UNIT IV:

ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

• Nuclear fission - controlled nuclear fission - nuclear fusion
- differences between nuclear fission and fusion - nuclear
chain reactions - nuclear energy - light water nuclear power
plant – fast breeder reactor.
• Solar energy conversion - solar cells. Wind energy.
• Batteries - types of batteries – primary battery (dry cell),
secondary battery (lead acid, nickel-cadmium and lithium-
ion-battery). Fuel cells – H2-O2 and microbial fuel cell.
• Explosives – classification, examples: TNT, RDX, Dynamite;
Rocket fuels and propellants – definition and uses.
TOPIC 1: NUCLEAR ENERGY
 1. Nuclear fission
• It is the process of splitting of a heavy nucleus (by bombarding it with
projectile particles) into two approximately equal parts, with simultaneous
liberation of a huge amount of energy. For example, fission of U-235 by
neutrons

• A large of energy is released during nuclear fission, because of a loss in

mass. The mass thus lost is converted into equivalent amount of energy, in
accordance with Einstein's mass-energy equation, E = mc2.
 Nuclear fission of Uranium:
1. 238U generally splits, when bombarded by slow or fast neutrons
2. 235U tends to absorb only slow neutrons (with subsequent formation of
neptunium and plutonium) and is split only rarely by fast neutrons with high
energy.
3. In all cases, neutrons were emitted.
4. In all cases, very large disintegrating
energies are liberated
5. Fission fragments are all radioactive,
which then decay to stable nuclei by a
series of remissions.
6. Fission reaction is a self-propagating
chain-reaction, because fission products
contain neutrons (called, secondary
neutrons), which further cause fission in
other nuclei, producing more secondary
neutrons.
7. Thus, the process of neutron production
is multiplied
8. The atomic masses of fission products ranges from about 70 to 160.
9. Every released secondary neutron in uranium fission does not strike a nucleus
and cause further fission. Some neutrons miss their targets and escape into air and
are thus lost.
10. For the fission of U-235, it must be larger than a critical size. Sub-critical mass
and super-critical mass determine the safety and firing of the nuclei.
11. The chain reaction can be controlled and steadily maintained by absorbibg
certain number of neutrons – this is to ensure that on an average, only one nuetron
is available for exciting further fission. Such a reaction, is called controlled chain-
reaction
12. The energy released in such a controlled chain reaction does not go out of
control. A device in which a nuclear chain-reaction is initiated, maintained and
controlled, is called a nuclear reactor.
13. The number of neutrons resulting from a single fission, is known as the
multiplication factor.
14. In a nuclear reactor, the fissionable material is so-arranged that the multi-
plication factor can be carefully controlled to one.
 2. Nuclear fusion
• Nuclear fusion is a process or combination (or fusion) of light-
weight nuclei to form heavier nuclei, with the simultaneous release of
energy.
• Also called as thermonuclear reaction.
 Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

It is process of breaking a heavy nucleus with some It is a process of fusing two light nuclei into a
projectiles into two or more light fragments, with single nucleus, with the liberation of a large amount
liberation of a large amount of energy. of energy.
This process results in the emission of radioactive This process does not emit any kind of radioactive
rays. rays.
This process takes place spontaneously at ordinary This process take place at very high temperature
temperature. (i.e., nearly at about >106 K).
The mass number and atomic number of the The mass number and atomic number of the
daughter elements (new elements) are product is higher than that of the starting elements.
considerably lower than that of the parent nucleus.
This process gives rise to chain-reaction. This process does not give rise to chain-reaction.

During nuclear fission, neutrons are emitted. During nuclear fusion, positrons are emitted.

