INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #1

CASES
A computer’s case is more than a box. The case includes the drive cage, the internal compartment that holds disk
drives, and almost always the power supply, among other features. Cases come in various types called form factors,
which differ in layout of components. The case’s form factor needs to match that of the motherboard and the power
supply. Just as with motherboards, some cases are proprietary and require proprietary power supplies and
motherboards.

Case Components
Cases come with various components.

A typical ATX case.

Most of these components are self-explanatory. Drive bays are slots, usually in the front, for installation of
disk drives. There are bays for removable media drives such as optical, floppy disk, and Zip drives. These have
openings in the front and usually come with plastic covers in case they are not used. The 51⁄4-inch bays are primarily
for optical drives. There is at least one hard drive bay and almost always a 31⁄2-inch floppy drive bay. Cases usually
come with a small speaker, which is there to provide very basic sounds to the user. About all this speaker plays are
warning beeps and the sound of a modem connecting. This speaker is very important, because multimedia speakers
don’t work before Windows has booted, if Windows is in Safe Mode, or if there is a problem with the sound card (or if
there isn’t a sound card). If the computer won’t boot due to a hardware problem, there is usually a beep code that
plays through this speaker.
Note Some motherboards have extremely small speakers soldered onto the board. These are little black
plastic cylinders with a hole at the top. These boards don’t use case speakers.

While many older PCs had key locks, few newer ones do. Locking a computer prevents it from being booted. The
most important indicator lights are the ones that show that power is on and that the main hard drive is active.
Constant flashing of the hard drive indicator shows that the drive is running too much (churning). If the indicator either
doesn’t light at all or glows continuously, that usually means the computer is locked up.

On recent cases, the only button is the power button. Older cases might have a Reset button, which simply turns
power off and on, and a “Turbo” button. Leave the Turbo button in the On position unless a tech support technician
tells you to turn it off.
I/O Shields
I/O shields are the metal plates that surround the ports that are built into the motherboard. They are used to shield
these ports from radio frequency interference (RFI) and to provide openings in the case in the correct size and
configuration for the motherboard’s built-in ports.

Attaching an I/O shield.

Case Quality
A good quality case can have a big impact on the performance and durability of the computer. Cases sold have to
meet requirements for shielding against both RFI that comes from external devices, and from interference
generated by the computer that affects external devices. Good cases are designed to provide for proper airflow to
keep the components from overheating. Well-made cases do not have a thin tinny feel or sound when you tap on
them. They have rolled edges to prevent injury. Panels should fit together well without requiring excessive effort.
When the computer is running, a good case does not make excessive vibration noises. Other attributes of good
cases include ease in opening and ease in accessing internal components.

Case Form Factors and Styles

Cases come in many form factors, the most common being AT, ATX, and Micro ATX. For more information on
case form factors, see formfactor.org. Available styles include mid-tower, small footprint, desktop (horizontal), and
those cases integrated with a monitor.

Opening Different Types of Cases

Cases also vary in the difficulty of opening and accessing internal components. While most cases open easily after
removing screws from the back, you will undoubtedly come across cases whose method of opening is not the
least bit apparent. Some require removal of the plastic faceplate to access screws behind it, and others are so
unusual that you could look at the case for an hour and not figure out how to open it. A few manuals tell you how
to open the case, but the problem with that is that in many difficult-to-open cases, the manufacturer is
unidentifiable.

One common style of case requires you to remove the left-side panel only (as you are looking at the front of the
computer, while many other styles combine the left, right, and top panels into one piece.
 Removing a side panel.

Accessing Components
Once you have opened the case, you might be stumped about how to access blocked parts, particularly the
processor and disk drives. Some cases are extraordinarily difficult in this respect. These often require you to
remove the drive cage. Sometimes you have to disassemble the case, while others, even ones the same size on
the outside, need only to be opened in order to reach all the components. In a majority of cases, all you have to do
is remove the left panel. However, you might find some cases that require you to remove both the left and right
panels to access the screws holding the drive cage, while others allow the drive cage to be easily removed or
swung out without removing any screws. Once you remove the drive cage, if necessary, all parts should be
accessible.

Choosing a Case
If you decide to replace a case, simply match the form factor to the motherboard and make sure it has the needed
number of internal and external drive bays, physical size, power supply capacity (in watts), and front-panel ports.
In addition, check the processor and motherboard documentation. There very well might be further limitations on
the type of case that can be used.
 INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #2

POWER SUPPLIES
The power supply connects to an AC outlet and provides power to the components of the computer through a gaggle
of DC connectors. AC is connected through a standard CEE three-pronged power, which is used with almost all PCs,
including Macs, some laptop power supplies, and many other devices, computer-related and otherwise. New cases
come with power supplies, but power supplies often wear out and need to be replaced.

The ubiquitous CEE AC power cord.

DC Power Output Connectors

The DC power connectors vary somewhat between AT, ATX, and proprietary form factors. While the disk drive
connectors are all the same, the motherboard connectors are different and incompatible between major form factors,
although sub-versions of ATX have the same connectors.

ATX DC power connectors.

In addition to the power connector variants, different cases require power supplies of different shapes and sizes, or
they won’t fit in the case.
Determining Power Supply Power Requirements
Common power supplies come in a range of about 80 watts to 600 watts. How do you determine how much you need?
First, determine the number of drives, the processor, number of expansion cards, and so forth. Know that it never hurts
to have more capacity than you need. Check the motherboard and processor documentation. Some power supplies
are overrated. For example, if you find a 300-watt power supply at a very low price, and you notice that it is physically
light in weight, it is likely to fail under load.

Proprietary Power Supplies

Many brand-name computers require special power supplies in order to fit in the case or properly power the computer.
These power supplies might or might not be more expensive than generic supplies. For example, certain Dell power
supplies have an extra connector that fits into a connector on a proprietary Dell motherboard. Unfortunately, this
connector matches a connector found on standard ATX power supplies, but the wiring differs. Therefore, don’t try to
plug in a generic power supply in a Dell motherboard unless you want to fry the board. The good news is that Dell sells
replacement power supplies on its Web site for a very reasonable price. However, a particular Hewlett-Packard
computer takes a power supply available only from Hewlett-Packard at a rather high price. Sometimes you can get
proprietary power supplies from generic manufacturers. Just make sure to do all your homework before connecting a
power supply to a motherboard on a brand name computer.

Power supply assortment.

Diagnosing Power Supply Problems

The most obvious symptoms of a failed power supply occur when you turn your computer on and hear a loud noise,
smell something burning, and/or see smoke, and the computer won’t power on. Disconnect the power immediately;
you likely have a blown power supply. If there is smoke, you’ll want to ventilate the room—it is toxic. Usually, however,
the symptoms of a blown power supply aren’t nearly so dramatic; you turn on the computer and nothing happens.

Always Check the Voltage Switch!

We’ve said it before and we’ll say it again: Make sure the power supply is set for the correct voltage.

Unusual Noises
If you hear a grinding noise, or there is excessive vibration, the power supply fan might be going bad. Visually check
the rotation of the fan. Don’t try to replace the fan, replace the power supply. A loud hum that changes pitch while
you’re doing different things usually indicates a bad power supply.
Testing the Power Supply
Testing a power supply is straightforward. Antec (Antec-inc.com) offers a simple, inexpensive ATX power supply
tester, although it is helpful to have a voltmeter or multitester to use with it. Simply connect the tester to the power
connector and view the LED. If it lights, the power supply is working. For a better reading, while the tester is in place,
touch a voltmeter’s or multimeter’s probes to the tester’s leads to read the voltage. Voltage should be 12v, 5v, or 3.3v,
depending on the connector. Tested voltage should be very close to the rated number.

Removal and Replacement

This is usually straightforward. Make sure the power cord is disconnected. With most tower or desktop cases, you’ll
have to open the case and remove the screws from the back around the power supply. Because some manufacturers
have special connectors attached to the motherboard and other devices inside the system, you should draw a diagram
of the colors of the wires and positions of the connectors as you are disconnecting them so you can match the power
supply and connect it, or a new one, properly. Then, remove all of the power connectors. The power supply should
come right out. In some computers, the power supply is mounted to a bracket. You’ll have to remove the power supply
from the bracket. Replacing the power supply, or installing a new one, is done the same way, in reverse.
Note For a useful discussion on PC power supplies, go to http://computer.howstuffworks.com/power-
supply.htm.

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #3

MOTHERBOARDS AND FORM FACTORS

The motherboard, sometimes referred to as the planar or system board, is the central part of a computer that brings
together all devices attached to the computer. The main components on the motherboard are the CPU (Central
Processing Unit) and CPU chipset, expansion bus, I/O (Input/Output) interface, disk drive controllers, and Random
Access Memory (RAM). The motherboard’s main function is to distribute power and data to all devices attached to it.

Motherboards have different form factors. A form factor is simply the physical size and layout of the motherboard and its
components. Several form factors and their features are described below.

