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FOUNDATION

HEREDITY & EVOLUTION

CONTENTS
Preadaptations :
 Introduction
 Some of the neutral variations function as
 Accumulation of variations during preadaptation to changing environment. For
reproduction example, heat wave may kill most bacteria except a
few which have a pre-adaptation or variation to
 Significance of vairation tolerate high temperature.
Evolution :
 Heredity  Variations are raw materials for evolutionary
 Mendelism processes. Picking up suitable variants by nature or
environment forms the basis of evolution.
 Sex determination
Struggle for Existence :
 Evolution  Useful variation provide advantage to the
 Speciation individuals in the struggle for existence and hence
survival in nature.
Individuality :
 Variations provide a distinct identity to each and
every individual.
 Variation is the degree of difference found in Artificial Selection :
morphological, physiological & other traits found
among individuals belonging to the same family  Picking up of certain variations by breeders have
race & species. resulted in development of a number of breeds and
varieties of domesticated plants and animals
 Most of the variation are due to mutations caused
by error in DNA replication.

Heredity (L. hereditas – heirship or inheritance) is

the transmission of genetic characters from
parents to offspring or one generation to the next
 Variation appear during reproduction whether
 Inherited Traits :
organisms are multiplying asexually or sexually.
They are those traits which are controlled by
Each generation provides the next generation with
getnetic material of the individuals and are obtained
a common basic body design and some subtle
from the parents in inheritance.
changes or variations
 The variations accumulate and pass on to more
and more individuals with each generation. Mendel was a monk in Austria.
Mendel performed a number of experiments on
 The diversity is small in case of asexually the gardan pea plants (Pisum sativum).
reproducing organism as it is caused by only  Mendel's Law :
errors of DNA copying mechanism.
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 The theoretical explanation of mendel's results are E xp la nato ry H ypo th esis
now firmly establisas Mendel's laws of inheritance. R ed Flow er W hite F low er
These are as follows : RR rr PL A N TS
 Mendel's law of Dominance :
Egg P ollen
 According to this law, if a cross is made between cells g rains
plants with contrasting pair of charactess, the R r
character that appears in the first generation is
dominant and the other is recessive. r
R Rr
F 1 generation
Rr Rr 100% R ed

Rr

S egregation

E gg Polle n
cells grain s
1 /2 R R 1/2

Mendel's monohybrid cross between a 1 /2

1 /2 r
homozygous red flowered (RR) and a r RR
homozygous white flowered (rr) plant to show F 2 generation
that red colour is dominant over white (recessive) rR Rr 75% R ed
25% W hite
 Mendel's law of segregation (or law of purity
rr
of gametes) :
 Both parental allels (i.e. dominant as well as
recessive) segregate or separate and are expressed  Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment :
phenotypically in F2 generation, and this is called
mendel's Law of segregation.  Which states that most of the characters of parents
can appear in any combination in their offsprings
Pure m ale Pure fem ale
P 1 G en eration
Y Y R R (Ye llow, R ou nd) yyrr (G ree n, W rinkled)

YR YR yr yr

F 1 G eneration
A ll R o und Ye llow
Yy Rr

YR Yr yR yr

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F 2 G eneration
Father's
o  YR Yr yR yr Sperm s
+o M other's
YYRR YYRr Y yR R Y yR r Ova
Y R R ound R ound R ou nd R ound G am etes x Y
yellow yellow yellow yellow
Zygote
YYRr Y Y rr Y yR r Y yrr
Yr R ound w rinkled R oun d w rinkled O ffsprings xx xy
y ellow yellow yellow yellow
Fem ale C hild M ale C hild
Y yR R Y yR r yyR R yyR r (G irl) (B oy)
yR R ound R ound R ound R o und
y ellow yellow g reen green
Y yR r Y yrr yyR r y yrr D eterm in a tio n o f S ex in H u m a n s
yr R o und w rin kled R o und w rinkled
yellow yellow green green

