's significance in maintaining,
securing, analyzing, and optimizing computer systems, featuring
examples like antivirus utilities and backup tools. Lastly, driver
software's importance in hardware communication was
emphasized, with examples including printers and USB devices.
Selection criteria for both application and system software were
discussed throughout the lecture, including factors like
compatibility, processing requirements, price, user and business
needs, and ease of use. Overall, it provided a comprehensive
understanding of software-related concepts and their practical
implications.
 CHAPTER 4 (WORD PROCESSOR) OBJECTIVES
By the end of this session, students will be capable of
utilizing various text manipulation tools within the
Microsoft Word word processing application. They will
also adeptly employ tools for formatting content and
documents, including working with tabs. Students will
gain proficiency in using tables effectively within
Microsoft Word. Additionally, they will demonstrate
proficiency in working with illustrations, such as
inserting and formatting images and shapes, using
Microsoft Word. Lastly, students will showcase their
competence in utilizing reference features within the MS
Office application, including creating and managing
citations, references, and bibliographies.
 CHAPTER 5 (NETWORKS AND NETWORKING)
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, students will have learned
various important aspects of computer networks. They will
understand why computer networks are used and be able to
differentiate between different types of computer networks.
They'll also grasp the factors that help in choosing the right
type of network and be familiar with the hardware,
transmission methods, and protocols used in networks.
Additionally, they will comprehend the significance of
network software, understand the concept of network
topology, and know the different types of network
topologies. They'll gain insight into Internet and World
Wide Web technologies and be able to discuss potential
issues that can affect computer networks.
A computer network is established by linking two or more
computers, facilitating the sharing of data and devices among
users. Data files are divided into packets for transmission and are
reassembled upon reaching their destination. To connect
computers, various hardware components are required. The speed
of data transfer in a network depends on factors like cable media,
network topology, and connectivity. The transmission of data is
governed by protocols.
Computer networks find applications in various settings such as
homes, offices, factories, schools, and hospitals. They serve
multiple purposes, including video conferencing, cloud storage,
online gaming, and e-commerce.
COMPUTERS CAN BE NETWORKED USING TWO
MAIN METHODS: CLIENT-SERVER AND PEER-
TO-PEER (P2P).
In a client-server network, a server is a computer responsible for
providing and managing information within the network, while a
client is a computer that requests information from the server.
Data is typically backed up on the server, and network security is
managed centrally by the server. Servers can be upgraded to
accommodate more clients if needed. For instance, a website
operates as a client-server network, with the server serving the
clients by providing requested information.
In a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network, there isn't a single designated
server; instead, each computer within the network can act as both
a client and a server. Data is typically backed up on each
individual computer, and multiple users can store the same file.
Users can download and share files directly with each other,
distributing the workload across the network. However, there is no
central control over network security, making it vulnerable to
security risks, and files can be accidentally or intentionally deleted
by users. Additionally, the network's speed can be affected if some
computers are slow. P2P networks are generally unsuitable for
services requiring strict central control or high security, such as
large-scale business operations or confidential data storage.
Networks come in various categories based on their size, data
speed, and cost. We have Local Area Networks (LANs) that cover
small areas like buildings, offering fast data transfer. Wide Area
Networks (WANs) span larger regions, connecting LANs across
cities or countries, albeit at slower speeds due to longer distances.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) bridge the gap, linking
LANs within cities. Personal Area Networks (PANs) connect
devices in personal spaces, while Wireless Personal Area
Networks (WPANs) do the same wirelessly. Virtual Private
Networks (VPNs) secure data over public networks for remote
access. Finally, Satellite Networks use orbiting satellites for global
communication. These categories help define network sizes and
uses.
Local Area Networks (LANs) typically cover a single building,
such as a house or office, with a range of around 5 km. LANs
offer high-speed data transfer and can be expanded or linked to
other LANs using extra hardware. They employ both cables and
wireless technology for data transmission and are more cost-
effective than Wide Area Networks (WANs). WANs cover
extensive distances but have slower data transfer rates and higher
costs. They connect multiple LANs and WANs and the most well-
known WAN is the Internet.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) have ranges between LANs
and WANs and are used to connect networks across buildings and
cities.
Personal Area Networks (PANs) are designed for individual users,
connecting devices like computers, tablets, and mobile phones
within a range of about ten meters. PANs can transmit files
wirelessly using technologies like Bluetooth or infrared. Wireless
Personal Area Networks (WPANs) use Bluetooth or infrared
connections and are also known as piconets, primarily supporting
portable devices like phones, computers, and speakers.