Advanced Technology (AT) and Baby AT

Until 1997, the Advanced Technology (AT) and baby AT form factors were the most popular types of motherboards on
the market. The main difference between the two is the width of the motherboards, themselves. The AT motherboard is
12 inches wide by 13 inches long. The baby AT is 9 inches wide by 10 inches long.

Figure 15.1: Baby AT (socket 7) motherboard and components.

The AT and baby AT form factors have the processor and memory socket locations toward the front of the
motherboard. Very long expansion cards were designed to extend over them, which made removing the processor
difficult. One had to take the expansion cards out first to remove the processor or to get to the memory. It is important to
note that an AT power supply gives an output of 12V and 5V to the motherboard. Additional regulators are needed on
the motherboard if 3.3V cards (peripheral component interface, or PCI) or processors are used.

This design was acceptable when clearance and cooling were not issues. With the advent of faster Pentium-class
processors, which required more cooling and memory sockets that extended off the motherboards, a better
motherboard design was needed.

LPX
In 1987, Western Digital introduced the Low Profile Extensions (LPX) motherboard form factor. This form factor was
developed to meet the need for a slimmer desktop. This goal was accomplished based on the implementation of a riser
card that extended from the motherboard and allowed expansion cards to be installed parallel to the motherboard.

NLX
As the need for more expansion slots and easier access to components increased, the LPX form factor was redesigned
by Intel and named the NLX (InteLex) form factor. The NLX form factor moved the riser card from the center of the
motherboard to the outside edge.

ATX

The ATX form factor was developed to solve the problems associated with the baby AT form factor design. This new design had
many advantages that affected not only the motherboard, but the system unit and power supply, as well. The dimensions of the ATX
form factor are 12 inches wide by 9.6 inches long. A mini ATX is typically 11.2 inches wide by 8.2 inches long.
Figure 15.2: ATX (Slot 1) motherboard and its components.

The ATX design provides the following advantages:

Integrated I/O port connection: Baby AT motherboards have cables connecting them to the physical serial and parallel ports
mounted on the system unit. With the ATX form factor, this connection is integrated into the motherboard. The ATX form factor uses
a 20-pin plastic power supply connector. This is called a keyed connector, and it can be plugged into the motherboard in one
direction only.

Integrated PS/2 mouse connector: ATX motherboards have PS/2 mouse ports integrated into the motherboard. Most baby AT
motherboards do not have a PS/2 mouse port. Older-style AT motherboards required a serial mouse.

Easier access to components: The ATX motherboard was designed with functionality and accessibility in mind. It provides much
easier access to components than the baby AT form factor and offers more room in general for additional components.

Improved power supply connection: The new ATX form factor incorporated a single 20-pin connector in place of the pair of 6-pin
connectors used on the baby AT motherboard.

Support for 3.3V: The ATX motherboard supports 3.3V power from the ATX power supply. This voltage is used by most newer
processors.

“Soft switch” power support: The ATX power supply uses a signal from the motherboard to turn itself off. This feature enables you
to use the power management utilities offered with newer operating systems to shut down a computer, as opposed to physically
turning it off with the power button.

Better airflow: With the ATX form factor, the processor is moved closer to the power supply, providing it with better air circulation
and cooling. For proper air circulation, it is also important to replace any slot covers on the back of a computer that may be missing
as a result of removed expansion cards.

Some very important facts to remember for the exam: most AT-style motherboards use a five-pin DIN keyboard connector. The ATX
motherboard uses the smaller, six-pin mini-DIN keyboard connector, which is more commonly referred to as a PS/2 connector. The
keyboard PS/2 connector is identical to the mouse PS/2 connector. In addition, motherboards use “jumpers” to configure or adjust
certain onboard settings, such as the motherboard’s clock speed (which is measured in megahertz, or MHz). Older motherboards
used Dual In-line Package (DIP) switches to perform this function.

Micro-ATX

The micro-ATX form factor was developed to meet the need for a smaller and less expensive motherboard. The micro-ATX design
offers all of the functionality of the traditional ATX, and is also backward compatible. But, because it is better to be safe than sorry, it
is mentioned here. If you are interested in educating yourself further about this technology, the First International Computer, Inc.
Web site offers some information: http://www.fic.com.tw/support/motherboard/faq.aspx?type=microatx#qid470.

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #4

SLOTS AND SOCKETS
There are two major ways that a CPU or processor can be installed on the motherboard: socket design and slot design.
The socket design is square and is made for a Pin Grid Array (PGA) or Staggered Pin Grid Array (SPGA) chip package.
The socket itself is made up of many tiny holes that correspond to pins on the bottom side of the CPU. This socket is
known as a Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) socket. Socket design is also referred to as flat architecture.
Major Sockets, Slots, and the CPUs They Support
Socket or Slot CPU
Socket 7 Pentium (75MHz), MMX, X86, Cyrix MLL, AMD K-5, K-6
Socket 8 Pentium Pro
Socket 370 Pentium III PGA, Celeron PGA
Socket 423 First-generation Pentium 4 (423-pin Willamette)
Socket 478 Second-generation Pentium 4 (478-pin Northwood)
Celeron Family (478-pin Northwood)
Socket A AMD Athlon PGA, AMD Duron, and Athlon XP
Slot 1 Pentium II, Pentium III SEC, and Celeron SEP
Slot A AMD Athlon SEC
Slot 2 Pentium II Xeon, Pentium III Xeon

Slot technology is implemented when a CPU that is already attached to an Integrated Circuit (IC) board is plugged into
a slot on the motherboard. This slot is typically known as Slot 1. Slot technology is pretty much the standard today.
There are variations of slot and socket technologies designed to support specific CPUs.
Details of Major Slots and Sockets
Socket or Slot CPU
Socket 7 321 pinholes (19x19), SPGA ZIF socket
Socket 8 387 pinholes (24x26), MSPGA ZIF socket
Socket A 453 pinholes (19x19), SPGA ZIF socket
Slot 1 242 leads, SEC slot
Slot A 242 leads, SEC slot
Slot 2 330 leads, SEC slot
Socket 423 423 pinholes, PPGA
Socket 478 478 pinholes, PPGA FC-PGA2

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #5

ELECTRICITY AND THE POWER SUPPLY

The flow of electrons is known as electricity. When electricity flows in only one direction, it is called Direct Current (DC). When
electricity flows in two directions or in a bi-directional fashion, it is called Alternating Current (AC). To understand the flow of
electricity through a computer system and troubleshoot electrical issues in a computer system, you should be familiar with the
following electrical terms:
 Current is the amount of electricity moving across a wire. Current is measured in milliamperes or amperes (amps).
 Resistance is a measure of how much an object resists or holds back the flow of current. When electrical resistance is
increased, the amount of current is decreased. Resistance is measured in ohms.
 Voltage is a measure of the pressure on electrons as they are being pushed through a medium. Voltage is measured in volts.
 Wattage is the amount of work that electrical current is capable of performing. Wattage is measured in watts. You should be
very concerned about wattage and its effects when changing or repairing a power supply. A common practice is to simply
replace a power supply that is defective.

The main function of your computer’s power supply is to convert AC to DC. Current that enters the power supply from an electrical
outlet in the wall is typically at 110V or 115V AC.The power supply converts AC to the +5V, –5V, +12V, or –12V DC current that the
motherboard and its components require. A useful tool to test power (voltage) coming from the power supply and going to the
motherboard is a digital multimeter. The wires that extend from the typical power supply have different colors, and each represents a
different voltage: red = +5V, white = –5V, yellow = +12V, and blue = –12V. Older motherboard form factors (e.g., AT) accept the P8
and P9 Molex-type connectors from the power supply. These connectors plug into the motherboard side by side. When plugging the
P8 and P9 connectors into the AT motherboard, you must remember to keep the black ground wires next to each other. If you don’t,
you might cause electrical damage to the board. The ATX form factor introduced a single ‘keyed’ power connector that eliminated the
risk of plugging the P8 and P9 connectors into the wrong power sockets on the motherboard.

Figure 15.3: P9 and P8 power supply connector wiring.

If you are troubleshooting a ‘dead’ computer, first verify that there is electricity coming from the AC wall outlet. Next, use a digital
multimeter to measure the voltage going from the power supply to the motherboard. There are fuses in a computer system that can
also be tested with a multimeter. A good fuse measures a resistance of zero ohms. If the fuse is bad, the multimeter registers a
resistance of infinity ohms. If your system continuously reboots on its own, it may not be receiving enough power from the power
supply.

