Engineering Mathematics 1

Dr Tang Wee Kee

Division of Mathematical Sciences,
School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences,
Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore

Semester 1 2023/24
2
Contents

Contents -1

I Algebra 1

1 Complex Numbers 3
1.1 The set of real numbers R & its subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Argand diagram & Polar representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Operations on complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.1 Conjugate of a complex number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.2 Addition & Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.3 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.4 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5.1 Solving irreducible quadratic equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 De Moivre’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Finding nth roots of z = r(cos + i sin ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7.1 Finding nth roots of unity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7.2 Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7.3 Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Vectors 25
2.1 Geometrical Representation of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Vector Addition & Scalar Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3
4 CONTENTS

2.3 Vectors in Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.3.1 Vectors in 2-space (the plane). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.2 Vectors in 3-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 Lines and Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.1 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.2 Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3 Matrices 45
3.1 Matrix Notation and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Arithmetic Operations of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2.1 Addition & Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2.2 Scalar Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2.3 Matrix Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 Transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4 Matrix Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.1 Invertible Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1
3.4.2 The inverse A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4.3 Invertible 2 by 2 matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.6 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.1 Cofactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.2 Determinants of Special Matrices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.7 Adjoint of A (Optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.8 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.9 Proofs (Optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

II Calculus 75

4 Limits and Continuity 77

4.1 Limit of a Function at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2 One-sided Limit of a Function at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3 In…nite Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
CONTENTS 5

4.4 Limits at In…nity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.5 Limit Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.6 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.7 One-sided Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.8 Properties on Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.9 Techniques in Finding Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.9.1 Eliminating Zero Denominators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.9.2 Rationalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.9.3 Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.10 One-sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.11 Limit Laws for In…nite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.12 Evaluation of Limits at In…nity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.13 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.14 The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.15 The Extreme Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5 Di¤erentiation 107
5.1 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1.1 Derivatives & Di¤erentiable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.1.2 Higher Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2 Di¤erentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2.1 Di¤erentiability and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2.2 Di¤erentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.2.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.2.4 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . 121
5.2.5 Parametric Di¤erentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3 Implicit Di¤erentiation and Di¤erentiation of Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.3.1 Implicit Di¤erentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.3.2 Logarithmic Di¤erentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.3.3 Derivative of Inverse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4 Problems on Rate of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
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5.5 Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

5.6 Newton’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.7 Closed Interval Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.8 Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.8.1 L’Hospital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.8.2 Other Indeterminate Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.9 Maximum and Minimum Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.10 Second Derivative and the Nature of Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.10.1 Second Derivative and Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.10.2 The nature of extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.10.3 Curve Sketching (Optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

6 Integration 149
6.1 Antiderivatives & Inde…nite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.1.1 Rules for Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.2 The De…nite Integral and Area Under a Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.2.1 Properties of De…nite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.3.1 The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.3.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.3.3 An Application of Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . 165
6.4 Techniques of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.4.1 The Substitution Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.4.2 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.5 Integration of Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.6 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.6.1 Improper Integral (1): Unbounded Integrand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.6.2 Improper Integral (2): Unbounded Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.6.3 Comparison Test for Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.7 Area and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.7.1 Area under a Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.7.2 Volumes Using Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
CONTENTS -1

6.7.3 Volume of Solid of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

6.8 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.8.1 Trapezoidal Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.8.2 Simpson’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
0 CONTENTS
Part I

Algebra

1
Chapter 1

Complex Numbers

1.1 The set of real numbers R & its subsets

The following are some commonly used sets of numbers.

1. The set of natural numbers, N = f0; 1; 2; 3; : : :g:

2. The set of integers Z = f: : : ; 3; 2; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; : : :g:

n o
3. The set of rational numbers Q = pq : p; q 2 Z and q 6= 0 :
A number is rational if and only if it has a recurring decimal representation. (E.g.,
0:111:::: = 91 ; 21 = 0:5 = 0:500000::::):
Question: Is there a rational number x such that x2 = 2?
Answer: No. The set Q of rational numbers is "incomplete". It has many holes.
Numbers
p with non-recurring decimal representations are called irrational numbers.
E.g., 2; ; e are irrationals. The sets of rational numbers and irrational numbers
together form the set of real numbers.

4. The set of real numbers is denoted by R.

Question: Is the set of real numbers su¢ cient to handle all our mathematical encoun-
ters?

1.2 Complex Numbers

Does the quadratic equation x2 + 1 = 0 have a real root? That is, are there real numbers x
at which x2 = 1?
The answer is NO, because we have x2 0 for every real number x.

3
4 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

To deal with the above irreducible quadratic equation, a new symbol ‘i’is introduced,
where i2 = 1. Thus, x2 + 1 = 0 has two distinct roots namely i and i.
Powers of i

i2 = 1; i3 = (i2 )(i) = i;

i4 = (i2 )(i2 ) = ( 1)( 1) = 1; i5 = (i4 )(i) = i; : : :

Let k 2 Z. Then we have

i4k = (i4 )k = 1; i4k+1 = i; i4k+2 = 1; i4k+3 = i:

Note: Values of in depends on the remainder when n is divided by 4.

De…nition 1.2.1. A complex number z is a mathematical object of the form x + yi, where
x and y are real numbers.
Remark 1.2.2. The real numbers x and y are called the real part and imaginary part of
the complex number z respectively. We denote the real and imaginary parts of a complex
number z by Re(z) and Im(z) respectively.

We represent the set of all complex numbers by C.

Example 1.2.3. Examples of complex numbers are:

p
3 + 5i; 3:5 i; 3 + i; + 9i;

Re(3 + 5i) = 3 and Im(3 + 5i) = 5:

De…nition 1.2.4. (Equality of complex numbers.)
Two complex numbers z = x + yi and z 0 = x0 + y 0 i, where x; x0 ; y and y 0 are real numbers,
are said to be equal if
x = x0 and y = y 0 :
That is, Re(Z) = Re(z 0 ) and Im(Z) = Im(z 0 ).
Example 1.2.5. Suppose that x and y are real numbers such that the two complex number
(2x 3) + 5i and (x + 7) (y + 1)i are equal. Find the values of x and y.

Solution
1.3. ARGAND DIAGRAM & POLAR REPRESENTATION 5

Remark 1.2.6.

(1) We identify every real number x as a complex number x = x + 0i. In view of this we
may think of the set of real number as a subset of the set of complex numbers, i.e.,
R C.

(2) We say that a complex number z = x + iy is purely imaginary if the real part of z,
namely x, is zero.

1.3 Argand diagram & Polar representation

Argand Diagram.

1. Since each complex number z is determined uniquely by its real and imaginary parts,
we can represent each complex number by a unique point on the xy-place, i.e., by
identifying each complex number z = x + yi by the point with coordinate (x; y):
We can also view each z = x + iy on the Argand diagram as a vector with initial point
(0; 0) and terminal point (x; y).

Im

iy x + iy

x Re

Modulus and Argument

1. From the Argand diagram, the vector (x; y) representing a complex number z = x + iy
can also be determined by stating the distance from the point (x; y) to the origin,
together with the angle the line segment from (0; 0) to (x; y) made with the positive
x-axis in the anticlockwise direction.
We shall de…ne such distance the modulus of z, denoted by jzj, and such an angle
an argument of z, pdenoted by arg(z). So, the modulus jzj of the complex number
z = x + yi is jzj = x2 + y 2 and its argument arg(z) is the angle such that
6 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

x = jzj cos and y = jzj sin :

Note that tan = xy , if x 6= 0.

If arg(z) = ,then arg(z) = + 2k , for every integer k.

In particular, when the angle is chosen such that < , we say this is the
principal argument of z.

2. Polar form of z

Using the modulus and argument we can express a complex number z = x + iy as

z = r(cos + i sin ) or z = rcis , where r = jzj and is an argument of z. This
representation is known as the polar form (also known as trigonometric form ) of z.

3. Exponential form of z

The exponential form of a complex number z = r(cos + i sin ) is z = rei : This

is commonly used in electronics, engineering and physics. It is convenient in discussing
multiplication, division of complex numbers.
1.3. ARGAND DIAGRAM & POLAR REPRESENTATION 7

Example 1.3.1. Let z = 3 3i:

(a) Find the modulus and principal argument of z, and hence …nd its polar representation.
(b) Write down the exponential form of z.

Solution

5
i
Example 1.3.2. Express z = 5e 3 in rectangular form.

Solution
8 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.4 Operations on complex numbers

In this section, we discuss taking conjugation of a complex number, and four arithmetic
operations between two complex numbers. We shall also look at the representation of these
operations in Argand diagram. We also state and discuss related properties.

1.4.1 Conjugate of a complex number.

De…nition 1.4.1. The conjugate of a complex number z = x + yi is the complex number

z = x yi.

Other notation for the complex conjugate of z is z .

Argand Diagram representing z and z:

Example 1.4.2. Write down the conjugates of each of the following complex numbers:

z z
3 + 5i
10
3:5
p i
3+i
p + 9i
7i
1.4. OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS 9

Conjugate in Polar Form

The conjugate of the complex number
z = r (cos + i sin ) (in polar form) or z = rei (in exponential form), is respectively

z = r (cos( ) + i sin( )) ; or
z = re i :

Proposition 1.4.3. (a) For every complex number z, we have (z) = (z ) = z.

(b) A complex number z is real if and only of z = z.

(c) A complex number z is imaginary if and only of z = z.

(d) For every complex number z, note that jzj = jzj and arg(z)) = arg(z).

1.4.2 Addition & Subtraction

Complex numbers can be added or subtracted by adding or subtracting the real parts and
the imaginary parts separately. Formally we de…ne the two operations as follows:

De…nition 1.4.4. Given two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i, we de…ne

z1 z2 = (x1 + y1 i) (x2 + y2 i) = (x1 x2 ) + (y1 y2 )i:

Example 1.4.5.

(a) (3 + 5i) + (3:5 i) = 6:5 4i

p p
(b) ( 3 + i) ( + 9i) = ( 3 ) + ( 8)i

Proposition 1.4.6.

(i) z + 0 = z = 0 + z, where 0 = 0 + 0i is the real number zero.