Nuclear fission can be performed under controlled Nuclear fusion cannot be performed under
conditions. controlled conditions
 3. BREEDER REACTOR
i) When 235U is fissioned by slow neutrons, an average of 2.5 neutrons
are ejected and the remaining 0.5 escapes out of the reactor.
ii) Among these, one neutrons is used to maintain steady-state chain-
reaction ; while out of the remaining 1.5 neutrons 238U 0.9 neutron is
captured by U isotope, present in the parent uranium, and 0.6 neutron
is absorbed by the moderator, coolant, structural material, etc.
iii) The neutron (0.9 out of 2.5 total ejected per fission) absorbed by
238U, converts the latter into 239Pu, which is also a fissionable material.
In other words, 239Pu is 'man-made' nuclear fuel, which can be further
fissioned. Such man-made fuel, like 239Pu, is also known as "secondary
fuel".
iv) Similarly, 232Th can also be converted into a secondary fissionable
fuel, 233U by slow neutrons. Thus, the burn-up of primary fuels can be
compensated to some extent by the production of secondary fuels.
v) The extent of compensation is measured by a factor, called
"conversions factor", which is defined as the ratio of the number of
secondary fuel atoms produced to the number of primary fuel atoms
consumed.
vi) In uranium-graphite-moderated type of reactors, the conversions
factor is, generally, equal to 0.9., i.e., the net effect in a uranium-
graphite reactor is the net consumption of 10% fuel, since 90% is
recovered as secondary fuel.
vii) However, a reactor can be so-designed that the conversion factor is
unity or even higher than 1. This can be done by reducing the losses by
capture and adsorption.
viii) A reactor with a conversion factor above unity, is known as breeder
reactor.
Significance and commercial importance of breeder
reactor:
➢A reactor not only replaces the fuel burnt, but also produces fuel
more than what is used.
➢Hence, such a reactor can be utilised to separate the additional
nuclear fuel and sell it as a profit.
➢This attractive possibility has, consequently, motivated as enormous
research in this field, throughout the world.
➢India, by developing her own technical know-how of breeder
reactor, can utilize her vast 232Th reserves for better future.
Breeding Cycle
 4. Light-water nuclear reactor (LWR)
• It is a type of thermal-neutron reactor that uses
normal water, as both its coolant and neutron
moderator.
• A solid form of fissile elements is used as fuel.
• Thermal-neutron reactors are the most common
type of nuclear reactor, and light-water reactors are
the most common type of thermal-neutron reactor.
• There are three varieties of light-water reactors:
the pressurized water reactor (PWR), the boiling
water reactor(BWR), and (most designs of)
the supercritical water reactor (SCWR).
Schematic of a nuclear reactor
Working principle:
A nuclear power plant works in a similar way as a thermal power plant. The
difference between the two is in the fuel they use to heat the water in the
boiler(steam generator).
• Fuel [Enriched uranium-235 or Plutonium-239] is placed into the reactor
vessel along with a small neutron source.
• The neutrons start a chain reaction where each atom that splits releases more
neutrons that cause other atoms to split.
• Each time an atom splits, it releases large amounts of energy in the form of
heat inside the core of the reactor.
• 1 kg of Uranium U-235 can produce as much energy as the burning of
4500 tonnes of high grade variety of coal or 2000 tonnes of oil.
• The heat is carried out of the reactor by coolant, which is most commonly just
plain water.
• The coolant heats up and goes off to a turbine to spin a
generator or drive shaft.
• The coolant is the material that passes through the core,
transferring the heat from the fuel to a turbine. It could be water,
heavy-water, liquid sodium, helium, or something else.
• The turbine transfers the heat from the coolant to electricity, just
like in a fossil-fuel plant.
• The containment is the structure made of steel-reinforced
concrete that separates the reactor from the environment.
• Chain Reaction in the fuel core:
• Uranium exists as an isotope in the form of U235 which is unstable.
• When the nucleus of an atom of Uranium is split, the neutrons released
hit other atoms and split them in turn. More energy is released each
time another atom splits. This is called a chain reaction.
• U235 splits into two fragments (Ba141 & K92) of approximately equal
size.
• About 2.5 neutrons are released. 1 neutron is used to sustain the chain
reaction. 0.9 neutrons is absorbed by U238 and becomes Pu239. The
remaining 0.6 neutrons escapes from the reactor. The neutrons
produced move at a very
• High velocity of 1.5 x 107 m/sec and fission other nucleus of U235.
Thus fission process and release of neutrons take place continuously
throughout the remaining material.
• A large amount of energy(200 Million electron volts, MeV) is produced.
Components of a nuclear power reactor:
i) Reactor core
ii) Reflector
iii) Pressure vessel
iv) Shielding
v) Heat exchanger
vi) Turbine
The functions of the components are described below:
i) REACTOR CORE:
• It is the part of the power plant where controlled fission raction is carried
out and heat energy is liberated.
• It is a circular cylinder with diameter ranging from 5 to 15 m.
• It is an assembly of: a) Fuel, b) Moderator, c) Coolants and d) Control
rods
a) Fuel:
✓It can be: Natural Uranium, Enriched uranium containing high % of U-235, U-235
obtained by the fission of Th-232 or Pu-239 from U-238.
✓Fuel is used in the form of rods or plates and is surrounded by a moderator
✓Fuel rods are clad with Al or stainless steel or Mg alloy or Zr.
✓Several rods are placed inside the core from a structural support.
✓Enough space is provided between each rod for passage of coolant.

b) Moderator:
✓It reduces the kinetic energy of fast fission neutrons (13200 km/s) to slow
neutrons (22000 m/s) in a small fraction of a second.
✓Graphite, beryllium and heavy water are used as moderators.
c) Coolants:
✓They take up the intense heat produced in the reactor and bring it out for utilisation.
✓Important coolants are: ordinary water, heavy water, liquid metal like Na, organic
liquids, gases like CO2.
✓Both ordinary and heavy water are good coolants and they also serve as
moderators.
✓But, due to low boiling point, they need to be kept under high pressure.
d) Control rods:
✓They have four critical functions:
➢Bring the reactor up to its normal operating level
➢Maintain power production under control and at a steady state
➢Shutting the reactor for maintenance or under emergency conditions
➢Prevent the chain reaction from becoming violent
✓ Boron or Cadmium rods are used as control rods.
 II) REFLECTOR:
• It is placed around the core to reflect back some of the neutrons that leak out from
the surface of the fuel core.
• They should have:
• low absorption and high reflection for neutrons
• High resistance to oxidation
• High resistance to irradiation
• High radiation stability
• Reflector is generally made of the same material as the moderator
• Examples: H2O, D2O, graphite
III) PRESSURE VESSEL:
• It encloses the core and the reflector
• Provides entrance and exit passages for the coolant.
• Provided with mechanisms at the top to insert or pull out the control rods.
• It has to withstand the pressure as high as 200 kg/cm2
IV. SHIELDING:
• Its purpose is to weaken the gamma rays and other radiations coming out from
the reactor, so as to prevent hazard to to persons in the immediate vicinity.
• Generally made of concrete and steel which absorb the radiations.
• Two levels of shielding are:
a) Thermal shield:
It is very close to the reactor
Consists of 50-60 cm thick iron or steel covering
It absorbs heat and prevents the adjacent walls of the pressure-vessel from
becoming hot
It is cooled by external circulation of water.

b) Biological shield:
It is a few decimeter thick layer of concrete that surrounds the thermal shield.
It absorbs the radiation that come from the inner thermal shield
V. HEAT EXCHANGER:

Transfers the heat liberated from the reactor core, boils water and converts it
to steam at about 400 kg/cm2 pressure.

