Universe

- Is the space and time that contains all matter and energy that ever existed
- Composed of baryonic matter, dark matter, and dark energy
- Hydrogen (H), Helium (HE) are the most abundant elements in the universe.

Baryonic Matter
- Composed of baryons such as protons and neutrons. Planets, stars, and other celestial bodies are also
included.
Dark Matter
- Composed of particles that do not absorb, reflect or emit light.
Dark Energy
- A mysterious force that is responsible for the expansion of the universe.

Theories about the Origin of the Universe

1. Big Bang Theory
- The Universe started as a singularity that contained all the energy, space, and time.
- It is said that the universe started as a hot dense state, where matter and energy closely
interacted with each other.
2. Steady-State Theory
- This theory states that the universe has no beginning or end.
- Claims that the universe expands, new matter is created.

Origins of the Solar System

1. The Nebular Hypothesis
- Most recognized views in the creation of the solar system.
- The solar system was created from a nebula, (giant gas and dust).
2. The Protoplanet Hypothesis
- The attraction of gravity between its materials, a passing star, or an explosion disrupted it and
caused it to collapse, forming materials called eddies.
- These eddies cause the materials to combine and form a protoplanet.
3. The Encounter Hypothesis
- Explains that the formation of the solar system came from the interaction of the sun with a
comet, star, and other celestial bodies.
● Sun-comet encounter (Sun and Comet)
● Planetesimal hypothesis (Sun, and Sun resulting in a Planetisimal).
● Tidal Hypothesis (Primitive Sun and a star)
● Capture Theory (Sun and Protostar)

Earth - is the third planet from the sun and the only habitable planet
- Can harbor life because of its:
● Stable Location
● Stable Sun
● Earth’s Core and Mantle
● Earth’s Atmosphere
Stable Location
- It is located in the Orion-Cygnus. This area is described to be calmer than the other regions of the
galaxy.
Stable Sun
- Primary source of energy, and is in its stable stage.
Earth’s Core
- Made up of liquid iron and nickels (leads to the formation of magnetosphere)
Earth’s Mantle
- Produces tectonic activities, like volcanic eruptions that lead to the formation of an ideal atmosphere.
Atmosphere
- Layer of gasses that surrounds the Earth consists mainly of nitrogen and oxygen.
The atmosphere provides vital protection, regulates temperature, and supports weather and climate
systems.

Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere

Troposphere - lowest layer, where we live and breathe, where airplanes and hot air balloons fly.
Stratosphere - home to the ozone layer, which shields the Earth from harmful UV radiation.
Mesosphere - thin air and low atmospheric pressure, where meteors burn upon entry.
Thermosphere - consists of ionsphere, positively charged molecules, used by humans to transmit radio
waves. This is where the auroras occur.
Exosphere - where satellites and other man-made objects orbit the Earth.
Hydrosphere - made up of all the water found on, under, and above the earth’s surface
Geosphere - aka litosphere, solid part of the earth including rocks, minerals, landforms etc.
Composed of: Crust, Mantle, Core
Biosphere - all of the ecosystems on earth where there is life.
The Greenhouse Effect - is a process that occurs when gasses in the atmosphere trap the sun’s heat, making
the planet warmer.
Water Cycle - Sun evaporates water, turning it into water vapor, Water vapors rises up into the sky because
it's lighter than liquid, condensing into a cloud. Water droplets inside clouds become too heavy and rains.
Carbon Cycle - Organisms consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide, while plants converts carbon
dioxide into oxygen through a process called photosynthesis.
Nitrogen Cycle - Nitrogen from the atmosphere falls to the earth through precipitation such as rain, or snow,
once in the soil, hydrogen combines with nitrogen to make ammonia in a process called nitrogen fixation,
additional bacteria combines oxygen to ammonia to make Nitrites in a process called nitrification nitrifying
bacteria converts nitrites into nitrates, plants then can absorb nitrates or bacterias release nitrates into the
atmosphere through a process called denitrifying.