(ii) For every z = x + iy, the complex number z= x + ( y)i satis…es z + ( z) = 0 =

( z1 ) + z.

(iii) z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 (Commutative Law for Addition).

(iv) (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ) (Associative Law for Addition).

(v) z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
10 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.4.3 Multiplication
To multiply two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i, we can perform the
multiplication treating i as a symbol. But we replace i2 by ( 1) when we simplify it :

z1 z2 = (x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i)
= x1 x2 + x1 y2 i + (y1 i)x2 + (y1 i)(y2 i)
= (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )i

Example 1.4.7. Evaluate (3 + 5i) (2 i)

Solution

Proposition 1.4.8. (i) z 1 = z = 1 z.

(ii) z1 z2 = z2 z1 (Commutative Law for product).

(iii) (z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ) (Associative Law for product).

(iv) z1 z2 = z1 z2 .

(v) z z = jzj2 . In particular, if z 6= 0, then z z > 0.

(vi) z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 (Distributive Property)

Product in Polar Form

From the above algebraic expression, it is not clear there is a geometrical relationship
between z1 , z2 and their product. We shall express the product in polar representation to
deduce a geometrical relation.
Let us express the two complex numbers in polar form:
z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1) and z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ).

We have
1.4. OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS 11

z1 z2 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1) r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2)

=

= r1 r2 (cos( 1 + 2) + i sin( 1 + 2 )) :

Proposition 1.4.9.

1. Modulus of the product is the product of moduli:

jz1 z2 j = r1 r2 = jz1 j jz2 j

2. Argument of the product is the sum of arguments:

arg(z1 z2 ) = 1 + 2 = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ):

This implies the complex number z1 z2 lies on the line obtained by rotating the line
segment representing z1 by the angle arg(z2 ).
Represent the product of z1 and z2 on an Argand diagram:

Remark For a complex number z, the complex number z (cos + i sin ) is represented
on the Argand diagram by by rotating z through .

1.4.4 Division
1 p
Recall that to express p in the form a + b 5, we perform the following
3+2 5
p p
1 3 2 5 3 2 5 3 2p
p p = p = 5:
3+2 5 3 2 5 32 + (2 5)2 29 29
12 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

In a similar way, to divide a complex number z1 = x1 + y1 i by a non-zero complex

number z2 = x2 + y2 i (i.e., z2 6= 0), we use the conjugate z2 = x2 y2 i, where z2 z2 = x22 + y22
is a positive real number.
We have

z1 z1 z2
=
z2 z2 z2

z1 z2 z1 z2
= =
z2 z2 jz2 j2

3+5i
Example 1.4.10. Evaluate 2 i
:

Solution
1.5. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA 13

Division in Polar Form

In polar form, we have z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1) and z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ), such that

z1 jz1 j
=
z2 jz2 j

z1
arg( ) = arg(z1 ) arg(z2 )
z2

Thus, we have

z1 r1
= (cos( 1 2) + i sin( 1 2 )) :
z2 r2
1
Example 1.4.11. Let z = cos + i sin . Find jzj and show that z
= z.

Solution

1.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Theorem 1.5.1 (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). Every polynomial equation of the
form
an x n + an 1 x n 1 + + a1 x + a0 = 0;
in which the coe¢ cients a0 ; a1 ; : : : ; an 1 ; an are any complex numbers, whose degree n is
greater than or equal to one, and whose leading coe¢ cient an is not zero, has exactly n roots
in the complex number system, provided each multiple root of multiplicity m is counted as m
roots.
14 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Proof (Omitted): Textbook on theory of complex analysis.

1.5.1 Solving irreducible quadratic equation

Recall that for a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (or simply a quadratic expression), its
discriminant ,D, is de…ned as D = b2 4ac.

(i) If D > 0, the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two distinct real roots given by
p
b b2 4ac
x= :
2a
(ii) If D = 0, the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has repeat real roots given by
b
x= :
2a
(iii) If D < 0, the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two distinct complex roots given
by p
b i (b2 4ac)
x= :
2a
Note that the two complex roots are conjugate of each other.
When D < 0, the quadratic equation or expression is said to be irreducible.
Example 1.5.2. Solve the quadratic equation 2x2 3x + 5 = 0.

Solution

In fact there is a more general result, stated below, which we are ready to prove.
Polynomial with Real Coe¢ cients
1.6. DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM 15

Theorem 1.5.3. Suppose p(x) = an xn + an 1 xn 1 + + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial in x with

real coe¢ cients ak ’s. If z is a solution to p (x) = 0, then the conjugate z is also a solution
of p (x) = 0:

For example: suppose we are given that z0 = 1+i is a complex root of x3 x2 +2 = 0, then
is also a complex root of x3 x2 +2 = 0. Therefore,
is a quadratic factor of x3 x2 + 2. Moreover, (x z0 )(x z0 ) = x2 (z0 + z0 )x + z z0 is a
real coe¢ cient quadratic factor.

As a consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and the above result, we have
the following useful result.

Theorem 1.5.4. Every odd degree polynomial p(x) with real coe¢ cients has at least one
real root.

For example: 9x5 + 7x2 6x + = 0 has at least one real root.

1.6 De Moivre’s Theorem

In this section, we shall state and prove de Moivre’s Theorem. For a positive integer n, we
use De Moivre’s Theorem to …nd n-th root of a complex number. In particular, we apply it
to determine all distinct n-th roots of unity.

Theorem 1.6.1 (De Moivre’s Theorem).

For every integer n,

(cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n :

We look at some examples to illustrate the theorem before we discuss its proof.

Example 1.6.2. Express each of the following complex numbers in the form cos n +i sin n .

(a) (cos + i sin )9

4
(b) (cos + i sin )

Solution
16 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Example 1.6.3. Simplify each of the following complex numbers:

2
(a) (cos 4
+ i sin 4 )

(b) (cos 3
+ i sin 3 )9

Example 1.6.4. Express each of the following complex numbers in the form (cos +i sin )n .

(a) cos 7 + i sin 7 .

(b) cos 5 i sin 5

Solution

PROOF of De Moivre’s Theorem

We prove the theorem by considering two cases: First Case: n is a non-negative integer,
i.e., n 0 and Second Case: n is a negative integer, i.e., n < 0.
Case 1 n is non-negative integer
We shall prove
(cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n ;
for n = 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : by Mathematical Induction.

1. Verify the result holds for n = 0

(cos + i sin )0 = 1; cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 0 = 1:

1.6. DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM 17

2. Assume the result hold for some non-negative integer k

(cos + i sin )k = cos k + i sin k :

3. We shall prove the result holds for k + 1 i.e.,

(cos + i sin )k+1 = cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1) :

Indeed:
LHS = (cos + i sin )k+1 = (cos + i sin )k (cos + i sin )
= (cos k + i sin k ) (cos + i sin )
= (cos k cos sin k sin ) + i (sin k cos + cos k sin )
= cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1) :

Therefore by Mathematical induction, (cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n for all non-
negative integer n.
Case 2 n is a negative integer, i.e., n = 1; 2; 3; : : :.
Let n = m where m is a positive integer. Note that

(cos + i sin )n = (cos + i sin ) m

1 1
= m =
(cos + i sin ) cos m + i sin m
1 cos m i sin m
=
cos m + i sin m cos m i sin m

cos m i sin m
= = cos m i sin m
cos (m ) + sin2 (m )
2

= cos( m )+i sin ( m ) = cos n + i sin n :

18 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.7 Finding nth roots of z = r(cos + i sin )

We begin with an example to have a geometrical idea of …nding roots of a complex number.

Example 1.7.1. Find all distinct cube roots of z = cos 3

+ i sin 3

The cube roots of cos 3

+ i sin 3
are:

7 7 13 13
(cos + i sin ); (cos + i sin ) & (cos + i sin ):
9 9 9 9 9 9
1.7. FINDING N TH ROOTS OF Z = R(COS + I SIN ) 19

Theorem 1.7.2 (Distinct nth roots).

Consider a complex number z in polar form

z = r(cos + i sin ); where r > 0 and < :

The nth distinct roots of the complex number z = r(cos + i sin ) are

p
n
2k + 2k +
zk = r cos + i sin ; k = 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : ; n 1:
n n

Theorem 1.7.3 (Distinct nth roots - exponential form).

In exponential form, we have all n distinct nth roots of the complex number z = rei are
p +2k
zk = n
r ei n ; k = 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : ; n 1:

The n integers can be chosen to be any n consecutive integers.

p
Example 1.7.4. Find all 5th roots of 3 + i

Solution
20 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Corollary 1.7.5. The n distinct complex numbers

2k 2k 2k
wk = cis ( + ) = cos( + ) + i sin( + ); k = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; n 1
n n n n n n
are all n distinct roots of cos + i sin .

Example 1.7.6. The nine distinct 9th roots of cos 2

+ i sin 2
= i are

=2 2k + 4k
wk = cis ( + ) = cis ( ); k = 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : ; 8;
9 9 18

They are
5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33
cis ( ); cis ( ); cis ( ) = cis = i; cis ( ); cis ( ); cis ( ); cis ( ); cis ( ) & cis ( )
18 18 18 2 18 18 18 18 18 18
1.7. FINDING N TH ROOTS OF Z = R(COS + I SIN ) 21

1.7.1 Finding nth roots of unity.

Note that 1 = 1 + 0i = cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 2k + i sin 2k , where k is an integer. We call
n-th roots of 1 the n-th roots of unity.
Corollary 1.7.7 (nth roots of unity). The n distinct nth roots of unity are
2k 2k
zk = cos + i sin ; k = 0; 1; 2; 3; : : : ; n 1:
n n
By De Moivre’s Theorem, we have zk = (z1 )k .