VI. TURBINE:
The steam at high pressure from the heat exchanger operates the turbine.
The turbine runs the generator to produce electricity.
The exhaust steam is condensed and sent back to the heat –exchanger.
 Advantages and limitations of nuclear power
Advantages of Nuclear power plant:
• Space required is less when compared with other power plants.
• Nuclear power plant is the only source which can meet the increasing
demand of electricity at a reasonable cost.
• A nuclear power plant uses much less fuel than a fossil-fuel plant.
• 1 metric tonne of uranium fuel = 3 million metric tonnes of coal = 12 million
barrels of oil.
Disadvantages of Nuclear power plant:
• Radioactive wastes must be disposed carefully, otherwise it will adversely
affect the health of workers and the environment as a whole.
• Maintenance cost of the plant is high.
TOPIC 2: SOLAR ENERGY AND
WIND ENERGY
 Solar Energy
• Originates with the thermonuclear fusion reactions occurring in the sun.
• Represents the entire electromagnetic radiation (visible light, infrared, ultraviolet,
x-rays, and radio waves).
• Radiant energy from the sun has powered life on Earth for many millions of
years.
• Solar energy conversion is the process in which Sunlight can be directly
converted to heat or electrical energy.
• Two types of conversion are:
i) Thermal conversion – solar heat collectors, solar water heaters
ii) Photoconversion: Solar photovolataics
 Solar Energy to Heat Living Spaces

◼ Proper design of a building is for it to act as a solar collector and

storage unit. This is achieved through three elements: insulation,
collection, and storage.
 Solar Energy to Heat Water

• A flat-plate collector is used to absorb the

sun’s energy to heat the water.

• The water circulates throughout the closed

system due to convection currents.

• Tanks of hot water are used as storage.

 Photovoltaics
◼Photo+voltaic = convert light to electricity
 How does it work

The heart of a photovoltaic system is a solid-state device called a solar cell.

 Advantages of solar cell

• All chemical and radioactive polluting

byproducts of the thermonuclear reactions
remain behind on the sun, while only pure
radiant energy reaches the Earth.

• Energy reaching the earth is incredible. By one

calculation, 30 days of sunshine striking the
Earth have the energy equivalent of the total of
all the planet’s fossil fuels, both used and
unused!
 Disadvantages of solar cells
• Sun does not shine consistently.
• Solar energy is a diffuse source. To harness it, we must
concentrate it into an amount and form that we can use,
such as heat and electricity.
• Addressed by approaching the problem through:
1) collection, 2) conversion, 3) storage.
 Wind energy
Wind energy is the kinetic energy that is present in moving air. The
amount of potential energy depends mainly on wind speed, but is also
affected slightly by the density of the air, which is determined by the air
temperature, barometric pressure and altitude.

For any wind turbine, the power and energy output increases
dramatically as the wind speed increases. Therefore, the most cost-effective
wind turbines are located in the windiest areas.

Wind speed is affected by the local terrain and increases with height
above the ground, so wind turbines are usually mounted on tall towers.
 Application of wind energy
Mechanical application:
Mainly (water pumping) Multi-blade windmill
used for water pumping.

Electricity generation
Wind turbines vary in size and type.
They are commercially available for electricity
generation. Size of wind turbines (400 Watt-5 MW).
The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft,
which connects to a generator and makes electricity
 The benefits of wind energy

Wind energy is an ideal renewable energy because:

It is a pollution-free, infinitely sustainable form of energy.
It doesn’t require fuel.
It doesn’t create greenhouse gasses.
It doesn’t produce toxic or radioactive waste
 Drawbacks of Wind Machines
The most serious environmental drawbacks to wind machines
may be their negative effect on wild bird populations and the visual
impact on the landscape.
To some, the glistening blades of windmills on the horizon are an
eyesore; to others, they're a beautiful alternative to conventional
power plants.
TOPIC 3: BATTERIES AND FUEL
CELLS
 BATTERIES AND FUEL
CELLS
Batteries - types of batteries – primary battery (dry cell), secondary
battery (lead acid, nickel-cadmium and lithium-ion-battery). Fuel cells
– H2-O2 and microbial fuel cell
 BATTERIES
• A device that stores chemical energy
• “Battery is an electrochemical cell or several
electrochemical cell connected in series, that can
be used as a direct electric current at a constant
voltage”
• Batteries consist of two or more voltaic cells that are connected in
series to provide a steady dc voltage at the battery’s output terminals.

• The voltage is produced by a chemical reaction inside the cell.

Electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte, which forces the electric
charge to separate in the form of ions and free electrons.
The Voltaic Cell
(converts chemical energy into electric energy)

• A voltaic cell consists of two different metal electrodes that are immersed in
an electrolyte (an acid or a base).

• The chemical reaction resulting from the immersion produces a separation of

charges.

• The current capacity increases with large electrode sizes.

