Experiment No.

1
Aim- Familiarization with basic laboratory instrument
1- Digital storage oscilloscope
2- Wave form generator
3- DC power supply
4- Digital multimeter
Digital storage oscilloscope(DSO)
Theory

A digital storage oscilloscope (often abbreviated DSO) is an oscilloscope which

stores and analyses the signal digitallyrather than using analog techniques. It is
now the most common type of oscilloscope in use because of the advanced
trigger, storage, display and measurement features which it typically provides.
The input analogue signal is sampled and then converted into a digital record of
the amplitude of the signal at each sample time. The sampling frequency should
be not less than the Nyquist rate to avoid aliasing. These digital values are then
turned back into an analogue signal for display on a cathode ray tube (CRT), or
transformed as needed for the various possible types of output—liquid crystal
display, chart recorder, plotter or network interface.
Pictorial view of digital storage oscilloscope

Fig1.diagram of digital storage oscilloscope makes Tektronics 2012C

Block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope

Fig.2.block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope

Working principal

The input signal is applied to the amplifier and attenuator section

The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as used in
the
Conventional oscilloscopes.
1. The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical amplifier.
2. To digitize the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used.
3. The output of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section.
4. The successive approximation type of A/D converter is most oftenly used in the
digital
Storage oscilloscopes.
5. The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration
& the
waveform to be recorded.
6. Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitizes it.
7. The signal is then captured in the memory.
8. Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as memory
can be readout
Without being erased.
Advantages
i) It is easier to operate and has more capability.
ii) The storage time is infinite.
iii) The display flexibility is available. The number of traces that can be stored and
recalled
depends on the size of the memory.
iv) The cursor measurement is possible.
v) The characters can be displayed on screen along with the waveform which can
indicate
waveform information such as minimum, maximum, frequency, amplitude etc.
vi) The X-Y plots, B-H curve, P-V diagrams can be displayed.
vii) The pretrigger viewing feature allows to display the waveform before trigger
pulse.
viii) Keeping the records is possible by transmitting the data to computer system
where the further processing is possible
ix) Signal processing is possible which includes translating the raw data into
finished
information e.g. computing parameters of a captured signal like r.m.s. value,
energy stored etc.
WAVEFORM GENRATOR
Theory
An arbitrary waveform generator (AWG) is a piece of electronic test
equipment used to generate electrical waveforms. These waveforms can be
either repetitive or single-shot (once only) in which case some kind of triggering
source is required (internal or external). The resulting waveforms can be injected
into a device under test and analyzed as they progress through it, confirming the
proper operation of the device or pinpointing a fault in it.
Unlike function generators, AWGs can generate any arbitrarily defined wave
shape as their output. The waveform is usually defined as a series of "waypoints"
(specific voltage targets occurring at specific times along the waveform) and the
AWG can either jump to those levels or use any of several methods
to interpolate between those levels.
AWGs, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator, various means
of modulating the output waveform, and often contain the ability to automatically
and repetitively "sweep" the frequency of the output waveform (by means of
a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two operator-determined limits. This
capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response of a
given electronic circuit. Some AWGs also operate as conventional function
generators. These can include standard waveforms such as sine, square, ramp,
triangle, noise and pulse. Some units include additional built-in waveforms such
as exponential rise and fall times, sinx/x, and cardiac. Some AWGs allow users to
retrieve waveforms from a number of digital and mixed-signal oscilloscopes.
Some AWG's may display a graph of the waveform on their screen - a graph
mode. Some AWGs have the ability to output a pattern of words on a multiple-bit
connector to simulate data transmission, combining the properties of both AWGs
and digital pattern generators.

Pictorial view of AFG Wave form generator

Fig.3. Diagram of Arbitrary function generator.

Block diagram of waveform genrator

Block diagram of AFG

Fig.4.block diagram of AFG

Blocks explanation of AFG

1. Memory
A digital representation of a waveform is loaded into AWG memory through a
variety of software applications, such as MATLAB, LabView, Visual Studio Plus, IVI,
and SCPI. The memory is clocked at the highest sampling rate supported by the
AWG. The size of the memory will dictate the amount of signal playback time
available. A rule of thumb to determine the playback time is: memory depth
divided by sample rate equals playback time. The faster your sample rate, the
quicker you will use up the available memory.
 
2. Sequencer
The sequencer circuitry can solve memory depth limitations by arranging
(sequencing) the waveform into segments to create your desired waveform.
Memory sequencing (or memory ping-pong) does this by only enabling memory
during critical waveform portions and then shutting off. You can think about it like
this: when recording a round of golf, imagine how much recording time you
would save if you only recorded the players striking the ball and not all the
walking and setup time. The sequencer does the same thing by only recording
waveform transitions and not idle time. Synchronization is maintained by the
trigger generator, which enables the waveform. Trigger events can be internal,
external, or linked to another AWG.
3. Markers and Triggers
Marker outputs are useful for triggering external equipment. Trigger inputs are
used to alter sequencer operation, resulting in the desired waveform entering the
DAC. Hardware or software triggers can be used for applications requiring exact
timing, like wideband chirp signals. They can also be used where multiple AWGs
are synchronized together and need to be triggered simultaneously.
 
