Open Access

Anim Biosci
Vol. 35, No. 2:356-363 February 2022
https://doi.org/10.5713/ab.21.0460
pISSN 2765-0189 eISSN 2765-0235

— Invited Review —
Black soldier fly as feed ingredient for ruminants

Dewi Apri Astuti1 and Komang Gede Wiryawan1,*

* Corresponding Author: Abstract: This paper is a review of some experiments using black soldier fly (BSF) and its
Komang Gede Wiryawan
Tel: +62-251-8626213, Fax: +62-251-8626213, by-product to explore their nutritional value, production potential in Indonesia and its
E-mail: [email protected] application in the ration of ruminants. Evaluation on the effect of milk replacer, creep feed
containing BSF, BSF frass and the possibility to use lactic acid bacteria from BSF as probiotics
Department of Nutrition and Feed
1

Technology, Faculty of Animal Science, IPB

are presented. Utilization of BSF larvae in milk replacer as skim and cream milk substitute
University, Bogor, 16680, Indonesia showed that there were similarity on physiological, hematological status and performance
of goat kids compared to those offered goat milk or commercial milk replacer. In addition,
ORCID
Dewi Apri Astuti
BSF larvae can be used to substitute soybean meal in the creep feed for post weaning goat
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8655-9304 kids without any differences in weight gain and blood profiles. However, utilization of BSF
Komang Gede Wiryawan frass in the fattening goat ration resulted lower digestibility of dry matter and organic matter
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0593-9653 due to the chitin content in the frass. Black soldier fly larvae grown on chicken manure
Submitted Oct 9, 2021; Revised Nov 24, 2021; harbour lactic acid bacteria (LAB) which have potential as probiotics for ruminants. In
Accepted Dec 7, 2021 general, BSF larvae has potential as ingredient for milk replacer, creep feed, fattening
ration, and source of LAB for probiotics.
Parts of this review were presented at Animal
Bioscience Forum 2021 on Animal Biosciences Keywords: Black Soldier Fly; Creep Feed; Frass; Milk Replacer; Probiotic
to Improve Animal Health and Production:
Insect proteins for animals — current status,
potentials and challenges (September
28-29, 2021), which was supported by
Pathway Intermediates (http://www.pathway-
intermediates.com). INTRODUCTION
Increasing world population requires an increase of food production, including livestock
production. Livestock products such as meat, milk, eggs as part of food production is the
fastest growing agricultural sector. The dominant livestock types are pig with 112.33 MT,
poultry 109.02 MT, and cattle, which includes beef and buffalo meat 67.99 MT represent-
ing 91.80% of meat production in the world [1]. Indonesia is the fourth most populated
country in the world and also needs high livestock products especially from ruminants.
Small ruminant animals such as goat and sheep are potential sources of ruminant meat,
but the production and reproduction performances are still very low. To improve the animal
production, it is necessary to improve feed quality offered to the animals.
  Recently, there is a growing use of insects as feed ingredients due to their high nutri-
tional content. One of well-known insect named black soldier fly (BSF) especially Hermetia
illucens, has been more and more used commercially in feed because of easy rearing, high
yield, rich nutritional value and the ability to utilize organic wastes. Black soldier fly larvae
can consume substrate 25 mg up to 500 mg fresh matter per larvae per day to produce
body length around 27 mm, 6 mm wide and weight 220 mg at 14 days old [2]. The nutri-
ent composition of BSF larvae reared with mixed organic wastes ranges from 42% to 47%,
11.8% to 34.8%, 7% to 9%, and 14.6% to 15.9% for crude protein (CP), fat, crude fiber (CF),
and ash, respectively [3]. Meanwhile if BSF are reared on palm oil meal, they contain 43%
CP , 19.51% fat, 12.27% CF and 4.85% ash, also contain a variety of fatty acids and amino