Uninterruptible Power Supply

To protect your computer and data, your computer should be connected to an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS), also known as a
battery backup. If it is not connected to a UPS, your computer may be subject to a power surge. If your computer screen is flickering,
you may be experiencing simple power sag. The UPS (if properly maintained) provides power to the computer in the event of a
power failure; it is not meant to be a long-term

power-providing solution. There are three types of UPS: online, standby, and line-interactive. In an online UPS, the battery is
contained in a circuit. In a standby UPS, the battery is not contained in the circuit. A line-interactive UPS has the best characteristics
of the online and standby UPSs.A laser printer should never be plugged into a UPS. A laser printer draws a large amount of
electricity. It should be placed on its own electrical circuit, separate from the system unit and other electrical devices.Surge
Suppressors

A surge suppressor

is a device used to protect electronic equipment, such as computer systems, printers, modems, and monitors, from transient voltage or
‘spikes’ that occur in the flow of electricity. In America, the average or ‘effective’ AC power voltage is around 110V to 120V. Spikes,
which can be caused by lightning or other electrical conditions, can cause electrical surges of hundreds or even thousands of volts. A surge
suppressor or ‘protector’ can stop AC voltage from going above or below a certain amount of voltage. A typical surge protector has
several outlets that equipment can be plugged into, a main power switch, and a three-pronged plug that plugs into a power outlet.

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #6

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND SAFETY

An important acronym to be familiar with is Electrostatic Discharge (ESD). ESD is a phenomenon that occurs when electricity builds up (usually in a
person’s body) and is passed on to the computer and its components. ESD can cause serious damage to your computer and components. You
should always wear a protective ESD wrist strap, which contains a resistor, when handling the components inside the system unit. Expansion cards,
such as a Network Interface Card (NIC) or video adapter card, have onboard memory and Read-Only Memory (ROM) chips that can be damaged by
ESD. Always wear a protective wrist strap when installing these components. Never use a piece of wire to ground yourself if you are using an ESD
wrist strap. Instead, use a grounded ESD mat to absorb and discharge electricity. In addition, you should never wear an ESD wrist strap when
working on a monitor. A monitor can store high levels of voltage (about 15,000V), which can cause serious bodily harm when interacting with a
resistor in an ESD strap. Warm and dry environments are a breeding ground for static electricity buildup. Place any spare electronic components,
such as motherboards, hard drives, memory modules, and processors, in reusable ESD protective bags and store them in a cool and dry
environment. When cleaning the inside of your computer, be sure to use a special-purpose vacuum that is designed to not create ESD.

Use the following guidelines for keeping your system clean:

ROM media: Dip media in a diluted cleaning solution and let air dry.

Inside of computer: Spray with a can of condensed air. Use a small brush for the system unit itself.

Airflow: Use two internal fans to keep the air cool and circulating inside your system. This prevents too much dust from settling between
components.

Circuit boards: Clean with a contact cleaning solution.

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): This is caused when electrical wires are placed too close to each other, or when the wires cross each other.
This can cause havoc with computer signals traveling down a wire.

Another consideration in an electronic environment is fire safety. You should have a plan in case of fire, and have the proper equipment available and
ready to use in case of fire. To extinguish an electrical fire, use a Type C or multipurpose-Type ABC extinguisher. In an environment with a built-in
preventive sprinkler system, consider having protective plastic drop cloths available to cover your most important computer systems. If a fire detection
sprinkler system is in place, and fire is detected, you could lose electronic assets to water damage.

There are four types of handheld fire extinguishers you should be familiar with. They are:

Air Pressurized Water (APW): An APW fire extinguisher is a large, silver, handheld extinguisher that is filled with a combination of air and water. It
should never be used to put out a chemical or electrical fire. This is an older type of extinguisher that is used primarily to take the heat element away
from a fire.

Dry Chemical (ABC and BC): These types of handheld extinguishers are very effective at putting out various types of fire. Dry chemical
extinguishers smother a fire with a phosphorous chemical that separates the oxygen and fuel within a fire. ABC-type extinguishers can be used to put
out chemical, electrical, or wood/paper burning fires. You can identify whether the extinguisher is an ABC or a BC extinguisher by the pictures and
labels on the extinguisher itself. Caution: never use a BC extinguisher on a Class A fire. Class BC fires are electrical and chemical, only. Class A fires
are paper/wood burning fires. Simply put, educate yourself on the type of extinguishers available at your facility. Chances are that you have ABC-type
fire extinguishers in your building.
Note Computer-related electrical fires should be extinguished with an extinguisher that is rated for Class C fires. For the exam
question, “Your company’s main server computer is on fire!” use a Class BC or C extinguisher.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2): This type of extinguisher uses carbon dioxide gas to remove or displace the oxygen in a burning fire. It can easily be
identified by a hard black ‘horn’ or spout, which is used to spray the chemical. Carbon dioxide handheld fire extinguishers are designed to put out BC-
type fires.

Halon: Halon extinguishers are filled with a gas instead of a chemical powder. This gas is more effective at putting out
ABC-type fires than an ABC-type extinguisher. Besides providing better fire suppression than the previously mentioned
extinguisher types, a Halon extinguisher will not ruin the electrical devices that you have just saved from fire
destruction. The chemicals in an ABC-type extinguisher will ruin electrical wires, computers, or anything else you use
them on. Although Halon works well at putting out fires, Halon extinguishers are banned in many places. It has been
scientifically proven that Halon gas depletes the ozone layer, and Halon is considered very dangerous to humans. A
good substitute for Halon is FM-200. FM-200 is a widely accepted, chemical-based fire suppressor that extinguishes
fire by cooling or removing the heat from the flames.

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a document created and posted for workers, emergency personnel, and
officials, which specifies a set of guidelines regarding the proper handling, transporting, storage, and disposal of a
hazardous substance or chemical. Most MSDSs also contain information regarding first-aid treatment, should exposure to danger occur. They are
usually prominently displayed for easy reference in areas where a danger exists. In an emergency, such as exposure to a toxic chemical, the proper
actions can be taken to treat the situation based on the information posted on the MSDS. The failure of a company or organization to create and post
MSDSs in required (hazardous) areas might result in serious consequences to a business, such as a fine or loss of their business license.

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #7

COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR (CMOS)
A Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) is a battery-backed bank of flash memory chips on the
motherboard. The information and settings stored in CMOS can be flashed, meaning that they can be changed. The
information stored in the CMOS is read by the system basic input/output service on startup. A lithium battery on the
motherboard provides power to hold the CMOS system settings when the computer is off. If the CMOS battery begins
to lose some of its battery charge, a CMOS checksum error may appear when the computer starts up. If the battery
loses its charge completely, chances are some or all of your system settings will be lost, including date and time, hard
drive settings, and system password.

Knowing that the system settings will be lost if the CMOS battery loses its charge or is removed from the motherboard
can prove useful. If you don’t know the password to enter the system setup, you can remove the CMOS battery, wait
about three minutes, and then put the battery back into the motherboard. This process clears the system settings,
including the setup password that is locking you out. After clearing the CMOS settings and re-entering setup, you
should first check to see if the system date and time are correct. Second, check the major hard drive settings for
accuracy, including heads, sectors, and cylinders. Another way to clear the system settings is to short out the CMOS
jumper on the motherboard. In other words, locate the CMOS jumper on the motherboard and close, or ‘short’ the
circuit with a plastic jumper. Consult the motherboard manufacturer’s instructions for the location of the CMOS jumper
and instructions for this process.

You can modify your system settings by selecting F2 or Delete during system booting. Depending on what type of BIOS
is installed on your computer, here are some settings that you can change in the system setup: system setup password,
system date and time, boot sequence, parallel port settings, com/serial ports, hard drive type and size, memory, floppy
drive, and plug-and-play options.

If the user plans to upgrade the CPU chip, the CMOS chip may have to be changed or upgraded as well. In addition, if
a CMOS checksum error ever appears during the system startup, the BIOS may need upgrading.

THE SYSTEM BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT SERVICES

The system Basic Input/Output Service (BIOS) is made up of a group of tiny programs that control input and output
services to devices internal to the computer. The BIOS itself is usually stored on a ROM chip that is usually soldered
onto the motherboard. Newer BIOSs come in the form of flash ROM, which is ROM that can be changed. The major
manufacturers of BIOS are Phoenix™, Award™, and AMI™. You may have seen one of their names flash by on the
computer screen as the BIOS carries out instructions during boot. From time to time, a user may want to upgrade, or
flash, the current version of BIOS with software updates from the manufacturer. It is important to know the make and
model of the motherboard for BIOS updates, and it is also very important to document system configuration settings
before upgrading the BIOS.

When a computer is booted, instructions are first available to the system from the ROM BIOS. The main functions of the
BIOS are to carry out boot operations and to act as an intermediary between peripheral devices, software applications,
and operating systems. As mentioned earlier, the BIOS is permanently stored on ROM chips. The next section
describes some types of BIOS chips.

Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) Chips

A Programmable ROM (PROM) is a BIOS chip that cannot be changed. Data can only be stored on it once. A device
known as a ROM burner is used to record information into the chip. If the PROM chip goes bad or loses its information,
there is no way to reprogram it. The user has no choice but to get another chip from the manufacturer.

Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM) Chips

Erasable PROM (EPROM) BIOS chips look almost identical to PROM chips, with the exception of a little window that is
used to shine an ultraviolet light through to erase their contents. Many BIOS chips in the past were EPROM chips. This
was great for upgrading the BIOS if you had a tool to erase the chip’s contents. They were easily identified on the
motherboard by the shiny label on the top of the chip that usually contained the manufacturer’s name and the version of
the chip.

Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)

By applying a higher voltage to one of the pins on the Electronically Erasable PROM (EEPROM) chip, the program on
the chip is erased. A new program or set of instructions can then be electronically written to the chip. EEPROM is also
known as flash ROM.
PLUG AND PLAY
Plug and Play (PnP) was introduced with Windows 95. It was meant to auto-detect devices that were connected to the
computer. This worked well if the devices were plug-and-play compliant. Unfortunately, not all devices meet this
standard; those that do not must be configured manually. Three requirements must be met in order to meet the
industry-standard definition for plug and play: PnP hardware, PnP BIOS, and PnP operating system.

A plug-and-play BIOS can auto-detect devices connected to the computer and automatically assign resources to them.
If a new PnP device is added to a system, the BIOS will check an ESCD (Extended System Configuration Data)
database (a running list of active system resources assigned) stored on the CMOS chip to see what resources are
unavailable and can be assigned to the new device. In modern computers, the plug-and-play settings are configured in
the BIOS under the advanced settings option. Legacy or non-PnP devices are normally configured first; plug-and-play
devices are configured next. The following operating systems are considered PnP compliant: Windows 9x, Windows
Me, Windows 2000, and Windows XP. For an operating system to use plug-and-play features and recognize new
devices, the plug-and-play option in the system BIOS settings must be enabled.

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #8

POWER-ON SELF-TEST (POST) AND ERROR CODES
The Power-On Self-Test (POST) is a self-diagnostic program that runs a test on RAM, I/O devices, and the CPU on
system startup. The POST is stored in the ROM BIOS and requires at least a processor, memory, and video adapter to
complete its diagnostic tests. The POST recognizes errors related to BIOS configuration settings and I/O connectivity,
such as a stuck keyboard. Be forewarned: you may be asked to identify errors the POST might not recognize.
Common Post Error Codes
 Error Code Error Associated with Code
1XX System board error
201 Memory error
301 Keyboard error
5XX Monitor error
601 Floppy drive/adapter error
1101 Serial card error
1701 Hard drive controller error

There are also sounds or beep codes associated with POST operations and system startup to alert you in the event of
an error. BIOS manufacturers, such as IBM, Phoenix, and Award, each provide their own distinct set of beep codes. It
is likely that the test will focus on numeric error codes. If you are interested in learning more about beep codes specific
to BIOS manufacturers that are not listed, you should consult that manufacturer’s Web site.
Common IBM Beep Codes
Beep Description Error Associated with Beep
No beep Motherboard or power failure
One short beep All POST operations completed successfully
Two short beeps POST error
One long beep, one short beep Motherboard error
One long beep, two short beeps Video adapter failed
One long beep, three short beeps Video adapter error
Three long beeps Keyboard failure

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #9

EXPANSION BUS ARCHITECTURE
Electronic signals need a medium to travel on from one location to another. The motherboard is really a circuit board
composed of little electronic data paths that allow all those zeroes and ones to travel from one location to another.
These little ‘highways’ are known as the motherboard’s bus or I/O bus. The motherboard’s I/O bus leads to expansion
buses. The expansion buses are narrow slots on the motherboard, and these buses have different architectures that
accept integrated circuit boards, otherwise known as cards. These circuit boards, or cards, are used to communicate
with devices, such as monitors, printers, modems, and CD-ROM writers.
There are different buses for memory, processors, addresses, and expansion slots. Each of these buses may have
different bus widths or number data paths associated with their architecture. In simple terms, if you are looking at an
older motherboard that will only accept 8 bits of information at a time and a 16-bit processor to connect to that
motherboard, a bottleneck will occur. The motherboard cannot utilize the full 16 bits of information from the processor.

.
Popular Expansion Slots
Bus/Slot Bits Comments
ISA 8 or 16 bits Operates at 8MHz or 8.33MHz.
EISA 32 bits Supports PnP and bus mastering.
ISA slot compatible.
VL-Bus 32 bits Supports bus mastering. Compatible
with ISA.
MCA 16 or 32 bits Supports PnP and bus mastering.
Older, proprietary architecture.
PCI 32 bits Supports PnP, bus mastering, and
burst mode. Utilizes a host bridge to
communicate with other expansion
slots.
PCI-2 64 bits Supports PnP and bus mastering.
PCI slot compatible.
AGP 32 or 64 bits Designed for accelerated graphics
and video processing.

PCI 32 bit/64 bit

Currently, PCI is by far the most commonly used bus standard for NICs, sound cards, and modems. An expansion bus
technology created by Intel, the PCI bus is designed to sync up with the clock speed of the system’s CPU.

There are two main PCI bus implementations: PCI 32-bit bus and PCI 64-bit bus. Most of the motherboards on the
market today implement a PCI 32-bit bus that runs at 33MHz. The PCI 32-bit bus is able to access up to 4GB of
memory.

A PCI 64-bit bus runs at clock speeds of 33MHz and 66MHz, and has a throughput rate of up to 133Mbps. It uses
double 32-bit PCI cycles, called Dual Address Cycles (DAC), which allows a 64-bit PCI bus to access up to 17 billion
gigabytes of memory space. What does this mean in simple terms? PCI 64-bit running at 66MHz speed offers greater
bandwidth and throughput, which in turn provides better performance for such technologies as Ethernet or graphics.
PCI technology is designed to transmit data at 32 bits at a time with a 124-pin connection, and 64 bits at a time using a
188-pin connection.

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)

The Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) specification was designed to offer faster and clearer display of graphical
images, such as 3D images and video. Developed by Intel, AGP is based on PCI technology. However, unlike PCI,
AGP works on its own point-to-point dedicated channel and allows a graphics controller to directly access a computer
system’s RAM in order to provide the faster production of images to the monitor. AGP technology uses memory
dynamically. When the memory is not being used by AGP for such things as rendering, texturing, alpha blending, z-
buffering, or the general production of images, it is restored to the Operating System (OS) for other purposes.

AGP 2x, 4x, and 8x

AGP technology comes in several specifications. To the end consumer or user, these specifications are better known
as acceleration speeds. In simple terms, one can purchase an AGP video card at various rates of acceleration. The
higher the acceleration rate, the better the card.

There are two main Intel specifications for AGP that you should be aware of. They are:

AGP Specification Revision 2.0: This specification defines interfaces supporting AGP 1x and 2x.

AGP Specification 3.0: This specification defines AGP 4x and 8x technology. With AGP 8x, it is possible to deliver
over 2.1GB. This specification was developed to handle today’s bandwidth-hungry applications and those of the near
future.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a fairly new plug-and-play architecture that uses the PCI bus to communicate between
the CPU and memory, and utilizes a 12 million bits per second (Mbps) data transfer rate. USB allows one to attach
many low-speed devices to a computer without the need for an expansion card. Devices such as mice, keyboards,
printers, and CD-ROMs have been designed with their own built-in controllers that accept the USB standard. You can
connect up to 127 peripheral devices to a system with the use of one USB port. In other words, let’s say you want to
connect a USB keyboard and a USB mouse to your system. These two USB devices together will only require one
system resource Interrupt Request (IRQ).

Riser Cards
As computer systems have evolved and the need for more internal system unit space has increased, PCI riser cards
have become a welcome solution in the battle for motherboard extension and overall space savings inside a computer
system. When a riser card is plugged into a motherboard, it forms a ‘right angle’ with the motherboard as opposed to
lying flat above the motherboard. This allows for more technology to be plugged into the motherboard and provides
more space overall. PCI riser cards also provide additional slots for both 64-bit or 32-bit adapter cards.

Riser cards allow for faster production of new technologies. For example, in the past, developers and manufactures of
technologies had to go through lengthy certification processes to get their technologies certified for ‘on-the-motherboard
integration.’ Riser cards allow for technologies to be developed faster by placing them above the motherboard on a riser
card. A perfect example of this will be seen shortly in the discussion of the Audio Modem Riser (AMR) slots.

There are many types of riser cards on the market today. Some of the most popular include riser cards for memory
modules such as Dual Inline Memory Module (DIMM), RIMM, and Small-Outline Dual Inline Memory Module
(SODIMM). There are other popular riser cards, such as the Slot 1 riser cards used for Pentium II processors and Slot 2
riser cards used for XEON processors. There are also riser cards for other technologies, such as audio, modem, Local
Area Network (LAN), and USB.