4. Clock Generator
The timing of the waveform is controlled by an internal or external clock source.
The memory controller keeps track of waveform events in memory and then
outputs them in the correct order to the DAC. The memory controller saves space
by looping on repetitive elements so that the elements are listed only once in the
waveform memory. Clocking circuitry controls both the DAC and the sequencer.
 
5. Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)
Waveform memory contents are sent to the DAC. Here the digital voltage values
are converted into analog voltages. The number of bits within the DAC will impact
the AWG’s vertical resolution. The higher the number of bits, the higher the
vertical resolution and the more detailed the output waveform will be. DACs can
use interpolation to reach an even higher update rate than what was supplied by
the waveform memory.
 
6. Low Pass Filter
Because the DAC output is a series of voltage stair steps, it is harmonic-rich and
requires filtering for a smooth sinusoidal analog waveform.
 
7. Output Amplifier
After the signal passes through the filter, it will enter an amplifier. The amplifier
controls both gain and offset. This gives you the flexibility to adjust output gain
and offset depending on your application. For example, you may need high
dynamic ranges for radar and satellite solutions or high bandwidth for high-speed
and coherent optical solutions.

DC Power supply
theory
DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such power
supplies will employ a transformer to convert the input voltage to a higher or
lower AC voltage. A rectifier is used to convert the transformer output voltage to
a varying DC voltage, which in turn is passed through an electronic filter to
convert it to an unregulated DC voltage.
The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage variations; the remaining AC
voltage is known as ripple. The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the
minimum amount of filtering that must be provided by a power supply. In some
applications, high ripple is tolerated and therefore no filtering is required. For
example, in some battery charging applications it is possible to implement a
mains-powered DC power supply with nothing more than a transformer and a
single rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the output to limit charging
current.
Pictorial view of DC power supply

Block diagram of DC power supply

Fig.5. Block diagram of regulated DC power supply.

Fig.6.circuit diagram of unregulated DC power supply.

Working principal of DC power supply

The regulated DC power defines a DC power supply which maintains the DC

voltage constant irrespective of AC input fluctuations in load resistance values.
The block diagram of a regulated DC power supply is shown in above figure. It
consists of rectifier, filter and
1. Voltage regulator circuits. The load may be connected across the voltage
regulator.
2. Commonly the bridge rectifier is used in regulated power supply. Its function is
to convert the AC mains voltage to the rectified DC voltage.
3. The voltage contains small amount of ripple the pulsating voltage is passed
through the filter circuit. Its function is to bypass the filter.
4. The pulsating opposes the AC fluctuations. This voltage is applied to the voltage
regulator. Its function is to maintain the output DC voltage constant irrespective
of fluctuations in AC mains voltage and variations in currents load. Thus, the
regulated power supply gives the stable DC voltage across the load.

Multimeter

Theory
Digital multimeter is a test equipment which offers several electronic
measurement task in one tool. It is also known as the voltmeter or Ohm meter or
Volt Ohm meter. The standard and basic measurements performed by multimeter
are the measurements of amps, volts, and ohms. Apart from that, these digital
multimeters perform many additional measurements by using digital and logic
technology. These may include temperature, frequency, continuity, capacitance
etc. The new improved integrated circuits of digital multimeter are more efficient,
faster and work with a large accuracy as compared to an analogue multimeter.
Pictorial view of analog and Digital multimeter

Fig.6.a. analog multimeter Fig.6.b. Digital

multimeter
Block diagram of digital multimeter

Fig.7.block diagram of digital multimeter.

 Experiment No.2
Aim- Study about Active and Passive components.
Active components
Theory
Those devices or components which required external source to their operation is
called Active Components. 
For Example: Diode, Transistors, SCR etc…
Explanation and Example: As we know that Diode is an Active Components. So it
is required an External Source to its operation. Because,  If we connect a Diode in
a Circuit and then connect this circuit to the Supply voltage., then Diode will not
conduct the current Until the supply voltage reach to 0.3(In case of Germanium)
or 0.7V(In case of Silicon).

Fig.1. active components

Passive commponents
Theory
Those devices or components which do not required external source to their
operation is called Passive Components. 
For Example: Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc…

Explanation and Example: Passive Components do not require external source to

their operation. 
Like a Diode, Resistor does not require 0.3 0r 0.7 V. I.e., when we connect a
resistor to the supply voltage, it starts work automatically without using a specific
voltage.

Fig.2. some active and passive components.