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356 and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. www.animbiosci.org
Astuti and Wiryawan (2022) Anim Biosci 35:356-363

acids as presented in Tables 1 and 2 [4,5]. Based on the BSF started in 2005. According to data of Indonesian Ministry of
nutrient content, they have great potential as a feed ingredi- Fisheries in 2021, there are more than 175 BSF farmers from
ent for ruminants, especially to substitute soybean meal, fish west (Sumatra island) to east (Papua island) with average pro-
meal and antimicrobial growth promoters as they also con- duction rate of 100 kg per day. Most of them rear BSF using
tain antibacterial medium length chain fatty acids. organic waste and the larvae are directly fed to their fish,
  Black soldier fly larvae can grow well in harsh condition local poultry while very few go to ruminant feed. Only a
such as on food waste or animal manure, and some researchers few in the BSF industry use palm oil meal to produce BSF
reported that BSF larvae harbour many types of microor- as an export commodity. The leftover medium after it is
ganisms including lactic acid bacteria (LAB) [6]. Therefore, used for BSF larvae growth, called frass and liquor can be
it may be important to study the potential of those LAB as used for organic fertilizer. The problem with a small scale
probiotics candidate to replace the use of antibiotic growth production is the price. In Indonesia, the dry BSF price is
promoter especially for young ruminants. This article review still more expensive compared to imported soybean meal,
describes the potential of BSF and its by-product as ingredi- fish meal or meat bone meal. Good manufacturing practice
ents in milk replacer, creep feed, and growing ration of kids may reduce the BSF production cost.
as well as the potential of LAB isolated from BSF larvae as
probiotics for ruminants. APLICATION OF BLACK SOLDIER FLY
LARVAE IN RUMINANT RATIONS
THE POTENTIAL OF BSF PRODUCTION
IN INDONESIA Black soldier fly is currently the most widely used insect in
animal feed research due to its high nutritional value and
Indonesia is an archipelago and tropical country which is cost effectiveness [7]. The demand for ruminant feed from
very suitable for BSF production. Black soldier fly needs in- forage and agricultural waste have been increasing every year.
tensive direct ultraviolet light from the sun for mating, laying Originally, ruminants could survive with hay and forage,
and development as a larvae. Utilization of BSF in Indonesia but in some cases they need additional feed or functional
feed such as milk replacer for a new born, flushing diet to
Table 1. Fatty acid composition of 15-day-old black soldier fly larvae
boost growth rate, and induce hormones during reproduc-
reared on organic waste tion or special diet for recovering from stress. Black soldier
fly with high essential amino acids, lauric acid as an anti-
Black soldier fly
Parameters bacteria and LAB as probiotics has potential to be used as
Raw Steam
functional feed for ruminants. This statement is supported
Fat content (%) 38.09 27.49
by previous study where some insects were used as poten-
Saturated fatty acid (%)
Capric acid (C10:0) 0.84 0.81
tial feed ingredients for ruminants [8]. Fuctional feed is
Lauric acid (C12:0) 40.29 49.18 usually given for a short period to improve the condition
Tridecanoic acid (C13:0) 0.02 0.03 according to the purpose of the supplementation.
Myristic acid (C14:0) 6.76 8.09   The feed cost of ruminant industry usually contributes up
Pentadecanoic acid (C15:0) 0.12 2.70
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 9.99 8.53
Heptadecanoic acid (C17:0) 0.11 0.19 Table 2. Analyzed amino acids content of black soldier fly larvae
reared on palm oil meal
Stearic acid (C18:0) 1.27 1.42
Arachidic acid (C20:0) 0.04 0.05 Amino acid Percent of total amino acid
Behenic acid (C22:0) 0.02 0.04 Histidine 0.83
Unsaturated fatty acid (%) Threonine 1.40
Myristoleic acid (C14:1) 0.16 0.23 Arginine 2.26
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) 2.07 2.70 Tyrosine 2.83
Cis-10-Heptadecanoic acid (C17:1) 0.00 0.24 Methionine 0.78
Elaidic acid (C18:2n9t) 0.30 0.29 Valine 2.76
Oleic acid (C18:1n9c) 7.99 5.94 Phenylalanine 2.02
Linolelaidic acid (C18:2n9t) 0.00 1.41 Isoleucine 2.17
Linoleic acid (C18:2n6c) 4.02 0.03 Leucine 2.95
v-Linolenic acid (C18:3n6) 0.00 0.00 Lysine 2.37
Cis-11,14-Eicosedienoic acid (C20:2) 0.02 0.03 Serine 1.45
Cis-8,11,14-Eicosetrienoic acid (C20:3n6) 0.03 0.02 Glysine 1.42
Total fatty acid (%) 74.04 79.41 Alanine 2.47
Source: Harlystiarini et al [5]. Source: Harlystiarini et al [5].

