13/04/2022 Abdulkerim A.

Electrical Machines 2: 1

Bahir Dar University

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering

ADVANCED ELECTRICAL MACHINE (Eeng 4183)

CHAPTER TWO
Transformers

By: Abdulkerim Ali

[email protected]
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Out lines
 Introduction

 Inrush currents

 Harmonics

 Parallel operation

 Design aspect

 Special transformers
 Introduction

 Transformer is a Static device that transfers electrical energy from

one circuit to another by electromagnetic induction.

 A Transformer is a passive device that transforms or converts the

given impedance, voltage or current to another desired value.

 The electrical current flowing in a transformer is Alternating current.

 The electrical energy is always transferred

 without a change in frequency.

 but may involve changes in magnitudes of voltage and current.

3
 4

 The transformer winding which receives energy from the supply

mains is called primary winding.

 The other winding which delivers electrical energy to the load is

called secondary winding.

Transformers can be step up or step down.

If the secondary winding has more number of turns than the
primary winding, the transformer is step- up.

 When the secondary winding has less turns than the primary
windings the transformer is step - down.
 5

Basic Operation Principle of a Transformer

In its most basic form a transformer consists of:

 A primary coil or winding.

 A secondary coil or winding.

 A core that supports the coils or winding and

 insulator

Fig2.1 Transformer Construction

 Cont’d.… 6

 When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alternating voltage V1

is applied to a primary winding, a small current flows and set up a
magnetic flux in the core.

 This alternating flux links both primary and secondary coils and
induces in them e.m.f.’s of E1 and E2.

 The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns is given by

 7

Losses that Occur in Real Transformers:

1. Copper losses: are the resistive heating losses in the primary and
secondary windings of the transformer.
2. Eddy current losses(core loss): are resistive heating losses in the
core of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the
voltage applied to the transformer.
3. Leakage flux losses: are fluxes which escape the core and pass
through only one of the transformer windings.
 8

As a conclusion, the major differences between an ideal and

real transformer are as follows:

a) An ideal transformer’s core does not have any hysteresis and

eddy current losses.
b) The magnetization curve of an ideal transformer is similar to a
step function and the net mmf is zero.
c) Flux in an ideal transformer stays in the core and hence
leakage flux is zero.
d) The resistance of windings in an ideal transformer is zero.
 9

Types and Construction of Transformers

• The magnetic core of a transformer is made up of thin laminations

(0.35mm) of silicon steel sheets lightly insulated with varnish.

• The primary and secondary coils are wound on the core and are

electrically insulated from each other and from the core.

• There are basically three types of transformer depends on core

construction:

I. Core-type II. Shell-type. III. Auto-type

• The difference b/n them is the manner in which the windings are

placed on the magnetic core.

 10

1. Core type transformer

• The primary and secondary windings are wound on two separate legs.

• The vertical portions of the core are usually called limbs or legs.

• the top and bottom portions are called yoke.

• This means that for single-phase transformers, core-type has two-
legged core
• most of the flux is confined to high permeability core.
 11

2. Shell type Transformer

has three-legged core

The steel core surrounds a major part of the windings.

In this type of transformer the two windings are placed on the
central leg of the core.

- In both core and shell-type transformers, the individual

laminations are cut in the form of long strips of L's, E’s U’s and I's
as shown in the Figure.
 12

3. Auto transformers

• An auto transformer is a transformer which uses one winding

for the primary and for the secondary winding.

Step up auto transformer Step down auto transformer

 13

Types of transformers depends on purpose:

 Step up/Unit transformers – Usually located at the output of a generator. Its

function is to step up the voltage level so that transmission of power is
possible.

 Step down/Substation transformers – Located at main distribution or

secondary level transmission substations. Its function is to lower the voltage
levels for distribution 1st level purposes. Up to 200KVA

 Distribution Transformers – located at small distribution substation. It

lowers the voltage levels for 2nd level distribution purposes.
 They are up to a size of about 200-250KVA

 Special Purpose Transformers - E.g. Potential Transformer (PT) , Current

Transformer (CT)
 14

Transformer Ratings
 Transformers are rated in volt-amperes (VA) or kilovolt-amperes (kVA).

 This means that the primary and the secondary winding are designed to
withstand the VA or kVA rating stamped on the transformer nameplate.