 EXPERIMENT NO – 3

OBJECTIVE: To plot Forward and Reverse Bias Characteristics of P-N Junction

Diode and to calculate the resistance of Diode from their characteristics curves.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

1. Bread Board 01 No.

2. P-N Junction Diode 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 01 No.
4. Multimeter 02 Nos.
5. Variable DC Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires
THEORY:-
The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor
material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the
lead connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a
diode is marked by a solid line on the diode. The primary function of the diode is
rectification. When it is forward biased (the higher potential is connected to the
anode lead), it will pass current. When it is reversed biased (the higher potential is
connected to the cathode lead), current flow is blocked. In the simplest form, the
diode is modeled by a switch. The switch is closed when the diode if forward
biased and open when the diode is reversed biased. Immediately after the diode
is switched to reverse bias, the depletion region is still full of carriers. Therefore, a
large negative current will flow until all of the excess carriers are washed out. As
the carriers are removed, the reverse current decays exponentially to
approximately zero. The volt-ampere characteristic of p-n junction diode is given
by
VD
nVT
I D =I R (e −1)
Where IR is saturation current , Vd is diode voltage and Vt is thermal voltage. n is a
constant whose value is 1 for silicon and 2 for germanium.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
1.Forward Biasing:-
The circuit diagram for the forward bias has been shown in fig. A. The forward bias region is
entered when terminal voltage v is positive. In this case V d is several times of Vt due to which
VD

≫ 1. Hence, diode current in forward bias is given as

nVT
e
VD
nV T
I D =I R e

D1
R1 ID

1k
VD 0 -2 0 m A

0 -1 2 V d c

0 -2 V o lt

Figure- A
2.Reverse Biasing:-
The circuit diagram for the reverse has been shown in fig.B. the reverse bias region of operation
is entered when the diode voltage v is made negative. If v is negative then the exponential term
becomes negligibly small compared to unity and current becomes as
I D ≈−I R

R1 D1 ID

1k
VD 0 -2 0 0 m ic ro A m m e t e r

0 -1 2 V d c

0 -2 0 V o lt

Figure- B

The forward and reverse bias characteristic for p-n junction diode has been given in fig.C.
Forward and Reverse Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode:

Figure- C
PROCEDURE:-
Using suitable patch cords make connection as shown in Figure- A for forward
characteristics and Figure- B for reverse characteristics.
The typical forward and reverse characteristics are shown in Figure- C.

Forward Characteristics:
Using suitable patch cords make connection as shown in figure- A for forward
characteristics.

In order to plot forward bias characteristics, perform the following steps :

Vary the Diode voltage (VD) in step of 0.1V starting from zero and observe the
corresponding value of Diode Current (I D) in milli- ampere (mA). And finally Plot
the graph.
Reverse characteristics:
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
VD (Volt) ID(mA) VD(Volt) ID(µA)
0 0
0.1 1
0.2 2
0.3 3
0.4 4
0.45 5
0.50 6
0.55 7
0.60 8
0.65 9
0.70 10
0.75
Using suitable patch cords make connection as shown in figure- B for reverse
characteristics.

In order to plot Reverse bias characteristics, perform the following steps:

Vary the Diode voltage (VD) in step of 1V starting from zero and observe the
corresponding value of Diode Current (ID) in micro- ampere (µA). and finally Plot
the graph.
OBSERVATION:

CALCULATION:
1. Static Resistance:

For the calculation of static resistance, first fix the supply voltage at some
constant values, than measure the value of voltage across diode V DQ and value of
current IDQ across the circuit. The ratio of the diode voltage to the current will give
the value of static resistance which is given as

RD=VDQ /IDQ

2. Dynamic Resistance:
For calculation of dynamic resistance, make the supply variable. Plot the I-V curve
of p-n junction diode, than select two points on the curve which are making
tangent on it. The ratio of voltage difference to current difference respective to
those two points will give the value of dynamic resistance which is given as

Rd=Δ VD/ Δ ID

RESULT:
1. RD = ……………….
2. Rd = ………………..
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep variable power supply in anti-clock wise before the starting the
experiment.
2. Do not exceed Diode current beyond the limit i.e. 10 mA.
 EXPERIMENT NO - 4

OBJECTIVE: To plot forward and reverse bias characteristics of Zener diode and
calculate the Zener voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

1. Bread Board 01 No.

2. Zener Diode 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 01 No.
4. Multimeter 02 Nos.
5. Variable DC Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires
THEORY:-
It is made up of specially doped semiconductor and in reverse bias the breakdown
can be made reversible. There are two types of breakdown, one is zener
breakdown and the other is the Avalanche breakdown. Zener diodes are used for
regulating output voltage.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

1. Forward Bias:
R1 Iz

1k
VD 0 -2 0 m A

0 -1 2 V d c

0 -2 V o lt

Figure- A
 2. Reverse Biase
R1 D5 Iz

1k
VD 0 -2 0 m A

0 -1 2 V d c

0 -2 0 V o lt

Figure- B

Forward and Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode:

Figure- C
PROCEDURE:-
Forward characteristics for Zener Diode: Using suitable patch cords make
connection as shown in figure- A for forward Characteristics of zener diode.

In order to plot forward bias characteristics, perform the following steps:

Vary the Diode voltage (VD) in step of 0.1V starting from zero and observe the
corresponding value of Diode Current (ID) in mili ampere (mA).

Reverse characteristics for Zener Diode: Using suitable patch cords make
connection as shown in fig. b for reverse Characteristics.

In order to plot the reverse bias characteristics, perform the following steps:
Vary the Diode voltage (VZ) in steps of 1V starting from zero and observe the
corresponding value of Zener Diode Current (I Z) in mili ampere (mA) and observe
the point where small change of zener voltage shows the great change in Zener
Diode current (IZ) that is breakdown zener voltage. And finally plot the graph.