Fig: Result of Dihybrid cross between pea plants

having round yellow seeds and wrinkled green Evolution (L.evolvere – to unfold) or organic
seeds. evolution (Spencer, 1852) is the unfolding of
nature wherein newer types of organisms develop
from the pre-existing ones through modification.
 Acquired Traits :
It is a process by which the sex of a person is
determined. Genetics is involved in the Acquired traits are those variations which an
determination of the sex of a person, which is individual develops during its life time due to effect
explained as follows : of environmental factors, use and disuse of organs
and conscious efforts.
 A male has one X chromosome and one
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters
Y chromosome, i.e., half of the male gamete or (Lamarckism). It is the first theory of evolution that
sperms will have X chromosome and the other was proposed by French biologist Jean Baptiste de
half will have Y chromosome. Lamarck. It is based on the following
 A female has two X chromosomes, i.e., all the  Internal Vital Force : There is a vital force in
female gametes or ova will have only organisms which rends to change them, generally
X chromosomes. making them larger and more complex.
 Sex of a child depends on what happens at fertilisation.  Environment : A change in environment brings
 If a sperm carrying X chromosome fertilises an about direct changes in plants. It produces new
needs in animals.
ovum which carries X chromosome, then the
child born will be a girl.  New needs (Doctrine of Desires), New need being
 If a sperm carrying Y chromosome fertilises an about new desires that result in changes of older and
formation of new organs.
ovum which carries X chromosome, then the
child born will be a boy.  Use and Disuse of Organs, Repeated use of an organ
 Thus, the sperm determines the sex of the child. makes it more complex and efficient. Non-use of an
organ brings about its degeneration.
 Sex determination is also controlled by the
 Inheritance of Acquired Characters. The traits
environmental factors in some animals.
acquired by an individual during its life time are
 For example, in some reptiles like turtle, high passed on to the next generation. After several
incubation temperature leads to the development generations the accumulation of changes results in
of female offsprings, while in case of lizard. high the formation of new species.
incubation temperature results in male offsprings.
 Inherited traits :
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 Inherited traits are those characteristics which are
passed from parents to their offspring, generation
after generation because they are controlled by genes.
 There is also reshuffling of inherited variations
during gemetogenesis and fertilization.

It is the formation of new species from an existing

one due to reproductive isolation of a section of
its population.
Development of reproductive isolation is basic to
formation of new species. This can occur by the
following methods  Analogous Organs :
 Physical Barrier :  These organs are perform similar function but
 A physical barrier like valley, mountain, water body, quite different in origin and development.
etc. develop between two populations of a species.  Analogous organs are also called homoplastic
organs.
 Two Ends of Long Range :  Analogous organs like wings of insects, birds and
 Subpopulations at the two ends of a long range bats illustrate ‘convergent evolution’.
seldom interbreed.  Ex. - Wings of birds, wings of insects show the
 Mutations : same function but their origin and development is
different.
 A large mutation can make some members
 Vestigial Organs :
reproductively isolated from the rest.
 Genetic Drift (Wright Effect) :  Vestigial organs are useless organs found in the
body. These are present in reduced form.
 It is random change in gene frequency that occurs in
a small population due to fixation of certain alleles  Ex. wings of kiwi, limbs of snakes, the nictitating
membrane of the eye, body hair and the muscles
and elimination of others.
that move the ears.
 During the period of evolution vestigial organs
have become functionless.
 Homologus Organs :  Fossil Evidences :
 These organs are similar in structure but disimilar  Fossils are the remains of the organisms that
in functions. found in the ancient period. We can determine
fossil’s age through the period of rock by
 Homologous organs are found in forms showing radioactive material. Histological time scale is a
adaptive radiation from a common ancestor so chronological order of evolution history based
these give evidence of ‘divergent evolution’. upon the study of fossils.
 Ex. forelimbs of mammals, bat’s wing, a cat’s  Study of fossils known as palaeontology.
paw.
Petrification :
 In plants homologous organs may be a thorn or a
 Hard parts are preserved in this type of fossil.
tendril as they arise in the axillary position. If
homology is seen at the molecular level. This is Archaeopteryx :
called molecular homology.  A fossil bird show both reptilian and avian
features - It had wing like birds, thecodent
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dentition and tail like reptiles. Hence, Eg. Embryos of fish, turtle, bird, pig & man shows the
archeopteryx is a connecting link between birds similarity during embryo development.
and reptiles.
Connecting links :

 Embryological Evidences:
The study of embryo from variours organisms
reveals similarity in the early stages of embryo
development & this theory suggests that these
organism have evolved from common ancestors.