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) provide secure connections over

public networks like the Internet, adding privacy and security to
both private and public networks, often using encryption. VPNs
are recommended when accessing sensitive data. Satellite
Networks transmit data between Earth and geostationary satellites
positioned 22,300 miles above the Earth's surface. They are used
by governments, the military, and multinational organizations, and
VPNs can be implemented over them for secure communication.
When deciding on a network, it's important to weigh several
factors. Firstly, consider whether a client-server or peer-to-peer
(P2P) network suits your needs. Client-server networks centralize
data management and offer enhanced security, while P2P
networks are decentralized and easier for smaller groups. Second,
assess the network's required range - LANs for single buildings,
WANs for broader areas. Third, think about necessary data
transfer speeds; LANs are typically faster than WANs. Fourth,
consider budget constraints - LANs are usually more budget-
friendly than WANs. Fifth, evaluate network efficiency for
handling data traffic. Lastly, prioritize security - client-server
networks often offer more security features, but a VPN can
enhance protection if needed. By taking these factors into account,
you can select the right network type for your specific needs.
To establish a network, various essential hardware
components are needed. These components encompass
servers, cables, routers, switches, repeaters, gateways, bridges,
and network interface cards (NICs). These elements
collectively facilitate the effective functioning and
interconnection of the network.
Servers play a pivotal role in networks, offering various
specialized functions to cater to specific needs. These diverse
server types encompass file servers, print servers, communications
servers, web servers, application servers, network-attached storage
servers, database servers, and proxy servers. Each server type
serves a distinct purpose within the network, contributing to its
overall functionality and performance.
Networks rely on different types of cables to facilitate data
transmission. These cable options encompass copper, coaxial,
unshielded twisted pair, shielded twisted pair, and fiber-optic
cables. While copper and coaxial cables have their unique
characteristics, unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted
pair (STP) cables offer dependable data transmission. On the other
hand, fibre-optic cables use light signals to transmit data, offering
high-speed and reliable connectivity, albeit at a greater expense.
The choice of cable depends on factors like data transfer speed,
distance, and cost.
A router is a vital network device responsible for directing data
from a Local Area Network (LAN) to another network connection.
It serves as a gateway and plays a crucial role in network security
by permitting only authorized computers to access other computer
systems. Additionally, routers keep track of network activity by
logging data transmissions and receptions, enhancing network
monitoring and management.
A switch is a network device responsible for identifying the
intended recipient of data within a network and efficiently
directing that data to the appropriate computer or device.
A repeater is a device used in networking to regenerate or
retransmit a signal, helping to extend the distance a signal can
travel or transmit it to the other side of an obstruction. These
devices are also commonly known as Wi-Fi repeaters, Wi-Fi
boosters, or Wi-Fi extenders, particularly in wireless network
contexts.
A bridge is a networking device used to connect two or more local
area networks (LANs). It operates by checking if a device on one
side of the bridge has already received the data before transmitting
it. This helps enhance a network's performance by preventing
unnecessary data transmission within the network.
A gateway serves as a device or software that facilitates
communication between two separate networks. Routers, for
example, enable computers within a local area network (LAN) to
send and receive data over the Internet. Firewalls act as security
filters, screening incoming and outgoing traffic to block data from
suspicious or unauthorized sources. Proxy servers use a
combination of hardware and software to filter traffic between
networks, often restricting access to a list of approved websites.
These components play vital roles in network communication and
security.
A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a circuit board that allows a
computer to establish a connection with a network. While some
computers come with built-in NICs, others have slots on their
motherboards where NICs can be installed. Essentially, a NIC is
essential for connecting a computer to a network, acting as the
interface that enables network communication.
A Media Access Control (MAC) address is a distinctive identifier
assigned to every network device. These addresses are embedded
in devices during their manufacturing process. Each Network
Interface Card (NIC) comes with a unique, hardwired MAC
address. Consequently, every computer on a network is
distinguished by its own exclusive MAC address. A typical MAC
address comprises 48 bits of data, although Zigbee wireless
communication uses 64 bits. It is typically represented as twelve
hexadecimal characters, which are six pairs of two-digit
hexadecimal numbers, separated by colons. An Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for translating an
Internet Protocol (IP) address into a corresponding MAC address.