OBSERVATION:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

VZ (Volt) ID(mA) VZ(Volt) ID(µA)
0 0
0.1 1
0.2 2
0.3 3
0.4 4
0.5 5
0.6 6
0.7 7
0.8 8
0.9 9
1.0 10

RESULT:
observe the point where small change of zener voltage shows the great change in
Zener Diode current (IZ) that is breakdown zener voltage.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep variable power supply in anti-clock wise before the starting the
experiment.
2. Do not exceed Diode current beyond the limit i.e. 10 mA.
 EXPERIMENT N0 - 5

OBJECTIVE: To study of Half Wave Rectifier circuit and find ripple factor using
capacitor filter circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. P-N Junction Diode 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 01 No.
4. Transformer (9-0-9) 01 No.
5. CRO with CRO Probes 01No.
6. Electrolytic Capacitor 01No.
7. Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
D1
0 -9V
1 3

AC 230V
P rim a ry RL
F R E Q = 50H z 2 4 1k
Filter Circuit

THEORY:

In Half Wave Rectification, When AC supply is applied at the input, only Positive
Half Cycle appears across the load whereas, the negative Half Cycle is suppressed.
How this can be explained as follows:
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and
conducts through the load resistor R L. Hence the current produces an output
voltage across the load resistor R L, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle
of the input voltage.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased
and there is no current through the circuit. i.e., the voltage across R L is zero. The
net result is that only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears across the
load. The average value of the half wave rectified o/p voltage is the value
measured on dc voltmeter.

For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
1.The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.

2. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus preventing

shock hazards in the secondary circuit.

The efficiency of the Half Wave Rectifier is 40.6%

Theoretical calculations for Ripple factor:
Without Filter:
V pp
V m=
2
Vm
V rms =
√2
Vm
V dc =
Π
Ripple Factor r =√ ¿ ) – 1= 1.21

With Filter:
Ripple Factor r =1/(2 √ 3 fCR)

PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections for half wave rectifier as shown in figure.
2. Observe the input wave from on oscilloscope
(Transformer Secondary Voltage i.e 9-0-9 Volt)
3. Observe the output wave form on oscilloscope.
4. Measure the DC voltage VDC across the load.
5. Draw output waveform.
6. Measure r.m.s. value of output voltage.
7. Ripple factor r =√ ¿ ) – 1

OBSERVATION:
V pp V pp Vm Vm r =√ ¿ ) – 1
V m= V rms = V dc =
2 √2 Π
T P T P T P T P
Without
Filter

RESULT: The ripple factors for half wave Rectifier with Filter and without filter
have been calculated.

EXPERIMENT N0 - 6
OBJECTIVE: To study of Center- Tapped Full Wave Rectifier circuit and find ripple
factor using capacitor filter circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. P-N Junction Diode 02 Nos.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 01 No.
4. C.T. Transformer (9-0-9) 01 No.
5. CRO with CRO Probes 01No.
6. Electrolytic Capacitor 01No.
7. Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.2. Input output waveform

Filter Circuit

THEORY:
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2. During
positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward
biased and D2is reverse biased. So the diode D1 conducts and current flows
through load resistor RL.

During negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse
biased. Now, D2 conducts and current flows through the load resistor R L in the
same direction. There is a continuous current flow through the load resistor R L,
during both the half cycles and will get unidirectional current as show in the
model graph. The difference between full wave and half wave rectification is that
a full wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the
entire 360 degrees of the input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only
during one half cycle (180 degree).
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:
Without Filter:
V pp
V m=
2
Vm
V rms =
√2
2V m
V dc =
Π
Ripple Factor r =√ ¿ ) – 1= 0.482

With Filter:
Ripple Factor r =1/¿

PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections for full wave rectifier as shown in figure.
2. Observe the input wave from on oscilloscope
(Transformer Secondary Voltage i.e 9-0-9 Volt)
3. Observe the output wave form on oscilloscope.
4. Measure the DC voltage VDC across the load.
5. Draw output waveform.
6. Measure r.m.s. value of output voltage.
7. Ripple factor r =√ ¿ ) – 1

OBSERVATION:
V pp V pp Vm 2V m r =√ ¿ ) – 1
V m= V rms = V dc =
2 √2 Π
T P T P T P T P
Without
Filter

RESULT: The ripple factors for Full wave Rectifier with Filter and without filter
have been calculated.

EXPERIMENT N0 - 7
OBJECTIVE: To study of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier circuit and find ripple factor
using capacitor filter circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. P-N Junction Diode 04 Nos.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 01 No.
4. Transformer (9-0-9) 01 No.
5. CRO with CRO Probes 01No.
6. Electrolytic Capacitor 01No.
7. Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.2.Input output waveforms

Filter Circuit
THEORY:
Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave
rectifier circuit above is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single
phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop
“bridge” configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this
bridge circuit is that it does not require a special center tapped transformer,
thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to
one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown
below.