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 Astuti and Wiryawan (2022) Anim Biosci 35:356-363

to 40% to 60% of the production cost, and the proportion of Table 3. Dry matter and protein consumption of kids fed milk replacer
containing black soldier fly larvae meal
protein accounts for over 15% of total feed cost [9]. Many
kinds of protein feed sources such as legumes, grains and Consumption Goat milk Commercial MR BSF MR SEM
animal waste can be used as part of the ration. For an eco- Week 1 to 4 (MR)
friendly industry, there is a growing interest for using insects Dry matter (g/d) 151.0a 208.0b 169.8a 14.0
as a protein source in livestock, therefore there is an increas- Protein (g/d) 30.2 33.9 31.8 2.0
ing use of BSF as a source of protein [10]. Some part of BSF Fat (g/d) 6.3a 33.9b 33.8b 2.0
Week 5 to 8 (MR)
products can be used for functional feed, such as dry BSF,
Dry matter (g/d) 160.4a 210.4b 172.0a 13.0
oil, meal, frass, chitin and LAB from BSF larvae digestive
Protein (g/d) 31.6 33.7 32.2 2.1
tracts. The application of BSF and its by-products in rumi- Fat (g/d) 6.7a 33.7b 34.2b 2.5
nants has carried out over the last five years at the IPB Week 5 to 8 (CF)
University, Indonesia. Dry matter (g/d) 93.7 121.1 84.9 41.0
Protein (g/d) 15.2 19.7 13.8 6.7
Utilization of black soldier fly for milk replacer Fat (g/d) 1.8 2.4 1.7 0.4
Milk replacer is formulated from high quality ingredients to MR, milk replacer; BSF, black soldier fly; SEM, standard error of mean; CF,
provide the nutrient requirements for young animals. Milk creep feed.
a,b
Different superscript with lowercase in the same raw is significant
replacer is usually given to the pre-weaning animals to re- different at (p < 0.05).
place the mother’s milk which can be sold by the farmer. The Source: Astuti and Komalasari [4].
quality of milk replacer should be more or less similar to the
original milk, and the quality of milk replacer should con-
tain 20% to 24% protein, 20% to 30% fat, 1% calcium and feeding containing BSF larvae supplementation was started
0.8% phosphorous [11]. Most milk replacers are dry pow- from fifth week of rearing, and it showed good palatability
ders that have to be reconstituted to a liquid by mixing with to pre-weaning kids. Milk replacer containing cricket meal
warm water. Some formulas of milk replacer have been made improved the growth rate of kids similar to those offered with
containing source of protein from cricket meal for goat kids goat milk treatment [12]. The body weight gain of goat kids
[12], gluten hydrolyzed for calves, and puffed corn or puffed fed milk replacer containing BSF meal is the same as goat
full fat soybean for lambs. An experiment was designed to kids body weight gain fed with milk replacer containing cricket
compare the effectiveness of goat milk, commercial milk re- meal, which is around 157 g/d. The final body weight of wean-
placer and BSF milk replacer on pre-weaning goat kids. The ing goats fed with goat milk is around 14 kg, however weaning
milk replacer was formulated containing 30% of fourteen kids fed with milk replacer containing BSF have body weight
days old BSF larvae meal mixed with egg flour, casein, full around 12.5 kg. The weaning weight of local Etawah cross-
cream, wheat flour and some other minerals and vitamins. bred with natural mating is around 11.1 kg [14]. Meanwhile
The milk replacer was offered to the goat kids 6 to 8 times a Lu [15] stated that weaning weight depends on some factors
day until 5 weeks old and then continued until 8 week to- such genetic, weaning age, health status, quality and quantity
gether with creep feed supplementation to imporve the rumen of mother’s milk, litter size and feeding management. Data
function development. The result showed that the dry matter of the physiological status such as heart rate, respiration, and
and protein consumption of BSF milk replacer were the same body temperature were the same in all treatments and in the
compared to consumed goat milk, however fat consumption range of normal condition. Milk replacer containing BSF
of BSF milk replacer was significantly higher (p<0.05) than larvae meal apparently has no negative effect on the physio-
kids consumed from goat milk (Table 3). Dry matter intake logical status of the goat kids. Studies using BSF larvae in the
of goat kids fed milk replacer containing cricket meal is around milk replacer show that feed conversion is 3.67 and higher
3% to 4% of body weight [12]. The palatability of new milk than kids consumed goat milk (1.69). Energy and protein
replacer with specific ingredients is important to be evaluat- status are closely related to body weight gain and feed con-
ed. Texture, smell and taste are some indicators which affect version ratio [16] .
the palatability. According to Nutrient Research Council [13]
goats are animals which are very sensitive to selecting feed Utilization of black soldier fly larvae for creep feed
(browsers). There is a decreasing BSF milk replacer intake Creep feeding is a method of supplementing the diet of young
compared to the commercial milk replacer and goat milk livestock by offering feed to animals who are still nursing.
during the initial four weeks. The low initial intake of BSF Creep feeding is usually offered when lambs or kids are still
milk replacer is due to the adaptation period and high fat nursing to provide additional nutrients to support animal
content. Feeding with BSF milk replacer increased fat intake growth [17]. Many studies used creep feed supplementation
five times compared to goat milk. In this experiment, creep especially in calves to stimulate the rumen development and