• The negative terminal is considered the anode of the cell because it forms
positive ions in the electrolyte. The opposite terminal of the cell is its
cathode.
The Voltaic Cell

• Motion of electrons in ionic bonding

can be used to generate an electric
current
• A device constructed to do just this is
called a voltaic cell, or cell for short
 The Electrochemical Cell
e−
consumer

salt bridge

oxidation reduction
at zinc at copper
anode ZnSO4 CuSO 4 cathode

Half Cell I Half Cell II

The Electrochemical Cell (2)
• Zinc is (much) more easily oxidized than Copper
⎯→ Zn 2 + + 2e −
Zn ⎯ ( I .)
Cu 2 + + 2e − ⎯
⎯→ Cu ( II .)
• Maintain equilibrium electron densities
• Add copper ions in solution to Half Cell II
• Salt bridge only carries negative ions
• This is the limiting factor for current flow
• Pick a low-resistance bridge
The Electrochemical Series
Most wants to reduce (gain
electrons) But, there’s a reason it’s a
sodium drop
• Gold
• Mercury
• Silver
• Iron
• Copper
• Zinc
• Lead
• Aluminum
• Nickel
• Magnesium
• Cadmium
• Sodium
• Potassium
• Lithium
Most wants to oxidize (lose
electrons)
Battery Characteristics
A battery’s voltage output and current rating are determined by
• The elements used for the electrodes.
• The size of the electrodes.
• The type of electrolyte used.
• Size
• Physical: button, AAA, AA, C, D, ...
• Energy density (watts per kg or cm3)
• Longevity
• Capacity (Ah, for drain of C/10 at 20°C)
• Number of recharge cycles
• Discharge characteristics (voltage drop)
Further Characteristics
• Cost
• Behavioral factors
• Temperature range (storage, operation)
• Self discharge
• Memory effect
• Environmental factors
• Leakage, gassing, toxicity
• Shock resistance
 Types of battery
Classified into 3 types:
1. Primary battery or Primary cells:
• The electrode cell reactions cannot be reversed by passing electric current.
• Reactions occur only until the chemicals inside the battery last
• Examples:
• Zinc carbon dry cells (flashlights, toys)
• Heavy duty zinc chloride cells(radios, recorders)
• Alkaline cells (all of the above)
• Lithium (photoflash)
• Silver, mercury oxide cells (hearing aid, watches)
• Zinc air battery
 Types of battery
2. Secondary battery or Secondary cells:
• The electrode cell reactions can be reversed by passing an external electric
current.
• Hence, the chemicals can be recharged and used for several cycles.
• Also called as Storage cells or accumulators.
• Sealed rechargeable cells, are secondary cells that contain a sealed
electrolyte that cannot be refilled.
• Examples:
• Lead acid storage battery
• Nickel cadmium battery
• Nickel metal hydride battery
• Secondary alkaline battery
• Lithium ion battery
• Lithium ion polymer battery
 Types of battery
3. Flow battery or Fuel cells:
• The reactants, products and electrolytes continuously pass thorough the cell.
• The reactions continue as long as the fuels flow into the anode and cathode.
• Examples:
• H2-O2 fuel cell
• Methanol-oxygen fuel cell
• Solid oxide fuel cells
• Microbial fuel cells
Primary Cells: 1. Zinc-carbon dry cell or Leclanche’s
cell
• Description:
• This is one of the most popular primary cells (often used for type AAA, AA, C, D).
• The negative electrode is made of zinc.
• Zinc cylinder is filled with an electrolyte consisting of NH4Cl, ZnCl2 and MnO2.
• Zinc cylinder has an outer cardboard insulation case
• The positive electrode is made of carbon, immersed in the electrolyte.
• Zn is consumed during use. Hence the cylinder developes holes and leads to leakage
• The output voltage of a single cell is about 1.5 V.
• Performance of the cell is better with intermittent operation.
• Features
+ Inexpensive, widely available
• Inefficient at high current drain
• Poor discharge curve (sloping)
• Poor performance at low temperatures
• Cell reactions and Uses:
 Primary cells: 2. Alkaline cells
• Description:
• The alkaline cell is another popular type also used for type AA, C, D, etc.
• It has the same 1.5V output as carbon-zinc cells, but they are longer-lasting.
• It consists of a zinc anode and manganese dioxide cathode in an alkaline electrolyte
such as, potassium hydroxide.
• It works with high efficiency even with continuous use, due to low internal
resistance.
• Features
• 50-100% more energy than carbon zinc
• Low self-discharge (10 year shelf life)
• Good for low current (< 400mA), long-life use
• Poor discharge curve
ALKALINE BATTERY
Anode – Zinc powder
Cathode – MnO2
Electrolyte - KOH
 ALKALINE BATTERY

Applications – Camera exposure controls, calculators, watches

Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries
 1. LEAD- ACID STORAGE BATTERY / LEAD
ACCUMULATOR
• Acts as both voltaic cell and
electrolytic cell
• Supplies electrical energy and
becomes run down – called
discharging
• Receives electrical energy and stores
– charging (electrolytic cell)
Description:
• Consists of 3-6 voltaic cells connected in series to get 6-12 V energy.
• In each cell:
• Anode - Spongy powdered Pb
• Cathode – Powdered lead oxide or grid made of Pb packed with PbO2.
• Anode and cathode plates are separated from adjacent ones by rubber
or glass fibre insulators
• The entire set up is immersed in 4.5M H2SO4
Cell reactions during working (discharging):
At anode
Pb(s) Pb2+ (aq) + 2e-
Pb2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) PbSO4 (s)
Pb(s) + SO42- (aq) PbSO4(s) + 2e-

At cathode
PbO2(s) + 4H+ +2e- Pb2+(aq) + 2H2O
Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4(s)
PbO2(s) + 4H+ +SO42-(aq) +2e- PbSO4(s) + 2H2O
Over all Discharge reactions
Pb(s) + SO42- (aq) PbSO4(s) + 2e-
PbO2(s) + 4H+ +SO42-(aq) +2e- PbSO4(s) + 2H2O
_____________________________________________________
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O + Energy
______________________________________________________
PbSO4 is precipitated at both the electrodes and H2SO4 is used up.