VA rating
 For single phase: Full-load current =
Voltage

kVA∗1000
Or Full-load current =
Voltage

VA rating
 For three phases: Full-load current =
3 ∗Voltage
 15

Application of Transformers
Transformers are used for:

 Impedance matching to achieve maximum power transfer between two

devices.

 Voltage/current step-up or step-down.

 Common mode rejection in balanced architectures

 Interfacing between balanced and unbalanced circuits; example: push-pull

amplifiers, ICs with balanced input such as Ac to Dc converters.

 DC isolation between circuits while affording efficient AC transmission.

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Transformer Inrush current

 Inrush current is described as the magnitude of instantaneous
current drawn by a line-frequency power transformer at the time the
core is energized; it’s of short duration, often milliseconds.

 High inrush current is a time-dependent phenomenon caused by a

coincidental set of circumstances that must occur simultaneously at
the moment of switch on.

 Transformer inrush currents are drawn by the high saturation of the

iron core during the switching-on of the transformer.
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 When a transformer is taken off-line, a certain amount of residual

flux remains in the core due to the properties of the magnetic core
material.

 The residual flux can be as much as 50 to 90% of the maximum

operating flux, depending the type of core steel.

 When voltage is reapplied to the transformer, the flux introduced by

this source voltage builds upon that already existing in the core.

 Depending on the transformer design, the magnitude of this current

inrush can be anywhere from 3.5 to 40 times the rated full-load
current.
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 The waveform of the inrush current is similar to a sine wave, but

largely skewed to the positive or negative direction.

 This inrush current generally does not create any permanent fault in

transformer but can cause unwanted tripping of circuit breaker of

transformer at the time of changing the transformer. And also on the

operation of relays and fuses located in the system near the

transformer.
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Some effects of high inrush include:

 nuisance fuse or breaker interruptions,
 arcing and failure of primary circuit components, such as
switches.
 necessitate over-sizing of fuses or breakers.
 the injection of noise and distortion back into the mains.
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Harmonics
 Harmonics are a mathematical way of describing distortion to a
voltage or currents wave form with an integer multiples of the
fundamental power frequency
 If the fundamental power frequency is 60 Hz, then the 2nd
harmonic is 120 Hz, the 3rd is 180 Hz, etc.
 In modern test equipment today harmonics can be measured up to
the 63rd harmonic.
 Harmonic frequencies from the 3rd to the 25th are the most
common range of frequencies measured in electrical distribution
systems.
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The primary effect of power line harmonics in transformer is, thus

the additional heat generated.

Harmonics are caused by the by-product of modern electronic

equipment such as,

 Personal computers, laser printers, fax machines, telephone

systems, radios, TVs, adjustable speed drives and variable frequency
drives
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, Battery chargers, and any other equipment powered by switched-

mode power supply (SMPS) equipment.

These current pulses create significant distortion in the electrical

current and voltage wave shape.

 This is referred to as a harmonic distortion and is measured in Total

Harmonic Distortion (THD).

The harmonic behavior becomes important as the size and rating of

the transformer increases.
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Problems caused by harmonic currents:

 overloading of neutrals

 overheating of transformers

 nuisance tripping of circuit breakers

 over-stressing of power factor correction capacitors

 skin effect

Problems caused by harmonic voltages:

 voltage distortion

 induction motors

 zero-crossing noise

 Problems caused when harmonic currents reach the supply

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The Effects of harmonic currents of transformers cause:

1. Additional power loss

2. Creation of harmonic voltage drops across the various circuit impedances

3. Increase copper losses

4. Increased core losses

5. Increased electro magnetic interference with communication circuits.

The Effects of harmonic voltages of the transformer cause:

1. Increased dielectric stress on insulation

2. Electro static interference with communication circuits.

3. Resonance between winding reactance and feeder capacitance.

4. Increased hysteresis and eddy current losses in the laminations

Parallel Operation of Transformers
 Mean two or more transformers are connected to the same supply
bus bars on the primary side and to a common bus bar/load on the
secondary side.
 Parallel Operation of a Single Phase Transformer means that the two
or more transformers having same polarities, same turn ratios, same
phase sequence and the same voltage ratio are connected in parallel
with each other.
 Now we get:
Solving equations (2) and (4) we will get
 The current IA and IB has two components.
 The first component represents the transformers share of the load
currents and the second component is a circulating current in the
secondary windings of the single phase transformer.
The undesirable effects of the circulating currents are as follows
 They increase the copper loss.
 The circulating current overload the one transformer and reduce the
permissible load kVA.
Equal Voltage Ratio
 In order to eliminate circulating currents, the voltage ratios
must be identical. That is a 1= a2
 Under this condition,