Within a Local Area Network (LAN), data transmission occurs
through three primary methods. Firstly, in unicast transmission,
data is directed to a single, specific destination on the network.
Secondly, multicast transmission involves sending data to multiple
selected destinations on the network. Lastly, broadcast
transmission sends data to all devices connected to the network,
ensuring it reaches every destination within the LAN.
Networks rely on various transmission media to facilitate data
exchange. These include traditional cables like copper and fiber
optics, as well as wireless technologies such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
radio frequency, microwave, infrared, satellite connections, and
mobile network technologies like GSM, 3G, and 4G. Each
medium serves a specific purpose and offers distinct advantages in
different network scenarios.
Ethernet is a crucial communication protocol used in local and
metropolitan area networks (LANs and MANs). It establishes the
rules for transmitting and receiving data over wired connections.
Ethernet networks typically use bus or bus-star topologies and are
favoured for their affordability, ease of installation, maintenance,
and scalability. They have gained wide acceptance as an industry
standard for connecting computers and various devices within a
network.
Wireless networks, commonly known as Wi-Fi, provide the
convenience of connecting devices to a network without the need
for physical cables. While Wi-Fi is growing in popularity, it's
important to note that wired Ethernet connections are generally
less susceptible to interference and are considered more secure. As
a result, many organizations still rely on Ethernet for their
networking needs.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) enables telephone calls to be
transmitted over networks like the Internet, offering cost-effective
alternatives to traditional telephone services, with some providers
offering free services. VoIP is particularly advantageous for
businesses. Some popular VoIP service providers include Skype,
Vonage, RingCentral Business, and eVoice.

There are two primary methods used to describe the process of

transferring and receiving data between two connected systems:
TCP/IP and OSI. These protocols are essential for enabling
communication and data exchange in computer networks.
TCP/IP and OSI are like sets of rules that computers follow when
they talk to each other over a network. They ensure that data is
sent and received correctly. These rules are vital for making sure
that computers can communicate effectively and share information
on networks.
Networks use different types of software to function smoothly.
This includes operating system software, which manages how
computers work together on the network, utility software that
helps maintain and optimize the network, and application
software, which allows users to do specific tasks like sending
emails. Additionally, there's security software like firewalls and
anti-malware programs that protect the network from potential
threats and intruders. These various types of software work
together to ensure a network operates efficiently and securely.
A network's topology is like a map that shows how all the
computers and devices in the network are set up and connected to
each other. There are different ways to arrange and connect these
devices, and each way has its own pros and cons.
Network topologies are the different designs or layouts that
describe how computers and devices in a network are connected to
one another. There are several common network topologies,
including bus, ring, star, mesh, tree, and hybrid. Each of these has
its own way of organizing and connecting the devices within the
network.
In a bus topology, data is sent along a single cable, and all devices
connected to that cable receive the data. However, only the device
for which the data is intended processes and acts upon it. It's like a
single road where all cars (data) can travel in one direction, but
each car only stops at its intended destination (device).
In a bus network, data travels in one direction, like cars on a one-
way road. Every device connects to a single cable called the "bus."
The advantages are that it's affordable, easy to set up, and can
grow without much trouble. However, if the cable breaks, the
whole network can stop working. When lots of data is moving
around, the network can slow down. Also, the cable can only be so
long, and it's not as fast or secure as other network types like a
ring.
In a ring network, computers are connected in a circular manner,
with each computer linked to the next. Data flows around this ring
in a single direction.
A ring topology has its pros and cons. On the positive side, it's
cost-effective to establish and can be expanded without much
trouble. Additionally, it allows for swift data transmission.
However, it has its drawbacks. If one computer in the ring fails, it
can impact the entire network's performance. Troubleshooting can
be challenging since it's hard to pinpoint the source of a fault.
Moreover, adding or removing a computer can disrupt network
performance.
In a star topology, all devices are linked to a central device
through dedicated connections. Each device has its own separate
connection to this central hub. This type of topology is typically
employed in small LANs comprising around five to six
computers.
A star topology offers several advantages. It typically delivers fast
performance since there aren't many devices, resulting in low
network traffic. It's considered reliable, and the central device can
be easily upgraded. Identifying faults is relatively straightforward,
and the topology is easy to set up and modify. If a cable breaks, it
only affects one computer and not the entire network.