During recharging:
• When an external current is passed: Pb is deposited at the anode and PbO2 on the
cathode.
• The density of sulphuric acid increases.
Uses:
1. To supply power in automobiles such as trucks, cars and buses.
2. Used in gas engine injection, telephone exchanges, hospitals, power stations.
Advantages:
➢Reliable and long life
➢Effective at low temperatures
➢Provides a large burst of current to the engine starter motor
➢Least expensive among secondary batteries
Disadvantages:
➢Loss of capacity
➢Low energy density
➢Toxic
➢Safety hazard
 2. Nickel Cadmium Batteries
Description:
• Anode: Cadmium (-),
• Cathode: a metal grid containing a paste of NiO2 (+)
• Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyte
• Output: 1.2 V
Discharge reactions:
• The net reaction can be readily reversed, because the reaction products,
Ni(OH)2 and Cd(OH)2, adhere to the electrode surface.
Advantages:
➢ Ni-Cd battery is portable
➢ It is rechargable cell
➢ Its cell voltage is fairly constant
➢ Packed in a sealed container
➢ It can be left for long periods of time without any appreciable deterioration
➢ No gases are produced during discharging
Limitations:
• Costlier than lead acid battery
• Memory effect decreases the battery life if charging and discharging cycles are not properly
maintained.
Uses:
✓ Electronic calculators
✓ Electronic flash units
✓ Cordless applications
✓ Electronic shavers
✓ Transistors
✓ Battery powered small tools
 Lithium-ion Battery
The energy density of lithium-ion is typically twice that of the standard
nickel-cadmium.
There is potential for higher energy densities. The load characteristics
are reasonably good and behave similarly to nickel-cadmium in terms of
discharge.
The high cell voltage of 3.6 volts allows battery pack designs with
only one cell. Most of today's mobile phones run on a single cell.
A nickel-based pack would require three 1.2-volt cells connected in
series.
 3. Lithium Ion Batteries
Description:
• It is a solid state battery containing a solid electrolyte.
• Anode: Li
• Cathode: TiS2
• Electrolyte: A polymer packed between the electrodes – the polymer permits the
passage of ions, but not electrons.
• Output: 3V.
Working:
• When the anode is connected to cathode, lithium ions move from anode to
cathode.
Anode reaction
Li(s) Li+ + e-
Cathode reaction
TiS2 + e- TiS2-
Overall cell reaction
Li(s) + TiS2 (s) LiTiS2(s)
Uses:
Button-size – calculators, watches, cameras
Larger – Mobile phones, laptops and other portable electronics
Advantages:
• Produces extremely high energy – cell voltage is 3V
• No risk of leakage
• Can be made in variety of sizes and shapes
• High energy density - potential for yet higher capacities.
• Does not need prolonged priming when new. One regular charge is all that's
needed.
• Relatively low self-discharge - self-discharge is less than half that of nickel-based
batteries.
• Low Maintenance - no periodic discharge is needed; there is no memory.
• Specialty cells can provide very high current to applications such as power tools.
Limitations:
• Expensive
• Requires protection circuit to maintain voltage and current within safe
limits.
• Subject to aging, even if not in use - storage in a cool place at 40% charge
reduces the aging effect.
• Transportation restrictions - shipment of larger quantities may be subject to
regulatory control. This restriction does not apply to personal carry-on
batteries.
• Expensive to manufacture - about 40 percent higher in cost than nickel-
cadmium.
• Not fully mature - metals and chemicals are changing on a continuing
basis.
 FUEL CELLS
• Converts chemical energy of fuels directly into electricity without combustion.
• Chemical substances are fed into the cells. The reactants, products and
electrolytes pass through the cell.
• Electrode – inert but have catalytic active
• Anode and cathode – gases or liquids
• Depending on the electrolyte used fuel cells are classified into five types:
➢Alkaline fuel cells
➢Phosphoric acid fuel cells
➢Molten carbonate fuel cells
➢Solid polymer electrolyte fuel cells
➢Solid oxide fuel cells
 1. HYDROGEN-OXYGEN FUEL CELLS
• A hydrogen fuel cell converts energy, produced by a chemical reaction, into usable
electric power like a battery.
• Hydrogen reacts with oxygen across an electrochemical cell to produce electricity, heat
and water. However, unlike a battery, a hydrogen fuel cell will continue to generate
energy as long as fuel (hydrogen) is available, never losing its charge.
• Below are some of the advantages the hydrogen fuel cell presents over other power
sources:
• Renewable and readily available Hydrogen is a plentiful and sustainable energy
source, ideal for future zero-carbon heat and power needs. Environmentally friendly
and flexible
• An eco-friendly energy source, emitting only heat and water as waste, making the
environmental impact neutral when the hydrogen is produced using renewable
energy.
• Hydrogen fuel cells do not produce noise pollution like other renewable energy
sources, such as wind power. As with electric cars, hydrogen-powered cars are much
quieter than those that use conventional internal combustion engines.
• Unlike bio fuels or hydropower, hydrogen generation does not require vast tracts of
land.
Components:
• Electrodes – porous graphite coated with platinum
• Electrolyte - Electrolytic solution of KOH or NaOH
• Anode – Hydrogen ; Cathode – Oxygen
• EMF – 1.2 V
Working:
H2 is bubbled through the anode compartment –it is oxidised
O2 is bubbled through the cathode compartment –it is reduced
Reactions:
When KOH is used as electrolyte:
Anodic reaction: H2 + 2OH- 2H2O + 2e-
Cathodic reaction: ½O2 + H2O + 2e- 2OH-
Overall call reaction : H2 + ½O2 H2O
 Applications of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells
➢Small hydrogen fuel cells can power laptop computers, cell phones
and military uses.
➢Large fuel cells can deliver electricity to power grids and provide
backup or emergency power to buildings. They can also generate
electricity in areas not connected to electricity grids.