 
The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of
the supply, diodes D1 and D2conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse
biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

The Positive half Cycle

 
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series,
but diodes D1 andD2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current
flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

The Negative half Cycle

 
As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage
developed across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two
diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load
is 0.637Vmax.
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:
Without Filter:
V pp
V m=
2
Vm
V rms =
√2
2V m
V dc =
Π
Ripple Factor r =√ ¿ ) – 1= 0.482

With Filter:
Ripple Factor r =1/(4 √ 3 fCR)

PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections for full wave rectifier as shown in figure.
2. Observe the input wave from on oscilloscope
(Transformer Secondary Voltage i.e 9-0-9 Volt)
3. Observe the output wave form on oscilloscope.
4. Measure the DC voltage VDC across the load.
5. Draw output waveform.
6. Measure r.m.s. value of output voltage.
7. Ripple factor r =√ ¿ ) – 1

OBSERVATION:
V pp V pp Vm 2V m r =√ ¿ ) – 1
V m= V rms = V dc =
2 √2 Π
T P T P T P T P
Without
Filter

RESULT: The ripple factors for Full wave Bridge Rectifier with Filter and without
filter have been calculated.

EXPERIMENT NO - 8
OBJECTIVE: To study of clipping and clamping circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. P-N Junction Diode 02 Nos.
3. Resistance- 10KΩ 01 No.
4. Function Generator 01 No.
5. CRO with CRO Probes 01No.
6. Ceramic Capacitor (0.01µfd) 01No.
7. Power Supply 01 No.
8. Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1. Series Clipper Circuits

D1

S ig na l G e ne ra to r D IOD E L o a d R e s is t a n c e

Out Put
FR E Q = 1 K H z 10k

5 V o lt

A S e rie s N e g a tiv e C lippe r C ircuit

D1

S ig na l G e ne ra to r D IO D E L o a d R e s is t a n c e

FR EQ = 1K H z 10k
O utput
5 V o lt

A S e rie s Po s itiv e C lippe r C irc uit

2. Series Clipper Circuits with DC Bias

 V re f .
D1

S ig na l G e ne ra to r D IO D E

FR E Q = 1 K H z L o a d R e s is t a n c e
O utput
5 V o lt 10k

A Series Clipper Circuit with DC Bias

If Vin ≤ Vref. Vo = o
If Vin > Vref. Vo = Vin – Vref.

V re f . D1

S ig na l G e ne ra to r D IO D E

FR E Q = 1 K H z L o a d R e s is t a n c e
O utput
5 V o lt 10k

A Series Clipper Circuit with DC Bias

If Vin ≥ 0 Vo = Vin
For negative value of Vin Vo = 0

3. Parallel Clipper Circuits

R e s is t a n c e

S ig na l G e ne ra to r 10k D1
D IO D E
FR E Q = 1 K H z O utput
5 V o lt

A Parallel Clipper Circuit

R e s is t a n c e

S ig na l G e ne ra to r 10k D1
D IO D E
FR E Q = 1 K H z O utput
5 V o lt
 A Parallel Clipper Circuit

4. Parallel Clipper Circuits with DC Bias

R e s is t a n c e

S ig na l G e ne ra to r 10k
D1
D IO D E

FR E Q = 1 K H z O utput
5 V o lt V re f .

R e s is t a n c e

S ig na l G e ne ra to r 10k
D1 D2
D IO D E

FR E Q = 1 K H z D IOD E
O utput
5 V o lt V re f .
V re f .

Two Way Parallel Clipper Circuit

5. Clamper Circuit

C1

S ig na l G e ne ra to r .01m f d D1
10k
D IOD E R e s is t a n c e
FR E Q = 1 K H z O utput
5 V o lt
 C1

S ig na l G e ne ra to r .01m f d D1
10k
D IOD E R e s is t a n c e
FR E Q = 1 K H z O utput
5 V o lt

6. Clamper Circuit with DC Bias

C1

S ig na l G e ne ra to r .01m f d D1
10k
D IOD E R e s is t a n c e
FR E Q = 1 K H z O utput
5 V o lt V re f .

THEORY:
1. Clippers:
Clipping circuits (also known as limiters, amplitude selectors, or slicers), are used
to remove the part of a signal that is above or below some defined reference
level. We’ve already seen an example of a clipper in the half-wave rectifier – that
circuit basically cut off everything at the reference level of zero and let only the
positive-going (or negative-going) portion of the input waveform through.

To clip to a reference level other than zero, a dc source is put in series with the
diode. Depending on the direction of the diode and the polarity of the battery,
the circuit will either clip the input waveform above or below the reference level
(the battery voltage for an ideal diode; i.e., for Von=0).
Clipping circuit is of various types:
1. Series Clipper

2. Parallel Clipper

3. Series bias clipper

4. Parallel bias clipper

2. Clampers:
Clamping circuits, also known as dc restorers or clamped capacitors, shift an
input signal by an amount defined by an independent voltage source. While
clippers limit the part of the input signal that reaches the output according to
some reference level(s), the entire input reaches the output in a clamping circuit –
it is just shifted so that the maximum (or minimum) value of the input is
“clamped” to the independent source.
Clamping circuit is of various types:
1. Positive Clamper
2. Negative Clamper

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit using suitable patch cord as shown in circuit
diagram.
2. Apply a Sinusoidal input of 5 volt and 1 kHz. (Use signal Generator for
Sinusoidal input).
3. Observe the input signal on channel 1 on CRO and out put signal from
circuit on channel 2 on CRO.
4. Repeat the experiment for different clipping and clamping circuits.