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Astuti and Wiryawan (2022) Anim Biosci 35:356-363

improve the growth rate. A trial was designed on post-wean- meanwhile the digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, ni-
ing two-month-old Ettawah crossbred goats fed with creep trogen free extract, and TDN were significantly lower (p<0.05)
feed for three months. The control diet formulated using compared to the commercial diet (Table 4). This condition
30% soybean meal without BSF larvae, meanwhile the other may be due to the high content of undigested fibre and chitin
two creep feed treatments were formulated containing 15% in frass. Data from the in vivo experiment showed similar
and 30% of BSF larvae, respectively. Data showed that the results as those of the in vitro experiment.
physiological and hematological status of growing goats were
similar in all feeding treatments and it was in the normal range. Potential of lactic acid bacteria from black soldier fly
The performance of those five-month-old growing kids was larvae as probiotics in ruminants
good with final body weight around 20 kg. The growing goat Probiotics are defined as live microorganisms, providing
kids fed cricket creep feed had higher average daily gain (123 health benefits for the host, when they are administered in
g/d) [12] compared to the BSF creep feed treatment (89 g/d). adequate amounts FAO/WHO [23]. Lactic acid bacteria are
It is reported that kids with intensive management could in- commonly used as probiotics to replace antibiotic growth
crease growth rate with consumption of 230 g/d of creep feed promoters against pathogenic bacteria due to their produc-
containing 14% CP based alfalfa [18]. Other experiments re- tion of organic acids, hydrogen peroxide, and bacteriocins
ported that with the supplementation of 18% CP creep feed, [24-26]. The application of LAB probiotics in young rumi-
the consumption is around 152 g/d and no difference in weight nants may reduce the incidence of diarrhea as well as improve
gain [19]. Based on Beesigamukama et al [20] requirement body weight gain and feed efficiency. Holstein calves sup-
for growing kids with 150 g/d weight gain needed 4.81% dry plemented with L. acidophilus 27SC had significantly higher
matter intake of body weight, 86 g/d of protein intake and colony counts of lactobacilli in feces compared to calves
0.43 kg/d of total digestible nutrient (TDN). Important vari- fed a control diet. As a result, calves fed L. acidophilus 27SC
able that affects the performance of kids is not only the quality showed significant differences in scour index during weeks
of ration but also the amount of feed intake. Insects with high 5, 7, and 8 compared with calves fed a control diet and, during
protein and fat content show potential to be used in a creep weeks 7 and 8 compared with calves fed a mixed lactobacilli
feeding program. The best insects with high essential amino diet [27]. The effects of oral administration lactic acid produc-