 Equating equation (7) and (8) we will get

 From equation (9), it is clear that.
 Thus, for the efficient parallel operation of the two single phase
transformers, the potential differences at full load across the transformer
internal impedance should be equal.
 If the per unit equivalent impedance are not equal, then the transformer
will not share the load in proportion to their kVA ratings.
 As a result, the overall rating of the transformer bank will be reduced.
 Equation (9) can also be written as

 Means the transformer currents are inversely proportional to the transformer

impedance.
Therefore, we know that The total load in volt-ampere (VA) is

The volt-ampere of transformer A is

Similarly, the volt-ampere of transformer B is

Hence, the various equations will be written as shown below

Means the volt-ampere load on each single phase transformer is inversely

proportional to its impedance.
Necessary Conditions: Purpose of Parallel Transformer

1. Same voltage rating 1. To meet the total load requirement

2. Same polarity (load sharing)

3. Same phase sequence 2. To ensure improved reliability

3. Same phase shift 3. To reduce the spare capacity.

4. To increase power transmission capacity

Desirable Conditions:
𝑋𝐴 𝑋𝐵
1. Same ratio of X/R, =
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵

𝐒𝐴 (𝐾𝑉𝐴)
2. = (𝐾𝑉𝐴)𝐴 , 𝑆𝐴 ∝ (𝐾𝑉𝐴)𝐴
𝐒𝐵 𝐵
Design of Transformer
For designing a transformer, we need:
i. Power rating
ii. Voltage levels (primary and secondary)
iii. Currents on both sides
iv. Primary and secondary coils wire diameter/size
v. Iron Core area
vi. Numbers of turns (primary and secondary)
Output Equation of Single Phase Transformer
 The equation which relates the rated kVA output of a transformer to the
area of core and window is called output equation.
 In transformers the output kVA depends on flux density and ampere-turns.
 The flux density is related to core area and the ampere-turns is related to
window area.
 The simplified cross-section of core type and shell type single phase
transformers are shown in figures (1) and (2).
 The low voltage winding is placed nearer to the core in order to reduce
the insulation requirement.
 The space inside the core is called window and it is the space available for
accommodating the primary and secondary winding.
Output Equation of Three Phase Transformer
 The simplified cross-section of core type three phase transformer is shown in
figure.
 The cross-section has three limbs and two windows.
 Each limb carries the low voltage and high voltage winding of a phase.
Emf Per Turn
 The transformer design starts with selection of an appropriate value for
emf per turn.
 Hence an equation for emf per turn can be developed by relating output
kVA, magnetic and electric loading.
 In transformers, the ratio of specific magnetic and electric loading is
specified rather than actual value of specific loadings.
 Let, ratio of specific magnetic and electric loading be

 The volt-ampere per phase of a transformer is given by the product of

voltage and current per phase.
 Considering the primary voltage and current per phase we can write,
 Type K
Single phase core 0.75 – 0.85

Single phase shell 1.0 – 1.2

Three phase core (power) 0.6 – 0.7
Three phase core (distribution) 0.45
Three phase shell 1.3
Choice of flux density (𝑩𝒎 )
The permissible values of flux densities are
A. For transformers using hot rolled silicon steel
i. Distribution transformer – 1.1 to 1.4 wb/𝑚2
ii. Power transformer – 1.2 to 1.5 wb/𝑚2
B. For transformers using cold rolled grain oriented silicon steel (CRGO)
i. Bm = 1.55 Wb/𝑚2 - For transformers with voltage rating upto 132 kv
ii. Bm = 1.6 Wb/𝑚2 - For transformers with voltage rating 132 kV to 275 kv
iii. Bm = 1.7 Wb/𝑚2 - For transformers with voltage rating 275 kV to 400 kv
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Choice of current density (𝛿 )

The permissible values of current density are

1). For standard distribution and small power transformers(oil immersed, self cooled)
𝛿 = 1.5 to 2.6𝐴/𝑚𝑚2
2). For medium and large power transformers (oil-cooled or air blast)
𝛿 = 2.4 𝑡𝑜 3.4𝐴/𝑚𝑚2