RESULT:
1. Sketch the wave shape and label the Amplitudes.
2. Indicate the type of clipping in each case.
3. Draw transfer characteristics for different clipping and clamping circuits.
 EXPERIMENT NO - 9

OBJECTIVE: To study and plot the input and output Characteristics of the given
transistor in CB (common base) configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. Transistor (BJT) 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 02 Nos.
4. Multi-Meter 04 Nos.
5. Dual Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal active device. The terminals are emitter, base,
collector. In CB configuration, the base is common to both input (emitter) and
output (collector). For normal operation, the E-B junction is forward biased and C-
B junction is reverse biased. In CB configuration, IE is +ve, IC is –ve and IB is –ve. So,
VEB = F1 (VCB, IE) and
IC = F2 (VEB,IB)
With an increasing the reverse collector voltage, the space-charge width at the
output junction increases and the effective base width „W‟ decreases. This
phenomenon is known as “Early effect”. Then, there will be less chance for
recombination within the base region. With increase of charge gradient with in
the base region, the current of minority carriers injected across the emitter
junction increases.

The current amplification factor of CB configuration is given by,

α = ∆IC/ ∆IE
Input Resistance, ri = ∆VBE /∆IE at Constant VCB
Output Résistance, ro = ∆VCB /∆IC at Constant IE

PROCEDURE:
 Input characteristics.
1. Using suitable patch cords make connections as shown in figure- 1 for NPN
transistor and figure- 2 for PNP transistor.
2. The typical input characteristics for the transistors is shown in figure- 3

To Plot the Input Characteristics perform the following steps:

(i) Set the collector voltage, VCB to a certain value, say 1 volt.
(ii) Now, vary the emitter base voltage, V EB in steps of say 0.1volt starting
from zero and observe the corresponding values of emitter current
(IE) .
(iii) Repeat step (ii) for different values of collector voltages, V CB ) : 2V,
5V, collector open.
(iv) Plot the input characteristics.
  Output Characteristics

1. The typical output characteristics for transistors are shown in figure- 4

To plot Output characteristics, perform the following steps:
(i) Set the emitter current to a certain value, say 1mA.
(ii) Now Vary the collector base voltage(VCB) in steps of 1volt starting
from zero and observe the corresponding collector currents (Ic)
(iii) Ensure that the emitter current remains constant, when collector
voltage is being raised, by minor adjustment in the emitter-base
voltage.
(iv) Repeat (ii) for different values of emitter currents, say, 2mA, 4mA,
8mA.
(v) Plot the output characteristics.
  Saturation region

1. Reverse the supply connected to the output circuit. This will forward bias
the collector junction.(Reverse the voltmeter polarity too).
2. Set the emitter current to a certain value, say 1mA.
3. Now vary the collector Base voltage (V CB), note the corresponding collector
current until IC become zero. Typical value of VCB(Sat.)=0.6Volt

OBSERVATION:
FOR INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Output voltage Constant (VCB=0 volt) Output voltage constant (VCB=2 volt)
Input voltage Input current Input voltage Input current
VEB(Volt) IE(mA) VEB(Volt) IE(mA)
0 0
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0.5 0.5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.8 0.8
0.9 0.9
1 1

\
 FOR OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Input Current Constant (IE=1 mA) Input Current constant (IE=2 mA)
output voltage output current output voltage output current
VCB(Volt) IC(mA) VCB(Volt) IC(mA)
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10

CALCULATION:
1. Input resistance, Rin= VEB/IE for a certain value of VCB.
2. Output resistance, Ro=VCB/IC for a certain value of IE.
3. Current gain, α= IC/IE for a certain value of VCB.

RESULT:
Rin =--------------------
RO = -------------------
α = -------------------

NOTE: Points to remember

1. The cut-in voltage, Vx is approximately 0.2V for Ge transistor and approx.
0.6V for a Si transistor.
2. The collector current, IC should be less than emitter current, IE.
3. The value for current gain αF is always less than 1.
 EXPERIMENT NO - 10

OBJECTIVE: To study and plot the input and output characteristics of the given
transistor in C.E. (Common Emitter) Configuration

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. Transistor (BJT) 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 01 No.
4. Resistance- 100KΩ 01 No.
5. Multi-Meter 04 Nos.
6. Dual Power Supply 01 No.
7. Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:
In common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and
emitter terminals and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals.
Therefore the emitter terminal is common to both input and output.

The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is
expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As
compared to CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input
resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit.