acids content, such as BSF, can potentially be used in creep ing bacteria of Bifidobacterium pseudolongum or L. acidophilus
feed. on newborn calves were also investigated [28]. Oral admin-
istration of the two types of LAB improved body weight gain
Utilization of frass black soldier fly in the growing goat and feed efficiency, and reduced frequencies of diarrhea-
ration compared to calves that did not receive LAB. In another
Frass is the by‐product of the larval meal industry that includes investigation using the addition of L. mucosae and cell-free
larval waste, exoskeleton sheds and residual feed ingredi- supernatant during the in vitro fermentation of dried brew-
ents. The quality of frass depends on the quality of medium ers grain increased the volatile fatty acids production, but
and the amount of chitin content. In some reasearch which had no effect on dry matter and organic matter digestibility.
used organic waste medium, the frass contained around 15% Furthermore, the addition of L. mucosae can also increase
CP and 25% CF with low TDN value. Information regarding the total bacterial population but have no significant effect
BSF frass utilization for ruminant ration is still very rare. on the total microbial diversity [29].
Frass mainly goes to the organic farm as a good quality fer-
tilizer [21] or it is used for protein source in catfish [22].
Table 4. Nutrient digestibility of growing goat fed black soldier fly
Based on the nutrient quality of frass, it is possible to use it frass
as an ingredient for ruminants. Black soldier fly frass from
Concentrate Concentrate
palm oil meal medium contains 19% CP, 21% CF and 68% Nutrient digestibility
commercial BSF frass
SEM
TDN, so it can be used as protein source or even for fibre
Dry matter (%) 74.1b 66.5a 1.9
source for ruminants. Organic matter (%) 75.7b 67.4a 1.8
  An experiment was done in our laboratory using frass de- Crude protein (%) 69.5 66.5 2.6
rived from BSF leftover medium was compared with the use Fat (%) 92.1 91.2 2.3
of commercial concentrate on growing male Ettawah goats. Crude fibre (%) 56.0 50.0 6.5
The ration was formulated containing 30% BSF frass from NFE (%) 82.0b 73.7a 2.1
TDN (%) 80.0b 74.4a 1.0
palm oil meal medium as a concentrate diet with 14% CP and
68% TDN, whereas the commercial concentrate was formu- BSF, black soldier fly; SEM, standard error of mean; NFE, nitrogen free
extract; TDN, total digestible nutrients.
lated in the same quality. Data showed that there were no a,b
Different superscript with lowercase in the same raw is significant
significant differences of nutrient intake in both treatments, different at (p < 0.05).

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 Astuti and Wiryawan (2022) Anim Biosci 35:356-363

Table 5. pH of lactic acid bacteria (isolated from black soldier fly) after 24 hours incubation in De Man, Rogosa and Sharpe medium
Isolate A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13
pH 4.5 4.6 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.4 4.6