Audio Modem Riser (AMR)

Intel created the Audio Modem Riser (AMR) specification. This specification for motherboard architecture allows analog
I/O functions to be separate from the motherboard by placing them on a riser card that contains a codec
(Compressor/Decompressor) chip. In simple terms, separating analog I/O functions from the motherboard allows
designers to develop newer and better technology faster without having to go through the grueling time-consuming
certification process for motherboard manufacturer approval and integration. Another extremely important benefit to this
riser card technology is the high quality of audio that can be produced as a result of this process.

Communication Network Riser (CNR)

The Communication and Network Riser (CNR) is an Intel-created standard that applies to riser cards. A CNR card is an
ATX-compatible PCI riser card that offers logic support for such technologies as audio, modem, LAN, and USB. The
whole idea here is to enable developers to better integrate and compact these technologies into a smaller, more
scaleable hardware device that makes better use of motherboard resources and system unit space.

The following Adex Electronics, Inc. Web site provides a superb display and explanation of various riser cards:
http://www.adexelec.com/riser.htm.

And the following reference is available on the Web in Portable Document Format (PDF). It explains many technical
details associated with the ATX form factor riser card specification. Pay special attention to the PCI slot assignments on
ATX form factor boards with ATX riser support. http://www.formfactors.org/developer/specs/atx/ATX_Spec_V1_0.pdf.
Note Both AMR and CNR riser technologies have been identified as targets for the CompTIA A+ 2003
Objectives exam. Make sure you know what they are.

North and South Bridges

PCI architecture is based on the concept of bridging. A PCI bus has a north bridge and a south bridge. The north bridge
communicates with the CPU and is used to send signals to devices that run at higher speeds, such as memory and
high-speed graphics ports. The south bridge communicates with a super I/O chip and is used to send signals to slower
devices, such as ISA slots, COM ports, and LPT ports.

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #10

OVERVIEW OF HARD DRIVES (HARD DISK DRIVES, HDDS)

Hard disk drives are so named because they contain hard magnetic disks inside the housing. They are designed to
store large quantities of information, and they don’t need to be continuously powered in order to hold that data. The vast
majority of PCs used today have at least one hard drive, and in almost all of these, the hard drive is used to store the
OS, programs, and data. When a computer boots, depending on BIOS settings, the computer searches for boot files on
different disk drives, most commonly the floppy drive first, then the hard drive, and then a CD drive. For regular use on
any modern PC, the hard drive is the only one that is big enough to hold the required files. Note that laptop hard drives
are physically much smaller.
Figure 6.1: A standard PC EIDE hard drive.

Basic Hard Drive Characteristics

Externally, hard drives have a power connector, a data connector, and jumpers. We discuss jumpers later in this
chapter. The power connector is connected to one of the drive connectors from the power supply, and the data
connector is connected to the appropriate drive connector on the motherboard. Internally, hard drives have spinning
magnetic platters and heads. Heads are small devices that store and pick up magnetic information from the platters;
they have similarities to heads on cassette tape machines. Storage areas on the platters are divided into portions called
cylinders, sectors, and clusters. Information about these parameters appears in the hard drive documentation and often
on the paper label on the housing. When you go to the BIOS setup page that shows hard drive information, you might
see some or all of this information and possibly more. Under the “type” category, there are usually three or more
settings: User, None, and Auto (other settings might not apply to stationary hard drives). The None setting disables the
drive. User allows the user to input the settings manually. If you choose User, the settings must match those of the
drive exactly. Auto has the computer detect the drive information; on the vast majority of newer computers, Auto is the
best setting.

Figure 6.2: Hard drive information in a BIOS setup program.

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #11

SELECTING A HARD DRIVE
There are two main interfaces used today: Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE), and Small Computer System
Interface (SCSI, pronounced “scuzzy”). SCSI drives perform better and have features that provide for higher reliability
than EIDE drives. Not surprisingly, they are much more expensive than EIDE drives, and thus are used mostly in
mission-critical business applications, and rarely in standard PCs—although some of the information in this chapter
applies to SCSI, also. There is also a new interface: Serial ATA (SATA). SATA drives are set to replace EIDE drives,
and many new motherboards have connectors for both types. For more information on SATA technology, see
intel.com/technology/serialata/index.htm?iid=sr+ata&.
 Note In the new parlance that has come about because of the introduction of Serial ATA technology, EIDE
drives are now known, to differentiate them from SATA drives, as PATA, for Parallel ATA.

We divide the factors to consider when selecting a hard drive into two categories: compatibility and quality.

Compatibility
The following factors must be considered to make sure a hard drive will work in a given system:

Form factor: Hard drive form factors aren’t the same as other form factors. They have to do only with fitting the drive in
the case, and thus are applicable only with internal hard drives. Desktop and tower computers are standardized for the
3.5-inch form factor, although it is possible to use smaller drives in one of these computers. (We discuss installing a
small hard drive in a full-sized system later in this chapter). Laptops take 2.5-inch drives or smaller; check with the
laptop documentation or Web site, or remove the drive and look at the label.

Ultra Direct Memory Access (UDMA) speed rating: This refers to the speed of data transfer between system
memory and the hard drive buffer measured in megabytes per second and, at the time of this writing, has possible
values of 33, 66, 100, and 133. Check the motherboard’s maximum transfer speed and select the fastest hard drive the
user can afford. Motherboards can accept any drives rated at their maximum speed or slower.

EIDE or SATA: Some new motherboards have connectors for both, but older boards accept EIDE only. As of this
writing, most SATA drives have both the standard 4 pin power connector and the newer SATA power connector, but
others come with only the SATA power connector. When the drive has only the new type power connector and the
power supply does not, an inexpensive adapter is required. But many new power supplies are starting to show up on
the market with at least one or two SATA power connectors built into the wiring harness.

Quality
Any time you are purchasing a hard drive that is to be the main or only hard drive in a computer, you should take the
following quality indicators into account. A cheap hard drive will provide poor performance in most cases, but might be
well suited for file archiving when the files aren’t accessed often.

Here are factors to consider when attempting to purchase the highest quality hard drive for the money:

Warranty: Previously, many hard drives came with a three-year manufacturer’s warranty. More recently, one-year
warranties have become most common. Try to get three years if possible.

Buffer (cache memory): This is high-speed memory that is used to store a small amount of data while it is waiting to
be read from or written to the drive. As this significantly improves performance of the computer, the bigger the buffer,
the better. 2MB is good; 8MB is much better, especially when the user works with graphics-intensive programs such as
video editing or games, or other high-stress programs. Drives with less than 2MB of cache will likely provide poor
performance.

Platter speed: The most common speeds are 5400 and 7200 revolutions per minute (RPM). The faster the platter
spins, the faster data can be accessed and transferred.

EIDE or SATA: EIDE drives are the ones that PCs have been using for many years now. SATA technology is a much
more recent innovation. SATA drives perform faster and more accurately than EIDE, and are hot-swappable. This
means that they can be connected to and disconnected from computers when the computer is running. Another
advantage is that SATA data cables are small, making for easier installation and better airflow than the standard ribbon
cables used on EIDE devices. The smaller cables also allow for smaller computers.

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #12

HARD DRIVES AND OPERATING SYSTEMS
For it to store and retrieve data on a hard drive, and keep track of multiple partitions and multiple drives, significant
portions of OSs have to be dedicated to managing hard drives. A partition is a portion of a hard drive recognized by the
OS as a separate and complete entity; it is not the divider between these portions as the name suggests.

File Systems
The OS has to have a method of storing and organizing files on a drive. There are different file systems used by
Windows and DOS to serve that purpose:

File Allocation Table (FAT): Better known today as FAT16 for its 16-bit file storage, this is the original DOS and
Windows file system. Its storage efficiency is the lowest of all file systems in use and it is highly susceptible to
fragmentation (portions of files spread out all over the drive resulting in slow performance and additional wear).
Additionally, FAT16 limits file names to eight characters, plus a three-character extension. The maximum partition size
for FAT16 is 4GB. FAT16 is the only file system accessible in all versions of Windows and DOS, and is the only file
system usable by the original version of Windows 95 and older. It is also the file system for floppy disks.

FAT32: FAT32 stores files more efficiently than FAT16 and has support for long filenames. FAT32 drives can be read
by every version of Windows since the second version of Windows 95 (except for NT 4.0), and is the default file system
for 98 and Me. The maximum partition size for FAT32 is very large, although there is a 32GB limit in Windows XP.

NTFS: The original version of NTFS was introduced with Windows NT. A newer version was introduced in Windows
2000, and it is the default file system for 2000 and XP. NTFS is somewhat resistant to fragmentation and allows for
many of Windows 2000 and XP’s security features not available in FAT16 or 32. The maximum size for an NTFS
partition is two terabytes (TB), which is 240 bytes, or 2048GB. Windows 9x and DOS cannot use NTFS.