The output characteristics are drawn between I c and VCE at constant IB. the
collector current varies with VCE upto few volts only. After this the collector
current becomes almost constant, and independent of V CE. The value of VCE up to
which the collector current changes with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The
transistor always operated in the region above Knee voltage, I C is always constant
and is approximately equal to IB.The current amplification factor of CE
configuration is given by
β = ΔIC/ΔIB
Input Resistance, ri = ∆VBE /∆IB (μA) at Constant VCE
Output Résistance, ro = ∆VCE /∆IC at Constant IB (μA)

PROCEDURE:-
 Input Characteristics
1. Using suitable patch cords make connections as shown in figure- 1 for
NPN transistor and figure- 2 for PNP transistor.
2. The typical input characteristics of PNP and NPN transistors in CE
configurations are shown in figure- 3
To plot Input characteristics, perform the following steps:
(i) Set the collector voltage VCE to a constant voltage of 1Volt.
(ii) Now vary the base voltage V BE in steps of 0.1V and observe the
corresponding base current (IB). Do not exceed the base current from
200µA. (The maximum base current varies from transistor to
transistor.)
(iii) Repeat step (ii) for different values of collector voltages, V CE: 2V, 5V,
and Open collector.
(iv) Plot the input characteristics.
  Output Characteristics
1. The typical output characteristics for some transistors are shown in fig.4
To plot Input characteristics, perform the following steps:
(i) Set the base current (IB) to say 25µA with the help of 0-12V variable
supply in the input circuit.
(ii) Now vary the collector voltage (VCE) from 0 to 12 Volts in steps of
say 1 Volt and observe the corresponding values of collector current
(IC).
(iii) Repeat step (ii) for different values of base current, say 35µA, 50µA,
(iv) Plot the output characteristics.
OBSERVATION:
FOR INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Output voltage Constant (VCE=0 volt) Output voltage constant (VCE=2 volt)
Input voltage Input current Input voltage Input current
VBE(Volt) IB(µA) VBE(Volt) IB(µA)
0 0
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0.5 0.5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.8 0.8
0.9 0.9
1 1
 FOR OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Input Current Constant (IB=25µA) Input Current constant (IB=35µA)
output voltage output current output voltage output current
VCE(Volt) IC(mA) VCE(Volt) IC(mA)
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10

CALCULATION:
1. Input resistance, RIN = VBE / IB at certain value of VCE.
2. Output resistance Ro = VCE/IC at certain value of IB
3. DC forward current gain βF = IC/IB

RESULT:
Input resistance, RIN = -------------
Output resistance Ro = ------------------
DC forward current gain βF =-------

Important Note:-
As soon as, the collector voltage is changed, the base current also gets varied. For
the new collector voltage, set the base current to the earlier fixed value. This
must be done for every change in collector voltage to ensure that the base
current is constant.
Points to note:-
1. The cut-in voltage for a Ge transistor is about 0.2 Volt and about 0.6 volt for
a Si transistor.
2. Observe the ‘saturation’ and ‘active’ and cut-off regions in the output
characteristics.
3. The transistor gives current gain βF in the range of 100 to 300 general
purpose transistors.
4. Keep the knobs of both the 0-10 V D.C. supplies to fully anticlockwise
position before switching on the mains supply.
 EXPERIMENT NO - 11

OBJECTIVE: To draw the Drain characteristics and Transfer characteristics Of N-

channel junction field effect transistor

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. Transistor (FET) 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 02 No.
4. Multi-Meter 03 Nos.
5. Dual Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
A FET is a three terminal device, in which current conduction is by majority
carriers only. The flow of current is controlled by means of an Electric field. The
three terminals of FET are Gate, Drain and Source. It is having the characteristics
of high input impedance and less noise, the Gate to Source junction of the FETs
always reverse biased. In response to small applied voltage from drain to source,
the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the drain current increases linearly
with VDS. With increase in ID the ohmic voltage drop between the source and the
channel region reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the
channel begins to remain constant. The V DS at this instant is called “pinch of
voltage”. If the gate to source voltage (V GS) is applied in the direction to provide
additional reverse bias, the pinch off voltage ill is decreased.

In amplifier application, the FET is always used in the region beyond the pinch-off.
FET parameters:
AC Drain Resistance,
rd = ∆VDS / ∆ID at constant VGS
Trans conductance,
gm = ∆ID /∆VGS at constant VDS
Amplification,
µ = ∆VDS/∆VGS at constant ID

Relation between above parameters

µ = rd * gm

The drain current is given by

ID =IDSS (1-VGS/VP) 2

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Drain Characteristics
The typical Drain characteristics are shown in figure- 2.

In order to draw the above characteristics perform following steps:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
2. Set VGS = 0Volt. Keep 0-5Volt variable power supply at anti-clock wise
direction for making VGS = 0Volt.
3. Now increase the VDS in step say 1volt starting from zero and observe the
corresponding Drain Current (ID) in milli-ammeter.
 4. Repeat step 2 for different VGS value say -0.5V,-1V, -1.5, -2V
5. Plot the graph between VDS vs ID

 Transfer Characteristics
The typical Drain characteristics are shown in figure- 3.

In order to draw the above characteristics perform following steps:

1. The circuit will be same for obtain the transfer characteristics.
2. Set the VDS = 3V. by varying the 0 -12Volt variable power supply.
3. Now increases the VGS in step say -0.5Volt starting from zero and observe
the corresponding drain current ID until ID become zero.
4. Repeat step 2 for different value of VDS.
5. Plot the graph between VGS vs ID.
OBSERVATION:

FOR DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS

VGS = 0Volt VGS = 0.5Volt VGS =-1Volt VGS = -2Volt
VDS(Volt) ID (mA) VDS(Volt ID (mA) VDS(Volt ID (mA) VDS(Volt ID (mA)
0 0 0 0
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
1 1 1 1
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
2 2 2 2
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
3 3 3 3
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
4 4 4 4
4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8

FOR TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

VDS = 3Volt VDS = 5Volt
VGS (Volt) ID (mA) VGS (Volt) ID (mA
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-2 -2
-2.5 -2.5
-3 -3
-3.5 -3.5
-4 -4
-5 -5
CALCULATION:

The various parameters of a JFET are:

1. AC DRAIN RESISTANCE, rd: It is the resistance between drain and source
terminals when JFET is in the Pinch-off region.
rd = change in VDS / change in ID.