However, there are disadvantages to consider. The installation can
be costly due to the amount of cable required. It's generally more
expensive to implement. If the central device fails, it impacts the
entire network. Additionally, the network's performance is
dependent on the central device, which could be a potential
bottleneck.
In a mesh topology, each device is directly connected to every
other device in the network, and each of these connections serves
as a dedicated point-to-point link for transmitting data between the
connected devices. Furthermore, there are often multiple links
between any two devices, providing redundancy. If one link were
to fail, another available link could be used to maintain network
connectivity.
In a mesh network, where each device connects directly to all
other devices through dedicated links, there are pros and cons. On
the upside, it's very reliable because if one device fails, the
network can still function using other paths. There's also no risk of
congestion, leading to fast data transfers, and it's highly secure
since data only goes where it's intended. Plus, finding and fixing
problems is easier. However, it can be tricky and costly to set up
due to all the needed connections and cables.
In a tree topology, there's a central device, and other devices
connect to it in a hierarchical structure, often seen in wide area
networks. It's also known as a hierarchical topology.
A tree topology has advantages like being suitable for grouped
computers, an extension of bus and star topologies, ease of adding
devices, and simple management and error detection. However, it
comes with disadvantages like high cable usage, potential expense
due to extensive cabling, increasing maintenance difficulty with
more devices, and network failure if the central device fails.
A hybrid topology combines two different types of topologies,
such as a bus and a star. Its advantages and disadvantages
encompass those of both the included topologies.
A hybrid topology offers several advantages, including good
performance, reliability, ease of error detection, scalability, and
flexibility. However, it has some disadvantages, such as its
complex design and higher cost.

When deciding on a network setup (topology), it's important to

consider various factors. First, think about the overall cost,
including initial setup and ongoing maintenance expenses. Next,
evaluate the amount of cabling required, especially for larger
networks. Network performance is crucial, so assess factors like
data speed and potential slowdowns. Consider how easy or
complex maintenance will be, as well as how the network handles
problems, especially if a central component fails. Lastly, ensure
there are effective error detection mechanisms in place for swift
issue resolution. Weighing these criteria will help you choose the
best network topology for your needs.
The Internet
The Internet is like a massive web of interconnected networks,
ranging from small local ones (LANs) to vast global ones
(WANs). It also includes mobile devices, various electronic
gadgets, and even satellites in space. This global network allows
people all around the world to connect to it. Internet Service
Providers (ISPs) play a crucial role by offering access to the
Internet.
The Internet offers a wide range of services that have become
integral to our digital lives. These services include access to
millions of websites and webpages, email communication,
messaging platforms, online shopping through e-commerce
websites, making voice calls over the Internet, connecting with
others on social media, streaming audio content, watching videos,
and using various applications (apps) for different purposes.

The Internet of Things (IoT) encompasses a wide array of devices

that are connected to the Internet. These devices can range from
computers and cars to household appliances, sensors, security
cameras, tracking devices, motion detectors, wearable gadgets,
and more. They are often referred to as smart devices because of
their Internet connectivity, allowing them to be controlled
remotely through online networks. Many of these devices use Wi-
Fi or Bluetooth connections to link up with the Internet, and each
device is assigned a unique IP address for identification and
communication purposes.
Intranets serve as private networks utilized by various
organizations, including businesses, colleges, hospitals, and more.
These networks are accessible to the employees of the
organization but are typically inaccessible to the general public.
Employees can access their company's intranet through the
Internet, allowing for various internal functions such as email
communication and file sharing within the organization.
An extranet is essentially a blend of the Internet and an intranet,
allowing external users to gain access to the intranet through the
Internet. This setup facilitates the sharing of specific information
with external organizations and users. However, to access an
extranet, users typically need to undergo a process of user
authentication to ensure secure access.
To establish an Internet connection for your computer or other
devices, several components are necessary. These include a
network connection, which can be either wired, such as Ethernet,
or wireless, like Wi-Fi. You also need a router, which serves as
the intermediary between your local network and the broader
Internet. Additionally, you'll require an Internet Service Provider
(ISP) to grant you access to the Internet and maintain connectivity.
Finally, you'll need a web browser or suitable applications (Apps)
to browse websites and utilize online services across the Internet.
Broadband Internet connections utilize cables or telephone lines to
transmit data. These connections typically offer faster download
speeds compared to upload speeds, primarily due to the nature of
demand. Internet speeds are commonly measured in megabits per
second (Mbps), representing the number of megabits that can be
downloaded in one second.