On the Argand diagram, all n-th roots of 1 are represented by points on the unit circle
and they are equally spaced by 2n :

1.7.2 Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities I

We can use De Moivre’s Theorem to express cos n , sin n and tan n in terms of powers of
cos , sin and tan .
Tools:
cos n = Re(cos n + i sin n ) = Re (cos + i sin )n ;
sin n = Im(cos n + i sin n ) = Im (cos + i sin )n ;

Apply binomial expansion to (cos + i sin )n

Notation used: c cos , s sin , t tan .
Example 1.7.8. Express sin 3 in terms of powers of sin :

The …rst step is to note that

sin 3 = Im(cos 3 + i sin 3 )
Now, we apply de Moivre’s theorem

sin 3 = Im(cos 3 + i sin 3 )

= Im (cos + i sin )3 (why?)
= Im (c + is)3
= Im (c3 + 3c2 is + 3ci2 s2 + i3 s3 )
= Im (c3 3cs2 + i(3c2 s s3 ))
= 3c2 s s3
22 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS

Using c2 + s2 = 1, we have

sin 3 = 3c2 s s3
= 3(1 s2 )s s3
= 3s 4s3
= 3 sin 4 sin3 :

From the above, we have also obtained an expression for cos 3 :

cos 3 = c3 3cs2 = c3 3c(1 c2 ) = 4c3 3c

Using the expression for both sin 3 and cos 3 , we obtain a similar expression for tan 3 :

sin 3 3c2 s s3
tan 3 = = 3
cos 3 c 3cs2
3c2 s s3 1=c3 3t t3
= : =
c3 3cs2 1=c3 1 3t2

1.7.3 Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities II

Aim: to express cosn or sinn in terms of cosines and sines of multiples of , i.e. cos k ,
sin k .
1
Main Tool: Let z = cos + i sin , we have z
= cos i sin .
Thus we have cos = 12 z + 1
z
and sin = 2i1 z 1
z
: Next, we apply binomial expansion
and group z k and z1k together.
By De Moivre’s Theorem, we have
1
z k = cos k + i sin k and = cos k i sin k
zk
which gives
1 1
zk + = 2 cos k and z k = 2i sin k :
zk zk
Thus, we obtain an expression involving sines and cosines of multiple of .

Example 1.7.9. Prove that cos3 = 14 (cos 3 + 3 cos )

Proof. Let z = cos + i sin . We have

3
3 3 1 1
cos = (cos ) = (z + )
2 z
1.7. FINDING N TH ROOTS OF Z = R(COS + I SIN ) 23

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= z 3 + 3z 2 + 3z( )2 + ( )3 = (z 3 + ) + 3(z + )
8 z z z 8 z3 z
1 1
= [2 cos 3 + 3(2 cos )] = (cos 3 + 3 cos ) :
8 4
24 CHAPTER 1. COMPLEX NUMBERS
Chapter 2

Vectors

Vectors are quantities which have both magnitude and direction. Examples of vectors include
acceleration, displacement, force, momentum and velocity.

2.1 Geometrical Representation of Vectors

We may use a directed segment to represent a vector graphically. The directed segment
!
from a point A to a point B is denoted by AB: The length jABj of the segment represents
the magnitude of the vector.
We may also use lower case bold letters u, v, w to denote vectors.

Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.

Given a vector v, its negative v is the vector with the same magnitude and opposite
direction.

The zero vector 0 is a vector with zero magnitude.

2.2 Vector Addition & Scalar Multiplication

Vector Addition and Subtraction
Given two vectors u and v, we add them to form a new vector u + v as follows:
! ! ! ! ! !
If u = AB and v = BC; then u + v = AC: Or simply AB + BC = AC:

25
26 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

A
B
v -u
v
u
u
C
B
A
u+v O v

Vector Addition Vector Subtraction

! ! ! ! ! !
If u = OA and v = OB; then AB = v u: Or simply AB = OB OA:
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

R
Q
u+v
u

S
v
P

Scalar multiple of vector

If > 0; then v is a vector in the direction of v with magnitude times that of v:
Conversely, any vector that has the same direction as v must be equal to v for some
> 0:
Properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication

u + v = v + u;

u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w;

( v) = ( ) v; ; 2 R,

( + ) v = v+ v; ; 2 R,

(u + v) = u + v; 2 R:
2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM 27

2.3 Vectors in Coordinate System

2.3.1 Vectors in 2-space (the plane).

y

We may position a vector v in the plane R2 with its initial

point at the origin O and the terminal point (v1 ; v2 ) and we write v2
v = (v1 ; v2 ) ; or v =u1 i + v2 j; where i and j are unit vectors in the
positive direction of x and y axis respectively. v

v1
The vector v may be written in the column vector form v = :
v2 j

i v1 x

Suppose u = (u1 ; u2 ) and v = (v1 ; v2 )

1. u = (u1 ; u2 ) is the zero vector if and only if u1 = u2 = 0.
2. Two vectors u = (u1 ; u2 ) and v = (v1 ; v2 ) are equal if and only if u1 = v1 and u2 = v2 .
3. u + v = (u1 ; u2 ) + (v1 ; v2 ) = (u1 + v1 ; u2 + v2 ) :
4. u = (u1 ; u2 ) = ( u1 ; u2 ) ; 2 R:

2.3.2 Vectors in 3-space

Consider a rectangular coordinate system, with three mutually perpendicular lines, called
coordinate axes, passing through a point called the origin.

z0 (0, y 0, z 0)

P(x 0, y 0, z 0)

j y0
y
i O

x0
(x 0, y 0, 0)

Note that we use a right-handed system:

With your palm of right hand along the positive x-axis, rotate 90 towards the positive
y-axis, your thumb points in the positive z-axis.
28 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

Like vectors in 2-space, a vector in 3-space from the point P1 = (x1 ; y1 ; z1 ) to the point
!
P2 = (x2 ; y2 ; z2 ) will be the vector P1 P2 = (x2 x1 ; y2 y1 ; z2 z1 ). In particular, if the
!
starting point is the origin O = (0; 0; 0) and the end point P = (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ), then OP =
(x0 0; y0 0; z0 0) = (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ).
The numbers x0 ; y0 and z0 are called the components of v.
We also write

v =x0 i+y0 j+z0 k;

where i, j and k are unit vectors in the positive direction of0x, y 1

and z axis respectively.
x0
The vector v may be written in the column vector form v = @ y0 A.
z0
Suppose u = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) and v = (u1 ; v2 ; v3 ) are two vectors in 3-space. Then we have
the following:

1. u = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) is the zero vector if and only if u1 = 0, u2 = 0 and u3 = 0.

2. Two vectors u = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) and v = (u1 ; v2 ; v3 ) are equal if and only if u1 = v1 ,

u2 = v2 and u3 = v3 .

3. u + v = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) + (u1 ; v2 ; v3 ) = (u1 + u1 ; u2 + v2 ; u3 + v3 ):

4. ku = k(u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) = (ku1 ; ku2 ; ku3 ).

Length or norm of a vector

p
In 2-space, the length, (or norm, magnitude) of a vector u = (u1 ; u2 ) is kuk = u21 + u22 :
p
In 3-space, the length of a vector u = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) is kuk = u21 + u22 + u23 .

Example 2.3.1. Evaluate the norm of following vectors:

(a) u = (2; 5) in 2-space.
(b) v = ( 1; 2; 2) in 3-space.
(c) u = ( p12 ; 0; p1 )
2
in 3-space.
2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM 29

Solution

Remark The distance d between two points P = (u1 ; u2 ; u3 ) and Q = (u1 ; v2 ; v3 ) is given
! !
by the norm kP Qk of the vector P Q,
p
d = (v1 u1 )2 + (v2 u2 )2 + (v3 u3 )2 :

Note that it follows from the de…nition of ku that kkuk = jkjkuk.

Unit Vectors
p p
A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector. The vector u = ( 1= 2; 0; 1= 2) is a unit
vector.
In particular, the following vectors

i = (1; 0; 0); j = (0; 1; 0) and k = (0; 0; 1)

are unit vectors along the positive direction of x-, y- and z-axes respectively.

It follows that:
1
For a nonzero vector u, the vector u
^ = kuk u is the unit vector along the direction u.

Dot product and projections

The dot product (or scalar product) of two non-zero vectors

u and v is de…ned by u v = jjujj jjvjj cos ; u

where 2 [0; ] is the angle between the two vectors.

θ
If either of u or v is a zero vector, then de…ne u v = 0:
v

Example 2.3.2. Find the dot product of each pair of vectors.

(a) u = (1; 1) and v = (2; 0).

30 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

(b) u = (1; 1) and w = (0; 2).

(c) u = (1; 1) and s = (2; 2).

Solution

Properties of dot product

1. The dot product of 5. ( u) ( v) = ( ) u v:
two vectors is a real number (scalar).
2. u v = v u:; 6. u (v + c) = u v + u c:

3. For any vector u, u u = jjujj2 , 7. (u + v) c = u c + v c:

4. Suppose that u and v are non-zero vectors,

then u v = 0 , u ? v:
Dot product of vectors in column vectors form
u1 v1
Proposition 2.3.3. If u = and v = ; then u v =u1 v1 + u2 v2 :
u2 v2

Proof. Since u = u1 i + u2 j and v = v1 i + v2 j;

u v = (u1 i + u2 j) (v1 i + v2 j)
= (u1 v1 ) i i+ (u1 v2 ) i j+ (u2 v1 ) j i+ (u2 v2 ) j j
= u1 v1 jjijj2 + u2 v2 jjjjj2 ; since i j =0 (i ? j)
= u1 v1 + u2 v2 :

Similarly, we can show that:

0 1 0 1
u1 v1
If u = @ u2 A and v = @ v2 A ; then u v =u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 :
u3 v3
Example 2.3.4. Find the u v if u = (2; 3; 1) and v = (1; 0; 5) :
2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM 31

Solution We have

u v = (2; 3; 1) (1; 0; 5) = 2(1) + 3(0) + ( 1)(5) = 3:

Since u v < 0, the angle between the two vectors is an obtuse angle.
Angle between two vectors
The above formula for dot product turns out to be very useful, especially in …nding the
angle between two given vectors.
If is the angle between two vectors u and v; then
u v
cos = :
jjujj jjvjj

Example 2.3.5. Find the angle between u = i+2j 2k and v = 2i+3j 6k:

Solution Let denote the angle between u and v:

u v = (1) (2) + (2) (3) + ( 2) ( 6) = 20:
v0 1 0 12 0 12
u 2
u
uB C B C B C
u
jjujj = uB
@
C +B C +B
A @ A @
C =3
A
t

v0 12 0 12 0 12
u
u
uB C B C B C
u
jjvjj = uB C +B C +B C =7
t@ A @ A @ A

Then
u v
cos =
jjujj jjvjj

20
= :
21
1 20
= cos = 0:310 rad
21
Example 2.3.6. Find the angle between u = i 2j+2k and v = 2i+3j 6k:

Solution Let denote the angle between u and v:

u v = ( 1) (2) + ( 2) (3) + (2) ( 6) = 20:
32 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS
v0 12 0 12 0 12
u
u
uB C B C B C
u
jjujj = uB C +B C +B C =3
t@ A @ A @ A

v0 12 0 12 0 12
u
u
uB C B C B C
u
jjvjj = uB C +B C +B C =7
t@ A @ A @ A

Then

u v
cos =
jjujj jjvjj
=

20
= ( cos < 0 implies that is )
21
20
= cos 1 = rad
21
2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM 33

Work Done
One of the many applications of dot product in science and engineering is to compute
work done. Recall that force and displacement are vector quantities, they have magnitude
and direction.
The work done by a constant force F acting through a displacement D is the dot product

W = F D:

D
θ
P Q

Example 2.3.7. If kFk = 50N , kDk = 30 m, and = 45 , then the work done by F acting
from P to Q is given by

W = F D = kFk kDk cos

1 1500
= (50) (30) p = p J.
2 2
Projection of a vector
Q

u
! ! !
If u = P Q and v =P R, then P S
is the (perpendicular) projection of u onto v: θ v
P S R

The length of projection of u onto v =

! !
PS = P Q cos
u v u v
= jjujj = :
jjujj jjvjj jjvjj

Then the vector projection of u onto v; projv u

u v u v v
= length of projection ^=
v ^=
v :
jjvjj jjvjj jjvjj
Example 2.3.8. Find the vector projection of u = i 2j+2k onto v = 2i+3j 6k:
34 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

Solution
u v= 16
v0 12 0 12 0 12
u
u
uB C B C B C
u
jjujj = uB C +B C +B C =3
t@ A @ A @ A

v0 12 0 12 0 12
u
u
uB C B C B C
u
jjvjj = uB C +B C +B C =7
t@ A @ A @ A

v 2i+3j 6k
Therefore v
^= = :
jjvjj 7
Then the vector projection of u onto v =
u v
projv u = v
^
jjvjj

16
= (2i+3j 6k) :
49

Cross product

The cross product (or vector product) of

two vectors u and v is de…ned as n
u v = (jjujj jjvjj sin ) n
^;
where is the angle between u and v, v
and n^ is the vector perpendicular to both u and v,
governed by the right hand rule u θ
(u-index …nger, v-middle …nger, n-thumb, of right hand).

Properties of cross product:

1. The cross product of two vectors is a vector.

2. If u and v are parallel, then = 0 and thus u v = 0:

3. u v= v u (anti-commutative).
2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM 35

4. u (v + w) = u v+u w (distributive wrt addition).

5. ( u) ( v) = ( ) (u v) :

Example 2.3.9. i i=j j=k k =0

Example 2.3.10. i j = k; j k = i; k i=j

Discriminant formula for cross product

0 1 0 1
u1 v1
Theorem 2.3.11. If u = @ u2 A and v = @ v2 A ; then
u3 v3

i j k
u v= u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3
u2 u3 u1 u3 u1 u2
= i j+ k:
v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2

Proof.

u v= (u1 i+u2 j+u3 k) (v1 i+v2 j+v3 k)

= u1 v1 i i+u1 v2 i j+u1 v3 i k
+ u2 v1 j i+u2 v2 j j+u2 v3 j k
+ u3 v1 k i+u3 v2 k j+u3 v3 k k
= 0+u1 v2 k+u1 v3 ( j)
+ u2 v1 ( k) +0+u2 v3 (i)
+ u3 v1 (j) +u3 v2 ( i) +0
= (u2 v3 u3 v2 ) i (u1 v3 u3 v1 ) j + (u1 v2 u2 v1 ) k
u2 u3 u1 u3 u1 u2
= i j+ k:
v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2

Example 2.3.12. Find u v if u =(1; 1; 1) and v = (1; 0; 1):

Solution

u v = (1; 1; 1) (1; 0; 1)
1 1 1 1 1 1
= ; ;
0 1 1 1 1 0

= :
36 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

Applications of Vector product

1. Perpendicular Vector
The cross product u v provides a vector perpendicular to both u and v. From this,
we may obtain a unit vector in this direction.
^ which is perpendicular to both u = (1; 1; 1) and
Example 2.3.13. Find a unit vector n
v = (1; 0; 1):

Solution From the previous example,

u v = (1; 0; 1):

Thus, we have
1
^ = p (1; 0; 1):
n
2
A D
2. Area of parallelogram ABCD
=base height
a
= jjBCjj h h

= jjBCjj jjABjj sin

θ
! ! B C
= AB BC :
b

1 1 ! !
3. Area of triangle ABC = 2
of Area of parallelogram ABCD = 2
AB BC :

Example 2.3.14. Find the area of triangle whose vertices are A (1; 0; 0) ; B (0; 1; 0) and
C (0; 0; 1).

1 ! !
Solution Area of triangle ABC = 2
AB AC :
0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 B C
! ! ! @ 0 A=B C
AB = OB OA = @ 1 A @ A
0 0
0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 B C
! ! ! B C
AC = OC OA = @ 0 A @ 0 A=B C
B C
1 0 @ A

0 1
0 1 0 1
1 1 B C
! ! B C
AB AC = @ 1 A @ 0 A=B C
B C
0 1 @ A
2.3. VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM 37
v0 12 0 12 0 12
u
u
uB C B C B C
uB C +B C +B C
0 1 u@ A @ A @ A
t
p
B C 3
Area of triangle ABC = 1 B C = = :
2 @ A 2 2

Scalar Triple Product

For three vectors
0 1 0 1 0 1
u1 v1 w1
u = @ u2 A ; v = @ v2 A and w = @ w2 A in R3 ;
u3 v3 w3

the dot product u (v w) is called the scalar triple product of vectors u; v and w.
The scalar triple product u (v w) can be computed numerically as follows:

v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2
u (v w) = u1 u2 + u3
w2 w3 w1 w3 w1 w2

It can be veri…ed that

u (v w) = v (w u) = w (u v)

Theorem 2.3.15. (a) For three non-coplanar u, v and w in R3 , the absolute value ju (v w)j
of the scalar triple product is the volume of the parallelepiped which is a three-dimensional
…gure formed (by six parallelograms) whose sides are the three given vectors.
(b) For general three vectors u; v and w, if the scalar triple product u (v w) = 0, we
may conclude that either at least one of the vectors u; v and w is a zero vector or the three
vectors are coplanar (they lie on the same plane).

Example 2.3.16. Find the volume of the parallelepiped formed by vectors u = (1; 2; 3),
v = ( 1; 1; 0) and w = (1; 2; 1).

Solution We compute the scalar triple product:

1 0 1 0 1 1
u (v w) = 1 2 +3
2 1 1 1 1 2

=1 2( 1) + 3( 3) = 6

Thus the volume of the parallelepiped is 6 unit3 .

38 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

2.4 Lines and Planes

2.4.1 Lines

A line on a Cartesian plane may be determined by a point on the line and the gradient of
the line. In a space, line is uniquely determined by its direction vector and a point on
the line.
v v v

r0+v r0+2v r0+3v

r0

If a line ` is parallel to a vector v and passes through a point with position vector r0 ,
then the vector equation of ` is

` : r (t) = r0 +tv, t 2 R:

Example 2.4.1. If A; B and C have coordinates (1; 1; 0) ; (0; 1; 0) and (0; 0; 1) respectively.
Find a vector equation for the line that is parallel to BC and passes through A.

Solution
0 1
1
!
r0 = OA = @ 1 A
0
0 1 0 1
0 1
0
! B C B C
v = BC = B
@
C
A
B
@
C = @ 1 A:
A
1

Therefore, the vector equation of ` is

r (t)= r0 +tv
0 1
0 1
1 B C
B C
= @ 1 A + tB
B
C
C
0 @ A

Equation of a line: Cartesian form

2.4. LINES AND PLANES 39
1 0 0 1
x0 v1
Suppose that a line ` passes through r0 = @ y0 A and is parallel to v = @ v2 A. If
z0 v3
(x; y; z) is a point on `; then
0 1 0 1 0 1
x x0 v1
r = @ y A = @ y0 A +t @ v2 A , t 2 R.
z z0 v3

Therefore, 0 1 0 1
x x0 + tv1
@ y A = @ y0 + tv2 A :
z z0 + tv3
Thus

(2.1) x = x0 + tv1 ; y = y0 + tv2 ; z = z0 + tv3 :

Equation (2.1) is called the parametric equation of `:

Suppose that v1 ; v2 ; v3 6= 0; we obtain the Cartesian Equation of ` :
x x0 y y0 z z0
= = :
v1 v2 v3

Question: What happens if v1 = 0?