Rocks and Minerals

1. Naturally Occurring
 Minerals exist in nature and not manufactured synthetically by humans.
2. Inorganic Compound
a. Minerals do not contain organic materials.
3. Composition & Structure
 a. Minerals are solid. Minerals cannot be classified as mineral if it is liquid or gas in its natural
form. Minerals have a Crystalline structure, their atoms and molecules are arranged in an
orderly manage.
Identifying Minerals
1. Color – It is described as the quality of the mineral with respect to the light reflected by it.
2. Luster - The property of a minerals that shows how much a mineral reflects light.
3. Streak - Refers to the color of the mineral in powdered form. This streak is identified by scarping a
mineral sample in a piece of white porcelain.
4. Hardness - Refers to the ability of the mineral to resist scarping. Mohs scale is used to identify the
hardness of the mineral
5. Luster – The property of a mineral that shows how much a mineral reflects light.
6. Cleavage and Fracture – how a mineral breaks.
a) Cleavage - refers to a property of mineral to break along flat, planar surface
b) Fracture - is the property of the mineral to break along random, irregular surface.
7. Density - The density of the material is often expressed as specific gravity, which is the computed
density of the material in relation to the density of water. Two materials may have the same size but
have different specific density
8. Crystal Habit - refers to the natural tendency of a mineral to repeatedly form into geometric shapes
9. Chemical Composition - Minerals can be either made up of elements such as copper or gold, or made
of compounds
10. Acid Reaction - A mineral's reaction to acid can help minerologists identify it. Minerals have tendency
to react with acids
11. Magnetism – Some minerals can be attracted to magnets
12. Radioactivity - Some minerals emit alpha, beta, ang gamma rays, contain radioactive elements.
13. Electrical Conductivity - Depending on the elements present in minerals, some minerals can conduct
electricity.
14. Fluorescence - Minerals that exhibit fluorescence are known as "fluorescent minerals". Fluorescent
minerals contain particles in their structure known as activators, which respond to ultraviolet light by
giving off a visible glow.
Rocks
- Are a mixture of different minerals.
- Any natural mass of the mineral matter that make up the Earth's crust is called a Rock.
Types of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks
- Igneous rocks form from the cooling and hardening of molten magna and lava. These rocks can
form by slowly cooling beneath the surface or more quickly at the surface.
 2. Sedimentary Rocks
- form from pieces of preexisting rocks or remnants of organisms that lived many years ago.
- form by the compaction and cementing together of sediments. These rocks can be formed from
erosion and weathering of other rocks.
Types of Sedimentary Rock
 Clastic - contain grains or fragments of rocks that are bound or cemented together
 Chemical - Form when minerals previously dissolved in water crystallize due to evaporation or
precipitation.
 Biochemical - This rock forms from shells, bodies and other remnants of organisms
3. Metamorphic Rocks
- form when minerals in an existing rock are changed by heat and pressure below the surface.\
Geomorphic Process
 is a force that is applied to the components of the earth and brings changes in the configuration of the
earth.
 Exogenic Processes - geological phenomena and processes that originate externally to the Earth's
surface.
o Weathering - the breaking and down of rocks caused by elements of weather and climate.
 Physical Weathering (mechanical weathering) - the breaking down of rocks without
changing its chemical composition
 Chemical Weathering - breaking down of rocks caused by chemical, which is usually
carried by water (Hydrolysis, Dissolution, and Oxidation)
 Biological Weathering – Caused by organisms.
o Erosion - describe as the movement of the rocks, minerals, and soil from one place into one
another. Water, wind, ice, and gravity are the different agents of erosion.
 Endogenic Processes - forces underneath the surface also change the composition and structure of
Earth materials.
o Primordial Heat - This is the heat produced during the formation of Earth, where materials were
attracted to one another due to gravity. Heat was then produced when these materials bumped
into each other.
o Decay of Long-Lived Radioisotopes - radioactivity of elements that formed during earth's
formation and still exists today. Their radioactivity heats up Earth and contributed to the heat
produced during the formation of the planet.
o Geothermal Gradient - The increase in temperature in response to the depth in Earth's layers.
How heat is transferred:
 Conduction - The transfer of heat through direct contact
 Convection - The transfer of heat through movement of fluids
 Radiation – Heat is transferred without any contact
Types of Endogenic Processes
1. Volcanism - formation of hot molten rocks onto the surface of earth through volcanoes.
2. Magmatism - Happens when solid materials such as rocks and minerals are melted due to an increase
in temperature.
 Processes the lead to magmatism are the following:
o Decompression Melting - In this process, the pressure exerted on a rock located in
Earth's mantle decreases. The decrease in pressure will permit the molecules of the rock
to lessen its bond with one another, which turns the rocks (solid) into magma. (liquid)
o Flux Melting - This happens when volatile materials (materials that easily evaporate)
are added to hot, dry rocks underneath Earth's surface. These volatile materials,
decrease the melting point of the rocks, in turn melting the rocks.
o Heat Transfer Melting - in this process, direct heat from rising magma is transferred to
surrounding rock layers, thus melting the rocks.
Review questions:
What are the main components of the universe, and how are they described?

Explain the Big Bang Theory and its key concepts regarding the origin of the universe.

Describe the three types of matter in the universe: baryonic matter, dark matter, and dark energy. What are
their characteristics?

What are the two major theories about the origin of the solar system, and what are their key ideas?

What factors make Earth a habitable planet? Describe each of these factors.

Explain the layers of the Earth's atmosphere and their characteristics.

What are the key components of the Earth's geosphere?

Describe the greenhouse effect and its impact on the Earth's temperature.

Explain the water cycle and its importance for the Earth's climate.

Describe the different cycles that play a crucial role in the Earth's ecosystem, such as the carbon cycle and the
nitrogen cycle.

What are the key characteristics used to identify minerals, and why are these characteristics important?

Differentiate between rocks and minerals, and explain the three types of rocks.

What are the processes involved in exogenic and endogenic geological processes, and how do they shape the
Earth's surface?

How does heat transfer occur within the Earth, and what are the types of endogenic processes related to heat
and magma?

Explain the three processes that can lead to magmatism and the formation of molten rocks.