MCS 4302 : Mechanical Vibration

“In education, nothing works

if the students don't”
Mechanical Vibrations

Fifth Edition in SI Units

Singiresu S. Rao
 Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Vibration

3
 Chapter Outline

1.1 Preliminary Remarks

1.2 Brief History of Vibration
1.3 Importance of the Study of Vibration
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration
1.5 Classification of Vibration
1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure
1.7 Spring Elements
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements
1.9 Damping Elements
1.10 Harmonic Motion
1.11 Harmonic Analysis

4
 1.1
Preliminary remarks

5
 1.1 Preliminary Remarks

• Briefhistory of vibration
• Examination of vibration’s important role
• Vibration analysis of an engineering system
• Definitions and concepts of vibration
• Concept of harmonic analysis for general periodic motions

6
 1.2
Brief History of Vibration

7
 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

Origins of vibration:
582-507 B.C. –
Pythagoras, the Greek philosopher and mathematician, is the
first to investigate musical sounds on a scientific basis. He conducted
experiments on a vibrating string by using a simple apparatus called a
monochord. He further developed the concept of pitch.

Monochord
Pythagora, Greek philosopher

8
 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

Around 350 B.C. –

Aristotle wrote treatises on music and sound
In 320 B.C. –
Aristoxenus wrote a three-volume work entitled Elements of
Harmony
In 300 B.C. –
Euclid wrote a treatises Introduction to Harmonics
A.D. 132 –
Zhang Heng invented the world’s
first seismograph to measure
earthquakes

9
 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

Galileo to Rayleigh:

Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)

- founder of modern experimental science
- started experimenting on simple pendulum
- published a book, Discourses Concerning
Two New Sciences, in 1638, describing
resonance, frequency, length, tension and
density of a vibrating stretched string

Robert Hooke (1635 – 1703)

- found relation between pitch and frequency of vibration of a string

10
 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

Galileo to Rayleigh:

Joseph Sauveur (1653 – 1716)

- coined the word “acoustics” for the science of sound
- founded nodes, loops, harmonics and the fundamental frequency
- calculated the frequency of a stretched string
from the measured sag of its middle point

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

- published his monumental work, Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in 1686,
discovering three laws of motion

11
 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

Galileo to Rayleigh:

Joseph Lagrange (1736 – 1813)

- found the analytical solution of the vibrating
string and the wave equation

Simeon Poisson (1781 – 1840)

- solved the problem of vibration of a
rectangular flexible membrane

R.F.A. Clebsch (1833 – 1872)

- studied the vibration of a circular membrane

Lord Baron Rayleigh

- founded Rayleigh-Ritz method, used to find
frequency of vibration of a conservative
system and multiple natural frequencies
12
 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

Recent contributions:

1902 – Frahm investigated the importance of

torsional vibration study in the design of
propeller shafts of steamships

Aurel Stodola (1859 – 1943)

- contributed to the study of vibration of beams,
plates, and membranes.
- developed a method for analyzing vibrating
beams which is applicable to turbine blades

C.G.P. De Laval (1845 – 1913)

- presented a practical solution to the problem
of vibration of an unbalanced rotating disk

13
 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

Recent contributions:

1892 – Lyapunov laid the foundations of modern

stability theory which is applicable to all
types of dynamical systems
1920 – Duffling and Van der Pol brought the first
definite solutions into the theory of
nonlinear vibrations and drew attention to
its importance in engineering
– Introduction of the correlation function by
Taylor
1950 – advent of high-speed digital computers
– generate approximate solutions

14
 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

1950s – developed finite element method enabled

engineers to conduct numerically detailed
vibration analysis of complex mechanical,
vehicular, and structural systems
displaying thousands of degrees of
freedom with the aid of computers

• Turner, Clough, Martin and Topp presented the finite element

method as known today

15
 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

1950s – developed finite element method enabled

engineers to conduct numerically detailed
vibration analysis of complex mechanical,
vehicular, and structural systems
displaying thousands of degrees of
freedom with the aid of computers

• Turner, Clough, Martin and Topp presented the finite element

method as known today

16
 1.3
Importance of the Study of Vibration

17
18
 1.3 Importance of the Study of Vibration

• Why study vibration?