Example 2.4.2. If a line ` has equation

y+1 z
x 1= = :
2 3
(i) Find a vector equation for `: (ii) Find the parametric equation for `:

Solution The Cartesian equation for ` :

x 1 y ( 1) z 0
= = :
1 2 3
(i) The line ` is parallel to (1; 2; 3) and passes through (1; 1; 0) : Thus the a vector equation
for ` is 0 1 0 1
1 1
r= @ 1 +t 2 A , t 2 R.
A @
0 3

(ii) The parametric equation for ` :

x = 1 + t; y = 1 + 2t; z = 3t; t 2 R:
40 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

Angles between two lines

If `1 and `2 have direction vectors v1 and v2 respectively and is the acute angle between
v1 and v2 ; then

1 v1 v2
= cos :
jjv1 jj jjv2 jj

p
Example 2.4.3. Find the acute angle between z-axis and the line ` : x = 1 t; y = 3 + 2t;
z = 5+t

Solution. ` and z-axis has direction vectors

0 1
0 1
B C 0
B C
v1 = B
B
C and v2 = @ 0 A
C
@ A 1

respectively. Let be the acute angle between v1 and v2 : Then

1 v1 v2 1 1
= cos = cos = or 60 :
jjv1 jj jjv2 jj (2) (1) 3

Distance from a point to a line

S
If ` is a passing through P line parallel to v,
S is point not on ` and M is the foot of
perpendicular of S to `: Then the P θ
! ! M
distance from S to `: SM = P S sin v
!
jjP S vjj !
= jjvjj = P S v ^ : r0

Example 2.4.4. Find the distance from a point S(1; 3; 2) to the line ` : r = (0; 1; 2) +
t (1; 0; 1) ; t 2 R:

Solution. Let P denote

0 the
1 point
0 (0; 0 on 1
1 1; 2) `; v = i + k (direction vector); and be the
1 0 1
!
angle between P S = @ 3 A @ 1 A = @ 2 A and `:
2 2 0
2.4. LINES AND PLANES 41

Then the distance from P to ` =

!
! PS v
P S sin =
jvj
0 1 0 1 0 1
B C B C B C
B C B C B C
@ A @ A @ A
3
= = p = p units.
jjvjj 2 2
42 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

2.4.2 Plane
A plane in a space is determined by a point and its "inclination". This inclination can be
speci…ed by a vector n that is normal, or perpendicular, to the plane.

P(x, y, z)

P 0(x0 ,y 0,z 0)

Suppose a plane M contains a point P0 = (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and a nonzero vector n = (a; b; c)

normal to the plane. If P = (x; y; z) is any other point lying on this plane, then
P0 P and n are perpendicular.
So, we have

!
n P0 P = 0:
i.e.,
! !
n OP = n OP0 ;
| {z }
constant
or simply:
r n = d:
!
This is called the vector equation of the plane. It follows from n P0 P = 0 that
0 1 0 1
a x x0
@ b A @ y y0 A = 0
c z z0
which can be expanded to
a (x x0 ) + b (y y0 ) + c (z z0 ) = 0
This is called
0 the1 scalar equation of the plane through P0 = (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) with normal
a
vector n = @ b A : It can be simpli…ed to
c
ax + by + cz = d;
2.4. LINES AND PLANES 43

where d = ax0 + by0 + cz0 :

Example 1 Find the scalar equation for the plane through P0 (1; 2; 3) and perpendicular
0 2.4.5.
4
to n = @ 5 A :
6

Solution The required equation is

4 (x 1) + 5 (y 2) + 6 (z 3) = 0:

Simplifying, we have
4x + 5y + 6z = 32:

Example 2.4.6. Find the scalar equation of the plane passing through A (1; 0; 0) ; B (0; 1; 0)
and C (0; 0; 1) :

! !
Solution We …rst determine a vector normal to the plane. The vector AB and AC are
vectors parallel to the plane. Therefore their cross product is a vector normal to the plane.
! !
Let n =AB AC: 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 1 B C
n= @ 1 A @ 0 A=B @
C:
A
0 1

The scalar equation of the plane is

1 (x 1) + 1 (y 0) + 1 (z 0) = 0;

or
x + y + z = 1:
44 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS

Distance from a point to a plane

S

If P is a point of the plane with normal n,

P0
then the distance from any point S to the plane
!
M is the length of the vector projection of P S to n;
which is equal to
!
PS n !
= = PS n ^ :
jjnjj

Example 2.4.7. Find the distance from the point S (1; 0; 1) to the plane x 2y + z = 1.

Solution
p
A normal vector of the plane x 2y + z = 1 is n = (1; 2; 1), with knk = 6.
We …nd a point P on the given plane by …nding (x; y; z) which satis…es the equation
x 2y + z = 1:
Let x = 0 and y = 0, we have z = .
Thus, we may take P = (0; 0; 1).
!
^ which is
The required distance is given by P S n

1 1
((1; 0; 1) (0; 0; 1)) p (1; 2; 1) = p :
6 6

Angles between two planes

The angle between two planes is de…ned to be the (acute) angle between their respective
normal vectors.

Example 2.4.8. Find the angles between the planes x 2y + 2z = 1 and 6x 4y + 3z = 7:

1 0 0 1
1 6
Solution. The vectors n1 = @ 2 A and n2 = @ 4 A are the normal vectors of the
2 3
respective planes.
n1 n2
If is the (acute) angle between the planes, then cos = jjn1 jjjjn2 jj
: Therefore

1 n1 n2 1 j6 + 8 + 6j 1
= cos = cos p p = cos :
jn1 j jn2 j 1 + 4 + 4 36 + 16 + 9
Chapter 3

Matrices

A matrix is simply a rectangular array of numbers or other mathematical objects. Rectangu-

lar arrays of real numbers (or complex numbers) arise in many contexts and in sciences and
engineering as well as social sciences. Beside providing a neat representation of data from
which we can obtain further information, matrices have wide applications in this modern
generation.

3.1 Matrix Notation and Terminology

For positive integers m and n, an m n matrix A is a rectangular array of mn numbers
(real or complex numbers) arranged in m horizontal rows and n vertical columns:
0 1
a11 a12 a1j a1n
B a21 a22 a2j a2n C
B . .. .. .. C
B . C
B . . . . C
A=B C:
B ai1 ai2 aij ain C
B . .. .. C
@ .. . . A
am1 am2 amj amn

The (i; j)th entry (or simply ij-entry) is the term aij found in the ith row and jth column.
The ith row of A, where 1 i m, is
ai1 ai2 ain ;
while the jth column, for 1 j n, is
0 1
a1j
B a2j C
B C
B .. C:
@ . A
amj

45
46 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

Notation and Terminology

1. Capital letters A; B; C; : : : are used to denote matrices, and lowercase letters to denote
numerical quantities. Some examples:
0 1
a b c
1 3 5 z1 z2 z3 z4
A= ;T = @ d e f A;Z =
9 6 3 y1 y2 y3 y4
x y z
Both square brackets or round brackets are used to enclose the array of entries.
2. The number m of rows and the number n of columns describe the size of a matrix.
We write it as m n, and read as ‘m by n’.
3. The matrix 0 1
a11 a12 a1n
B a21 a22 a2n C
B C
A=B .. .. .. C:
@ . . . A
am1 am2 amn
is sometimes written as
[aij ]m n or simply [aij ] :
To refer to the (i; j)th-entry of the matrix A, we may use the notation Aij . So,
Aij = aij .
2 3
1 3 5 7
For A = 4 9 6 3 p0 5, we have A11 = 1; A21 = 9 and A34 =??.
2 4 8 2
4. Usually, we match the letter denoting a matrix with the letter denoting its entries. For
a matrix B, its ij-entry is bij .
5. When m = 1, the matrix has only one row,i.e.
A= a1 a2 a3 an
We call this matrix a row matrix ( also known as row vector) .
6. When n = 1, the matrix has only one column,i.e.
2 3
b1
6 b2 7
6 7
6 7
B = 6 b3 7
6 .. 7
4 . 5
bm
We call such matrix a column matrix ( also known as column vector) .
Of course, for a row matrix, we may simplify the entry using only one index, i.e.
C = [c1 c2 cn ].
3.1. MATRIX NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY 47

7. The m n matrix with zeros as its entries is called the zero matrix and we denote
it by 0.
8. When m = n, we call A a square matrix of size n. (The rectangular array now looks
like a square.)
For an n n square matrix
2 3
a11 a12 a1n
6 a21 a22 a2n 7
6 7
A=6 .. .. .. 7:
4 . . . 5
am1 am2 ann

The entries a11 ; a22 ; a33 ; : : : ; ann are called the diagonal entries. They are on the
main diagonal of A.
9. The n n square matrix where all the entries along the diagonal from the top left to
the bottom right are 1, and 0 elsewhere, is called the identity matrix. It is often
denoted as In . E.g.,
0 1
1 0 0
1 0
I2 = ; I3 = @ 0 1 0 A :
0 1
0 0 1

10. The n n square matrix where all the o¤-diagonal entries (i.e. entries below and above
the main diagonal) are 0 is called an diagonal matrix.
0 1
0 1 3 0 0 0
a 0 0 B 0 3 0 0 C
A=@ 0 e 0 A B=B @ 0 0 0 0 A:
C
0 0 g
0 0 0

11. The n n square matrix where all the entries below the main diagonal are 0 is called
an upper triangular matrix.
0 1
0 1 1 3 5 0
a b c B 0 3 2 9 C
A= @ 0 e f A B=B @ 0 0 0
C:
A
0 0 g
0 0 0 0:8

In a similar way, a lower triangular matrix is a square matrix where all the entries
above the main diagonal are 0. E.g.
0 1
53 0 0 0 0
B 4 3 0 0 0 C
a 0 B C
C= B
B = B 1=2 0 0 0 C:
c d p C
@ 0 1 0:4 2 0 A
1 3 5 7 9
48 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

12. Lastly, the term scalars refer to real numbers or complex numbers in discussing ma-
trices (and vectors).

De…nition 3.1.1. Two matrices are de…ned to be equal if they have the same size and
their corresponding entries are equal.

Matrices A and B are equal if they have the same size (same number of rows and same
number of columns) and Aij = Bij for all i and j. (Here, note that if the size of both matrix
is m n, then 1 i m and 1 j n.)
Example 3.1.2. Solve the following matrix equation for a; b; c and d.
a b b+c 8 1
=
3d + c 2a 4d 7 6

Solution Note that both matrices are 2 by 2. For matrices to be equal, each corresponding
entries must be equal. Therefore we have

a b =

b+c =

3d + c =

2a 4d =

Solving for a; b; c and d (Exercise), we obtain a = 5; b = 3; c = 4; d = 1.