2. TRANSCONDUCTANCE (gm): Slope of transfer characteristic.

gm = change in ID/ change in VGS

3. AMPLIFICATION FACTOR: It is given by

A.F. = Change in VDS / Change in VGS.

4. DC DRAIN RESISTANCE, Rds: It is given by –

RDS = VDS/IDS

RESULT:
1. AC DRAIN RESISTANCE =---------------------
2. TRANSCONDUCTANCE (gm) =---------------------
3. AMPLIFICATION FACTOR =------------------------
4. DC DRAIN RESISTANCE, R =------------------------

PRECAUTIONS:
 Do not exceed the ID drain current 10mA.
 Take proper care of terminates of JFET while fixing in the board.
 EXPERIMENT NO - 12

OBJECTIVE: To draw the Drain characteristics and Transfer characteristics Of N-

channel Metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. Transistor (MOSFET) 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 02 No.
4. Multi-Meter 03 Nos.
5. Dual Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:
MOSFET is an abbreviation for metal oxide semiconductor filed transistor. Like
JFET, it has a source (S), drain (D) and gate (G). However unlike JFET, the gate of
MOSFET is insulated from channel. Because of this, MOSFET is sometimes known
as IGFET (insulated gate FET).
Basically MOSFET are of two types
1) Depletion type MOSFET and
2) Enhancement type MOSFET.
Enhancement MOSFET has no depletion mode and only operates in enhancement
mode. It differs in construction from depletion type MOSFET in the sense that it
has no physical channel. The min gate-source voltage (VGS), which produces
inversion layer, called as threshold voltage.
Drain characteristics for enhancement MOSFET: -
When VGS< (VGS) the no drain current flows. However in actual practice and
extremely small value of drain current does flow through MOSFET. This current
flow is generally due to presence of thermally generated electron in P type
substrate when value of VGS is kept above (VGS) significant drain current flow.
Transfer characteristics of MOSFET: - When VGS=0 there is no drain current,
however if VGS is increased rapidly as shown in fig. The relation gives the drain
current at any instant along the curve.
ID=k [(VGS-VGS)]
CHARACTERISTICS:
 Drain Characteristics
The typical Drain characteristics are shown in figure- 3.

 Transfer Characteristics
The typical Transfer characteristics are shown in figure- 4.
PROCEDURE:
In order to draw the Drain Characteristics perform following steps:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Set VGS = 0Volt. Keep 0-5Volt variable power supply at anti-clock wise
direction for making VGS = 0Volt.
3. Now increase the VDS in step say 1volt starting from zero and observe
the corresponding Drain Current (ID) in milli ammeter.
4. Repeat step 2 for different VGS value say -0.5V,-1V, -1.5, -2V
5. Plot the graph between VDS vs ID

In order to draw the above characteristics perform following steps:

1. The circuit will be same for obtain the transfer characteristics.
2. Set the VDS = 3V by varying the 0 -12Volt variable power supply.
3. Now increases the VGS in step say -0.5Volt starting from zero and
observe the corresponding drain current ID until ID become zero.
4. Repeat step 2 for different value of VDS.
5. Plot the graph between VGS vs ID.

\
OBSERVATION:

FOR DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS

VGS = 0Volt VGS = 0.5Volt VGS =-1Volt VGS = -2Volt
VDS(Volt) ID (mA) VDS(Volt ID (mA) VDS(Volt ID (mA) VDS(Volt ID (mA)
0 0 0 0
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
1 1 1 1
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
2 2 2 2
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
3 3 3 3
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
4 4 4 4
4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8

FOR TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

VDS = 3Volt VDS = 5Volt
VGS (Volt) ID (mA) VGS (Volt) ID (mA
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-2 -2
-2.5 -2.5
-3 -3
-3.5 -3.5
-4 -4
-5 -5

\
CALCULATION:
The various parameters of a MOSFET are:

1. AC DRAIN RESISTANCE, rd : It is the resistance between drain and source

terminals when MOSFET is in the Pinch-off region.
rd = change in VDS / change in ID.

2. TRANSCONDUCTANCE (gm): Slope of transfer characteristic.

gm = change in ID/ change in VGS

3. AMPLIFICATION FACTOR: It is given by

A.F. = Change in VDS / Change in VGS.

4. DC DRAIN RESISTANCE, Rds: It is given by

RDS = VDS/IDS

RESULT:

1. AC DRAIN RESISTANCE =---------------------

2. TRANSCONDUCTANCE (gm) =---------------------
3. AMPLIFICATION FACTOR =------------------------
4. DC DRAIN RESISTANCE, R =------------------------

PRECAUTION:
1. Do not exceed the ID drain current 10mA.
2. Take proper care of terminates of MOSFET while fixing in the board.