To select a file system for a hard drive, you have to format the drive. When installing Windows 9x, you can use the DOS
program FDISK, covered later in this chapter. When installing 2000 or XP, the OS setup program provides this service.
You’ll be shown a graphical display of all the hard drives installed on the system, and you’ll be given your choice for
installation of the OS. You’ll also have the choice of file systems, and NTFS will be recommended.

Partitions and Drive Letters

Here are definitions of the terms used in this area:

Active partition: This is the partition that needs to contain the OS’s boot files because the BIOS looks to this partition
for them. You can, however, designate any partition as the active partition; if it is the wrong one, the computer won’t be
able to boot from the hard drive.

Basic disk: A physical disk that is accessible by any version of Windows.

Dynamic disk: A disk used in 2000 or XP that can use special features, such as logical disk volumes, that span more
than one physical disk.

Extended partition: A partition that can exist only on a drive containing the master boot record. An extended partition
does not get a drive letter. To use an extended partition, you must create one or more logical drives on it; logical drives
are assigned drive letters. There can be only one extended partition on a physical disk and you cannot install an OS on
an extended partition. The only reason to create an extended partition is if you want to have more than four partitions
on a physical hard drive.

Logical drive: A partition created on an extended partition. A logical drive can be assigned a drive letter.

Master Boot Record (MBR): The area on a hard disk that contains boot files; this is the first sector on the disk.

Physical disk: A hard drive.

Primary partition: A partition that functions as a physically separate disk. You can create up to four primary partitions
on a physical disk that contains the MBR, or three if you create an extended partition, also. Primary partitions normally
are assigned a drive letter by the OS.

Volume: Any area on a hard drive that has a drive letter assigned to it.

The most important thing to know here is that you must designate a partition as active in order to boot from it. However,
the other items are likely to come up at some time or another.

Drive Letters
In a PC, physical disks are designated a number starting from 0. Primary partitions, logical drives, optical drives, and
network drives are assigned drive letters between C and Z (a network drive is a folder or drive on another computer on
a network that can be accessed as if it were a local partition on the hard drive). A and B are reserved for floppy drives.
The order of automatic letter assignment is as follows:
1. The first primary partition on drive 0 gets C.
2. Subsequent primary partitions on any drive get D, and so on.
3. Logical drives get the next available letters.
4. Optical drives get the next available letters.
5. Network drives get any available letters.
Note This lettering system can cause the following complications: suppose drive 0 has one primary
and one extended partition with one logical drive. Drive 1 has one primary partition. Because
primary partitions come first, the primary partition on drive 0 is C, the primary partition on drive
1 is D, and the logical drive on drive 0 is E. Furthermore, if you add a second hard drive to a
system with a logical drive on drive 0, the new primary partition takes the drive letter formerly
held by the logical drive.

OS Hard Drive Control and Configuration

There are several Windows and DOS programs and commands to use to control and configure hard drives. When you
are dealing with the only hard drive on a system, you are limited to what you can do in Windows. The reason for this is
that Windows files are in use. In many cases, major changes won’t be made until the computer is rebooted. The
following sections are overviews of the programs.

FDISK
FDISK is a program that runs in DOS, and is useful mainly in 9x. Very old versions of FDISK aren’t compatible with
FAT32; if you run into this problem, it shouldn’t be difficult to obtain a newer version from a Windows 98 or Me boot
disk. No version of FDISK is compatible with NTFS. FDISK allows you to view partition information, create or delete a
partition or logical drive, and set a partition to active status. FDISK is available on all 9x boot floppies, and in 95 and 98
by booting to DOS from the hard drive. When you get the command prompt, type FDISK. The first thing you’ll see,
unless you have a tiny hard drive, is a message asking if you want to enable support for large disks (larger than
504MB). Always answer yes (Y) to this prompt. The main menu then appears. You should usually start by viewing
partition information by selecting number four from the menu. If you are installing a new hard drive, partition the drive as
desired. Unless you have a compelling reason to have multiple partitions, such as setting up a dual- or multiple-boot
system, create a single partition.
Note Partitioning with FDISK effectively deletes all data on the drive. If you are working with a used drive,
make sure that the data is either backed up or unneeded before doing anything with FDISK other
than viewing partition information or setting the partition as active.

FORMAT
Once you have completed partitioning with FDISK, your drive is not yet usable. The drive must be formatted with a file
system. You do this with the FORMAT command. From the DOS command prompt, type FORMAT. For a list of
switches, type FORMAT /?. Here is the syntax to use when formatting the C drive as FAT32:
FORMAT C: /FS:FAT32

After you press <Enter>, drive C, as shown in FDISK’s partition information, will be formatted as a FAT32 partition. This
will take some time, but when it is done, the partition will be usable. If you have set it active, you can install Windows on
it. If you haven’t set it to active, you can always run FDISK again and do so.

Note Any time you format a partition you necessarily delete all data on it. There are, however, programs
such as Norton Unformat that can sometimes retrieve data from a formatted drive.

CONVERT (2000 and XP Only)

CONVERT is a command available in 2000 and XP that is used to convert a partition from FAT or FAT32 to NTFS. This
is done in Windows at a command prompt. This cannot be undone in Windows without formatting the drive and deleting
the data, although third-party software such as PartitionMagic® can be used to convert the file system back to FAT or
FAT32 while preserving the data. The syntax to convert drive C to NTFS is as follows:
CONVERT C: /FS:NTFS
Press <Enter> and if the drive contains files that are in use, the conversion will occur at the next reboot; otherwise, it
will start immediately.

My Computer
My Computer is available in all versions of Windows. If you select a partition and right-click it, you can perform a few
tasks, which vary a bit from version to version. If you select Format from the menu that appears, you can format a
partition. Naturally, you won’t want to do this on a drive that you want to continue using, as this will delete all data on it.
If you select Properties from the menu, the General tab shows you a pie chart showing used and free space on the
drive. If you see a check box to enable DMA support, select it. DMA is a system that increases performance by
reducing the amount of work done by the processor. If the drive doesn’t support DMA, the box will be cleared at the
next reboot. The Tools tab gives you access to error checking (ScanDisk), backup, and defrag programs.

Disk Management (2000 and XP Only)

All available disk-related tasks can be done in Disk Management. You can get there through Administrative Tools in
Control Panel, and opening Disk Management from Computer Management, or by right-clicking My Computer, selecting
Manage from the menu that appears, and opening Disk Management from Computer Management. This will show you
a graphical depiction of all disks and partitions on your system. Note that by right-clicking a drive, you have access to
certain commands.

Disk Management on a simple Windows 2000 system.

If you make any changes in your disk configuration, make sure to edit the boot.ini file to match your changes. This can
be a complicated procedure, but if you don’t, the computer probably won’t boot afterwards. The only way to boot the
computer after this happens is to use a Windows XP/2000/NT boot disk, with the boot.ini file on it edited to match the
new disk configuration. Fortunately, Windows will remain intact. For information on making a boot disk for 2000 and XP,
and on editing the boot.ini file.

INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #13

HARD DRIVES AND MOTHERBOARDS

All standard PC motherboards today come with two EIDE channels, primary and secondary, as evidenced by
connectors on the board. Each channel can handle two EIDE devices, one as the master and one as the slave. In this
context, the terms master and slave really don’t mean much, as everything a master drive can do, a slave drive can do
also, although traditionally, the hard drive with the OS/boot files is installed as the primary master. This is not a rule,
however. If the BIOS is set to detect any device as a boot device, then any one of the four can have the OS. The only
restriction is that each channel cannot have more than one master and one slave drive. EIDE devices that can be
connected to the EIDE connectors include hard drives, optical drives (CD and DVD), and Zip drives. Additional EIDE
drives can be added to motherboards by using an EIDE expansion card (one manufacturer is Promise Technology, Inc.
at promise.com). To use SCSI devices, a SCSI controller expansion card must be installed.

As we said before, many newer boards come with SATA connectors as well. With this interface, there is no such thing
as master and slave, and only one device can be attached to each SATA connector.

HARD DRIVE REMOVAL AND INSTALLATION

It is usually not difficult to remove a hard drive from a desktop or tower computer for testing, virus scanning, data
transfer, or disposal. The biggest problems you might run into are accessing the screws or having enough room to slide
the drive out of the back of the cage. There are a number of steps to follow to install a new or replacement drive, but it
usually isn’t difficult either.

Hard Drive Removal

The first step in removing a hard drive is, with all the cables and power disconnected, to open the case and access the
drive. You will probably have to remove four screws, two on each side of the drive. Then, remove the power connector
and the data connector.

Removing the screws that secure the drive to the cage.

Removing the power and data connectors from an EIDE hard drive.

Handle the hard drive with care. It shouldn’t be subjected to physical shocks.

Hard Drive Installation

There are several steps you need to take depending on whether the drive is new or you are reinstalling an existing
drive.

Setting Jumpers
The first thing you’ll want to do before installing a hard drive is to decide whether you want it to be a primary or
secondary, master or slave, based on the other EIDE devices that are or will be installed in the machine. Then, make
sure the jumpers are set correctly for master, slave, or cable select.