  Lactic acid bacteria can be isolated from a different vari- tory activity on E. coli growth compared to the other isolates.
ety of sources such as soil, flowers, fruits, fermented foods, The inhibitory activity of the LAB isolates on E. coli in this
and animal digestive tracks. Recently, there is a fast growing experiment was lower compared to those LAB isolated from
interest on the use of insects especially BSF (Hermetia illucens) asam durian [33]. Production of organic acids and the ability
larvae as animal feed due to its high protein and lipids con- of LAB in inhibiting the growth of pathogenic bacteria such
tent. Black soldier fly larvae convert different kinds of organic as E. coli is an important factor in selecting probiotic candi-
wastes such as food waste, and animal manure [30,31]. Black dates because the probiotics should be able to compete and
soldier fly larvae can survive under harsh conditions, so they eliminate the pathogenic bacteria in the intestines. However,
may possess some good bacteria in their intestines that can it is not clear yet whether the inhibition of E. coli growth is
compete with pathogenic bacteria. Therefore, research has only caused by organic acids or there may be other antipa-
been conducted in our laboratory to isolate and characterize thogenic compounds such as bacteriocin produced. Further
LAB that can be used as a probiotics candidate in ruminant study is required to evaluate the production of bacteriocin.
animals.   Three isoltaes (A5, A11, and A13) which have different
  The results of our experiment showed that there were 13 colony morphology and diameter of clearing zone were fur-
LAB isolates which have different colors and morphologies ther tested for their ability to survive in intestinal conditions
of colonies and have characteristics of gram positive, catalase such as different pH [34] and bile salt 0.5% [35]. The results
negative, and cocci cell morphology. All isolates produced show that the three isolates were able to survive at three dif-
organic acids as shown by low pH (ranged from 4.4 to 4.6) ferent pH (2, 4, and 6) (Table 6). The survival rate of LAB
after 24 hours incubation in the De Man, Rogosa, and Sharpe isolates at pH 2, 4, and 6 ranged from 73.41% to 77.13%,
(MRS) medium (Table 5). In addition, all isolates were able 80.55% to 86.28%, and, 81.23% to 94.69%, respectively . The
to inhibit the growth of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as shown by survival rate of the isolate A5 was consistently higher (p<0.05)
the clearing zone produced using agar well diffusion method than that of isolate A13 in all pH conditions and was higher
[32]. Figure 1 shows the diameter of the clearing zone of E. (p<0.05) than that of isolate A11 at pH 4 and pH 6. Isolate
coli treated with cell-free supernatant of isolates. The diame- A5 also had higher survival rate at pH 2 compared to the
ter of clearing zone ranged from 6.18 mm to 10.98 mm. The survival rate of LAB isolated from soil reported by [36], but
isolates A4 and
418 A5 had significantly higher (p<0.05) inhibi- it was lower than the survival rate of LAB isolated from asam

419  12.0 b 
10.8b 11.0
420 
10.0
421 
7.7a 
7.4a  7.3a  7.0a  7.2 a  7.4 a 
Clearing zone (mm)

8.0
422  6.9a  6.6 a  6.7
a 
6.4 a  6.2 a 
423  6.0

424 
4.0
425 
2.0
426 

427  0.0
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13
428  Isolates

429 zone growth inhibition of Escherichia coli by lactic acid bacteria isolated from black soldier fly larvae. a,b Different superscript
Figure 1. Clearing
means significant different (p<0.05).
430  Figure 1. Clearing zone growth inhibition of Escherichia coli by lactic acid bacteria isolated
431  from black soldier fly larvae. a,b Different superscript means significant different (p<0.05).
360  www.animbiosci.org

432 
Astuti and Wiryawan (2022) Anim Biosci 35:356-363

Table 6. Percentage of lactic acid bacteria (isolated from black soldier centrate containing BSF frass could improve performance of
fly larvae) survival at different pH and 0.5% bile salts
pre- and post-weaning and growing goats. BSF larvae grown
Survival (%) on chicken manure harbor LAB which are potentially probi-
Isolates
pH 2 pH 4 pH 6 Bile salts 0.5% otic candidates.
a a a
A13 73.4 82.0 81.2 76.8
A11 77.1b 80.6a 93.0b 78.5 CONFLICT OF INTEREST
A5 75.8b 86.3b 94.7b 75.4
SEM 1.1 1.0 4.2 1.3 We certify that there is no conflict of interest with any financial
p-value 0.01 0.05 < 0.01 0.27
organization regarding the material discussed in the manu-
SEM, standard error of mean.
a,b script.
Different superscript in the same column is significant difference at
(p < 0.05).
FUNDING
durian [33]. The LAB can survive in the acid condition due The authors received no financial support for this article.
to the ability of LAB to protect membrane damages from
low extracellular pH [37]. Meanwhile, the survival rate of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
the three LAB isolates on 0.5% bile salts ranged from 75.35%
to 78.53% and there were no significant different amongst The authors would like to thanks our students Rentia, Claudia,
the three isolates (Table 6). Erik and Irvan for helping the commencement of the exper-
  One important criteria for selecting LAB as probiotic iments.
candidates is the ability of the bacteria to adhere on the mu-
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