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) connections employ
a telephone line and a router for data transmission and reception.
The speed of data transfer through ADSL relies on the quality of
the signals on the telephone line. Generally, ADSL connections
tend to be slower compared to broadband Internet access.
Wireless 3G and 4G networks are accessible through smartphones,
facilitating mobile Internet connectivity. Notably, 4G offers high-
speed data transfer capabilities, enhancing the overall mobile
Internet experience.
Internet protocols play a crucial role in governing how computers
communicate and exchange messages. These protocols consider
various factors, including the source and destination of the
message, transmission speed, message size, and error-checking
procedures.
The World Wide Web (WWW), often referred to as the Web, is a
component of the Internet and should not be confused with the
entire Internet itself. While the Internet connects computers, the
Web is what allows people to access and interact with the
Internet's vast resources and information.
The Web boasts several key features, including access to a vast
array of websites, essentially forming a global database. It
facilitates data searching and retrieval, allowing users to share
information, interact and collaborate online. Additionally, it serves
as a platform for communication and supports the contribution of
new content while also providing access to various resources such
as news, education, business, shopping, entertainment like films
and music, among others.
Web technologies encompass various components essential for the
functioning of the World Wide Web. These include markup
languages like HTML, used to create webpages and web
applications, scripting languages such as JavaScript, PHP, and
ASP, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) for web design, the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for data transfer, web browsers that
users employ to access the web, and web servers responsible for
hosting websites and delivering content to users. These elements
collectively enable the dynamic and interactive web experience we
encounter daily.
A web server is essentially a computer designed for storing and
hosting websites. It runs specialized web server software, which
enables access to the websites it hosts via the Internet. Several
companies, such as IBM, Microsoft, Apache, and NaviSoft,
produce this web server software. Many web hosting companies
operate server racks containing multiple servers, allowing them to
offer website hosting services to clients. Some well-known web
hosting companies include Arvixe, SiteGround, iPage, and
GreenGeeks, among others. These companies play a crucial role in
making websites accessible to users worldwide.
Computer networks provide numerous benefits but also come with
their share of disadvantages. Security is a major concern, as
networks can be vulnerable to hacking, malware attacks, and
phishing attempts. Network failures often require costly
professional intervention to rectify. Ethical concerns arise, such as
the monitoring of people's emails and online activities. The spread
of malware, including viruses, poses a threat. Over-reliance on
networks can lead to issues when they fail, disrupting daily
operations. Additionally, network speed can sometimes be a
limiting factor.
 Chapter 5 Summary
In summary, we've covered a wide range of topics related to
computer networks. We discussed the purposes and uses of
networks, including their various types and categories. We
explored the criteria for selecting a suitable network and the
essential hardware components involved. Additionally, we delved
into network topologies, both their definition and types, along
with their respective advantages and disadvantages. Criteria for
choosing a specific topology were outlined.

We then moved on to the Internet, examining its technologies and

protocols. We clarified the distinction between the Internet and the
World Wide Web, exploring the various technologies that make
the Web function. Finally, we addressed common computer
network issues, emphasizing the importance of security, potential
ethical concerns, and the impact of network failures.
 CHAPTER 6 (INFORMATION SYSTEMS)
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, participants will have achieved several
key learning objectives. They will understand the characteristics
of information and how the need for information and decision-
making processes can vary depending on an organization's level.
Additionally, they will grasp the essential components and
capabilities of an Information System (IS). Furthermore, they will
become acquainted with what Data Processing Systems (DPS) and
Management Information Systems (MIS) can do. They will also
learn about Decision Support Systems (DSS) and their tools and
capabilities. Lastly, participants will gain an understanding of the
concepts and real-world applications of Expert Systems.
Making the most of Information Technology as a strategy for
staying competitive can be tricky. It often means spending a lot of
money and time. There are also risks involved, and you'll have to
get used to doing things differently because IT brings changes.
Getting ahead of the competition involves several things. You can
sell more, do your work better and faster, spend less money, and
make your customers happier.
1. **Qualities of Information:** Information should have certain
qualities to be valuable. It should be accurate, meaning it's correct
and free from errors. It should also be relevant, which means it
actually relates to the topic or problem you're dealing with.
Timeliness matters too; information should be up-to-date. Lastly,
it should be complete, meaning it contains all the necessary
details.