This jumper panel is set for master.

Cable Select is a setting that allows the slave or master condition to be determined by which connector on the ribbon
cable the EIDE device is connected to. The cable and motherboard or IDE controller must support cable select in order
to use it. Most cables that do support cable select have three different colored connectors: black at one end for master,
gray in the middle for slave, and blue at the other end for the motherboard. Other cables with three connectors might
support cable select. If you have two EIDE devices on one channel (primary or secondary), both or neither must be set
to cable select. That is, you can’t mix cable select and master or slave jumper settings on the same channel. Jumper
settings are usually displayed on the drive label. If not, go to the drive manufacturer’s Web site. For example, go to
seagate.com and enter “cable select” in the search box. Then, open the article entitled “What is Cable Select and How
Do I Configure my Seagate Drive to Use It?” This article gives an explanation of cable select, along with a jumper
diagram for Seagate hard drives.
Finding pin 1.

Of course, it is just as important to connect the ribbon cable correctly to the motherboard, in the event you have
removed it. The motherboard will also have a pin indication.

An EIDE ribbon cable connected to the connector on the motherboard. Notice the “40” on the opposite side of the
cable’s stripe, indicating pin 40.

Also, notice the notch in the connector. This is for the ridge in the cable connector, called the key. The key should fit in
the notch. Some well-designed connectors are actually polarized—they will go in only the correct way. Thankfully, all
SATA connectors are polarized.

There are two types of EIDE ribbon cables. Make sure that the ribbon cable is rated for the UDMA capacity of the hard
drive and motherboard. Although all the connectors at the ends of the cables have 40 pins, cables for UDMA 66
through 133 have 80 conductors (wires). UDMA 33 cables have 40 conductors. The speed is printed on the cable. If the
cable says 66, it is good for the higher speeds. If you use a 33 cable with a 66 hard drive or higher on a motherboard
that supports the higher speed, the UDMA speed of the hard drive will still be held to 33.

Round Cables
Round cables are likely to all be designed to handle UDMA133. The rules for connecting them are basically the same
as ribbon cables, but pin 1 is marked on the connector rather than on the wire. Round cables are much more expensive
than ribbon cables, but are easier to work with and allow for better airflow. Search the Internet for round EIDE cables.
Tip Make sure to tie off cables neatly. Use plastic wire ties, never rubber bands or twist-ties.
Hard Drive Bays
PC cases have a few different locations for hard drive bays. The most common is in a cage that holds drives
horizontally at the front of the case. The second most common is the bay that holds drives vertically at the front of the
case. The vertical bay is often used in smaller cases, or in larger cases for additional hard drives. If you are placing the
drive horizontally, the label side should face up and the controller side should face down, unless it was previously
installed and running in the opposite position. Then, connect the power connector.
Sometimes it might be necessary to install a hard drive in a 5.25-inch bay, the type usually used for optical drives (CD
and DVD). There are adapters that allow you to do this. There may come a time when you want to install a 2.5-inch
laptop drive into a regular computer. This requires an adapter for the data connector for a temporary situation, and a full
kit for a permanent installation. To find an adapter, search the Internet for “2.5 hard drive to 3.5 adapter.” If you can’t
determine which pin on the notebook hard drive is pin 1, consult the manufacturer’s Web site. Unlike others, 2.5-inch
laptop style hard drives do not have a separate power connector; the power connector is part of the data connector.
There are two rows of pins with a space between it and the 4-pin jumper block. The first pin after the jumper block is pin
1, and the last pin at the opposite end on the bottom row is the positive power. If you connect this wrong, you might be
connecting a power lead to a data pin, which, once the computer is powered on, will damage the drive and possibly the
motherboard. Figure 6.10 shows the connector on a 2.5-inch hard drive

Figure 6.10: 2.5-inch hard drive connector.

Tip We recommend to always remount a hard drive in the same position (right-side up, upside down,
vertical) it was in originally, or it might fail sooner than it would otherwise. This is based solely on our
personal experience.

Notebook/Laptop Hard Drive Installation

Unfortunately, there is no standard location where notebook manufacturers put their hard drives. On some machines,
you might find that simply removing a single screw on the bottom of the machine and removing the plastic plate gives
you full access to the hard drive. Other machines require you to remove the keyboard (see Chapter 9, “Input Devices,”
for more information). Still others have the hard drive in a slot on a side panel. Unless you have the first type, you will
probably have to go to the manufacturer’s Web site for service information. Once you find the hard drive, however,
replacing it should be easy; the connector is usually polarized (goes in the correct way only). For more information,
search the Web for notebook hard drive installation.

Hard Drive Setup

Once the drive is in place, there is a series of steps to perform to set up the drive and prepare it for use. The first is to
make sure the BIOS recognizes the drive.

Hard Drive BIOS Settings

As long as it has such a setting, it is best to set the BIOS to Auto, so that it detects the hard drive settings itself.
Manually entering these settings might slightly reduce the time it takes for a computer to boot, but it won’t be significant
enough to make it worthwhile. Some motherboards auto-detect the drive the first time and set the parameters so that
they don’t have to detect the drives each time. The other option is often called User, meaning that the user sets the
parameters. If you feel you need to set the information manually, the information is usually printed on the drive label, or
is available from the drive manufacturer’s Web site and includes such items as cylinders, heads, write precomp, landing
zone, sectors, and size mode.
Also, look in the BIOS setup program for a S.M.A.R.T. drive setting. This feature reports potential problems with the
hard drive. Sometimes it will report that a hard drive is ready to fail. This will hopefully give you time to back up the data
to another drive before you lose it all. Certainly, no harm can come from enabling S.M.A.R.T., so as long as the setting
is available, it should always be enabled.

Disk Partitioning and Formatting

The next step is to partition and format the drive as described earlier. In addition to FDISK, there are other setup
programs you can use. In fact, just about all hard drive manufacturers offer installation, diagnostic, and other utilities
free for download from their Web sites. Ontrack Data Recovery Services (ontrack.com) has enhanced versions of some
of these utilities for sale. These utilities have many advantages over FDISK and FORMAT, including the capability of
formatting partitions as NTFS.

 The Industry Contacts document on the CD-ROM lists hard drive manufacturers. Visit their Web sites and look for
downloads for installation, diagnostic, BIOS size limitation, and other utilities.

When you set up Windows 2000 or XP from scratch or perform a clean install (installing an OS on a formatted drive, as
opposed to running an upgrade), you can boot from an installation floppy or CD and follow the prompts. At a certain
point you’ll be shown a graph of available partitions and you’ll be asked how you want to proceed. You might be able to
use existing partitions or delete them and let Setup create new ones for you. You simply answer the prompts
concerning the installation partition and file system you want. Then, Setup formats the partition as set. There is no need
to pre-format a drive before installing 2000 or XP.
Note You might come across a function in a BIOS setup program or elsewhere called “low-level
formatting.” Never do this; it would likely ruin the drive and invalidate the warranty. The point of low-
level formatting is to do a complete format and erase everything to eliminate a virus or prepare the
drive for a new user. This includes data that the manufacturer wrote onto an otherwise inaccessible
portion of the drive. If you need to perform this operation, use the drive manufacturer’s utility. In
Seagate’s case, for example, the procedure is called “Zero Fill” because it replaces all data with
zeroes, and is done with Seagate’s Disk Wizard software.
Note When installing a SATA drive, make certain to follow the drive’s and motherboard’s instructions
exactly. Intel motherboards that support SATA, for example, require that SATA drives be set up as
RAID drives, even if there is only one drive in the system. RAID is covered later in this chapter.

Third-party disk management programs such as Symantec Corporation’s PartitionMagic (powerquest.com or

symantec.com—PowerQuest was acquired by Symantec Corporation in December, 2003) have many features that
aren’t available in Windows or from any of the utilities that come with new hard drives. You can use PartitionMagic to
create, delete, undelete, re-size, hide, merge, or move partitions, as well as change the file system or drive letters, all
without losing data. These and many other features make it an especially useful tool for a technician to have, especially
if you have finished installing an OS only to discover that you made an error in partitioning or formatting. You can use
PartitionMagic to correct the error without having to start all over.

Once you have installed, formatted, and partitioned the drive, you should be ready to install the OS.

Installing 2000 or XP on a SCSI Drive

Early in the 2000/XP installation process, you are prompted to press <F6> if you need to install any third-party SCSI
drivers or RAID drivers. This prompt appears for only a few seconds. You will have to provide the drivers for the SCSI
controller at this point if you want the installation to be successful.
 INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #14

TROUBLESHOOTING HARD DRIVES

Hard drives are a common culprit in PC problems. These problems can range from easily correctable to disastrous. As
mentioned earlier, making sure S.M.A.R.T. drives are enabled in the BIOS could be helpful to catch some of these
problems sooner than they otherwise would be caught. This section covers some common hard drive problems and
solutions.