EXERCISE # 1
(C) Muscles of ear pinna
(D) Nictitating membrane
Q.1 Mendel worked on -
Q.7 The wings of bat, locust and pigeon are the
(A) Pisum (B) Solanum
example of -
(C) Lathyrus (D) Dolichos
(A) Homologous organs
Q.2 Father of genetics is - (B) Analogous organs
(A) Morgan (B) Mendel (C) Vestigial organs
(C) Darwin (D) Hutchinson (D) Exoskeleton

Q.3 A gamete contains - Q.8 Homologous structure are -

(A) Two alleles of a gene (A) Dissimilar in origin, similar in function
(B) One allele of a gene (B) Dissimilar in origin and function both
(C) All alleles of a gene (C) Similar in origin and similar in function
(D) None of the above (D) Similar in origin and dissimilar in function

Q.4 A breeding experiment dealing with a signle

trait is called - Q.9 Palaentology is study of -
(A) Dihybrid (B) Monohybrid (A) Fossils (B) Bones
(C) Monozygous (D) Heterozygous (C) Birds (D) Embryo

Q.10 ‘Descent with modification’ is the central

Q.5 Mendel noted as many pairs of contrasting
theme of -
traits in pea plants -
(A) Recapitulation (B) Genetics
(A) 2 (B) 5 (C) 7 (D) 9
(C) Evolution (D) Biogenesis

Q.6 Which one is not a vestigial organ in man ?

Q.11 The book “Origin of Species by Natural
(A) Vermiform appendix
Selection” was written by -
(B) Epiglottis
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(A) Oparin Q.14 Inheritance of acquired characters was
(B) Wallace proposed by -
(C) Darwin (A) Darwin (B) Lamarck
(D) Darwin and Wallace (C) Wallace (D) Oparin

Q.12 Sudden inheritable change is called - Q.15 Vestigal organs are -

(A) Recombination (B) Mutation (A) Primitive organs
(C) Natural selection (D) Segregation (B) Preimordial organs
(C) Organs reduced due to disuse
Q.13 The ultimate source of variation is - (D) Organs marked only in embryonic stage
(A) Natural slection
(B) Mutation
(C) Sexual reproduction
(D) None of these

EXERCISE # 2

Q.14 Distinguish between homologous and

Q.1 Define inherited traits.
analogous organs.
Q.2 Give two examples of inherited traits.
Q.15 Explain the process of fossil formation.
Q.3 Who is known as father of genetics ?
Q.16 What are inherited traits ? Give three examples.
Q.4 Name the plant on which Mendel performed
Q.17 Mention any three pairs of contrasting characters
his experiments.
on which Mendel performed his experiments.
Q.5 How many characters did Mendel study ?
Q.18 Explain in brief the procedure adopted by
Q.6 Which is dominant-Round or wrinkled seed Mendel during his experimentation.
shape ?
Q.19 How is sex of the child determined in human
Q.7 Define monohybrid cross. beings ?

Q.20 Explain how do the traits get expressed ?

Q.8 Define dihybrid cross.

Q.9 What is the literal meaning of the word

‘evolution.’ Q.21 Give two examples to explain that inheritance
of acquired characters does not take place.
Q.10 What is organic evolution?

Q.11 Mention two main causes of variation during

reproduction. Q.22 Explain the role of natural selection and
genetic drift in speciation.
Q.12 Define genetic drift..
Q.23 Write a short note on fossils–an evidence for
Q.13 What are acquired characters ? tracing evolutionary relationships.

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Q.24 Explain the dihybrid cross as performed by
Mendel.

Q.25 Explain the interpretations drawn by Mendel

after his experiments on pea plant.

Q.26 What are sex chromosomes ? Explain the

process of sex determination in human beings.

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