2. **GIGO (Garbage In, Garbage Out):** This is a fundamental
concept in computing. It means that the quality of the output (the
information you get from a computer) is determined by the quality
of the input (the data you feed into the computer). If you put
incorrect or "garbage" data into a computer, the results or
decisions based on that data will also be incorrect or of poor
quality.
Information and Decision Making are all about having the right
information. This information should be accurate, which means
it's correct and doesn't have mistakes. It should also be verifiable,
meaning you can double-check it to make sure it's true. And, it
should be complete, having all the necessary details. Imagine
you're solving a puzzle; you want all the pieces, they should fit
together, and others should be able to confirm it's solved correctly.
These qualities help you make good decisions in different parts of
your life, like work, school, or personal choices.
Information and Decision Making also consider some other things.
One is "Timeliness," which means having the information when
you need it, not too early or too late. Another is "Relevance,"
which means the information should actually relate to what you're
trying to do. Sometimes, there can be too much information,
which is called "Information overload," and that can make
decisions harder. Lastly, "Accessibility" is about how easy it is to
get the information when you want it. These factors help you
make decisions that are on time, related to your goals, not
overwhelmed with too much stuff, and easy to find. It's like
having the right tool for the job.
 When making decisions about creating things like products
or services, there are different levels of decisions. Some are big
picture, like "Strategic" decisions, where you plan for the long-
term. Then, there are "Tactical" decisions, where you put those
long-term plans into action. "Operational" decisions are more
about getting specific tasks done, and "Clerical" decisions involve
working with data and paperwork. It's like having different roles
in a game – some players focus on the overall strategy, some on
carrying it out, and others on doing the smaller tasks.
When dealing with information, there are different levels of
filtering it for different purposes. At the basic "Clerical" level, it's
about handling everyday transactions. The "Operational" level
involves feedback on daily operations and reports for exceptions
or unusual things. The "Tactical" level looks at "what-if" scenarios
and reports on them. Finally, at the big-picture "Strategic" level,
you find one-time reports, more "what-if" analyses, and trend
predictions. It's like sorting information based on how detailed or
strategic you need it to be.
Decisions come in two main types. Programmed decisions are for
clear, straightforward problems where you already know what to
do. Information-based decisions, on the other hand, need more
data before you can make a good choice. It's like deciding whether
to wear a jacket: if you know it's cold outside, that's a programmed
decision. But if you need to check the weather first, it becomes an
information-based decision.
An information system is like a team of tools that work together to
help people make decisions. It's made up of different parts that all
do their own jobs but come together to achieve a common goal,
which is providing the information needed for decision-making
To get information into a system, you can do it either online
(when it's connected to the internet) or offline (when it's not). You
can also use source documents or source data as the starting point
for this information.
Getting data into an information system involves data entry, which
is the process of inputting information. A prompt is a message that
guides the user during this process.
Getting data into an information system can be done through data
entry. This can be done in two ways: batch processing, where
transactions are grouped together and processed at once, or online
transaction processing (OLTP), where transactions are entered
directly into the system as they happen.
The DP System, or Data Processing System, is primarily focused
on handling transactions and maintaining records. On the other
hand, the MIS, or Management Information System, is a
computer-based system designed to make it easier to collect,
transfer, and present information.
The Decision Support System (DSS) is an interactive information
system that uses a set of tools to help with decision-making.
The Decision Support System (DSS) includes tools like
application development, data management, modelling, statistical
analysis, and planning to assist in decision-making.
The Decision Support System (DSS) toolbox consists of inquiry,
graphics, consolidations, and application specific DSS capabilities
to aid in decision-making.
Executive Information Systems (EIS) are tools created to help top-
level executives make decisions.
AI refers to creating systems that can think, learn, improve, and
mimic human abilities like sensing and moving.
Artificial Life (ALife) involves studying and creating computer-
based systems that imitate the behavior of living organisms.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) includes simulating human sensory
abilities such as hearing, speaking, smelling, feeling, and seeing
through pattern recognition systems. This also encompasses
speech recognition and speech synthesis to mimic human
communication.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) involves expert systems, which are
interactive systems capable of responding to questions, providing
recommendations, and assisting in the decision-making process.
Artificial Intelligence encompasses various aspects, including
expert systems, knowledge-based systems, assistant systems, and
neural networks. Neural networks consist of numerous
interconnected processing units and differ from traditional digital
computers that process structured data sequentially. Neural
networks can simultaneously process unstructured information,
making them a key component of AI.