3). For large power transformers(oil immersed with forced circulation of oil or with
water cooling coils)
𝛿 = 5.4 𝑡𝑜 6.3𝐴/𝑚𝑚2
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Choice of window space factor, Kw

The choice of Kw depends upon KVA capacity and voltage rating
 For small transformers 10KVA capacity
8
𝐾𝑤 = 30+𝐾𝑉  The value Kw for any other rating can be
interpolated.
 For transformer 50-200KVA capacity
10
𝐾𝑤 =
30+𝐾𝑉
 For large transformers 1000KVA capacity
12
𝐾𝑤 = 30+𝐾𝑉

Where, 𝐾𝑉 is the voltage in kilo-volts of high voltage winding

Design of Cores
 For core type transformer the cross-section may be rectangular, square or stepped.
 When circular coils are required for distribution and power transformers, the
square and stepped cores are used.
 For shell type transformer the cross-section may be rectangular.
 When rectangular cores are used the coils are also rectangular in shape.
 The rectangular core is suitable for small and low voltage transformers.
 In core type transformer with rectangular cores, the ratio of depth to width of
the core is 1.4 to 2.
 In shell type transformers with rectangular cores the width of the central limb
is 2 to 3 times the depth of the core.
• In square cores the diameter of the circumscribing circle is larger than the
diameter of stepped cores of same area of cross-section.
• Thus when stepped cores are used the length of mean turn of winding is reduced
with consequent reduction in both cost of copper and copper loss.
• However with larger number of steps a large number of different sizes of
laminations have to be used.
• This results in higher labor charges for shearing and assembling different types of
laminations.
Square Cores

Let d = diameter of circumscribing circle

• Also, d = diagonal of the square core and
• a = side of square
• Diameter of circumscribing circle,
Thus, Ai = Ks ×Agi
Where Ks = stacking factor, usually value is 0.85-0.9
 Another useful ratio for the design of transformer core is core area factor.
• It is the ratio of net core area and square of the circumscribing circle

Two Stepped Core For Cruciform Core

• In stepped cores the dimensions of the steps should be chosen, such as to occupy
maximum area within a circle. The dimensions of the two step to give maximum
area for the core in the given area of circle are determined as follows.
• Let, a = Length of the rectangle
b = Breadth of the rectangle
d = Diameter of the circumscribing circle
Overall Dimensions of The Transformer

• The main dimensions of the transformer are Height of window (Hw) and Width of
window (Ww).
• The other important dimensions of the transformer are width of largest stamping
(a), diameter of circumscribing circle (d), and distance between core centres (D),
height of yoke (Hy), depth of yoke (Dy), overall height of transformer frame (H)
and overall width of transformer frame (W).
• These dimensions for various types of transformers are shown in figures.
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After designing the core and yoke sections and also window dimensions , the over
all dimensions could be computed

Let be H = overall height

W = overall width

1. For single phase core type 2. For three phase core type transformer,

transformer transformer

D  ww  d D  ww  d
Dy  a Dy  a
H  hw  2hy H  hw  2hy
W  Da W  2D  a
 Single phase core type transformer

• The above figure shows a vertical and horizontal cross-section of the

core and winding assembly of a core type single phase transformer.
• The following figure shows a vertical and horizontal cross-section of
the core and winding assembly of a core type three phase transformer.

Single phase core type transformer

Example 1:
Example 2:
 Instrumental (Special) Transformers
• Two special -purpose transformers are used with power
systems for taking measurements at a safe level.

• Potential Transformer (PT or VT )

• Current Transformer ( CT)

 The main tasks of instrument transformers:

• To transform currents or voltages

• To insulate the relays, metering and instruments from

the primary high-voltage system.

• To measure of current and voltages

Cont’d……

 VT is an open-circuited transformer whose primary

winding is connected across the main electrical system
voltage being monitored.

 CT is having its primary winding directly connected in

series with the main circuit carrying the full operating
current of the system.
 PT/VT
• Two types of voltage transformers used for protection
equipment.
1. Electromagnetic type ( VT) – used up to 110/132 kV
2. Capacitor type ( CVT) – used extra HV
• The electromagnetic type is a step down transformer whose
primary (HV) and secondary (LV) windings are connected as
shown.

Fig Electromagnetic type

 CT
• There are two types of current transformers:

1. Wound primary type - for smaller currents

2. Bar primary type – for greater than 100A

Wound primary type

Bar primary type