Example 3.1.3. Let A be a 3 4 matrix whose (i; j)-th entry is de…ned by (A)ij =
( 1)i+j 2i + j. Then 2 3
3 0 5 2
6 6 7
A=6 4
7:
5
9

8
>
> i+j if i > j
<
0 if i = j
Example 3.1.4. Let B = [bij ] be a 3 3 matrix where bij =
>
> j if i < j
:
Find B.
Solution 2 3
0
6 0 7
B=6
4
7:
5
0
3.2. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS OF MATRICES 49

3.2 Arithmetic Operations of Matrices

We will study the arithmetic operations for matrices.

3.2.1 Addition & Subtraction

De…nition 3.2.1. If A and B are two m n matrices, then

(a) the addition (or sum) A + B is the matrix obtained by adding entries in the same
positions, i.e.,
(A + B)ij = (A)ij + (B)ij :

(b) the di¤ erence A B is the matrix obtained by subtracting entries of B from the
corresponding entries of B, i.e.,
(A B)ij = (A)ij (B)ij :

WARNING Matrices of di¤erent sizes cannot be added or subtracted.

1 2 3 7 8 9
Example 3.2.2. Let A = and B = . Then
4 5 6 10 11 12

1+7 2+8 3+9 8 10 12

A+B = =
4 + 10 5 + 11 6 + 12 14 16 18

1 7 2 8 3 9 6 6 6
A B= = :
4 10 5 11 6 12 6 6 6

3.2.2 Scalar Multiplication

Here, by a scalar, we refer to a real number or a complex number.
De…nition 3.2.3. If is a scalar and A is an m n matrix, then the scalar multiple
A is the m n matrix obtained by multiplying each entry of A by , i.e.,
( A)ij = (A)ij :
Example 3.2.4.
1 3 5
Let A = . Then
7 9 11
1 1 5
2 6 10 3 9 15 3
1 3
2A = ; ( 3)A = ; and A= 7 11 ;
14 18 22 21 27 33 3 3
3 3
50 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

Note that for m n matrices A and B , the di¤erence A B = A + ( 1)B. It is common

practice to denote ( 1)B by B.

4 3 2 7 2 0 3 6 9
Example 3.2.5. Let A = , B = and C = .
1 3 1 5 3 1 3 0 12
Then
1 2 2 7
2A B+ C=
3 8 3 7
.

For matrices, when we perform arithmetic operations like addition, di¤erence and scalar
multiplication, we are basically performing similar arithmetic operations sum, di¤erence and
multiplication on numbers on ‘entry’-level. Thus, we would expect properties such as asso-
ciativity, commutativity and distributive to hold for such matrix operations.

Theorem 3.2.6. Assuming the sizes of matrices are such that the indicated operations can
be performed, the following rules of matrix arithmetic are valid.

1. A + B = B + A (Commutative Law for addition)

2. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associative Law for addition)

3. A + 0 = 0 + A = A (Additive Identity)

4. A + ( A) = 0 (Additive Inverse)

5. 0 A= A

6. (A B) = A B

7. ( )A = A A

8. ( A) = ( )A
3.2. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS OF MATRICES 51

3.2.3 Matrix Multiplication

Can we multiply two matrices in the similar way i.e. by multiplying corresponding entries
like what we have done for addition, subtraction or scalar multiplication?

It turns out that such a de…nition is not very helpful for most problems. Experience has
led mathematicians to the following more useful de…nition of matrix multiplication.

De…nition 3.2.7. If A is an m r matrix and B is an r n matrix, then the matrix

product (or simply the product) AB is the m n matrix whose (i; j)th entry is determined
by
X
r
(AB)ij = Ai1 B1j + Ai2 B2j + + Air Brj = Aik Bkj :
k=1

Note that the (i; j)th entry of AB is the value obtained by taking the dot product of the
vector formed by the ith row of A and that formed by the jth column of B.
0 1
A11 A12 A1r
0 1
B A21 A22 A2r C B11 B12 B1j B1n
B .. .. .. C
B C B B21 B22 B2j B2n C
B . . . CB C
AB = B C B .. .. .. C:
B Ai1 Ai2 Air C@ . . . A
B . .. .. C
@ .. . . A Br1 Br2 Brj Brn
Am1 Am2 Amr

Example 3.2.8.
1 0
2
1 2 1
(a) Let A = and B = @ 4 A. Note that A is 2 3 matrix and B is
3 1 4
2
3 1, the product AB will be a 2 1 matrix.
To …nd the entries of AB:
(1; 1)-th entry:

(2; 1)-th entry:

(3; 1)-th entry:

4
Thus, we have AB = .
6
52 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES
0 1
3
1 2 1 B 0 C
(b) Let A = and C = B C
@ 2 A.
3 1 4 p
3
Note that A is 2 3 matrix and C is 4 1, the product AC is not de…ned.
0 1
2 0
1 2 1
(c) Let A = and D = @ 4 5 A.
3 1 4
2 1
Find AD and DA. Is AA de…ned?

Solution
0 1
2 4 2
4
AD = ; DA = @ 16 A :
6

Remark

1. Matrix multiplication is not commutative.

2. It is not true that if AB = 0, then A = 0 or B = 0. (Exercise: Find two non-zero

2 2 matrices A and B with AB = 0.)

Without computing the entire product, we may compute a particular row or column of
a matrix product AB as follows:

Proposition 3.2.9 (Optional). Let A and B be m r and r n matrices respectively. Then

(a) the jth column of (AB) is the matrix product of A and the jth column of B;

jth column of (AB) = A[jth column of B]:

(b) the ith row of (AB) is the matrix product of the ith row of A and the matrix B;

ith row of (AB) = [ith row of A]B:

3.2. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS OF MATRICES 53
0 1
1 0 1
4 3 2
Example 3.2.10. Let A = ,B=@ 2 1 0 A.
1 3 1
0 3 2
Find (a) the 2nd column of AB and (b) the last row of AB.

Solution

Identity Matrix
Recall that the identity matrix In is the square matrix In of size n with (i; j)th-entry

1 if i = j;
(In )ij =
0 if i =
6 j

Thus, 0 1
1 0 0
1 0
I1 = 1 ; I2 = ; I3 = @ 0 1 0 A ; : : :
0 1
0 0 1

The role of identity matrices in matrix multiplication is like the number 1 in usual
multiplication. Some algebraic properties on matrix multiplication are recorded in the next
theorem.
Theorem 3.2.11. Assuming the sizes of matrices are such that the indicated operations can
be performed, the following rules of matrix arithmetic are valid.

1. AIn = A and Im A = A if A is m n. (Identity)

2. (AB)C = A(BC) (Associative Law for multiplication);

3. A(B + C) = AB + AC (Left distributive law)

4. (A + B)C = AC + BC; (Right distributive law)

5. A0 = 0; 0A = 0
54 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

3.3 Transpose
De…nition 3.3.1. For an m n matrix A, the matrix AT obtained by interchanging the
rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Thus, the (i; j)th-entry of AT is

(AT )ij = (A)ji

0 1
1 0 1
4 3 2
Example 3.3.2. Let A = and B = @ 2 1 0 A. Then
1 3 1
0 3 2
0 1
0 1
B C
AT = @ A ; BT = B C
@ A

Theorem 3.3.3. If the sizes of the matrices are such that the stated operations can be
performed, then

Proposition 3.3.4. (a) (AT )T = A

(b) (A B)T = AT BT

(c) ( A)T = (AT ), where is a scalar.

(d) (AB)T = B T AT

Proof. (Exercise. )

3.4 Matrix Inverse

In this section, we shall discuss matrix invertibility with respect to matrix multiplication.
We shall discuss uniqueness, properties of matrix inverses, …nding inverses.

3.4.1 Invertible Matrices

De…nition 3.4.1. Let A be a n n square matrix. If there is another square matrix B
such that AB = In and BA = In , then A is said to be invertible (or non-singular), and
B is called an inverse of A. If no such matrix B can be found, then A is said to be not
invertible (or singular).

1 2 5 2
Example 3.4.2. Let A = and B = .
3 5 3 1
3.4. MATRIX INVERSE 55

Note that AB = I2 and BA = I2 (Verify these as an exercise).

Since AB = I2 and BA = I2 , we conclude that A is invertible, by de…nition.

0 1
0 0 0
Example 3.4.3. Let C = @ a b c A. Is there a matrix D such that CD = I?
d e f

Solution

0 1
a b c
Example 3.4.4. Let E = @ 2a 2b 2c A. Is there a matrix F such that EF = I?
d e f

Solution

Note that matrix invertibility is de…ned for square matrices only. It is clear that zero
square matrices are singular. By Proposition 3.2.9, we deduce that the following are singular.

Proposition 3.4.5.

(a) A square matrix with a row (or a column) of zeros is singular.

(b) A square matrix with a row (or a column) which is a multiple of another row (or
column) is singular. In particular, a square matrix with identical rows (or columns) is
singular.
56 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

A row Ri is a linear combination of other rows Rj , where j 6= i, means that there are
scalars j ’s such that
X
Ri = j Rj = 1 R1 + 2 R2 + + i 1 Ri 1 + i+1 Ri+1 + n R2 n:
j6=i

Proposition 3.4.6. A square matrix in which a row (or a column) is a linear combination
of other rows (or columns) is singular.
0 1
a b c
B d e f C
Example 3.4.7. Consider G = B @ 2a 5d
C.
A
2b 5e& 2c 5f

Note that R3 = 2R1 + ( 5)R2 . The matrix G singular.

1
3.4.2 The inverse A
Now we prove that an invertible matrix cannot have more than one inverses. In other words,
if an inverse exists, it is unique.
b are both inverses of A, then B = B.
Proposition 3.4.8. If B and B b

Proof. Note that

b = I&BA
AB = I&BA = I; and AB b = I:

The above proposition says that the inverse of an invertible matrix A is unique. In view
of this, we shall denote the inverse of A by A 1 . Thus, we have

1
AA = I and A 1 A = I:

It follows immediately from the above equation and de…nition of matrix invertibility that
the inverse A 1 of a matrix A is invertible.
1
Proposition 3.4.9. If A is an invertible matrix, then the inverse A is invertible and
1 1
A = A:
3.4. MATRIX INVERSE 57

3.4.3 Invertible 2 by 2 matrices

For a 2 2 matrix, there is a good characterization of invertibility Moreover, there is a nice
formula for its inverse when it is invertible. This is recorded in the following proposition.
a b
Proposition 3.4.10. The 2 2 matrix A = is invertible if and only if ad bc 6= 0.
c d
1
In this case the inverse A is given by the formula

1 1 d b
(3.1) A = :
ad bc c a

Proof.