➢Hydrogen- Oxygen fuel cells are used as auxiliary energy sources in
space vehicles, Submarines and Military vehicles
➢The weight of the fuel battery is approximately 250 kg and is
sufficient for 15 days in space
➢In case of Hydrogen- Oxygen fuel cells, the product water proved to
be a valuable source of fresh water by astronauts
 2. Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs)
➢ MFCs are bioelectrical devices that harness the natural metabolisms
of microbes to produce electrical power directly from organic
material
➢ It has been described as “bioreactors that convert the energy in the
chemical bonds of organic compounds into electrical energy through
catalytic activity of micro-organisms under anaerobic conditions”.
➢ MFC technology represents a novel approach of using bacteria for
generation of bioelectricity by oxidation of organic waste and
renewable biomass
How does MFC work?
• Microbial fuel cells work by allowing bacteria to do what they do best,
oxidize and reduce organic molecules.
• Bacterial respiration is basically one big redox reaction in which electrons
are being moved around. Whenever there are moving electrons, the
potential exists for harnessing an electromotive force to perform useful
work.
• A MFC consists of an anode and a cathode separated by a cation specific
membrane.
• Microbes at the anode oxidize the organic fuel generating protons which
pass through the membrane to the cathode, and electrons which pass
through the anode to an external circuit to generate a current.
• The trick of course is collecting the electrons released by bacteria as they
respire. This leads to two types of MFCs: mediator and mediatorless.
Mediator MFC's
• Prior to 1999, most MFCs required a mediator chemical to transfer electrons from the bacterial
cells to the electrode. Mediators like neutral red, humic acid, thionine, methyl blue, and methyl
viologen were expensive and often toxic, making the technology difficult to commercialize.
Mediatorless MFC's
• Research performed by B. H. Kim et al in 1999 led to the development of a new type of MFC's
mediatorless MFCs.
• The Fe (III) reducer Shewanella putrefaciens, unlike most MFC bacteria at the time, were
electrochemically active. This bacteria had the ability to respire directly into the electrode under
certain conditions by using the anode as an electron acceptor as part of its normal metabolic
process.
• Bacteria that can transfer electrons extracellularly, are called exoelectrogens.
Exoelectrogens - The Living Microbial Catalyst
• The most promising MFC's for commercialization in today's energy industry are mediatorless
MFC's which use a special type of microorganism termed exoelectrogens.
• Exoelectrogens are electrochemically active bacteria.
• While aerobic bacteria use oxygen as their final electron acceptor and anaerobic bacteria use
other soluble compounds as their final electron acceptor, exoelectrogens are a special class of
bacteria that can use a strong oxidizing agent or solid conductor as a final electron acceptor.
• MFC Anode
• When bacteria consume an organic substrate like sugar under aerobic conditions, the
products of cellular respiration are carbon dioxide and water. However, when placed in
an environment void of oxygen, cellular respiration will instead produce carbon dioxide,
protons and electrons. It is therefore necessary to impart an anaerobic environment in
the anode chamber of the MFC.
• In mediator based MFC's, an inorganic mediator takes the place of oxygen in the
bacterial electron transport chain. The mediator crosses through the bacterial outer
membrane and accepts electrons that would normally be accepted by oxygen or other
solubles. Once the mediator has been "reduced" it exits the cell full of electrons which it
transfers to the anode.
• In mediatorless MFC's the exoelectrogen sticks to the surface of the anode and uses an
oxidoreductase pathway to directly transfer electrons through a specialized protein into
the surface of the anode. Electron transfer mechanism may involve conductive pili, direct
contact through a conductive biofilm, and/or shuttling via excreted mediator enzymes.
• MFC Cathode
• The positively charged half of the cell, the cathode chamber consists of an electrode
subjected to a catholyte flow consisting of an oxidizing agent in solution. The oxidizing
agent is reduced as it receives electrons that funnel into the cathode through a wire
originating from the cathode.
Power Generation
• In order for any fuel cell to work you need to have a means of completing a circuit.
• In the case of the MFC you have a cathode and an anode separated by a cation selective
membrane and linked together with an external wire.
• When an organic "fuel" enters the anode chamber, the bacteria set to work oxidizing
and reducing the organic matter to generate the life sustaining ATP that fuels their
cellular machinery.
• Protons, electrons, and carbon dioxide are produced as byproducts, with the anode
serving as the electron acceptor in the bacteria's electron transport chain.
• The newly generated electrons pass from the anode to the cathode using the wire as a
conductive bridge. At the same time protons pass freely into the cathode chamber
through the proton exchange membrane separating the two chambers.
• Finally an oxidizing agent or oxygen present at the cathode recombines with hydrogen
and the electrons from the cathode to produce pure water, completing the circuit.
• Replace that wire with a light bulb or some other device that requires electricity and you
have effectively harnessed the power of microbes to solve your energy needs.
 The operational and functional advantages of
MFCs
• MFCs use organic waste matter as fuels and readily available microbes
as catalysts.
• MFCs do not require highly regulated distribution systems like the
ones needed for Hydrogen Fuel Cells.
• MFCs have high conversion efficiency as compared to Enzymatic Fuel
Cells, in harvesting up to 90% of the electrons from the bacterial
electron transport system.
MFC Basics