• Vibrations can lead to excessive deflections and failure on the

machines and structures

• To reduce vibration through proper design of machines and their

mountings

• To utilize profitably in several consumer and industrial applications

• To improve the efficiency of certain machining, casting, forging &

welding processes

• To stimulate earthquakes for geological research and conduct

studies in design of nuclear reactors

19
 1.4
Basic Concepts of Vibration

20
 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

• Vibration = any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time

• Vibratory System consists of:
1. spring or elasticity
2. mass or inertia
3. damper
• Involves transfer of potential energy to kinetic
energy and vice versa

21
 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

• Degree of Freedom (d.o.f.) =

min. no. of independent coordinates required to determine
completely the positions of all parts of a system at any instant of
time
• Examples of single degree-of-freedom systems:

22
 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

• Examples of second degree-of-freedom systems:

23
 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

• Examples of three degree-of-freedom systems:

24
 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

• Example of Infinite-number-of-degrees-of-freedom system:

• Infinite number of degrees of freedom system are termed

continuous or distributed systems
• Finite number of degrees of freedom are termed discrete or lumped
parameter systems
• More accurate results obtained by increasing number of degrees of
freedom

25
 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

• Free Vibration:
A system is left to vibrate on its own after an initial disturbance and
no external force acts on the system. E.g. simple pendulum
• Forced Vibration:
A system that is subjected to a repeating external force. E.g.
oscillation arises from diesel engines
• Resonance occurs when the frequency of the external force
coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the system

26
 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

• Undamped Vibration:
When no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance
during oscillations
• Damped Vibration:
When any energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance
during oscillations
• Linear Vibration:
When all basic components of a vibratory system, i.e. the spring,
the mass and the damper behave linearly

27
 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

• Nonlinear Vibration:
If any of the components behave nonlinearly
• Deterministic Vibration:
If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or motion) acting
on a vibratory system is known at any given time
• Nondeterministic or random Vibration:
When the value of the excitation at a given time cannot be
predicted

28
 1.5
Classification of Vibration

29
 1.5 Classification of Vibration

• Examples of deterministic and random excitation:

30
 1.6
Vibration Analysis Procedure

31
 1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure

Step 1: Mathematical Modeling

Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations
Step 4: Interpretation of the Results

32
 1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure

• Example of the modeling of a forging hammer:

33
 1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure

Example 1.1
Mathematical Model of a Motorcycle
Figure shows a motorcycle with a rider. Develop a sequence of three
mathematical models of the system for investigating vibration in the
vertical direction. Consider the elasticity of the tires, elasticity and
damping of the struts (in the vertical direction), masses of the wheels,
and elasticity, damping, and mass of the rider.

34
Solution
We start with the simplest model and refine it gradually. When the
equivalent values of the mass, stiffness, and damping of the system
are used, we obtain a single-degree of freedom model of the
motorcycle with a rider as indicated in Figure (b). In this model, the
equivalent stiffness (keq) includes the stiffness of the tires, struts, and
rider. The equivalent damping constant (ceq) includes the damping of
the struts and the rider. The equivalent mass includes the mass of the
wheels, vehicle body and the rider.

35
Solution
This model can be refined by representing the masses of wheels,
elasticity of tires, and elasticity and damping of the struts separately,
as shown in Figure (c). In this model, the mass of the vehicle body
(mv) and the mass of the rider (mr) are shown as a single mass, mv +
mr. When the elasticity (as spring constant kr) and damping (as
damping constant cr) of the rider are considered, the refined model
shown in Figure (d) can be obtained.

36
 1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure

Example 1.1
Mathematical Model of a Motorcycle
Solution
Note that the models shown in Figure (b) to (d) are not unique. For
example, by combining the spring constants of both tires, the masses
of both wheels, and the spring and damping constants of both struts
as single quantities, the model shown in Figure (e) can be obtained
instead of Figure (c).

37
 1.7
Spring Elements

38
 1.7 Spring Elements

• Linear spring is a type of mechanical link that is generally assumed

to have negligible mass and damping
• Spring force is given by:

F = spring force,
k = spring stiffness or spring constant, and
x = deformation (displacement of one end
with respect to the other)

39
 1.7 Spring Elements

• Work done (U) in deforming a spring or the strain (potential)

energy is given by:
U
1 2
kx 1.2
2

• When an incremental force ΔF is added to F:

F  F  F ( x *  x )
dF 1 d 2F
 F(x ) 
*
( x )  ( x ) 2  ...
dx x* 2! dx 2 x*

40
 1.7 Spring Elements

41
 1.7 Spring Elements

• Static deflection of a beam at the

free end is given by:

Wl 3
 st  1.6
3EI
W = mg is the weight of the mass m,
E = Young’s Modulus, and
I = moment of inertia of cross-section
of beam

• Spring Constant is given by:

W 3EI
k  1.7 
 l
st
3

42
 1.7 Spring Elements

• Combination of Springs:
1) Springs in parallel – if we have n spring constants k1, k2, …, kn in
parallel, then the equivalent spring constant keq is:

keq  k1  k2  ...  kn 1.11

• Combination of Springs:
2) Springs in series – if we have n spring constants k1, k2, …, kn in
series, then the equivalent spring constant keq is:

1 1 1 1
   ...  1.17 
keq
k k 1 2
k n

43
 1.7 Spring Elements

44
 1.7 Spring Elements

Example 1.6
Torsional Spring Constant of a Propeller Shaft

Determine the torsional spring constant of the speed propeller shaft

shown in the figure.

45
 1.7 Spring Elements

Example 1.6
Torsional Spring Constant of a Propeller Shaft
Solution

We need to consider the segments 12 and 23 of the shaft as springs in

combination. From the figure, the torque induced at any cross section
of the shaft (such as AA or BB) can be seen to be equal to the torque
applied at the propeller, T. Hence, the elasticities (springs)
corresponding to the two segments 12 and 23 are to be considered as
series springs. The spring constants of segments 12 and 23 of the
shaft (kt12 and kt23) are given by

46
 1.7 Spring Elements
Example 1.6
Torsional Spring Constant of a Propeller Shaft Solution
GJ G ( D  d ) (80  10 ) (0.3  0.2 )
4 4 9 4 4

k 
t12
 12
 12 12

l 12
32l 32(2)
12

 25.5255  10 N - m/rad
6

GJ G ( D  d ) (80  10 ) (0.25  0.15 )

4 4 9 4 4

k 
t 23
 
23 23 23

l 32l
23
32(3) 23

 8.9012  10 N - m/rad
6

Since the springs are in series

k k (25.5255  10 )(8.9012  10 ) 6 6

k   t12 t 23

k k (25.5255  10  8.9012  10 )
teq 6 6

t12 t 23

 6.5997  10 N - m/rad 6

47
 1.8
Mass or Inertia Elements

48
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

• Using mathematical model to represent the actual vibrating system

 E.g. In the figure below, the mass and damping of the beam
can be disregarded; the system can thus be modeled as a
spring-mass system as shown.

49
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

• Combination of Masses
 E.g. Assume that the mass of the frame is negligible compared
to the masses of the floors. The masses of various floor levels
represent the mass elements, and the elasticities of the vertical
members denote the spring elements.

50
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements
• Case 1: Translational Masses Connected by a Rigid Bar

Velocities of masses can be expressed as:

l2 l3
x2  x1 x3  x1 1.18
l1 l1
By equating the kinetic energy of the system : xeq  x1 1.19
1 1 1 1
m1x12  m2 x22  m3 x32  meq xeq
2
1.20
2 2 2 2 2 2
l  l 
meq  m1   2  m2   3  m3 1.21
 l1   l1 
51
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

• Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together

By equating the kinetic energy of the system:

meq = single equivalent translational mass

x = translational velocity
 = rotational velocity
J0 = mass moment of inertia
Jeq = single equivalent rotational mass
52
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements
• Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together

1. Equivalent translational mass:

Kinetic energy of the two masses is given by:
1 1
T  mx 2  J 0 2 1.22
2 2
Kinetic energy of the equivalent mass is given by:
1
Teq  meq xeq 2 1.23
2

x
Since   and xeq  x , equating Teq & T gives
R

J0
meq  m  2
1.24
R

53
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

• Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together

2. Equivalent rotational mass:

Here, eq   and x  R , equating Teq and T gives

J eq  mR   J 0
1  2 1  2 1  2
2 2 2
or J eq  J 0  mR 2 1.25

54
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

Example 1.11
Equivalent Mass of a System
Find the equivalent mass of the system as shown, where the rigid link
1 is attached to the pulley and rotates with it.

55
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

Example 1.11
Equivalent Mass of a System
Solution
Assuming small displacements, the equivalent mass (meq) can be
determined using the equivalence of the kinetic energies of the two
systems. When the mass m is displaced by a distance x , the pulley
and the rigid link 1 rotate by an angle     x / r . This causes the
p 1 p

rigid link 2 and the cylinder to be displaced by a distance

x   l  xl / r . Since the cylinder rolls without slippage, it rotates by
2 p 1 1 p

an angle   x / r  xl / r r . The kinetic energy of the system (T) can

c 2 c 1 p c

be expressed (for small displacements) as:

56
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

Example 1.11
Equivalent Mass of a System
Solution
1 1  1  1 1  1
T  mx  J   J   m x  J   m x
2

p
2

p 1
2

1 2
2

2 c
2

c c
2

2
(E.1)
2 2 2 2 2 2
where Jp, J1, and Jc denote the mass moments of inertia of the pulley,
link 1 (about O), and cylinder, respectively,  ,  and  indicate the
p 1 c

angular velocities of the pulley, link 1 (about O), and cylinder,

respectively, and x and x represent the linear velocities of the mass m
2

and link 2, respectively.

57
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

Example 1.11
Equivalent Mass of a System
Solution

Noting that J  m r / 2
c c c
2
and J  m l / 3, Equation (E.1) can be rewritten
1 1 1
2

as
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1  x  1  m1l12  x  1  xl1  1  mc rc2  xl1  1  xl1 
T  mx  J p     m2     mc (E.2)
2 2  rp  2  3  rp  2  rp  2  2  rp rc  2  rp 
       

By equating Equation (E.2) to the kinetic energy of the equivalent

system
1
T  m x eq
2
(E.3)
2
58
 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

Example 1.11
Equivalent Mass of a System
Solution

We obtain the equivalent mass of the system as

J 1ml m l 1 ml 2
l 2 2 2

m m 
eq
 p
 1 1
m 2 1 c 1
c
1
(E.4)
r 3 r2

p
r 2 r
2

p
r 2

p
2

p p
2

59
 1.9
Damping Elements

60
 1.9 Damping Elements

• Viscous Damping:
Damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body
in a fluid medium such as air, water, gas, and oil.

• Coulomb or Dry Friction Damping:

Damping force is constant in magnitude but opposite in direction to
that of the motion of the vibrating body between dry surfaces

• Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping:

Energy is absorbed or dissipated by material during deformation
due to friction between internal planes

61
 1.9 Damping Elements

• Hysteresis loop for elastic materials:

62
 1.9 Damping Elements

• Shear Stress ( ) developed in the fluid layer at a distance y from

the fixed plate is: du
  1.26
dy
where du/dy = v/h is the velocity gradient.

• Shear or Resisting Force (F) developed at the bottom surface of the

moving plate is:
Av
F  A    cv 1.27 
h
A
where A is the surface area of the moving plate and c  is the
h
damping constant

63
 1.9 Damping Elements

• If a damper is nonlinear, a linearization process is used about the

operating velocity (v*) and the equivalent damping constant is:

dF
c 1.29
dv v*

64
 1.9 Damping Elements

Example 1.17
Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool
Support

65
 1.9 Damping Elements

Example 1.17
Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool
Support
Solution

The free-body diagrams of the four springs and four dampers are shown
in Figure (c). Assuming that the center of mass, G, is located
symmetrically with respect to the four springs and dampers, we notice
that all the springs will be subjected to the same displacement, x , and
x
all the dampers will be subject to the same relative velocity , where x
and x denote the displacement and velocity, respectively, of the center
of mass, G. Hence the forces acting on the springs (Fsi) and the dampers
(Fdi) can be expressed as
66
 1.9 Damping Elements

Example 1.17
Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool
Support
Solution

67
 1.9 Damping Elements

Example 1.17
Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool
Support
Solution F  k x; i  1,2,3,4
si i

F  c x;
di i
i  1,2,3,4 (E.1)
Let the total forces acting on all the springs and all the dampers be Fs
and Fd, respectively (see Figure d). The force equilibrium equations can
thus be expressed as

F F F F F
s s1 s2 s3 s4

F F F F F
d d1 d2 d3 d4
(E.2)

68
 1.9 Damping Elements

Example 1.17
Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool
Support
Solution

where Fs + Fd = W, with W denoting the total vertical force (including

the inertia force) acting on the milling machine. From Figure (d), we
have
F k x
s eq

F  c x
d eq
(E.3)

69
 1.9 Damping Elements

Example 1.17
Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool
Support
Solution

Equation (E.2) along with Eqs. (E.1) and (E.3), yield

k  k  k  k  k  4k
eq 1 2 3 4

c  c  c  c  c  4c
eq 1 2 3 4
(E.4)
where ki = k and ci = c for i = 1, 2, 3, 4.

70
 1.9 Damping Elements

Example 1.17
Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool
Support
Solution

Note: If the center of mass, G, is not located symmetrically with respect

to the four springs and dampers, the ith spring experiences a
x
displacement of xi and the ith damper experiences a velocity of i where xi
and x
i
x
can be related to the displacement and velocity of the center
x
of mass of the milling machine, G. In such a case, Eqs. (E.1) and (E.4)
need to be modified suitably.

71
 1.10
Harmonic Motion

72
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

• Periodic Motion: motion repeated after equal intervals of time

• Harmonic Motion: simplest type of periodic motion

• Displacement (x): (on horizontal axis)

x  A sin   A sin t 1.30

• Velocity:
dx
  A cos t 1.31
dt
• Acceleration:
2
d x
2
  2 A sin t   2 x 1.32
dt
73
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

• Scotch yoke mechanism:

The similarity between cyclic (harmonic) and sinusoidal motion.

74
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

• Also, it can be expressed as


X  A cos  iA sin  1.36

X  Acos  i sin    Aei 1.43
• Thus,
Aj  ( a 2j  b2j ) ; j  1, 2
 bj 
 j  tan1  ; j  1, 2

 aj 
• Operations on Harmonic Functions:

Rotating vector, X  Aeit

75
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

• We have
X  Aeit 1.51
Displacement  Re[ Aeit ]  A cos t 1.54
Velocity  Re[iAeit ]  A sin t
 A cost  90 1.55
Acceleration  Re[ 2 Aeit ]   2 A cost   2 A cost  180 1.56

where Re denotes the real part

• Displacement, velocity, and accelerations as rotating vectors
• Vectorial addition of harmonic functions

76
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

77
 1.10 Harmonic Motion
Example 1.18 Addition of Harmonic Motions

Find the sum of the two harmonic motions.

Solution

Method 1: By using trigonometric relations: Since the circular frequency

is the same for both x1(t) and x2(t), we express the sum as

x(t )  A cos(t   )  x (t )  x (t )
1 2
(E.1)

78
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

Example 1.18 Addition of Harmonic Motions

Solution

By equating the corresponding coefficients of cosωt and sinωt on both

sides, we obtain
Acos t cos   sin t sin    10 cos t  15 cos(t  2)
 10 cos t  15(cos t cos 2  sin t sin 2) (E.2)

cos t ( A cos  )  sin t ( A sin  )  cos t (10  15 cos 2)

 sin t (15 sin 2) (E.3)

A cos  10  15 cos 2
A sin   15 sin 2  15 sin 2 
  tan1  
 10  15 cos 2 
A 10  15 cos 2 2  (15 sin 2)2  74.5963
 14.1477
79
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

Example 1.18
Addition of Harmonic Motions
Solution

Method 2: By using vectors: For an arbitrary value of ωt, the harmonic

motions x1(t) and x2(t) can be denoted graphically as shown in Figure.
By adding them vectorially, the resultant vector x(t) can be found to be

x(t )  14.1477 cos(t  74.5963) (E.6)

80
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

Example 1.18
Addition of Harmonic Motions
Solution

Method 3: By using complex number representation: the two harmonic

motions can be denoted in terms of complex numbers:

x (t )  Re A e
1 1
it
  Re10e  it

x (t )  Re A e
2 2
  Re15e 
i ( t  2 ) i ( t  2 )
(E.7)
The sum of x1(t) and x2(t) can be expressed as
x(t )  Re Ae i ( t  )
 (E.8)
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 1.10 Harmonic Motion

Example 1.18
Addition of Harmonic Motions
Solution

where A and α can be determined using Eqs. (1.47) and (1.48) as A =

14.1477 and α = 74.5963º

82
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

• Definitions of Terminology:

Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement of a vibrating body

from its equilibrium position

Period of oscillation (T) is time taken to complete one cycle of

motion 2
T 1.59

Frequency of oscillation (f) is the no. of cycles per unit time
1 
f   1.60
T 2
83
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

• Definitions of Terminology:

Natural frequency is the frequency which a system oscillates

without external forces

Phase angle () is the angular difference between two synchronous

harmonic motions

84
 1.10 Harmonic Motion

• Definitions of Terminology:

Decibel is originally defined as a ratio of electric powers. It is now

often used as a notation of various quantities such as
displacement, velocity, acceleration, pressure, and power
P
dB  10 log 
 P0 
 X 
dB  20 log 
 X0 
where P0 is some reference value of power and X0 is specified
reference voltage.

85
 1.11
Harmonic Analysis

86
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

• Fourier Series Expansion:

If x(t) is a periodic function with period  , its Fourier Series

representation is given by
a0
x(t )   a1 cos t  a2 cos 2t  ... b1 sin t  b2 sin 2t  ...
2
a0 
   (an cos nt  bn sin nt ) (1.70)
2 n 1

• Gibbs Phenomenon:
An anomalous behavior observed from a periodic function that is
being represented by Fourier series.

87
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

• Gibbs Phenomenon:

As n increases, the approximation can be seen to improve

everywhere except in the vicinity of the discontinuity, P. The error
in amplitude remains at approximately 9 percent, even when k  

88
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

• Complex Fourier Series:

The Fourier series can also be represented in terms of complex

numbers.
e  cos t  i sin t
i t
(1.78)
e  cos t  i sin t
 i t
(1.79)
e e
it  i t

cos t  (1.80)
2
e e
i t  i t

sin t  (1.81)
2i
89
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

• Frequency Spectrum

Harmonics plotted as vertical lines on a diagram of amplitude (an

and bn or dn and Φn) versus frequency (nω)

90
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

• A periodic function:

91
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

• Representation of a function in time and frequency domain:

92
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

• Even and odd functions:

Even function & its Fourier series expansion

x(t )  x(t ) (1.87)

a
x(t )    a cos nt (1.88)

0
n
2 n 1

Odd function & its Fourier series expansion

x(t )   x(t ) (1.89)

x(t )   b sin nt


n 1 n
(1.90)

93
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

• Half-Range Expansions:

The function is extended to include the interval   to 0 as shown in the

figure. The Fourier series expansions of x1(t) and x2(t) are known as
half-range expansions.

94
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

• Numerical Computation of Coefficients

If x(t) is not in a simple form, experimental determination of the

amplitude of vibration and numerical integration procedure like the
trapezoidal or Simpson’s rule is used to determine the coefficients
an and bn.
2 N
a0   xi
N i 1
2 N
2nti
an 
N
 xi cos
i 1 
2 N 2nti
bn   xi sin
N i 1 

95
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis
Example 1.19
Fourier Series Expansion

Determine the Fourier series expansion of the motion of the valve in the
cam-follower system shown in the Figure.

96
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

Example 1.19
Fourier Series Expansion
Solution

If y(t) denotes the vertical motion of the pushrod, the motion of the
valve, x(t), can be determined from the relation:
y (t ) x (t ) l
tan     x (t )  2 y (t )
l1 l2 l1
where t
y (t )  Y ; 0  t 

2


97
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

Example 1.19
Fourier Series Expansion

Solution

Yl t
By defining A  , x(t) can be expressed as x (t )  A ;
2 0  t 
l 
1

To compute the Fourier coefficients an and bn, we have

2 / 
 2 /   2 /  t  At 2

 0  0
a0  x(t )dt  A dt    A
    2 0

98
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis
Example 1.19
Fourier Series Expansion

Solution
 2 /   2 /  t
an 
 0
x ( t ) cos nt  dt 
 0
A cos nt  dt

2 / 
A 2 /  A  cos nt t sin nt 

 0
t cos nt  dt  2 
2  n 2

n 
0

 0, n  1, 2, ..
 2 /   2 /  t
bn   x (t ) sin nt  dt   A sin nt  dt
 0  0 
2 / 
A 2 /  A  sin nt t cos nt 

 0
t sin nt  dt  2 
2  n 2

n 
0

A
 , n  1, 2, ..
n
99
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

Example 1.19
Fourier Series Expansion

Solution

Therefore the Fourier series expansion of x(t) is

A A A
x (t )   sin 2t  sin 2t  ...
2  2
A   1 1 
   sin t  sin 2t  sin 3t  ...
 2  2 3 

100
 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

Example 1.19
Fourier Series Expansion

Solution

The first three terms of the series are shown plotted in the figure. It can
be seen that the approximation reaches the sawtooth shape even with a
small number of terms.

101