(=: Suppose ad bc 6= 0. We verify (Exercise.) that the matrix equations are satis…ed

1 d b 1 d b
A = I2 & A = I2 :
ad bc c a ad bc c a
1
By the de…nition of matrix invertibility, A is invertible and its inverse A is

1 1 d b
A = :
ad bc c a

a b
=): It remains to prove that if A = is invertible, then ad bc 6= 0.
c d
a b
We prove the contrapositive statement: If ad bc = 0, then the matrix A =
c d
is not invertible.
Suppose ad bc = 0. We shall consider two cases : (a) a = 0 (b) a 6= 0.
For the case (a) where a = 0, note that either b = 0 or c = 0. If b = 0, then A has a
row of zero and this it is not invertible. If c = 0, then the …rst row and second row of
A are multiple of each other. Hence A is not invertible.
For The case (b) where a 6= 0, we have d = bca . This the second row of A is a scalar
multiple of the …st row of A. ( ac of the …rst row ) Thus, A is not invertible.
Therefore, if ad bc = 0, then A is not invertible. Equivalently, if A is invertible, then
ad bc 6= 0.

Remark 3.4.11. The above result provides a useful characterization of invertible 2 2

a b
matrices. For a 2 2 matrix A = , the value ad bc is called the determinant of
c d
A. The above result also provides a formula for the inverse A 1 if the matrix A is invertible.
58 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

Example 3.4.12. Determine whether each of the following 2 2 matrices is invertible. If

it is, …nd its inverse.

5 3
(a) A =
7 9

8 4
(b) B =
6 3

cos sin
(c) C = .
sin cos

Remark 3.4.13.

(a) For matrices of other sizes, there is similar result on invertibility via determinant
which will be discussed in latter section. There is also a formula for the inverse of an
invertible matrix. However, the formula is more complicated than the case for 2 2
matrices.

(b) We may use Gaussian method to determine whether a square matrix is invertible and
also to …nd its inverse. This will be dealt with in another mathematics Course.

However, for a diagonal matrix, there is an easy way to determine its invertibility and
its inverse.

Example 3.4.14. Find the inverse of the following diagonal matrix, if abcd 6= 0.
0 1
a 0 0 0
B 0 b 0 0 C
B C
@ 0 0 c 0 A
0 0 0 d

More generally, we have the following result for diagonal matrices.

Proposition 3.4.15. Suppose A = [aij ] is a diagonal matrix. Then A is invertible if and

only of its diagonal entries are non-zero, i.e., aii 6= 0 for every i. When A is invertible, A 1
1
is a diagonal matrix whose ith diagonal entry is for each i.
aii
Proposition 3.4.16 (Optional). Suppose A a triangular matrix. Then A is invertible if
and only if all diagonal entries are non zero. Moreover, the inverse of invertible upper (resp.
lower) triangular matrix will be an upper (resp. lower) triangular matrix.
3.5. POWER 59

(The inverse of a general invertible triangular matrix is quite messy to include here.)

Now, we study some properties of invertible matrices.

Proposition 3.4.17. Let A be an invertible matrix. Then we have

1. AB = AC =) B = C and

2. BA = CA =) B = C.

Proposition 3.4.18. Let A and B be invertible matrices. Then the matrix product AB is
invertible and
(AB) 1 = B 1 A 1 :

Proposition 3.4.19. Suppose A is invertible.

(a) Then its transpose AT is invertible. In this case,

1 1 T
AT = A :

(b) For any nonzero scalar , the matrix A is invertible and

1 1
( A) = A 1:

3.5 Power
De…nition 3.5.1. Let A be a square matrix. We de…ne the nonnegative integer powers of
A to be
A0 = I An = AA| {z A}(n > 0):
Moreover, if A is invertible, then we de…ne the negative integer powers to be
n 1 n 1 1
A = A =A
| A {z A }1 (n > 0)

Parallel to real numbers, we have

Ar As = Ar+s ; (Ar )s = Ars :

1 1
Example 3.5.2. Let A = . Find A2 ; A3 ; A4 ; A 2 ; A 3 .
0 1
60 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

Solution

We also have the following laws of exponents.

Proposition 3.5.3. Let n be an integer. If A be an invertible matrix, then An is invertible

and
n
(An ) 1 = A 1 :

3.6 Determinants
Determinants via Cofactor Expansion
a b
Recall that a 2 2 matrix A = is invertible if and only if ad bc 6= 0. This
c d
a b
special number ad bc is known as the determinant of the 2 2 square matrix A = .
c d
It is denoted by the symbol det(A). The determinant is a function de…ned on square matrices.
For a general n n square matrix A, where n 3, we shall compute the det(A) inductively
via Cofactor Expansion.

3.6.1 Cofactors
De…nition 3.6.1. Suppose A is an n n matrix.

(1) The (i; j)-minor of A is de…ned to be the determinant of the submatrix that remains
after the ith-row and the jth-column are deleted from A. It is denoted by Mij .

(2) The (i; j)-cofactor of A is the number ( 1)i+j Mij . It is denoted by Cij .
3.6. DETERMINANTS 61

Let Mij be the determinant of the submatrix that remains after the ith-row and the jth-
column are deleted from A.
The (i; j)th cofactor of A is the number ( 1)i+j Mij . It is denoted by Cij .

Note The value Mij is called (i; j)th minor of A.

Example 3.6.2. Consider the matrix

2 3
1 5 0
A=4 3 2 1 5
1 2 1

(a) Find the (1; 1)th cofactor and (2; 3)th cofactor of A.
(b) Calculate C12 and C31 .

Solution
62 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

Determinant & Cofactors

Cofactors are used in the evaluation of determinants in an inductive way. First we note
the determinants of matrices of sizes 1 1 and 2 2.

1. The determinant of a 1 1 matrix [a] is a, i.e. det([a]) = a.

a b
2. The determinant of the 2 2 matrix A = is ad bc. We write it as
c d

a b
= ad bc; or det(A) = ad bc;
c d

which can be obtained by computing the sum of the products on the rightward arrow
and subtracting the products in the leftward arrow.

To compute det(A), where A is n n with n 3, we proceed as follows:

1. Select a row of A, say ith row.

2. Multiply each entry of the selected row by its cofactor, i.e., aik Cik .
X
n
3. Add all the resulting products obtained in the last step, i.e., aik Cik . This number
k=1
is det(A).

For an n n matrix A, we have

X
n
det(A) = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + ain Cin = aij Cij
j=1

(cofactor expansion along the ith-row)

2 3
1 5 0
Example 3.6.3. Find the determinant of the matrix A = 4 3 2 1 5 by cofactor ex-
1 2 1
pansion.

[Solution] We evaluate the determinant of A along second row:

1 5 0
det(A) = 3 2 1 = 3 ( 1)2+1 +2 ( 1)2+2 +1 ( 1)2+3
1 2 1

= = 20:
3.6. DETERMINANTS 63

Note that using minors, we have

X
n
det(A) = ( 1)1+j a1j M1j + ( 1)2+j a2j M2j + ( 1)n+j anj Mnj = ( 1)j ( 1)i aij Mij ;
i=1

in which the sign of each consecutive terms alternates, with j being held at constant.
The "checkerboard matrix" S is a matrix with entries Sij = ( 1)i+j . The following are
examples of 3 by 3 and 4 by 4 checkerboard matrices.
2 3
2 3 +1 1 +1 1
+1 1 +1 6 1 +1 1 +1 7
S = 4 1 +1 1 5 and S = 64 +1
7:
1 +1 1 5
+1 1 +1
1 +1 1 +1

We may refer to the checkerboard matrix for the sign of ( 1)i+j when computing deter-
minants.
For instance, if we compute determinant along third row, the checkerboard gives us the
signs f+; ; +g:

1 5 0
5 0 1 0 1 5
det(A) = 3 2 1 = (1) (2) + (1)
2 1 3 1 3 2
1 2 1
= 5 2 + 17 = 20:

Determinant of via Cofactors along Column

Theorem 3.6.4. For a square matrix A, the determinants of A and its transpose AT are
the same, i.e., det(A) = det(AT ).

Therefore, instead of performing cofactor expansion along a selected row, we may also
evaluate the determinant of A by cofactor expansion along a selected column.

1. Select a column of A, say jth column. (So, we say that we perform cofactor expansion
along the jth-column.)

2. Multiply each entry akj of the selected row by its corresponding cofactor Ckj , i.e.,
akj Ckj .

3. Add all the resulting products obtained in the last step gives us the determinant of A,
i.e.,
Xn
det(A) = a1j C1j + a2j C2j + + anj Cnj = akj Ckj :
k=1
64 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

(cofactor expansion along the jth-column)

Example 3.6.5. Compute determinant using cofactor expansion along the second column.
1 5 0
det(A) = 3 2 1
1 2 1

Solution Referring to the checkerboard, which gives us the signs f ; +; g along the second
column:

1 5 0
3 1 1 0 1 0
det(A) = 3 2 1 = 5 +2 2
1 1 1 1 3 1
1 2 1
= ( 5)( 4) + (2)(1) 2(1) = 20:

Determinant of 3 3 matrices
0 1
a11 a12 a13
The determinant of the 3 3 matrix A = @ a21 a22 a23 A is
a31 a32 a33
det(A) = a11 a22 a33 a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 a13 a22 a31 :

Remark 3.6.6. An easy way to help us in computing the determinant of 3 3 matrix

(ONLY) is by recopying the …rst and second columns next to the third column of A and
followed by computing the sum of the products on the rightward arrows and subtracting the
products in the leftward arrows.
2 3
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
4 a21 a22 a23 5 a21 a22
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32
Example 3.6.7. Evaluate the determinant using the above method:

2 1 4
(a) 3 5 7
1 6 2
(Ans 65)
2 7 6
(b) 5 1 2
3 8 4
(Ans 0)
3.6. DETERMINANTS 65
2 3
1 1 5 0
6 0 3 2 1 7
Example 3.6.8. Find the determinant of the matrix B = 6
4
7 by cofactor
0 1 2 1 5
1 0 0 1
expansion.
(Ans 12).