Oxygen Oxygen
Poor Rich
Key Players
Mr. Clean The Iron-Breather
(aka Shewanella) (aka Geobacter)

1um
1um
Key Players
Mr. Clean The Iron-Breather
(aka Shewanella) (aka Geobacter)

1um
1um

Electron Transfer Mechanisms:

o Direct Transfer

o Electron Shuttling

o Nanowires
Key Players
Mr. Clean The Iron-Breather
(aka Shewanella) (aka Geobacter)

1um
1um

Electron Transfer Mechanisms:

o Direct Transfer

o Electron Shuttling

o Nanowires
Respiration

OC
H2S

cell

CO2
SO4--
Redox Gradients
 Max potential ~1.2 V (= potential difference
between NADH and O2)
 If terminal e- acceptor has lower potential than
O2:
 Bacteria gain less ATP per mole organic carbon
oxidized
 Remaining energy is available to be used in MFC
Anaerobic Microbial Food Chain

Macromolecules Monom ers

Fermen tin g Bacteria Fermentin g

H 2 + CO 2 Acetate Acids, A lc ohols H 2 + CO 2 Ac

Fermen ters A cetogen s
Acetogens Acetogens

Acetate H 2 + CO 2 Aceta te Aceta te

Methanogens Methanogens

CH 4 + CO 2

Sou the rn We tland s No rt

Wa rmi ng
Applications
 Applications of microbial fuel cell technology
Although MFCs have been studied as an alternative energy source, their
application is presently limited to certain niche areas.
With further improvements in design, cost effectiveness and performance
efficiency based on these near-term applications, it would be possible to scale-up
and use MFCs as a renewable energy resource.
• Wastewater treatment
• Powering underwater monitoring devices
• Power supply to remote sensors
• BOD sensing
• Hydrogen production
Soil-based MFCs
The MudWatt

+Food
The MudWatt
MudWatt Steps

1) Make Fuel
2) MudWatt Construction
3) Monitor
4) Submit Data
MudWatt Steps
1) Make Fuel

 Put ~3 cups of soil in bowl

 (Optional) Add mystery ingredient
Hint: if your mystery ingredient is liquid, add just enough to make the soil “cookie dough” consistency

 Add water until “cookie dough” consistency

 Record your ingredients (and volume fraction of secret ingredient if one was used)
MudWatt Steps
2) Construct MudWatt

 Attach electrodes to dome lid (through donut disk)

 Attach ruler sticker to the side of vessel
 Put mud in vessel up to 1cm. Pat smooth
 Place in Anode (make sure there are no air bubbles)
 Put in more soil up to 4 cm
 Place in Cathode
 Let rest for 2min
 Decant liquid if needed (Cathode cannot be submerged)
MudWatt Steps
3) Monitor (Perform this technique every week)
 S1) Switch the electronics panel to Open Circuit mode by turning all switches
off.

 S2) After 30 minutes, check the voltage across the two leads using any The resistance for each Nob is outlined as follows (in
voltmeter (black to “-“, and red to “+”). Record the voltage and the resistance. Ohms):
(the resistance is infinite under “Open Circuit” mode)

 S3) Repeat S2 for the 5 different resistances provided on the electronics panel. Nob #1= Blinker
Turn only one Nob on at a time. Nob #2 = 100
Nob #3 = 500
Nob #4 = 1000
Nob #5 = 5000
Nob #6 = 10,000
MudWatt Steps
4) Submit Data

• Enter the data you’ve collected at

www.keegotech.com/community/datashare

Thank You!
With the data collected and submitted by you and your fellow Keegoites, we hope to uncover trends and
peculiar behaviors of microbial fuel cell technology. In this way, we aim to catalyze the development of this
technology in the hope that someday MFCs will be a viable option in providing affordable and reliable
energy for those who would benefit greatly from it. Developed by the public, for the public. All hail the
Keegoites!
TOPIC 4: EXPLOSIVES, ROCKET
FUELS AND PROPELLENTS
 Explosives – classification, examples: TNT, RDX,
Dynamite; Rocket fuels and propellants – definition
and uses.
 Explosive
An explosive is "a substance or a mixture, which when subjected to thermal
or mechanical shock, gets very rapidly oxidised exothermically into products
of greatly increased volume, with a sudden release of potential energy."
The amount of power available from a given weight (or volume) of explosive,
is called "power to weight (or volume) ratio".

Explosives are classified into following three broad groups:

• Primary or initiating explosives (or detonators)

• Low explosives (or propellants)
• High explosives
 Primary or initiating explosives" (or detonators)
• Highly sensitive explosives, which explode on receiving a slight-shock or by
fire. Consequently, they should be handled with the utmost care.
• They are mainly used in small quantities in shells and cartridges to start or
initiate the explosion of the main explosive, which is comparatively less-
sensitive.
• Examples
• Lead azide Pb(N3)2
• Mercury fuIminate Hg(CNO)2
• Tetracene
• Diazodinitro phenol (DDNP)
 Low explosives (or propellants)

▪ Simply burn and they do not explode suddenly.

▪ The chemical reactions taking place in such explosives are comparatively
slow, and their burning proceeds from the surface inwards in layers at an
approximate rate of 20 cm per second.
▪ The gases evolved disperse readily, without building high pressures ; and
consequently, they can be controlled easily.
• Examples
Black powder (or gun powder)
Smokeless powder (or nitrocellulose)
 High explosives
They have higher energy content than the primary explosives. However,
they are quite stable and quite insensitive to fire and a high explosive.

Single compound explosives:

➢ Ammonium nitrate
➢ 2, 4, 6 - trinitrotoluene
➢ Pentaerythritol tetranitrate

Binary compound explosive:

Amatol mixture of TNT with ammonium nitrate (50 to 80%).
Pentolite (a mixture of TNT and PETN, 50% each).
Tetrytol (a mixture of 70% tetryl, and 30% TNT).
Tropex (a mixture of 40% RDX, 40% TNT, and 20% Al powder).
Titronal (a mixture of 80% TNT, and 20% Al flakes).
 1. TriNitroToluene (TNT)

• TNT is prepared by the nitration of toluene using nitrating mixture of Con.

H2SO4 and Conc. HNO3 in 1:1 ratio in a tank reactor, in which contents are
continuously stirred
Preparation:

Liquid product (TNT) so-formed is taken out, washed with ammoniacal

Solution of Na2SO3then with cold water, when TNT crystallizes out. Crystals of
TNT are filtered and purified by melting. The melt is dried (by passing warm air) and
poured in containers.
 Uses of TNT
❖It is most widely used in shell-firing and under -water explosions and is
well-suited for loading in containers, because of its low melting point (81°C).
❖Its importance for military use comes from its comparative excellence in the
following respects
(a) It is safe explosive in manufacture, transportation, and storage.
(b) It is non-hydroscopic.
(c) It is a violent disruptive explosive.
(d) It does not react with metals to form unstable compounds
 2. Dynamite
Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents(such as powdered shells or
clay) and stabilizers.
Manufacture
• Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders about 20 cm (8 in) long
and about 3.2 cm (1 1⁄4 in) in diameter, with a weight of about 190 grams (1⁄2 troy
pound).
• A stick of dynamite thus produced contains roughly 1 MJ (megajoule) of energy.
• Other sizes also exist, rated by either portion (Quarter-Stick or Half-Stick) or by
weight.
Uses:
• It is mainly used in the mining, quarrying, construction, and demolition industries.
• It is still the product of choice for trenching applications, and as a cost-effective
alternative to cast boosters.
• It is occasionally used as an initiator or booster for AN and ANFO explosive
charges.
 3. RDX
RDX is an organic compound with the formula (O2NNCH2)3. It is a white solid
without smell or taste, widely used as an explosive.
It is often used in mixtures with other explosives
and plasticizers or phlegmatizers (desensitizers);
It is the explosive agent in C-4 plastic explosive. RDX is stable in storage and is
considered one of the most energetic and brisant of the military high explosives.
RDX is classified by chemists as a hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine derivative. It is
obtained by treating hexamine with white fuming nitric acid.
RDX was widely used during World War II, often in explosive mixtures
with TNT such as Torpex, Composition B, Cyclotols, and H6.
RDX was used in one of the first plastic explosives. The bouncing bomb depth
charges used in the "Dambusters Raid" each contained 6,600 pounds (3,000 kg) of
Torpex;
The Tallboy and Grand Slam bombs designed by Wallis also used Torpex.
RDX is believed to have been used in many bomb plots, including terrorist plots.
 Rocket fuels and propellants
It is either a high oxygen-containing fuel or a
mixture of fuel plus oxidant, whose
combustion taken place, in a definite and
controlled manner with the evolution of a huge
volume of gas.
Types:
Solid Propellents
Liquid Propellents
Uses:
Military missile launching
Spacecraft launching
 Characteristics of a good propellant
(1) It should have high specific impulse
(2) It should produce low molecular weight products
(3) It should burn at a slow and steady rate
(4) It should possess low ignition delay
(5) It should possess high density.
(6) It should be stable over a wider range of temperatures.
(7) It should be safe to handle and store under ordinary condition,
(8) It should be readily ignitable at predictable burning rate.
(9) It should be non-corrosive and non-hydroscopic.
(10) It should leave no solid residue after ignition.
(11) It should not produce toxic products.
(12) It should produce high temperature on combustion.
Solid propellents:
Propellents are contained in the combustion chamber itself.
2 types:
1. Homogeneous solid propellents:
Eg.: Cordite – 65% cellulose nitrate+ 30% nitroglycerine+5% wax
Ballistite - cellulose nitrate+ nitroglycerine
2. Heterogeneous or composite solid propellents:
Eg.: 3:1 mixture of KClO4 + asphalt oil
Advantages:
Safe and easy to handle
No need of separate storage chambers
Cost is less
Burn at controllable rate
Liquid propellents:
Propellents are contained in separate chambers.
2 types:
1. Mono propellents:
Eg.: propylnitrate, nitromethane
2. Bipropellents: Fuel+ oxidiser
Eg.: Fuels: Liquid H2, kerosene; Oxidiser: Liquid O2, O3
Advantages:
Higher specific impulse
More versatile- more combinations are possible