Operating System Is Missing

One of the most obvious signs of a hard drive problem is an error message early in the boot process saying that the
system can’t find an OS. However, before jumping to conclusions, make sure there is no floppy in the floppy drive. It is
most common for a BIOS to be set to boot first from a floppy, so if there is a non-bootable floppy in the drive, you’ll
probably get a message such as “Non-system disk or disk error,” or “ntldr is missing.” Remove the floppy and restart
before taking any other measures.
Tip If a computer is in early stages of booting or is running in DOS, pressing <Ctrl> + <Alt> + <Delete> will
restart the system.

If there is no floppy in the drive and you continue to get a missing OS message, it is time to check the hard drive for
problems. You can try the following:
A. Listen for hard drive activity and look at the indicator light on the case. The light should flicker and you should
hear some sounds. Buzzing or clicking, however, is a possible sign of drive failure.
B. Check the BIOS to make sure that it recognizes the hard drive. Set the BIOS to auto-detect the hard drive and to
enable S.M.A.R.T. drives.
C. Check the power and data cables. Make sure they are plugged in correctly and securely. If the data cable looks
damaged, try a replacement cable. Try disconnecting the power cable and using another one from the power
supply.
D. Check the hard drive jumpers. Make sure there aren’t two slaves, two masters, or a mixture of slave or master
and cable select.
E. Run a diagnostic program such as Micro-Scope or PC Certify, or a utility offered by the hard drive manufacturer
or Ontrack (ontrack.com). Also helpful are the PartitionMagic Rescue floppies. You can boot the machine with
these and run the program even if PartitionMagic isn’t installed on the system. You can access drive information
and check for errors, as well as perform other operations. Just make sure to use a version of PartitionMagic as
recent as the OS installed on the system. For example, running a version of PartitionMagic older than 7.0 on
Windows XP or 2000 with Service Pack 2 or later will likely produce false error messages.
Tip If you use a hard drive software utility, make sure to read the directions carefully, and, if so
instructed, back up the data before running tests. In addition, make sure to follow the terms of
the software license for any program you run.
F. Use a hardware-based EIDE hard drive tester such as the Western Digital Quick Tester
(http://support.wdc.com/order/drivestester.asp).
G. Run FDISK and select number four from the menu to view partition information. Note that if the partition is
formatted as NTFS, FDISK will label the partition only as a non-DOS partition. Sometimes the use of drive
overlay software such as EZ-BIOS will actually interfere with the system’s recognition of the drive.
H. Remove the hard drive and check it on another computer. Look for the Windows folder to make sure it is intact,
and scan the drive for viruses.
I. Try a different EIDE device in the same channel to make sure the problem isn’t in the motherboard or EIDE
controller.
J. If there is another EIDE device on the same channel, disconnect it and boot the computer. One malfunctioning
drive can cause the other device to stop working.

The System Doesn’t Recognize the Full Capacity of the Hard Drive
There are a few different reasons why a computer might not make full use of a hard drive.

Many BIOSs are limited as to the maximum size of a supported partition. In the past, the only way to get around these
limitations was to partition the drive so that each partition fit into the size limitation. However, today, unless the
computer is very old, there are more satisfactory ways to get around this problem. The following list will be a helpful
guide.

Enable large drive support in the BIOS, if available. This includes a setting called LBA support.
Check for a BIOS update. The source of the update should show a list of changes from the previous BIOS version. If
there have been any BIOS versions released after the one installed on the computer but before the newest update, you
might have to view them to see if any of them have a fix to this problem.

Install drive overlay software. This is available for download from the hard drive manufacturers, although it’s not
always called “drive overlay” software. If the computer locks up on boot and the hard drive is larger than 33GB, check to
see if the BIOS is Award 4.5x. If so, drive overlay software should solve the problem.

Remove drive overlay software. Oddly enough, this software can sometimes cause the problem it was designed to
solve, especially if it is installed on a newer computer. You will probably have to boot the computer with the drive
overlay floppy and elect to uninstall the software once you get to the main program page.

Other Hard Drive Problems

Disk too full: Whenever a system runs poorly or if you get Windows Protection errors, check to make sure that at least
10 percent of the drive is unused. The paging file and other temporary files need this space. If less than 10 percent of
the disk capacity remains, you will have to delete or transfer some data to another location. You might have to install
the hard drive on another computer to do this. Another choice is to copy all or some of the data onto a larger drive and
install the new drive in the computer. We discuss data backup later in this chapter.

The system suddenly can’t read data on the drive: This is a sign of possible hard drive failure. If Windows is still
running, run ScanDisk (9x), or Error-Checking/CHKDSK (2000, XP). Make sure to select the “Thorough” and
“Automatically fix errors” check boxes on ScanDisk, or the “Automatically fix file system errors” and “Scan for and
attempt recovery of bad sectors” check boxes on Error-Checking/CHKDSK before running. You can also try the
methods described in the previous list under “Operating system is missing.”

If you have removed a hard drive from a Gateway computer with 98 or Me, and installed it in another machine and find
that the second machine can’t read any data from the drive, Gateway’s Go Back utility might have been installed on the
drive. Reinstall the drive in the Gateway machine, boot to Windows if possible, and uninstall Go Back. To do this, go to
Control Panel, Add/Remove Programs.

If Windows stops running, you can boot a system with a Windows 98 or Me startup disk and scan a FAT or FAT32
partition by typing SCANDISK at the command prompt and pressing <Enter>. With NTFS partitions, you’ll have to use a
third-party program such as Norton Utilities or Partition Magic. Diagnostic programs such as Micro-Scope and PC
Certify can also be very helpful.

Hard Drive Trouble Indicators

Some hard drive problems are indicated by blue screens or a message in 2000 or XP’s Disk Management. This will
usually require you to write down the entire error message and search Microsoft’s Knowledge Base. In Disk
Management, there is a status indicator on each partition’s graph. Underneath the drive letter, size, and file system
you’ll see a word; hopefully the word is “Healthy,” although you could see words such as “Failed” or “Unreadable.” For
more information, access the Help files in Computer Management and search for “healthy.” Then, select “Disk status
descriptions” or “Volume status descriptions” and click the Display button.

If you get these indicators or other serious error messages, but the drive appears to work, there is no time to waste to
back up important data.

For more help with hard drive problems, go to computerhope.com/help/hdd.htm.

 INFORMATION SHEET NUMBER #15
SAVING DATA

Anyone who has important data is advised to back it up regularly. Few of us, however, do so. However, if you have an indication that
a drive is about to fail, you might be able to save the data before it does. There are various ways to do this. First, you could copy the
data directly. You can install the replacement hard drive into a separate computer on its own channel and transfer the data over a
network, or barring that, you could install the replacement hard drive into the same computer on the other channel. Disconnect an
optical drive if you have to. The XCOPY command is particularly good for this.

XCOPY

While you could manually transfer data in Windows, the XCOPY command gives you the advantage of certain options that
streamline the process. Using the following switches when copying from the C drive to the E drive causes the system to copy hidden
and system files, and continue copying even if some files are bad, among other benefits:
XCOPY C: E: /E /V /C /I /F /H

For more information, see the description of XCOPY.You can also open the command prompt and type XCOPY /?. This will provide
the command’s syntax and list the switches.

Another way to copy blocks of data is by using software such as Drive Copy™ or Drive Image® (powerquest.com or symantec.com).
These programs have to be installed, but they work much faster than XCOPY.

Backup Programs

There are also backup programs that take all the data to be backed up and create a single highly compressed file. These programs
provide a way to back up and restore data, including OSs and programs, exactly the way they were. Early Windows Backup
programs could store the backup only on the local drive, floppies, or on a network drive, although the backup file can always be
moved to another drive (assuming the media is big enough for the entire file) once the backup is complete. The most common
backup program is Backup Utility for Windows, better known as Windows Backup, available in Start: > Programs (All Programs in XP
Professional): > Accessories: > System Tools. The interface for Windows Backup is simple. Just follow the wizard.

Windows Backup.

There are many third-party backup programs on the market, most of which offer more features than Windows Backup does.

Hard Drive Crash

If you have a hard drive that has absolutely ceased to work no matter what steps you have taken to restore it, it has probably
crashed. To recover the data, your only option might be to send the drive to a recovery company such as Ontrack (ontrack.com).
This is an expensive operation, so it is done mainly when the data is critically important.

File and Settings Transfer Wizard

Introduced with Windows XP, the File and Settings Transfer Wizard allows you to set up a new computer running Windows XP as
close as possible to the old one running Windows versions 95 through 2000, including NT 4.0. Available in Start > Programs (All
Programs in XP) > Accessories > System Tools, this wizard is easy to follow. Early versions have been troublesome, however. To
correct any problems, make sure to install Service Pack 1 or later on Windows XP before proceeding.