In general, one strategy for evaluating a determinant by cofactor expansion is to expand

along a row or column having the largest number of zeros.
3 1 2 2
1 0 2 1
Example 3.6.9. Compute .
1 0 5 1
2 0 0 1
(Ans 1).

3.6.2 Determinants of Special Matrices.

In this section, we discuss determinants of some types of matrices.
Proposition 3.6.10.

1. Suppose A is n n matrix which as a row of zero or a column of zeros. Then det(A) =

0.
2. If A has two rows (or columns) such that one of which is a multiple of the other, then
det(A) = 0.
3. Suppose A is a triangular matrix. Then det(A) = product of diagonal entries of A. In
particular if A is a diagonal matrix, then det(A) = product of diagonal entries of A.
Example 3.6.11. The determinants of the following matrices are zero.
2 3 2 3
4 9 8 5 4 9 8 5
6 5 2 0 7 7 6 5 2 0 7 7
6 7; 6 7:
4 0 0 0 0 5 4 6 8 2 1 5
1 1
3 4 2
3 4 2
Example 3.6.12. Find the following determinants.
(a) det(In ) =

4 0 0 5 a 0 0 0
0 2 0 7 0 b 0 0
(b) (c)
0 0 3 0 0 0 c 0
0 0 0 21 0 0 0 d
66 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

Theorem 3.6.13. For two n n matrices A and B,

det(AB) = det(A)det(B):

Proof. (Proof Omitted.)

Corollary 3.6.14. If A is an n n invertible matrix, then det(A) 6= 0. Moreover,

1
det(A 1 ) = :
det(A)
1
Proof. From AA = I, we have

det(AA 1 ) = det(I); i.e. , det(A)det(A 1 ) = 1:

1
Since det(A) 6= 0, we have det(A 1 ) = .
det(A)
3.7. ADJOINT OF A (OPTIONAL) 67

3.7 Adjoint of A (Optional)

In this section, we de…ne an adjoint of a square matrix A, and obtain an important result
relating A and its adjoint. From this result, we derive the equivalent statement for invert-
ibility of a matrix A and nonzero determinant. It also gives a formula for the inverse of an
invertible matrix.
De…nition 3.7.1. Let A be an n n matrix, and Cij be its (i; j)th cofactor. Then the matrix
2 3
C11 C12 C1n
6 C21 C22 C2n 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
6 7
4 5
Cn1 Cn2 Cnn

is called the matrix of cofactors from A.

2 3
1 5 0
Example 3.7.2. Find the cofactor matrix of 4 3 2 1 5
1 2 1

Solution

2 1 3 1 3 2
(a) C11 = ( 1)1+1 = 0; C12 = ( 1)1+2 = 4; C13 = ( 1)1+3 =
2 1 1 1 1 2
8:::
So we have
2 3 2 3
0 4 8 0 5 5
C=4 5 1 3 5 & adj(A) = 4 4 1 1 5:
5 1 17 8 3 17

(b) 2 3
20 0 0
Aadj(A) = 4 0 20 0 5 = 20 I:
0 0 20

De…nition 3.7.3. Let A be an n n matrix, and Cij be the cofactor. The transpose of the
matrix of cofactors is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj(A).
That is,
(adj(A))ij = Cji :
2 3
1 5 0
Example 3.7.4. (a) Find the adjoint of A=4 3 2 1 5. (b) Evaluate A(adj (A)) :
1 2 1
68 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

The cofactor matrix 2 3

0 4 8
C=4 5 1 3 5
5 1 17
2 3
0 5 5
adj(A) = C T = 4 4 1 1 5:
8 3 17

(b) 2 3
20 0 0
Aadj(A) = 4 0 20 0 5 = 20 I:
0 0 20

We state following relationship between adjoint, determinant and inverse of a matrix.

Theorem 3.7.5. Let A be an n n square matrix. Then

A adj(A) = det(A)I:

Proof. (Optional. A proof is included at the end of this chapter for students who are keen
to read.)

The next result follows from the above theorem.

Theorem 3.7.6. Let A be an n n square matrix. Then A is invertible if and only if

det(A) 6= 0.
(Equivalently, the matrix A is singular if and only if det(A) = 0.)
If A is invertible, then
1 1
A = adj(A):
det(A)
2 3
1 5 0
Example 3.7.7. Find the inverse of 4 3 2 1 5 via adjoint.
1 2 1

3.8 Cramer’s Rule

A system of linear equations is a …nite number of linear equations. For instance,

7x1 2x2 + 5x3 = 3

3x1 + x2 4x3 = 2
3.8. CRAMER’S RULE 69

which can be expressed as a matrix equation:

0 1
x1
7 2 5 @ 3
x2 A = :
3 1 1 2
x3

For a linear system Ax = b whose coe¢ cient matrix A is invertible, there is a formula
for its solution. The formula is known as Cramer’s rule. It is useful for studying the
mathematical properties of a solution without the need for solving the system.
Example 3.8.1. The linear system

2u v + w = 3
u + v 3w = 5
5u 4v + 9w = 4

is equivalent to 0 10 1 0 1
2 1 1 u 3
@ 1 1 3 A @ v A = @ 5 A:
5 4 9 w 4
Theorem 3.8.2 (Cramer’s Rule). If Ax = b is a system of n linear equations in n unknowns
such that det(A) 6= 0, then the system has a unique solution, namely

det(Aj )
xj = ; j = 1; 2; : : : ; n
det(A)
where 2 3
a11 a12 a1j 1 b1 a1j+1 a1n
6 a21 a22 a2j b2 a2j+1 a2n 7
6 1 7
Aj = 6 .. .. .. .. .. 7;
4 . . . . . 5
an1 an2 anj 1 bn anj+1 ann
the matrix obtained by replacing the entries in the jth column of A by the entries in the
matrix 2 3
b1
6 b2 7
6 7
b = 6 .. 7
4 . 5
bn
Example 3.8.3. For each of the following linear system, determine whether Cramer’s Rule
is applicable. If it is determine, use it to solve the linear system. If it is not, use other
method to solve the system.

(a)
7x1 2x2 = 3
3x1 + x2 = 5
70 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

(b)
2a + 4b = 3
3a + 6b = 5

(c)
2u v + w = 3
u + v 3w = 5
5u 4v + 9w = 4
3.9. PROOFS (OPTIONAL) 71

3.9 Proofs (Optional)

To prove Theorem 3.7.5, we need some result on cofactors.
In the evaluation of the determinant of a matrix A,we select the ith row (or jth column)
of A and the ith row (or jth column) of its cofactor matrix, i.e.,
X
n
det(A) = aik Cik :
k=1

What happens if we have selected two di¤erent rows, and compute the product of entries
(of a selected row) and cofactors from di¤erent row(the other selected row)? That is, when
i 6= j, what is the value of
Xn
aik Cjk ?
k=1

We shall see from the next example that the sum of such products will be zero.
2 3
a11 a12 a13
Example 3.9.1. Consider the matrix 3 3 matrix A = 4 a21 a22 a23 5.
a31 a32 a33
Consider cofactors of entries along second row:
C21 = (a12 a33 a13 a32 ); C22 = a11 a33 a13 a31 ; C23 = (a11 a32 a12 a31 )
and entries along …rst row of A. Now, we compute
a11 C21 + a12 C22 + a13 C23 :
This is actually the determinant of the following matrix
2 3
a11 a12 a13
4 a11 a12 a13 5 ;
a31 a32 a33
whose determinant is zero.
Proposition 3.9.2. Let A be an n n matrix. Suppose i 6= j. Then
X
n
aik Cjk = 0:
k=1

Proof. (Optional.) Suppose i 6= j. Let A0 be the matrix which has the same row as A except
the jth row. The jth row of A0 is the ith row of A. That is, A0 has two identical rows,
namely ith row and jth row.
Then we have
X
n
aik Cjk = det(A0 ) = 0:
k=1
72 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

Proof. Proof of Theorem 3.7.5 (Optional.)

It follows from
2 3
a11 a12 a1n
2 3
6 a21 a22 a2n 7 C11 C21 Cj1 Cn1
6 .. .. .. 7
6 7 6 C12 C22 Cj2 Cn2 7
6 . . . 76 7
Aadj(A) = 6 76 7
6 ai1 ai2 ain 7 4 ... ..
.
..
.
..
. 5
6 .. .. 7
.. 5 C
4 . . . 1n C 2n Cjn Cnn
an1 an2 ann

that the ij-th entry of the product Aadj(A) is

ai1 Cj1 + ai2 Cj2 + + ain Cjn

Case i = j: The ij-th entry of the product Aadj(A) is det(A).

Case i 6= j: The ij-th entry of the product Aadj(A) is 0, since the entries and cofactors
come from di¤erent rows.

In conclusion, we have A adj(A) = det(A)I.

Proof of Cramer’s Rule

1 1
Proof. Since det(A) 6= 0, the matrix A is invertible and A = det(A)
adj(A).
Thus, the unique solution of Ax = b is given by
1
x= adj(A)b:
det(A)
1
Hence, we have xj = det(A)
(jth-row of adj(A))b.
One can verify that (jth-row of adj(A))b is the determinant of Aj where
2 3
a11 a12 a1j 1 b1 a1j+1 a1n
6 a21 a22 a2j 1 b2 a2j+1 a2n 7
6 7
6 .. .
.. .. .. .. .. 7 ;
Aj = 6 . . . . . 7
6 7
4 an1 an2 anj 1 bn anj+1 ann 5

the matrix obtained by replacing the entries in the jth column of A by the entries in the
matrix 2 3
b1
6 b2 7
6 7
b = 6 .. 7 :
4 . 5
bn
3.9. PROOFS (OPTIONAL) 73
74 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES