MODULE IN

PRE-CALCULUS

ENGG MATH 1

Department of Mathematics
SCHOOL OF ACCOUNTANCY, MANAGEMENT, COMPUTING and INFORMATION STUDIES

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 ENGG MATH
1
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should be

able to:

1. Solve problems involving Algebra;

2. Solve problems involving Trigonometry
and Solid Mensuration;
3. Analyze and solve problems involving
Analytic Geometry.

PRE-CALCULUS

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 CONTENTS PAGE

Title Page …………………….. 1

Course Learning Outcomes …………………….. 2
Course Introduction …………………….. 4
Course Guide …………………….. 5
Course Study Guide …………………….. 5
Course Study Schedule …………………….. 9
Task/Assignment Guide …………………….. 16
Module 1. ALGEBRA
Unit 1. Binomial Expansion ……………………... 18
Unit 2. Factoring Polynomials ……………………... 20
Unit 3. Systems of Linear Equations ……………………... 27
Unit 4. Partial Fractions ……………………... 42
Unit5. Systems Involving Quadratics ……………………... 47
Module 2. TRIGONOMETRY
Unit 1. Trigonometric Functions ……………………... 51
Unit 2. Trigonometric Identities ……………………... 56
Unit 3. Trigonometric Equations ……………………... 63
Unit 4. Oblique Triangles ……………………... 67
Module 3. SOLID MENSURATION
Unit 1. Plane Figures ……………………... 74
Unit 2. Solids for which V=Bh ……………………... 81
Unit 3. Solids for which V=1/3 B ……………………... 90
Unit 4. Sphere ……………………... 98
Module 4. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Unit 1. Straight Lines ……………………... 101
Unit 2. Conic Section ……………………... 108
Unit 3. Curve Tracing ……………………... 123

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 I found a discarded textbook on calculus in a
wastebasket and read it from cover to cover.
John Pople

COURSE INTRODUCTION

Pre-Calculus is an introductory course that weaves together the review of the core concepts
of Algebra, Trigonometry, Solid Mensuration, and Analytic Geometry into a preparatory
course for Calculus. The course focuses on the mastery of critical skills and exposure to new
skills necessary for success in subsequent Math courses. The course includes polynomials,
trigonometric functions, trigonometric identities, solving for areas and volumes, straight lines,
conics, and polynomial curves.

This course will help you learn pre-calculus and enjoy the experience in learning as it enables
you to apply your knowledge of mathematics in the solution of real life situational
engineering and architectural problems.

Happy learning!

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 COURSE GUIDE

MODULE and UNIT TOPICS

To ensure that you will achieve the above cited course learning outcome at the
end of the semester, this course designed to be delivered in 72 contact hours was
structured into four modules. Each module contains several units with its own
objective and topic learning outcomes. Each unit contains activities designed
using the 5E constructivist model of learning, developed by Rodger Bybee, that
encourages students to engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate their
learning of topics covered therein. This means that at the end of each unit, each
module, and the course as a whole, you will be assessed on your progress in
attaining the course learning outcomes. Outcomes based education dictates that
only when you can clearly demonstrate the course learning outcomes by the end
of this course, can you be given a passing mark. The modules that form the building
blocks to help you attain the course learning outcomes are as follows:

MODULE 1: Algebra. In this module you will have a thorough review of relevant
topics from your high school Algebra. The selected topics in Algebra
are very essential as you venture later on in your Calculus course.

MODULE 2: Trigonometry. This module will once again a review of the essential
topics in Trigonometry for you to be able to survive your future
Calculus course. Basic trigonometric functions will be a strong
foundation for Calculus. Identities and Oblique triangles will also be
encountered in this module.

MODULE 3: Solid Mensuration. In this module, you will find the important topics
on finding volumes and surface area which definitely will be
encountered and applied in your Integral Calculus.

MODULE 4: Analytic Geometry. In this module, topics like lines, conic section,
and curve tracing will be discussed. These are things you will be
needing in your Differential and Integral Calculus.

COURSE STUDY GUIDE

Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time
management skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently,
intelligently, and independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules
specified in the learning plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student outputs,
and mastering the different technologies and procedures required in the delivery and
feedback for this course, will instill in you important qualities you will need in the future as
an architect or engineer practicing your profession. The following course guides and
house rules are designed for you to practice decorum consistent with standards

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 expected within a formal academic environment. These guides shall lay the groundwork
for consistency, coherence, cooperation, and clear communication among learners and
course facilitators throughout the conduct of this course:

1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Learning through independent study has several

advantages over learning in the classroom. You are in charge of how you learn and
you can choose how quickly you will complete the course. You can read as many
lessons as you wish in a single session. You do not have to wait for your teacher or
classmates. From the date of your registration, you have a maximum of 6 weeks to
complete the course (since this is a crash course scheme), but the pace at which you
proceed is up to you. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep requirement
deadlines and study schedules always in mind by providing visual cues posted in your
place of study or listed in your reminders (electronically, online, or on paper).
Remember that there are other daily activities that take up your time, not to mention
other courses you may be concurrently taking. Choose a time of day when you are
most likely to maximize learning. Communicate your schedule to other members of
your household so they could help you keep it. It would also help to prepare a
dedicated space in your residence conducive for learning. You are encouraged to
allot and dedicate at least twelve (12) hours per week for six (6) weeks throughout
the crash course.

2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an academic

space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in the distance learning
environment, acts you would not normally do in a face-to-face classroom set up.
Avoid asking questions that have already been answered in the lessons or in the
instructions previously discussed or provided. This reflects your poor focus and
uninspired preparation for this course. Practice Electronic Conversation Etiquette in
group chats, open forums, and similar electronic venues.
a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and spelling,
and complete sentences acceptable in an academic forum. Avoid
text-speak, slang, and all caps in your posts.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the conversation.
c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of the
discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and
provide a meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of other
participants.
e. For a live meeting or video/voice conferencing set-up, mute your
microphone when you are not speaking to keep the focus on the
main speaker.

3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered making use of
the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis University. It would be
worthwhile on your part to devote some time and effort to learn the applications
you will need to access your course materials, interact with me and your classmates,
and submit course requirements. Applications of note are Google Classroom,
Google Drive, and Google Meet. There are also available alternatives to Microsoft

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 Office tools you might want to explore. Certain requirements will require you to take
a video on your smart phone, save it, and submit it electronically. Work on this skill
as well. If you are offline, identify the most convenient means for express mail
correspondence and inform me as early as possible so we can make the necessary
arrangements ahead of time.

4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course learning

outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected competencies you are to
acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit you from performing beyond it.
Keep in mind that the quality of your work reflects the amount of thought and care
you put into the process of completing it. It provides a very tangible measure of
how much of the competencies you have developed and fully obtained
throughout this course.

5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline modes to
ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the needed learning
materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either from me or from your
classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in touch and updated. My contact
details can be found at the latter part of this document and will be made available
and widely disseminated to enrollees of this course.

6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in electronic

form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable digital footprint that
can be easily checked for originality. Cite your sources properly for referenced
statements you decide to use in your own work. Attribute statements by persons
other than you by using terms like according to, he said/she said, and the like.

7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else. All
assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure your
competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at your disposal,
and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is going to be your
independent work that will be judged against the standards set for this course. The
only way for you to maximize this course to your advantage is to learn as much from
it as an individual. Make it count. Lastly, you are the learner; hence, you do the
module on your own. Your family members and friends at home will support you but
the activities must be done by you. As Louisians, we always need to demonstrate our
core values of competence, creativity, social involvement and Christian spirit.

8. USING THE LEARNING MODULES. To be able to help you build your own understanding
from experiences and new ideas, the modules in this course are designed based on
the 5E Instructional Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate and Evaluate).

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 ENGAGE. This part of the unit module are activities to pique your interest and get you personally
involved in the lesson, while pre-assessing you prior understanding. This can be in a form of an
open forum discussion in the google classroom during our synchronous meetings based from our
class time schedule.

EXPLORE. This part of the unit module presents the main lesson through materials that will be read,
viewed or explored. In this module, the concepts and principles of each unit topic are presented.

EXPLAIN. This part of the unit module contains activities that will allow you to share what you
explored. In this module, illustrative examples for each unit topic are presented. Further
explanations through links, sites and video recordings may also be given to you.

ELABORATE. This part of the unit module contains activities that will allow you to use your new
knowledge and continue to explore its implications. In this module, you will be asked to solve
certain items (but not limited to) from the exercise problems and have it self-checked by
providing you the answers and the solutions. This serves as your formative assessment.

EVALUATE. This part of the unit module is for us (your course facilitator) to determine how much
learning and understanding has taken place. This is done through graded assignments, quizzes
and examinations.

Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:

● If you are a student opting for the offline mode of distance learning, you will be
tasked to send back the accomplished requirements at given stages of the
course through express mail correspondence on or before the scheduled date to
me. Make sure you will follow it up with me through text or any other media
available for you.
● While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements, continue
doing the task in the succeeding units of the module.
● If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available means.
Remember, if there is a will, there is a way.

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 COURSE STUDY SCHEDULE

WEEK Topic Learning Outcomes Activities

Module 1 ALGEBRA

Unit 1 Binomial Expansion

Use the Binomial Formula and Pascal’s Engage: Recall of basic

November Triangle to expand a binomial raised concepts on binomials and
19, to a power and find the coefficients index laws
2020 of a binomial expansion. Explore: Exploring the pattern in
some examples
Explain: Explain the pattern in
the expansion
Elaborate: Detail the steps in
expanding a binomial using the
Pascal’s triangle.
November Homework 1: Expansion of binomials
20, 2020

Unit 2 Factoring Polynomial

November 1. Identify and factor the greatest Engage: review basic

19-21 common factor (GCF) of a concepts on greatest
polynomial. common factor and index
2. Factor a difference of two laws
squares. Evaluate: Evaluate different
3. Factor a perfect square polynomials on what type each will
be classified and factor each
trinomial.
completely.
4. Factor a trinomial using the trial
and error method.
5. Factor by grouping.

November
Homework 2: Factoring using GCD, Difference of 2 squares,
21
Perfect square trinomial
November Homework 3: Trial and error method
22 Homework 4: Factoring by grouping

November
23

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 Unit 3 Systems of Linear Equations

November 1. Solve systems of linear equations Explore: explore the different

23 - 25 by substitution. ways of solving system of linear
2. Solve systems of linear equations equations
by elimination. Explain: explain how each
3. Solve systems of linear equations method in solving systems in
by Cramer’s rule. linear equations is done.
4. Determine if a system of linear Elaborate: The steps in solving
equations has a unique solution, word problems involving systems
no solution, or infinitely many of linear equations.
solutions. Evaluate: The solution set of each
5. Set up equations based on word system of linear equations given
using a specified method
problems.

November 24 Homework 5: Solving systems of linear equations in 2 & 3 unknowns using ALL
November 25 methods.
Homework 6: Solving word problems.

Unit 4 Partial Fractions

November 1. Decompose p(x)/q(x) into partial Engage: Recall basic
26 fractions if q(x) has non-repeated operations on fractions
linear factors. particularly addition of
2. Decompose p(x)/q(x) into partial fractions.
fractions if q(x) has repeated Explore: Discover how
linear factors. fractions are decomposed
3. Decompose p(x)/q(x) into partial into partial fractions.
fractions if q(x) has non-repeated Evaluate: how to classify a
quadratic factors. fraction
4. Decompose p(x)/q(x) into partial under a specific type of
fractions if q(x) has repeated decomposition.
quadratic factors.

November 27 Homework 7: Partial fractions

Unit 5 Systems Involving Quadratics

November 27 1. Solve systems of quadratic Engage: compare systems

equations by substitution. involving quadratics with systems
2. Solve systems of quadratic involving linear equations.
equations by elimination. Evaluate: Evaluating the solution
set for systems involving

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 quadratics.

November 28 Homework 8: Solving systems of

quadratic equations

Module 2 Trigonometry

Unit 1 Trigonometric Functions

November 1. Identify the hypotenuse, adjacent Engage: Review parts of a right

28, 2020 side, and opposite side of an triangle and labeling all possible
acute angle in a right triangle. ratios of the parts.
2. Determine the six trigonometric Evaluate: Evaluate the six
ratios for a given angle in a right trigonometric functions of a
triangle. given acute angle from a right
3. Solve word problems involving triangle. Interpret word problems.
trigonometric functions.

Unit 2 Trigonometric Identities

November 28 1. Prove trigonometric identities. Explore: Explore the

- derivation of basic
December 2, trigonometric identities.
2020 Explain: How to determine
which side of the identity to
work with in the process of
proving the identity.
Evaluate: Prove trigonometric
identities
December 3 Homework 9: Proving identities under
basic trigonometric identities
December 4 Homework 10: Proving identities under
twice an angle formula

Unit 3 Trigonometric Equations

December 2 1. Solve for the principal and general Engage: Review the
values of a trigonometric generation of angles from
equation. the Cartesian plane.
Explore: Explore how the 6
basic trigonometric functions
can be applied under any
quadrant of the Cartesian
plane.

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 Evaluate: Evaluate the principal
and general values of a
trigonometric equation.

Unit 4 Oblique Triangles (Sine Law & Cosine

Law)
December 5 1. Solve application problems using Engage: Derive the sine
- 6, 2020 law and cosine law using
the sine law and/or the cosine law.
the right triangle
method. Explore: How
and when to use the sine
law and cosine law.
Explain: explain the interpretation
of word problems.
Evaluate: Evaluate each case of
the solution of oblique triangles.

December 7 Homework 11: Application of

Case 1-4
Module 3 Solid Mensuration

Unit 1 Plane Figures

December 7 1. Solve problems involving area of Engage: Recall formula for area of
plane figures. plane figures.
Evaluate: Area of plane figures.

December 9 Homework 12: Areas of plane figures

UNIT 2 Solids for which volume is Base x Height

(𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉)

December 9 1. Solve the volume of solids under Explore: How the

𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉 general formula 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉
2. Solve the lateral and total surface was obtained.
area of solids under 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉. Evaluate: Problems under 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉

December 10 Homework 13: Solids under 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉.

UNIT 3 Solids for which volume is 𝟑 x Base x

𝟏

Height

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 1
(𝑽 = 3 𝑩𝒉)

December 1. Solve the volume of solids under Explore: How the general
10-11, 2020 𝟏
𝑽 = 𝟑 𝑩𝒉 formula 𝑽 = 𝟑 𝑩𝒉 was
𝟏

2. Solve the lateral and total surface obtained.

𝟏 𝟏
area of solids under 𝑽 = 𝟑 𝑩𝒉. Evaluate: Problems under 𝑽 = 𝟑 𝑩𝒉

UNIT 4 Sphere

December 11 1. Solve for volume of the sphere. Evaluate: Problems

2. Solve for the surface area of the involving spheres.
sphere.

December 12 Homework 14: Spheres

Module 4 Analytic Geometry

UNIT 1 Straight Lines

December 12 1. Determine the equation of a Engage: Drawing a straight line

straight line using the point-slope by supplying two points.
form, the slope-intercept form, Explore: How the general form of
intercept form, and the normal the straight line can be
form. transformed to different forms.
2. Determine the equations of Evaluate: Evaluate the derivation
parallel and perpendicular lines. and reduction of the equation of
the straight line from the standard
form to its point slope, slope
intercept, intercept, and normal
form.
UNIT 2 Conic Section

December 1. Identify a conic from a given Engage: How each conic

14-16, 2020 equation. can be obtained from a
2. Reduce the general form of a circular cone.
conic to a standard form. Explore: Derivation of the
3. List down the essential parts of a standard form of each
circle and graph the circle. conic.
4. List down the essential parts of a Evaluate: Evaluate the
parabola and graph the step by step procedure
parabola. of drawing each type of
5. List down the essential parts of an conic.
ellipse and graph the ellipse.

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 6. List down the essential parts of a
hyperbola and graph the
hyperbola.

December 17 Homework 15: The Conic

UNIT 3 Curve Tracing

December 1. Trace the curve given y = f(x). Engage: Review concept

17-18, 2020 2. Trace the curve given y2 = f(x). on graphing by point
3. Trace the curve given y=f(x)/g(x). plotting. Review
4. Trace the curve given y2=f(x)/g(x). intercepts.
5. Trace the curve given r=f(𝜃). Explore: Symmetry of
6. Trace the curve given r2=f(𝜃). curves on the Cartesian
plane.
Evaluate: The step by
step procedure of
drawing the curve.
December 18 Homework 16: Polynomial and Polar
Curves

EVALUATION

The course modules rely on formative and summative assessments to determine the
progress of your learning in each module. To obtain a passing grade in this course, you
must:

1. Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions.
2. Submit all assignments and graded quizzes.
3. Take the Midterm Examination.
4. Take the Final Examination

● If you are a student under the offline DL mode, accomplish all print-based and
electronically saved discussion activities and requirements, and submit them on
time via express mail correspondence.

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 Formative Assessment Activities

Formative assessments for this course are applied to ungraded activities that are used to
monitor your learning experience and provide feedback to improve both your learning
approach as well as my instructional approach.

• You are required to answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities,

and reflection questions but your scores in activities will not be included in the
computation of your final grade.
• The reflection questions are designed to help you to critically analyze the course
readings for better understanding while the pre-assessment quizzes and self-
assessment activities are designed as a review management tool to prepare you
for the graded quizzes and examinations.
• Successfully answering formative activity questions and requirements will serve as
prompts to tell you if you need to study further or if you may already move forward
to the next unit of the module.
• The completeness of your answers to the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions will still be checked and will still be part of your
course completion. Hence, all pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities,
and reflection questions must be answered.
• In doing your formative assessment activities, you can always ask the help of your
family and friends.
• The pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities, and reflection questions are
required so you can take it anytime within the scheduled days assigned for each
unit.

Summative Assessment Activities

The evaluative assessments are graded activities designed to determine if your

acquisition of learning and performance in tests is at par with standards set at certain
milestones in this course.

Assignments, Quizzes and Examinations

Graded assignments, quizzes and examinations are essential to determine

whether your performance as a student is at par with standards/goals that need
to be achieved in this course. The scores obtained from each of the graded
activities will contribute to your final grade, the weights of which are presented in
the grading system described in the succeeding sections of this text. Direct
scoring can be used on straightforward requirements like short answers and
multiple-choice responses, while scoring rubrics will be provided for answers that
are typically lengthy and involve a more complex level of thinking on your part.

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 TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS

To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will need a computer or a laptop
with the following software applications: Word Processing, Presentation, and Publication
for requirements that do not require online access. A smart phone with video recording
and editing features will also be used for activities that will require you to record videos
for saving and submission.

If you are a student online, access to the institutional Google Classroom will be provided
through your institutional account. An invitation to join the Google Classroom will be sent
to you through the SLU Student Portal and your institutional email account, so make sure
to activate your institutional email account. It is equally important that you check your
SLU Student Portal account at least twice a week and turn your Gmail Notifications on in
your mobile phone and computer.

If you are a student offline, the delivery of instructions and requirements will be primarily
through express mail correspondence of printed modules and saved digital content on
a USB flash drive. Feedback and clarifications will be facilitated through text messaging
and voice calls; hence, you need to have regular access to a cell phone. If you need to
call, or you want to talk to me, send me a message first and wait for me to respond. Do
not give my CP number to anybody. I will not entertain messages or calls from numbers
that are not registered in my phone. Hence, use only the CP number you submitted to
me.

TASK/ ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

OUTPUT
You are expected to submit a complete solution to each exercise problem covering
each of the units in the modules. You should also present your complete solutions to
assignments, quizzes and examinations.
In summary, you are to accomplish and submit the following graded activities for this
course:
Midterm: 10Assignments, 3 Quizzes, 1 Examination
Finals: 6 Assignments, 3 Quizzes, 1 Examination

RATIONALE
Pre-Calculus like any mathematics subject is a course that requires you to do a lot of
practice. Devoting enough thought to solving the problems in the
assignments/exercise problems, quizzes and examinations will help you understand
the necessary details in solving any calculus problem. As a future architect or
engineer, keen understanding of these kinds of detail will develop in you a solid
foundation in the applications in the engineering fields.

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 MATERIALS
The activities (assignments, quizzes and examinations) are available online in the
Google Class materials and offline in the saved electronic files in the USB flash drive
and the printed learning materials. You may consult all your reference materials and
notes while doing the activities. You will also need clean sheets of short bond paper,
pencils, ballpoint pens, and a straight edge rule to write your solutions and draw the
graphs and tables in your own handwriting. All solutions are to be done with your own
handwriting.

SPECIFIC GUIDELINES
● Click on the file/link to the particular activity in our Google Classroom.
● Read all the instructions carefully before starting any of your solutions.
● Write your solutions on clean sheets of bond paper in your own handwriting.
● Organize your solutions in a logical order.
● Avoid erasures.
● For the online submission of your problem set, take a scanned clear photo of your
solutions and organize it in chronological order in a pdf document saved under the
file name:
SURNAME First Name Activity No.
● Submit the pdf file of your solution by uploading it to the online class.

EVALUATION TOOL
The final answers require numerical data to a specific degree of accuracy. Your
outputs will be graded on the accuracy of your solutions and answers compared to
the correct numerical values expected.

Grading System

Midterm Grade
CS (homeworks & quizzes) =25%
Quizzes =25%
Examination =50%
Total 100%

Final Term Grade (FTG)

CS (homeworks & quizzes) =25%
Quizzes =25%
Examination =50%
Total 100%

Final Grade Midterm 50% + FTG 50%

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 MODULE 1: ALGEBRA

UNIT 1: BINOMIAL THEOREM

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcome:
Use the Binomial Formula and Pascal’s Triangle to expand a binomial raised to a
power and find the coefficients of a binomial expansion.

THE EXPANSION OF A BINOMIAL

When a binomial of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏 is raised to a power, the resulting polynomial can be
thought of as series. Suppose we expand several such powers and search for a pattern:

In each case we observe the following:

1. There are always 𝑛 + 1 term in the expansion.

2. The exponents on 𝑎 start with 𝑛 and decrease to 0.
3. The exponents on 𝑏 start with 0 and increase to 𝑛.
4. The sum of the exponents in each term is always 𝑛.
5. If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are both positive, all terms are positive.
6. If 𝑎 is positive and 𝑏 is negative, the terms have alternating signs; those with odd powers
of 𝑏 are negative.
7. If 𝑎 is negative and 𝑏 is positive, the terms have alternating signs; those with odd powers
of 𝑎 are negative.
8. If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are both negative, all terms are positive if 𝑛 is even and negative if 𝑛 is odd.

THE PASCAL’S TRIANGLE

Binomial

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 Example 1: (x + 2y)6
a = x, b = 2y, n = 6

There will 7 terms in the expansion involving (x)(2y) such that the powers of x will be in
decreasing order from 6 to 0 while the powers of 2y from 0 to 6.

Since the sign between the binomial is “+” then each term in the expansion will be
“+”.

Since n = 6, we now use row 5 of the Pascal’s Triangle for the coefficients in the
expansion.

Thus,
(x + 2y)6 =
=1(x)6(2y)0 + 6(x)5(2y)1+ 15(x)4(2y)2+ 20(x)3(2y)3 + 15(x)2(2y)4+ 6(x)1(2y)5+ 1(x)0(2y)6

= x6 + 6(x5)(2y)1 + 15(x4)(4y2) + 20(x3)(8y3 ) + 15(x2)(16y4) + 6(x)1(32y5) + 64y6

= x6 + 12x5y + 60x4y2 + 160x3y3 + 240x2y4 + 192xy5 + 64y6

Example 2: (w - 3z)6
a = w, b = 3z, n = 6

There will 7 terms in the expansion involving (w)(3z) such that the powers of w will be
in decreasing order from 7 to 0 while the powers of 3z from 0 to 7.

Since the sign between the binomial is “-” then the terms in the expansion will be in
ALTERNATING pattern of “+” then “-”.

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 Since n = 6, we now use row 7 of the Pascal’s Triangle for the coefficients in the
expansion.
Thus,
(w - 3z)6 =
1(w)7(3z)0 - 7(w)6(3z)1+ 21(w)5(3z)2- 35(w)4(3z)3 + 35(w)3(3z)4- 21(w)2(3z)5+ 7(w)1(3z)6 -
1(w)0(3z)7

= 1w7 - 7(w)6(3z)1+ 21(w)5(9z2)- 35(w)4(27z3) + 35(w)3(81z4)- 21(w)2(243z5)+ 7(w)1(729z6) -

1(2187z7)

= w7 - 21w6z + 189w5z2 - 945w4z3 + 2835w3z4 - 5103w2z5 + 5103wz6 - 2187z7

HOMEWORK 1:
1. (2a - z)4
2. (r + 4t)3
3. (4x – 3y)5
1
4. ( - 3a)4
2

UNIT 2: FACTORING POLYNOMIAL

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcomes:
6. Identify and factor the greatest common factor (GCF) of a polynomial.
7. Factor a difference of two squares.
8. Factor a perfect square trinomial.
9. Factor a trinomial using the trial and error method.
10. Factor by grouping.

Factoring polynomials is probably the most important topic in Pre-Calculus. There are many
sections in later chapters and even in higher Mathematics subjects where the first step will
be to factor a polynomial. Thus, if you cannot factor the polynomial then you would not be
able to even start the problem let alone finish it.

Factoring is the process by which we go about determining what we multiplied to get the
given quantity. This process is done most of the times with numbers. For instance, here are a
variety of ways to factor 12.

12=(2)(6)
12=(3)(4)
12=(2)(2)(3)

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 12=(−2)(−6)
12=(−2)(2)(−3)
12=(2)(6)
12=(-3)(-4)
12=(2)(2)(3)
12=(12)(24)
12=(−2)(−6)
12=(−2)(2)(−3)

There are many more possible ways to factor 12, but these are representative of many of
them.

A common method of factoring numbers is to completely factor the number into positive
prime factors. A prime number is a number whose only positive factors are 1 and itself. For
example, 2, 3, 5, and 7 are all examples of prime numbers. Examples of numbers that aren’t
prime are 4, 6, and 12 to pick a few.

If we completely factor a number into positive prime factors there will only be one way of
doing it. That is the reason for factoring things in this way. For our example above with 12 the
complete factorization is,

12=(2)(2)(3)

Factoring polynomials is done in pretty much the same manner. We determine all the terms
that were multiplied together to get the given polynomial. We then try to factor each of the
terms we found in the first step. This continues until we simply cannot factor anymore. When
we cannot do any more factoring we will say that the polynomial is completely factored.

Here are a couple of examples.

x2−16 = (x+4)(x−4)

This is completely factored since neither of the two factors on the right can be further
factored.

Likewise,

x4−16 = (x2+4)(x2−4)

is not completely factored because the second factor can be further factored. Note that
the first factor is completely factored however. Here is the complete factorization of this
polynomial.

x4−16 = (x2+4)(x+2)(x−2)

The purpose of this section is to familiarize ourselves with many of the techniques for factoring
polynomials.

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 The FIRST TYPE for factoring polynomials will be factoring out the greatest common factor.
When factoring in general this will also be the first thing that we should try as it will often
simplify the problem.

To use this method all that we do is look at all the terms and determine if there is a factor that
is in common to all the terms. If there is, we will factor it out of the polynomial. Also note that
in this case we are really only using the distributive law in reverse. Remember that the
distributive law states that

a(b+c)=ab+ac

In factoring out the greatest common factor we do this in reverse. We notice that each term
has an a in it and so we “factor” it out using the distributive law in reverse as follows,

ab + ac = a(b+c)

Let’s take a look at some examples.

Example 1: Factor 8x4−4x3+10x2

If you will observe, all the numerical coefficients can be divided by 2 and all literal
coefficients can be divided by x2. Thus, the GCD of all the terms is 2x2 and the factored form
of the polynomial will be 2x2 (4x2−2x +5).

Example 2: Factor x3y2+3x4y+5x5y3

x3y is the GCD, thus the factored form of the polynomial will be

x3y (y+3x+5x2y2).

Example 3: Factor 3x6−9x2+3x

3x is the GCD, thus the factored form of the polynomial will be

3x (x5−3x+1).

The Second Type of factoring is called the DIFFERENCE of two squares which is given by the
expression:

a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b).

Example 1: Factor x4 – y2

x4 – y2 = (x2 + y)( x2 – y).

Example 2: Factor 8r3 – 18rt2.

First, we apply TYPE 1 since 2r is the GCD of the polynomial thus, we get

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 8r3 – 18rt2 = 2r(4r2 – 9t2).

8r3 – 18rt2 = 2r(2r + 3t)( 2r – 3t).

Example 3: Factor x8 – y8

x8 – y8 = (x4 + y4) (x4 - y4).

x8 – y8 = (x4 + y4) (x2 + y2) (x2 – y2).

x8 – y8 = (x4 + y4) (x2 + y2) (x + y) (x – y).

The Third Type of factoring will be classified as factoring a PERFECT SQUARE TRINOMIAL (PST).
A Perfect Square Trinomial is composed of three terms two of which are perfect squares and
the remaining term being twice the product of the square roots of the two perfect square
terms. A perfect square trinomial may look something like:

a2 + 2ab + b2 or a2 - 2ab + b2.

The factored form of a Perfect Square Trinomial is:

a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2

a2 - 2ab + b2 = (a - b)2

If you will be observant, the factored form of a PST is obtained by squaring the sum or
difference of the square roots of the perfect square terms. If the remaining term is POSITIVE
then the square root values are added else it will be subtracted.

Example 1: Factor x2 + 8x + 16.

Checking the trinomial, we find two perfect squares namely x2 and 16.
x2 = (x)2 and 16 = (4)2.

The remaining term which is 8x must be twice the product of the square roots of the
two perfect squares. Verifying it, we have 8x = 2(x)(4).

Since the conditions are satisfied then we can say that the polynomial is a PST which
can now be factored as:

x2 + 8x + 16 = (x + 4)2.

Example 2: Factor 4a4 + 9b2 – 12a2b.

Checking the trinomial, we find two perfect squares namely 4a4 and 9b2.

4a4 = (2a2)2 and 9b2 = (3b)2.

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 The remaining term which is 12a2b must be twice the product of the square roots of
the two perfect squares. Verifying it, we have 12a2b = 2(2a2)(3b).

Since the conditions are satisfied then we can say that the polynomial is a PST which
can now be factored as:

4a4 + 9b2 – 12a2b = 4a4 – 12a2b + 9b2 = (2a2 – 3b)2.

Example 3: Factor 25x2 – 10xy + 4y2.

Checking the trinomial, we find two perfect squares namely 25x2 and 4y2.

25x2 = (5x)2 and 4y2 = (2y)2.

The remaining term which is 10xy must be twice the product of the square roots of
the two perfect squares. Verifying it, we have 10xy ≠ 2(5x)(2y).

Since the last condition was not satisfied then we can say that the polynomial is a
NOT PST and in this case the trinomial is NOT factorable.

HOMEWORK 2: Factor the following polynomials.

1. 2a4b + 4a2b5 – 10a5b3

2. -15x7 +3x4 - 9x6
3. 4xy2 z3 + 12x3y2z + 16 x2y3z
4. 5r6s4 t5 - 15 r2s7 t2 - 30 r3s2 t4
5. a5 – 4ab4
6. a2x6 – b2y4
7. 3r8 – 6t4
8. a4 b2c4 – 16
9. x2 – 12x + 36
10. 4x2 + 28xy + 49y2
11. 36a4 + 25b2 – 60a2b
12. 8x2 + 56xy + 98y2

The Fourth Type of factoring is applied for trinomials that are NOT perfect squares, the method
is called the TRIAL and ERROR Method. The trinomials may be in the form:

x2 + (a+b)x + ab or acx2 + (ac+bc)x + bd

The factored for each will be obtain by creating a product of two binomials where
the entries will be the factors of x2 and ab for x2 + (a+b)x + ab or the factors of acx2 and bd
for acx2 + (ac+bc)x + bd.

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 Example 1: Factor x2 + 5x + 6.

Since the trinomial is not a PST, we can proceed with the Trial and Error Method. We
consider the possible factors of x2 and 6.

x2 has the factors (x) (x) while 6 can be factored as (6) (1) or (3)(2).

Next step is to create a product of two binomials in which we use the factors of x2 for the first
terms of the two binomials and the factors of 6 for the second terms. If we use 6 = (6)(1) then
we obtain (x 6 ) (x 1 ) and since all the terms in the trinomial are positive then we can
also use positive terms in the binomials giving us (x + 6) (x + 1). If we expand the product of
the binomials we get x2 + 7x + 6 which is not equal to the original trinomial.

If this situation arises then we can try the other possible factors for 6. And we get (x + 3) (x +
2). If we expand the product of the binomials we get (x + 3) (x + 2) = x2 + 5x + 6 which is equal
to the original trinomial. Therefore we now have the correct factored form of the trinomial.

Example 2: Factor a2 - ab - 12b2.

Since the trinomial is not a PST, we can proceed with the Trial and Error Method. We
consider the possible factors of a2 and 12b2.

a2 has the factors (a) (a) while 12b2 can be factored as (12b) (b) or (6b) (2b) or (3b)(4b).

Next step is to create a product of two binomials in which we use the factors of a2 for the first
terms of the two binomials and the factors of 12b2 for the second terms. If we use 12b2 =
(3b)(4b) then we obtain (a 3b ) (a 4b) and since there are negative terms in the
trinomial then there must be a NEGATIVE expression or expressions in the binomials. With
careful analysis for the signs, we get

a2 - ab - 12b2 = (a + 3b ) (a - 4b)

Example 3: Factor 6x2 + xy – 15y2

6x2 can be factored as (3x)(2x) while 15y2 can be factored as (3y)(5y)

Thus, 6x2 + xy – 15y2 = (3x + 5y) (2x - 3y).

Homework 3: Factor the following polynomials.

1. x2 + 9x + 20
2. 3x2 -xy - 4y2
3. 14a2 + 15ab + 4b2
4. 6x2 -13x - 5

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 The Fifth Type is when we need to group some polynomials first so that the resulting expression
can be classified under Types 1,2,3, or 4.

Example 1: Factor x3 - 2x2 + 5x – 10

Inspecting the polynomial, it cannot be factored under any Type discussed above. However,
by inspecting the polynomial, the first two terms can be grouped together and the last two
terms can also be grouped together which yields:

x3 - 2x2 + 5x – 10 = (x3 - 2x2) + (5x – 10). Now, we can factor out x2 in the first group while 5 can
be factored in the second group.

x3 - 2x2 + 5x – 10 = x2(x - 2) + 5(x – 2). We now can see that (x – 2) becomes a common factor
from the two terms. Applying Type 1, we get:

x3 - 2x2 + 5x – 10 = (x - 2)( x2 + 5).

Example 2: Factor x2 + 3y - 3x – xy

Again, the polynomial cannot be classified under Types 1 to 4. We now apply grouping some
terms together. If we group the first two terms, we can observe that we cannot factor out
any term. So instead of grouping the first two terms, we can try another combination. Let us
say, the first and the third and the second and the fourth. We obtain,

x2 + 3y - 3x – xy = (x2 – 3x) + (3y – xy).

x and -y are the common factors from the first and second groups respectively.
x2 + 3y - 3x – xy = x(x – 3) - y(-3 + x). We now obtain (3 – x) as the common factor from the first
two terms.

x2 + 3y - 3x – xy = (x – 3) (x - y).

Example 3: Factor x3 + 2x2 - 9x – 18.

We can group the first two terms and the last two terms together.

x3 + 2x2 - 9x – 18 = (x3 + 2x2) + (- 9x – 18)

x2 and -9 are the common factors for the first and the second groups respectively.

x3 + 2x2 - 9x – 18 = x2 (x + 2) -9 (x + 2). Factoring out (x + 2), we get:

x3 + 2x2 - 9x – 18 = (x + 2) (x2 – 9). However, x2 – 9 can still be factored using the difference of
two squares. Thus,

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 x3 + 2x2 - 9x – 18 = (x + 2) (x + 3) (x – 3).

HOMEWORK 4: Factor the following polynomials.

1. xy + 2y + 3x + 6
2. 2x3 - 3x2 -2x + 3
3. 24a3 - 6a2 + 8a – 2
4. 9b3 + 36b2 – 4b – 16

UNIT 3: SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcomes:

6. Solve systems of linear equations by substitution.

7. Solve systems of linear equations by elimination.
8. Solve systems of linear equations by Cramer’s rule.
9. Determine if a system of linear equations has a unique solution, no solution, or
infinitely many solutions.
10. Set up equations based on word problems.

A system of linear equations consists of two or more linear equations made up of two or more
variables such that all equations in the system are considered simultaneously. To find the
unique solution to a system of linear equations, we need to find the SOLUTION SET which is
numerical value for each variable in the system that will satisfy all equations in the system at
the same time. Some linear systems may not have a UNIQUE solution or sometimes called the
INDEPENDENT SYSTEM and others may have an INFINITELY many number of solutions or called
DEPENDENT SYSTEM while others may have NO solution at all or called INCONSISTENT SYSTEM.
To understand the SOLUTION set of a system, the graph below will explain each.

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 In this module, we will only use THREE methods in finding the solution set of the system, namely
1. By ELIMINATION using addition or subtraction
2. By ELIMINATION using substitution
3. By Cramer’s Rule.

ELIMINATION using ADDITION or SUBTRACTION

Example 1: Solve the system using ELIMINATION using ADDITION or SUBTRACTION
x + 3y = 8 ---(1)
2x - 9 = y ---(2)
First, we arrange the system so that it will be in the form
ax + by = c ---(1)
dx + ey = g ---(2)
x + 3y = 8 ---(1)
2x - y = 9 ---(2)
We now choose a variable to be ELIMINATED and to do so, we need to make the coefficients
of the chosen variable be equal based from ALL the equations. If the coefficients are NOT
equal, we can introduce a MULTIPLIER constant to one equation or even to both equations.
Going back to the example, say we would like to ELIMINATE x. Our goal now is to make the
coefficient of the variable x be equal from the two equations. We can obtain this by
MULTIPLYING equation (1) by 2 which yields:

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 2x + 6y = 16 ---(1)
2x - y = 9 ---(2).
We can now ELIMINATE variable x by SUBTRACTING equation (2) from equation (1).
2x + 6y = 16 ---(1)
-( 2x - y = 9) ---(2).

2x + 6y = 16 ---(1)
-2x + y = -9 ---(2).
0 + 7y = 7 (Dividing both sides by 7)
y = 1.
Back substituting the value of y = 1 in (1) or (2) we will be able to obtain the value of x. Say
we substitute it in (1).
x + 3(1) = 8. (Solving for x)
x = 5.
Thus the solution set is x = 5 and y = 1 or we can write it as an ordered pair (5, 1).
Checking if we have the correct solution set, we now substitute (5, 1) in both equations. (5,
1) must satisfy both equations.
In (1):
x + 3y = 8
5 + 3(1) = 8
8 = 8.
In (2):
2x - y= 9
2(5) – 1 = 9
9 = 9.

Example 2: Solve the system using ELIMINATION using ADDITION or SUBTRACTION

x+ y+ z = 2 ---(1)
6x - 4y + 5z = 31 ---(2)
5x + 2y + 2z = 13 ---(3)

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 Initially, we need to choose a variable to be eliminated. One technique in choosing is by
choosing the variable with the smallest numerical coefficients. In this case, we can choose
the variable y.
Before eliminating any variable, make sure that the system will be in the form:
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1 ---(1)
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2 ---(2)
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3 ---(3)
Since the system is already in that format, we can now proceed in eliminating variable y. To
eliminate y, we choose any pair of equations and we do it twice. The goal here is to eliminate
y twice so that we get a system with only TWO unknowns.
Let say we now choose (1) and (2). We need to MULTIPLY (1) by 4.
4x + 4y + 4z = 8 ----(1)
6x – 4y + 5z = 31 ---(2).
We now add (1) and (2) together which yields
10x + 9z = 39 and let us call this as equation (4).
We now go back to the system, eliminate y one more time and this time using a different
pair. So we can use (1) and (3) OR (2) and (3). Say we choose (1) and (3). We must first
multiply (1) by 2 which yields:
2x + 2y + 2z = 4 ---(1)
5x + 2y + 2z = 13 ---(3).
We now subtract (3) from (1) which will now give us:
-3x = -9 and if we divide both sides by -3 we now obtain the value of x.
x = 3.
Back substitute x = 3 in (4) so we can obtain the value of z.
10(3) + 9z = 39
9z = 9
z = 1.
Finally, substitute x and z in any of the original equations to solve for y. Say we substitute them
in (1) which is the simplest equation in the system:
3+y+1=2
y = -2.
Thus, the solution set is x = 3, y = -2, z = 1 or we can write it as an ordered triple (3, -2, 1).
Checking our answer, the solution set should satisfy ALL equations in the system.

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 In (1): x+ y+ z = 2
3– 2 + 1= 2
2 = 2.
In (2): 6x - 4y + 5z = 31
6(3) – 4(-2) + 5(1) = 31
18 +8 + 5 = 31
31 = 31.
In (3): 5x + 2y + 2z = 13
5(3) + 2(-2) +2(1) = 13
15 - 4 + 2 = 13
13 = 13.

NOTE: If system will have NO SOLUTION, an INCONSISTENT equation results after eliminating a
variable. ( zero equals a nonzero constant).
If system will have INFINITELY MANY SOLUTIONS, a 0 = 0 equation results after
eliminating a variable.

ELIMINATION using SUBSTITUTION

Example 3: Solve the system using ELIMINATION using SUBSTITUTION using the problem in
Example 1.
x + 3y = 8 ---(1)
2x - 9 = y ---(2)
For this method, our goal is to get the value of a variable in terms of the other variable from
any of the equations given. Example 1: Solve the system using ELIMINATION using ADDITION
or SUBTRACTION
x + 3y = 8 ---(1)
2x - 9 = y ---(2)
TIP: Find a variable with a numerical coefficient equal to 1, if there is any. Isolate that variable
and express it in terms of the other variable.
In our example, we can choose equation (1) by expressing x in terms of y or we can choose
equation (2) since y is already in terms of x. Let us choose equation (2) and since y is already
in terms of x, we are now ready to substitute (2) in (1).
x + 3(2x – 9) = 8.

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 You will now notice that the system was reduced to an equation with only one variable. We
can now solve for the value of x.
x + 6x - 27 = 8
7x = 35
x = 5.
Substituting the value of x in (2):
2(5) – 9 = y
1 = y.
Thus, the solution set is (5, 1).

Example 4: Solve the system using ELIMINATION using SUBSTITUTION using the problem in
Example 2.

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 x+ y+ z = 2 ---(1)
6x - 4y + 5z = 31 ---(2)
5x + 2y + 2z = 13 ---(3)
Since there are three unknowns, we choose a variable and express it in terms of the other
two variables.
Let us choose x in equation (1)
x = 2 – y – z ----(1)
We now substitute this new equation (1) in (2) and (3).
In (2): 6x - 4y + 5z = 31
6(2 – y – z) – 4y + 5z = 31
12 – 6y – 6z – 4y + 5z = 31
-10y – z = 19 ---(4).
In (3): 5x + 2y + 2z = 13
5(2 – y – z) + 2y + 2z = 13
10 – 5y – 5z + 2y + 2z = 13
-3y - 3z = 3
y + z = -1 ---(5)
From (4): z = -10y – 19 ----(4)
Substituting new equation (4) in (5):
y + z = -1
y -10y – 19 = -1
-9y = 18
y = -2.
Substituting y in (5):
y + z = -1
-2 + z = -1
z = 1
Substituting y and z in (1):
x+ y+ z = 2
x- 2+ 1 = 2

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 x = 3

Thus, the solution set is x = 3, y = -2, z = 1 or we can write it as an ordered triple (3, -2, 1).

BY CRAMER’s RULE
Given the system:
ax + by = c ---(1)
dx + ey = g ---(2)
𝑎 𝑏
𝐴=[ ] is called the COEFFICIENT matrix
𝑑 𝑒
𝑐
𝐵 = [𝑔] is called the matrix of the constants

|𝐴| = |𝑎 𝑏
| = 𝑎𝑒 − 𝑑𝑏 is called the DETERMINANT of matrix A
𝑑 𝑒

To SOLVE the system,

𝒄 𝒃
| |
𝒈 𝒆
x= (the column of x is replaced by the constants) and
|𝑨|
𝒂 𝒄
|𝒅 𝒈|
y= |𝑨|
(the column of y is replaced by the constants).

Example 5: Solve the system using the CRAMER’s RULE

x + 3y = 8 ---(1)
2x - 9 = y ---(2)
First arrange the system so that it follows the format
ax + by = c ---(1)
dx + ey = g ---(2)
So we have
x + 3y = 8 ---(1)
2x - y = 9 ---(2)
1 3 8
Then, 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ]
2 −1 9
𝒄 𝒃
| |
𝒈 𝒆
x=
|𝑨|

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 𝟖 𝟑
| |
x= 𝟗 −𝟏
|𝟏 𝟑|
𝟐 −𝟏
(8)(−1) – (9)(3)
x= (1)(−1) – (2)(3)

−8 – 27
x= −1 – 6
−35
x=
−7

x = 5.

𝒂 𝒄
|𝒅 𝒈|
y=
|𝑨|

𝟏 𝟖
| |
y= 𝟏
𝟐 𝟗
𝟑
| |
𝟐 −𝟏
(1)(9) – (2)(8)
y=
(1)(−1) – (2)(3)

9 – 16
y= −1 – 6
−7
y= −7

y = 1.
Thus, the solution set is (5, 1).

Given the system:

a1x + b1y + c1z = d1 ---(1)
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2 ---(2)
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3 ---(3)

a1 b1 c1
𝐴 = [a2 b2 c2] is the coefficient matrix and
a3 b3 c3
d1
𝐵 = [d2] is the matrix for the constants.
d3

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 a1 b1 c1
|𝐴| = |a2 b2 c2| is the determinant of matrix A
a3 b3 c3
The DETERMINANT of A is computed by first adjoining the first two columns beside the third
column and then get the product of the elements from diagonal lines that can be drawn
having 3 elements at a time. When the diagonal is drawn downward the product is multiplied
by +1 and if the diagonal is drawn upwards the product is multiplied by -1.(see diagram
below):
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1
|𝐴| = |a2 b2 c2| a2 b2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3

|A| = (a1)(b2)(c3) + (b1)(c2)(a3) + (c1)(a2)(b3) - (a3)(b2)(c1) - (b3)(c2)(a1) - (c3)(a2)(b1).

To SOLVE the system,

𝐝𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏
|𝐝𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐|
x= 𝐝𝟑 𝐛𝟑
|𝑨|
𝐜𝟑
(the column of x is replaced by the constants),

𝐚𝟏 𝐝𝟏 𝐜𝟏
|𝐚𝟐 𝐝𝟐 𝐜𝟐|
y= 𝐚𝟑 𝐝𝟑
|𝑨|
𝐜𝟑
(the column of y is replaced by the constants) and

𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐝𝟏
|𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐝𝟐|
z= 𝐚𝟑 𝐛𝟑 𝐝𝟑
(the column of z is replaced by the constants).
|𝑨|

Example 6: Solve the system using the CRAMER’s RULE using the problem in Example 2.
x+ y+ z = 2 ---(1)
6x - 4y + 5z = 31 ---(2)
5x + 2y + 2z = 13 ---(3)

a1 b1 c1 1 1 1
𝐴 = [a2 b2 c2] = [6 −4 5]
a3 b3 c3 5 2 2

d1 2
𝐵 = [d2] = [31]
d3 13

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 1 1 1 1 1
|𝐴| = |6 −4 5| 6 −4
5 2 2 5 2

1 1 1 1 1
|𝐴| = |6 −4 5| 6 −4
5 2 2 5 2

|A| = (1)(-4)(2) + (1)(5)(5) + (1)(6)(2) - (5)(-4)(1) - (2)(5)(1) - (2)(6)(1).

|A| = -8 + 25 + 12 + 20 - 10 -12.
|A| = 27.

To SOLVE the system,

𝐝𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐜𝟏
| 𝐝𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐜𝟐|
x= 𝐝𝟑 𝐛𝟑 𝐜𝟑
(the column of x is replaced by the constants),
|𝑨|

𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
|𝟑𝟏 −𝟒 𝟓|
x= 𝟏𝟑 𝟐
𝟐𝟕
𝟐

𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
|𝟑𝟏 −𝟒 𝟓|𝟑𝟏 −𝟒
x= 𝟏𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝟑
𝟐𝟕
𝟐

(2)(−4)(2) + (1)(5)(13) + (1)(31)(2) − (13)(−4)(1) − (2)(5)(2) − (2)(31)(1)

𝐗=
𝟐𝟕
−16 + 65 + 62 + 52 − 20 − 62
𝐗=
𝟐𝟕
81
𝐗=
𝟐𝟕
X=3

𝐚𝟏 𝐝𝟏 𝐜𝟏
|𝐚𝟐 𝐝𝟐 𝐜𝟐|
y= 𝐚𝟑 𝐝𝟑
|𝑨|
𝐜𝟑
(the column of y is replaced by the constants)

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 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
|𝟔 𝟑𝟏 𝟓|
y= 𝟓 𝟏𝟑
𝟐𝟕
𝟐

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟐
|𝟔 𝟑𝟏 𝟓 |𝟔 𝟑𝟏
y= 𝟓 𝟏𝟑 𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟑
𝟐𝟕

(1)(31)(2) + (2)(5)(5) + (1)(6)(13) − (5)(31)(1) − (13)(5)(1) − (2)(6)(2)

𝐲=
𝟐𝟕
62 + 50 + 78 − 155 − 65 − 24
𝐲=
𝟐𝟕
−54
𝐲=
𝟐𝟕
y = -2

𝐚𝟏 𝐛𝟏 𝐝𝟏
|𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐 𝐝𝟐|
z= 𝐚𝟑 𝐛𝟑 𝐝𝟑
|𝑨|
(the column of z is replaced by the constants).

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
|𝟔 −𝟒 𝟑𝟏|
z= 𝟓 𝟐 𝟏𝟑
𝟐𝟕

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
|𝟔 −𝟒 𝟑𝟏|𝟔 −𝟒
z= 𝟓 𝟐 𝟏𝟑 𝟓
𝟐𝟕
𝟐

(1)(−4)(13) + (1)(31)(5) + (2)(6)(2) − (5)(−4)(2) − (2)(31)(1) − (13)(6)(1)

𝐳=
𝟐𝟕
−52 + 155 + 24 + 40 − 62 − 78
𝐳=
𝟐𝟕
27
𝐳=
𝟐𝟕
z = 1.
Thus, the solution set is x = 3, y = -2, z = 1 or we can write it as an ordered triple (3, -2, 1).
HOMEWORK 5:
Solve the following systems using the THREE METHODS discussed above. Check your answers.
1. x – 7y = -11 ---(1)
5x + 2y = -18 ---(2)

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 ANS: x = -4, y = 1

2. 2x + 3y = 20 ---(1)
7x + 2y = 53 ---(2)

ANS: x = 7, y = 2

3. 2x + 5y + 2z = -38 ---(1)
3x - 2y +4z = 17 ---(2)
-6x + y - 7z = -12 ---(3)

ANS: x = 3, y = -8, z = -2.

4. 3x - 9z = 33 ---(1)
7x - 4y -z = -15 ---(2)
4x + 6y + 5z = -6 ---(3)

ANS: x = -1, y = 3, z = -4.

APPLICATIONS:

1. The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 7. When the digits are reversed, the
number is increased by 27. Find the number.

Solution:

Let x be the tens’ digit

y be the ones’ digit.
10x + y is the number

WORKING EQUATIONS:
From the first statement:
x + y = 7 ---(1)

From the second statement:

10y + x = (10x + y) + 27 ---(2)
10y + x = 10x + y + 27
9x – 9y = -27
x – y = - 3 ----(2) Simplified form of equation 2.
Hence, x = 2 and y = 5 (solution of the system is left as an exercise for the reader).

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 Therefore, the number is 25.

2. The admission fee at a small fair is $1.50 for children and $4.00 for adults. On a
certain day, 2200 people enter the fair and $5050 is collected. How many children
and how many adults attended?

Solution:
Let x- the number of children who attended
y- the number of adults who attended

WORKING EQUATONS:
Since there are 2200 people who entered the fair then
x + y = 2200 ---(1)
Using the ticket price and ticket sales:
1.50x + 4y = 5050 ---(2)

Hence, x = 1500 and y = 700 (solution of the system is left as an exercise for the reader).

3. The measure of the largest angle of a triangle is 30° less than the sum of the measure
of the other two angles and 9° less than 2 times the measure of the smallest angle.
Find the measures of the three angles of the triangle.
Solution:
Let x be the measure of the 1st angle of the largest angle
y be the measure of the smallest angle
z be the measure of the remaining angle of the triangle.

WORKING EQUATONS:
Since there are three unknowns, we need to establish three working equations
x + y + z = 180 ---(1) since the sum of the 3 angles of any given triangle is 180°
x = (y + z) – 30 ---(2) from the first half of the 1st statement
x = 2y – 9 ---(3) from the 2nd half of the 1st statement.
Hence, x = 75° , y = 42° , z = 63° (solution of the system is left as an exercise for the
reader).

4. Regina sells photographs at art fairs. She prices the photos according to size: small
photos cost P1000, medium photos cost P1500, and large photos cost P4000. She

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 usually sells as many small photos as medium and large photos combined. She also
sells twice as many medium photos as large. A booth at the art fair costs P25000.
If her sales go as usual, how many of each size photo must she sell to pay for the
booth?

Solution:
Let x be the number of small photos sold by Regina
y be the number of medium photos sold by Regina
z be the number of large photos sold by Regina.

WORKING EQUATIONS:
x = y + z ---(1) (From statement number 2)
2y = z ---(2) (From statement number 3)
1000x + 1500y + 4000z = 25000 ---(3) (From statement 1 and 4)

Hence, x = 6, y = 2, z = 4 (solution of the system is left as an exercise for the reader).

Homework 6:
Solve the following WORD problems. Use ANY solution for the system that you will
obtain.

1. Bert has $8.80 in pennies and nickels. If there are twice as many nickels as pennies,
how many pennies does Bert have? How many nickels? (ANS: 80 pennies, 160
nickels)

2. Tickets to a concert cost either $12 or $15. A total of 300 tickets are sold, and the
total receipts were $4140. How many of each kind of ticket were sold? (ANS: $12—
120 tickets, $15—180 tickets)

3. John received an inheritance of $12,000 that he divided into three parts and
invested in three ways: in a money-market fund paying 3% annual interest; in
municipal bonds paying 4% annual interest; and in mutual funds paying 7% annual
interest. John invested $4,000 more in mutual funds than in municipal bonds. He
earned $670 in interest the first year. How much did John invest in each type of
fund?

4. You are at the store, and are trying to remember how much bread, meat, and
cheese you were supposed to buy. The bread costs $1 per loaf, the meat costs $4
per pound, and the cheese costs $3 per pound. You know that you are to buy
eight items, that the total cost will be $17, and that you are supposed to purchase
three times as much cheese as meat. How many of each do you need to
purchase?

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 UNIT 4: PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcomes:

Decompose p(x)/q(x) into partial fractions if q(x) has nonrepeated linear factors.
Decompose p(x)/q(x) into partial fractions if q(x) has repeated linear factors.
Decompose p(x)/q(x) into partial fractions if q(x) has nonrepeated quadratic
factors.
Decompose p(x)/q(x) into partial fractions if q(x) has repeated quadratic factors.

Suppose we have two fractions that we would like to add together. From ALGEBRA, we
simply get the LCD then divide the LCD by each denominator. After which, we multiply to
the corresponding numerator. Simplify the entire numerator and we now have the sum of
the fractions

Example:
8 5
−
𝑥+1 𝑥−4
8 5 8(𝑥 − 4) − 5(𝑥 + 1)
− =
𝑥+1 𝑥−4 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)
8 5 8𝑥 − 32 − 5𝑥 − 5
− =
𝑥+1 𝑥−4 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)
8 5 3𝑥 − 37
− =
𝑥+1 𝑥−4 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)

In this section, we will not add fractions together instead we will do the reverse. We will be
given the sum and our target is to decompose that into partial fractions.

We use partial fraction decomposition on rational functions of the form r(x) = p(x)/q(x)
where p(x), q(x) are polynomials.

Some initial steps:

1. The degree of p(x) must be smaller than the degree of q(x). If not, we must perform
long division before moving onto the next step.
2. Factor q(x) into linear or irreducible quadratics.
Here are the following cases on how we write the partial fraction decomposition:
A. Linear factors. Linear factors are of the form mx + b.
i) Nonrepeated linear factors.

q(x) = (ax+b)(cx+d)
A B
r(x) = +
ax+b cx+d

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 1
Example:
𝑥 2 −1

Factoring the denominator, we get:

1 1
𝑥 2 −1
= (𝑥+1)(𝑥−!)

Decomposing it in partial fractions, we have

1 𝐴 𝐵
𝑥 2 −1
= (𝑥+1)
+ (𝑥−1)

Multiplying both sides by the denominator of the ORIGINAL fraction, this yields
1 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑥 2 −1
= (𝑥+1)
+ (𝑥−1)
)( 𝑥 2 − 1)

1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
1 = 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐵
1 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴 + 𝐵
1 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 + (−𝐴 + 𝐵)

We want to determine the value for A and B.

We now equate the coefficients of the left and the right side of the equation:

For the coefficient of x: 0 = A + B

For the constant: 1 = -A + B

Simultaneously solving the equations obtained, we can eliminate A by

adding the two equations which gives us 1 = 2B. Thus, B = ½. Solving for A, A = -½
also.
1 𝐴 𝐵
Therefore, 𝑥 2 −1
= (𝑥+1)
+ (𝑥−1)

1 −1/2 1/2
= +
𝑥 2 −1 (𝑥+1) (𝑥−1)

OR
1 −1 1
𝑥 2 −1
= 2(𝑥+1)
+ 2(𝑥−1)

ii) REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS

q(x) = (ax + b)K

𝐴 𝐵 𝑘
𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
+ (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2
+ ⋯+ (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑘

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 EXAMPLE:
2𝑥 + 7
(𝑥 + 1)2
2𝑥+7 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑥+1)2
= 𝑥+1
+ (𝑥+1)2

2𝑥+7 𝐴 𝐵
((𝑥+1)2 = 𝑥+1
+ (𝑥+1)2) (𝑥 + 1)2 MULTIPLYING both sides by (𝑥 + 1)2

2𝑥 + 7 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵
2𝑥 + 7 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴 + 𝐵

Equating coefficients

x: 2 = A

k: 7 = A + B

Since A=2 then B = 5.

Thus,
2𝑥 + 7 2 5
= +
(𝑥 + 1)2 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)2

B. QUADRATIC FACTORS that are IRREDUCIBLE (Ax2+Bx+C)

i) NonRepeated Quadratic Factors

𝑝(𝑥)
𝑟(𝑥) =
𝑞(𝑥)

𝑞(𝑥) = (𝐴1𝑥 2 + 𝐵1𝑥 + 𝐶 ) + (𝐴2𝑥 2 + 𝐵2𝑥 + 𝐶 ) + ⋯ + (𝐴𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶𝑘)

(𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑏1) (𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑏2) (𝑎𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘)
𝑟(𝑥) = 2
+ 2
+⋯+
(𝐴1𝑥 + 𝐵1𝑥 + 𝐶) (𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐵2𝑥 + 𝐶) (𝐴𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶𝑘)

7𝑥+13
EXAMPLE: 𝑥 3+9𝑥
7𝑥+13 7𝑥+13
𝑥 3 +9𝑥
= 𝑥(𝑥 2+9)

7𝑥 + 13 𝑎 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
3
= + 2
𝑥 + 9𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 +9
7𝑥+13 𝑎 𝑏𝑥+𝑐
( = + )(𝑥 3 + 9𝑥)
𝑥 3 +9𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2 +9

7𝑥 + 13 = 𝑎(𝑥 2 + 9) + (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)(𝑥)

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 7𝑥 + 13 = (𝑎𝑥 2 + 9𝑎) + (𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥)

7𝑥 + 13 = (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 9𝑎 )

7𝑥 + 13 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 9𝑎

Equating coefficients

𝑥2 : 0 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
𝑥∶7=𝑐

𝑘 ∶ 13 = 9𝑎

Thus, a= 13/9 , 𝑏 = −13/9 and 𝑐 = 7

7𝑥+13 13/9 (−13/9)𝑥+7
Hence, 𝑥 3+9𝑥
= 𝑥
+ 𝑥 2 +9

ii) Repeated Quadratic Factors

𝑝(𝑥)
𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥)

𝑞(𝑥) = (𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)𝑘

(𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑏1) (𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑏2) (𝑎𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘)
𝑟(𝑥) = 2
+ 2 2
+⋯+
(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) (𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)𝑘

2𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2+6𝑥−3
EXAMPLE:
(𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)2

2𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2+6𝑥−3 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) (𝑐𝑥+𝑑)

(𝑥 2+𝑥+1)2
= (𝑥 2+𝑥+1)
+ (𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)2

2𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2+6𝑥−3 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) (𝑐𝑥+𝑑)

( = + )((𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)2
(𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)2 (𝑥 2+𝑥+1) (𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)2

2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) + (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑)

2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑

2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 2 + (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝑑

Equating coefficients

𝑥3 : 2 = 𝑎

𝑥2 : 3 = 𝑎 + 𝑏

But 𝑎 = 2 thus 𝑏 = 1

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 𝑥 ∶ 6= 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝑐=3

𝑘 ∶ −3 = 𝑏 + 𝑑
𝑑 = −4

Thus, 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = 1 , 𝑐 = 3, 𝑑 = −4
2𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 +6𝑥−3 (2𝑥+1) (3𝑥−4)
Hence, (𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)2
= (𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)
+ (𝑥 2+𝑥+1)2

HOMEWORK 7:

Decompose each of the following into partial fractions.

4
1. 𝑥 2 +5𝑥−14

3𝑥 2 +1
2. (𝑥+1)(𝑥−5)2

𝑥 2 +2𝑥+3
3.
(𝑥−6)(𝑥 2+4)

8+𝑥+6𝑥 2 −12𝑥 3
4. (3𝑥 2 +4)(𝑥 2 +7)

UNIT 5: SYSTEMS INVOLVING QUADRATICS

Learning outcomes:

At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning outcomes:

Solve systems of quadratic equations by substitution.

Solve systems of quadratic equations by elimination.

Case 1: One Equation is Quadratic and the other equation is Linear.

Example 1: Solve for the solution set of

𝑦2 = 9 − 𝑥 ---(1)

𝑥+𝑦=3 ---(2)

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 Normally, we solve for one variable in terms of the other variable from the linear
equation. Whatever we get here will be substituted in the quadratic equation.

From (2), let us solve for x:

𝑥 = 3 − 𝑦 and we now substitute this in (1).

𝑦 2 = 9 − (3 − 𝑦)
𝑦2 = 9 − 3 + 𝑦

𝑦2 − 𝑦 − 6 = 0

By factoring the trinomial, we have

(when factoring cannot be applied then use the quadratic formula)

(𝑦 − 3)(𝑦 + 2) = 0

Equating each factor to 0

(𝑦 − 3) = 0, (𝑦 + 2) = 0

𝑦 = 3 & 𝑦 = −2

Solving now for the value of 𝑥 from 𝑥 = 3 − 𝑦.

If 𝑦 = 3 then 𝑥 = 0 & if 𝑦 = −2 then 𝑥 = 5.

Therefore, the solution set will be (0, 3) and (5, -2).

Example 2: Solve for the solution set of

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 7 = 𝑦 ---(1)

𝑦=2 ---(2)

Substitute (2) in (1)

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 7 = 2
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5 = 0

Using the quadratic formula:

−4±√42−4(1)(5)
𝑥= 2(1)

−4±2𝑖
𝑥= 2(1)

Since the values of x are imaginary then it means there is NO SOLUTION SET
meaning the two equation do not intersect when graphed.

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 Example 3: Solve for the solution set of

𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 ---(1)

𝑥+𝑦=2 ---(2)

Solving for x in (2):

𝑥 = 2−𝑦

Substitute 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑦 in (1)

(2 − 𝑦)2 + 𝑦 2 = 9

4 − 4𝑦 + 𝑦 2 +𝑦 2 = 9

−5 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 = 0

Using the quadratic formula:

−(−4)±√(−4)2 −4(2)(−5)
𝑦= 2(2)

4±√16+40
𝑦= 4

4±√56
𝑦= 4

4±2√14
𝑦= 4

2±√14
𝑦= 2

𝑦 = 2.87 & 𝑦 = −0.87

Solving now for the value of 𝑥 from 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑦.

If 𝑦 = 2.87 then 𝑥 = −0.87 & if 𝑦 = −0.87 then 𝑥 = 2.87.

Therefore, the solution set will be (-0.87, 2.87) and (2.87, -0.87).

Case 2: Both Equations are Quadratic Equations.

Example 1: Solve for the solution set of

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4 ---(1)

𝑦 = −4𝑥 2 + 4 ---(2)

For this problem, we can equate the two equations given.

−4𝑥 2 + 4 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4
−4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 − 4 = 0

−6𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 0

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 −3𝑥(2𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥 = 0 & 𝑥 = −1/2

If 𝑥 = 0 then 𝑦 = 4 & if 𝑥 = −1/2 then 𝑦 = −3.

Example 2: Solve for the solution set of

0 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 𝑥 + 1 ---(1)

𝑦 2 = −4𝑥 2 + 2 ---(2)

0 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 𝑥 + 1 ---(1)

0 = −4𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2 ---(2)

For this problem, we can eliminate 𝑦 2 so we get an equation involving the

variable x alone.

0 = −12𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 6 ---(2)x3

0= 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 𝑥 + 1 ---(1)

Add (1) & (2):

0= −10𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 7 or

0= 10𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 7

By the quadratic formula:

−(−1)±√(−1)2−4(10)(−7)
𝑥= 2(10)

1±√1+280
𝑥= 20

𝑥 = 0.89 & 𝑥 = -0.79

If 𝑥 = 0.89 then 𝑦 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 & if 𝑥 = −0.79 then 𝑦 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦.

Therefore, there is NO solution set.

HOMEWORK 8:

Solve the following systems.

1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7 ---(1)

𝑦 = 2𝑥 +1 ---(2)

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 2. 25 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ---(1)

3𝑦 = 2𝑥 +6 ---(2)

3. 16 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ---(1)

(𝑦 − 2)2 +(𝑥 − 1)2 − 9 ---(2)

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 MODULE 2: TRIGONOMETRY

UNIT 1: TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcomes:
4. Identify the hypotenuse, adjacent side, and opposite side of an acute angle in a
right triangle.

5. Determine the six trigonometric ratios for a given angle in a right triangle.
6. Solve word problems involving trigonometric functions.

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ACUTE ANGLES

1. Trigonometric Functions of Acute Angles

The word trigonometry is derived from the Greek words “trigonon” (three
angles) and “metrein” (to measure), hence, trigonometry, means the
measurement of triangle. It began more than 2000 years ago, partially as a means
of solving surveying problems. Early trigonometry used the length of a chord of a
circle as the value of a trigonometric function. In the sixteenth century, right
triangles were used to define a trigonometric function.
When working with right triangles, it is convenient to refer to the side opposite
an angle or the side adjacent to (next to) an angle. The figure below shows the
sides opposite and adjacent to the angle α. For angle β, the opposite and
adjacent sides are shown in figure. In both cases, the hypotenuse remains the
same.

Hypotenuse Hypotenuse
Opposite β Adjacent
Side Side
α

Adjacent Side Opposite Side

Consider an angle Ɵ in the right triangle shown below. Let x and y represent
the lengths, respectively, of the adjacent and opposite sides of the triangle, and
let r be the length of the hypotenuse. Six possible ratios can be formed:

𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑟 𝑟 𝑥
𝑟 𝑟 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

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 r
y

Each ratio defines a value of a trigonometric function of the acute angle Ɵ. The
functions are sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cosecant (csc), secant (sec), and
cotangent (cot).

Trigonometric Functions of an Acute Angle

Let Ɵ be an acute of a right triangle. The values of the six trigonometric functions of Ɵ
are

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑥

sin Ɵ = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
=𝑟 cos Ɵ = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
=𝑟

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑥

tan Ɵ = = cot Ɵ = =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑦

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟

sec Ɵ = = csc Ɵ = =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑦

Writing opp, adj, and hyp as abbreviations for the length of the opposite side, adjacent
side, and hypotenuse, respectively.

Example 1: Evaluate trigonometric Functions

Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of Ɵ for the triangle given in the figure
below.

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 Using the Pythagorean theorem r = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 to find the length of the hypotenuse.

r = √32 + 42 = √25 = 5

From the definitions of the trigonometric functions,

𝑜𝑝𝑝 3 𝑎𝑑𝑗 4 𝑜𝑝𝑝 3
Sin Ɵ = ℎ𝑦𝑝 = 5 cos Ɵ = ℎ𝑦𝑝 = 5 tan Ɵ = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 = 4

𝑎𝑑𝑗 4 ℎ𝑦𝑝 5 ℎ𝑦𝑝 5

cot Ɵ = 𝑜𝑝𝑝 = 3 sec Ɵ = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 = 4 csc Ɵ = 𝑜𝑝𝑝 = 3

Given the value of one trigonometric function of the acute angle Ɵ, it is possible to find the
value of any of the remaining trigonometric functions of Ɵ.

Find the Value of a trigonometric function

8
opp

5
5
Given that Ɵ is an acute angle and cos Ɵ = , find tan Ɵ.
8

Solution

5 𝑎𝑑𝑗
cos Ɵ = 8 = ℎ𝑦𝑝

Sketch a right triangle with one leg of length 5 units and a hypotenuse of length 8 units.
Label as Ɵ the acute angle that has the leg of length 5 units as its adjacent side (see figure
above). Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the opposite side.

(opp)2 + 52 = 82
(opp)2 + 25 = 64
(opp)2 = 39
Opp = √39

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 𝑜𝑝𝑝 √39
Therefore, tan Ɵ = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 = 5

Applications Involving Right Triangles

One of the major reasons for the development of trigonometry was to solve application
problems. In this section, we will consider some applications involving right triangles. In some
application problems a horizontal line of sight is called an angle of elevation and an angle
measured below the line of sight is called an angle of depression.

Angle of Elevation

Angle of Depression

Angle of Elevation Problem

From a point of 115 feet from the base of a redwood tree, the angle of elevation to the top
of the tree is 64.3°. Find the height of the tree to the nearest foot.

64.3
°

115 ft
Solution:

The length of the adjacent side of the angle is known (115 feet). Because we need to
determine the height of the tree (length of the opposite side), we use the tangent function.
Let h represent the length of the opposite side.
𝑜𝑝𝑝 ℎ
tan 64.3° = =
𝑎𝑑𝑗 115

h = 115 tan 64.3°

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 = 238.952 feet

Find the shadow cast by a 10-foot lamp post when the angle of elevation of the sun is 58º.
Find the length to the nearest tenth of a foot.

SOLUTION:
• Remember that the "angle of elevation" is from the
horizontal ground line upward.
• It is assumed that the lamp post is vertical, making it
perpendicular with the ground.
• Shadows are on the ground! If you place the "shadow"
on the hypotenuse you have created an apparition ( a
"ghost"), not a shadow!
• This solution deals with "opposite" and "adjacent"
making it a tangent problem.

Angle of Depression problem

DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) is standard avionic equipment on a commercial

airplane. This equipment measures the distance from a plane to a radar station. If the
distance from a plane to a radar station is 160 miles and the angle of depression is 33°, find
the number of ground miles from a point directly below the plane of the radar station.

33o

57o 160 mi.

X
SOLUTION:

From the figure above, the length of the hypotenuse is known (160 miles). The length of the
side opposite the angle of 57° is unknown. The sine function involves the hypotenuse and the
opposite side, x, of the 57°.
𝑥
sin 57° =
160

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 x = 160 sin 57°

= 130.1873 ground miles from the radar station.

PROBLEM APPLICATIONS:
1. A ladder 6.4 meters long leans against the walls of an apartment house forming an
angle of 53° 20’ with the ground. How high up the wall does it reach?

2. To unload hollow blocks from a cargo truck, a wooden plank whose end rests against
the truck’s platform 1.5 meters above the ground is used. If it is inclined 37° 49’ with the
ground, how long is the wooden plank?

3. Looking out the window of his office 33.9 meters above the ground, Jaime observes that
the angles of depression of the base and the top of the Rizal monument at the Luneta are
7° 21’ and
4° 7, respectively. What is the height of the monument?

4. From a vertical cliff on the bank of the Bueg river, the angle of depression of the
opposite bank is 37° 52’. If the cliff is 16.6 meters high, find the width of the river at this point.

5. A bamboo pole is broken at a point 2.3 meters above the ground, and the end of the
pole touches the ground at an angle of 32° 41’. What is the length of the pole before it
broke?

6. A surveyor, 150 meters away from a straight railroad track of the PNR, observes that,
when the front of the locomotive of the Bicol Express is directly before him, the entire train
subtends an angle of 28° 24’. Find the length of the train.

UNIT 2: TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcome:
1. Prove trigonometric identities.

FUNDAMENTAL TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

An equation in which the two sides are equal for all permissible values of any variables
involved is an identical equation or for short an identity. An equation whose sides are not
equal for all permissible values of the variables is called a conditional equation. Unless
otherwise specified, the unqualified word equation refers to a conditional equation. A
solution of an equation in an unknown x is a value of x which makes the two sides of the
equation equal.

Illustration 1.

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 x – 5 = 0 is a conditional equation whose only solution is x = 5.

The equality (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 is an identity.

The Fundamental Identities:

A. The Reciprocal Relations:

1 1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃

1 1 1
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
B. The Quotient Relations

sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

C. The Pythagorean Relations

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃

Verification of Trigonometric Identities

To verify an identity, we show that one side of the identity can be rewritten in a form that is
identical to the other side. There is no one method that can be used to verify every identity;
however, the following guidelines should prove useful.

Guidelines for Verifying Trigonometric Identities

• If one side of the identity is more complex than the other, then it is generally best
to try first to simplify the more complex side until it becomes identical to the other
side
• Perform indicated operations such as adding fractions or squaring a binomial. Also
be aware of any factorization that may help you to achieve your goal of
producing the expression on the other side.
• Make use of previously established identities that enable you to rewrite one side of
the identity in the equivalent form.
• Rewrite one side of the identity so that it involves only sines and/or cosines.
• Rewrite one side of the identity in terms of a single trigonometric function.
• Multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of a fraction by the same
factor (such as the conjugate of the denominator or the conjugate of the
numerator) may get you closer to your goal.
• Keep your goal in mind. Does it involve products, quotients, sums, radicals, or
powers? Knowing exactly what your goal is may provide the insight you need to
verify the identity.

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 Let's verify the following identities.

𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥
1. csc 𝑥
= csc x – sin x

Rather than have an equal sign between the two sides of the equation, we will draw a
vertical line so that it is easier to see what we do to each side of the equation. Start with
changing everything into sine and cosine.

Now, it looks like we are at an impasse with the left-hand side. Let’s combine the right-hand
side by giving them same denominator.

The two sides reduce to the same expression, so we can conclude this is a valid identity. In
the last step, we used the Pythagorean Identity, sin2 Ɵ + cos2 Ɵ = 1, and isolated the cos2 x =
1 - sin2 x.

There are usually more than one way to verify a trig identity. When proving this identity in
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
the first step, rather than changing the cotangent to , we could have also substituted
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
the identity cot2x = csc2x−1.

sin 𝑥 1+ cos 𝑥
2. 1− cos 𝑥
= sin 𝑥

1+ cos 𝑥
Multiply the left-hand side of the equation by 1+ cos 𝑥

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 Examples

Example 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
Earlier, you were asked to verify that 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥
= 1 – sin2 x

Start by simplifying the left-hand side of the equation.

Now simplify the right-hand side of the equation. By manipulating the Trigonometric
Identity, sin2 x + cos2 x = 1, we get cos2 x = 1 - sin2 x.

cos2 x = cos2 x and the equation is verified.

Example 2
Cos x sec x =1
Change secant to cosine.

1
cos x sec x =
cos 𝑥
=1

Example 2

2 – sec2x = 1 – tan2 x

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 Use the identity 1 + tan2 Ɵ = sec2 Ɵ

2 – sec2x = 2 – (1 + tan2 x)
= 2 – 1 – tan2 x
= 1 – tan2 x

HOMEWORK 9:

sin 𝑥−cos 𝑥
1. tan 𝑥 csc 𝑥−sec 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
= sin x cos x
1 1 2
2. csc 𝑥−cot 𝑥
- csc 𝑥+cot 𝑥 = tan 𝑥

3. cos4 x – sin4 x = 1 – 2 sin2 x

cos 𝑥 cot 𝑥
4. cos 𝑥−sin 𝑥
= cot 𝑥 −1
csc Ɵ cos Ɵ
5. =
csc Ɵ−tan Ɵ cos Ɵ−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 Ɵ

2 sin 𝑎
6. cos2 a tan a = sec 𝑎+cos 𝑎+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎 sec 𝑎
sin 𝑎 1
7. 1 = cot 𝑎−tan 𝑎+2
+2 sin 𝑎−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎 sec 𝑎
sec 𝑎

sec 𝑎 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑎−2 tan 𝑎 cos 𝑎−sin 𝑎

8. cos 𝑎+sin 𝑎
= sin 𝑎 cos 𝑎

sec 𝑥−1 sin 𝑥

9. √sec 𝑥+1 = 1+cos 𝑥

sec 𝑥−tan 𝑥 cos 𝑥

10. √ =
sec 𝑥+tan 𝑥 1+sin 𝑥

sin 𝑥−cos 𝑥
11. = sin x cos x
tan 𝑥 csc 𝑥−sec 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥

1 1 2
12. csc 𝑥−cot 𝑥
- csc 𝑥+cot 𝑥 = tan 𝑥

13. cos4 x – sin4 x = 1 – 2 sin2 x

cos 𝑥 cot 𝑥
14. cos 𝑥−sin 𝑥
= cot 𝑥 −1
csc Ɵ cos Ɵ
15. csc Ɵ−tan Ɵ
= cos Ɵ−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 Ɵ
2 sin 𝑎
16. cos2 a tan a = sec 𝑎+cos 𝑎+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎 sec 𝑎
sin 𝑎 1
17. sec 𝑎+2 sin 𝑎−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎 sec 𝑎
= cot 𝑎−tan 𝑎+2

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 sec 𝑎 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑎−2 tan 𝑎 cos 𝑎−sin 𝑎
18. cos 𝑎+sin 𝑎
= sin 𝑎 cos 𝑎

sec 𝑥−1 sin 𝑥

19. √ =
sec 𝑥+1 1+cos 𝑥

sec 𝑥−tan 𝑥 cos 𝑥

20. √sec 𝑥+tan 𝑥 = 1+sin 𝑥

FUNCTIONS OF TWO ANGLES

A. Sum and Difference of Two Angles

Sin (Ɵ + Ø) = sin Ɵ cos Ø + cos Ɵ sin Ø

Sin (Ɵ - Ø) = sin Ɵ cos Ø - cos Ɵ sin Ø

cos (Ɵ + Ø) = cos Ɵ cos Ø - sin Ɵ sin Ø

cos (Ɵ - Ø) = cos Ɵ cos Ø + sin Ɵ sin Ø

tan Ɵ+tan Ø
tan (Ɵ + Ø) = 1 − tan Ɵ tan Ø

cot Ɵ cot Ø−1

cot (Ɵ + Ø) =
cot Ø + cot Ɵ

tan Ɵ−tan Ø
tan (Ɵ - Ø) = 1 + tan Ɵ tan Ø

cot Ɵ cot Ø−1

cot (Ɵ + Ø) =
cot Ø − cot Ɵ

B. Twice An Angle Formula

sin 2Ɵ = 2 sin Ɵ cos Ɵ

cos 2Ɵ = cos2 Ɵ – sin2 Ɵ

2 tan Ɵ
tan 2Ɵ = 1− 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 Ɵ

𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 Ɵ−1
cot 2Ɵ = 2 cot Ɵ

C. Half-Angle Formulas

1 1− cos Ɵ
sin 2 Ɵ = ± √ 2

1 1+ cos Ɵ
cos 2 Ɵ = ± √ 2

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 1 1− cos Ɵ 1−cos Ɵ sin Ɵ
tan 2 Ɵ = ± √1+ cos Ɵ = sin Ɵ
= 1+cos Ɵ

1 1
sin Ɵ + sin Ø = 2 sin (Ɵ + Ø) cos (Ɵ − Ø)
2 2
1 1
sin Ɵ - sin Ø = 2 cos 2 (Ɵ + Ø) sin 2 (Ɵ − Ø)
1 1
cos Ɵ + cos Ø = 2 cos 2 (Ɵ + Ø) cos 2 (Ɵ − Ø)
1 1
cos Ɵ - cos Ø = -2 sin (Ɵ + Ø) sin (Ɵ − Ø)
2 2

HOMEWORK 10:

1. sin2 2x = 4 sin2 x cos2 x

csc 𝜃− 2 sin 𝜃
2. cot 2θ = 2 cos 𝜃

𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑎
3. sec 2a = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑎−1

4. cos 3θ + cos θ = 4 cos3 θ – 2 cos θ

cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
5. sec 2𝑥
- csc 2𝑥 = cos 3x
1+cot 𝑥 1+sin 2𝑥
6. =
cot 𝑥−1 cos 2𝑥

7. 2 cot 4x = cot 2x – tan 2x

8. tan 6a sec 3a = 2 sin 3a sec 6a

1− cos 4𝑥
9. sec2 2x – 1 = 1 + cos 4𝑥
csc 𝐴 csc 𝐵
10. csc (a-b) = cot 𝐵−cot 𝐴

UNIT 3: TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcome:
1. Solve for the principal and general values of a trigonometric equation.

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS;

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 The knowledge acquired in working with the identities is useful in solving trigonometric
equations containing circular functions. The method of solving a trigonometric equation is
similar to the procedure of solving an algebraic equation.

The solution of an equation involving circular functions is the value of the angle which
makes the equation true. We limit the solution to positive angles less than 360°. For example,
1
the roots of the equation sin Ɵ = 2 are 30° and 150°.

There is no general rule for solving trigonometric equation. Usually, we use both algebra
and trigonometry in the process. Algebra is used to solve the given equation for the circular
function present. Then trigonometry is used to find the value of the angle.

The various methods of solving a trigonometric equation are illustrated in the

examples that accompany the following suggestions.

1. If the equation contains a single function of the same angle, we solve for the
function by an appropriate method of algebra then find the angles by
trigonometry. From these angles, we determine the correct roots.
Solve the equation: cos2 Ɵ = 1 – cos2 Ɵ
Solution:
By adding cos2 Ɵ to both sides we get:
2 cos2 Ɵ = 1
1
cos2 Ɵ = 2
±1
cos Ɵ =
√2
1
if cos Ɵ = , Ɵ = 45°, 315°
√2
−1
if cos Ɵ = , Ɵ = 135°, 225°
√2

after checking these values of Ɵ we find that the roots of the equation are:
Ɵ = 45°, 135°, 225°, and 315°

2. If the equation is equal to zero, we factor the left side if possible, equate each
factor to zero, then solve the resulting simple equation. Their solutions may be the
solutions of the original equation.
Solve the equation: 2 sin Ɵ cos Ɵ + sin Ɵ = 0

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 Solution:
The left side of the equation is factorable; hence,
sin Ɵ (2 cos Ɵ + 1) = 0
2 cos Ɵ + 1 = 0
1
sin Ɵ = 0 cos Ɵ = −
2

Ɵ = 0°, 180° Ɵ = 120°, 240°

Upon checking we find that all these values of Ɵ satisfy the given equation. Hence,
the solution of the equations are:
Ɵ = 0°, 180°, 120°, and 240°

3. If the equation contains several functions of the same angle, we usually express
the equation in terms of a single function of the angle by using the fundamental
identities. Then we solve the resulting equivalent equation by the proper algebraic
method.
Solve the equation: cot Ɵ = csc Ɵ – 2 sin Ɵ.
Solution:
First, we reduce all functions to sine and cosine, then simplify the equation. Thus;
cos Ɵ 1
sin Ɵ
= sin Ɵ – 2 sin Ɵ

cos Ɵ = 1 – 2 sin2 Ɵ
Since sin2 Ɵ = 1 – cos2 Ɵ,

cos Ɵ = 1 – 2 ( 1 – cos2 Ɵ)

Or
2 cos2 Ɵ – cos Ɵ – 1 = 0

Factoring the left side and solving for Ɵ, we have

(2 cos Ɵ + 1) (cos Ɵ – 1) = 0.

2 cos Ɵ + 1 = 0 cos Ɵ - 1 = 0

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 −1
Cos Ɵ = cos Ɵ = 1
2

Ɵ = 120°, 240° Ɵ = 0°

By substituting these values of Ɵ, we find that 120° and 240° satisfy the given
equation. But 0° is an extraneous root because cot 0° and csc 0° are not defined.

Hence, the solution of the equation are:

Ɵ = 120° and 240°.

UNIT 4: OBLIQUE TRIANGLES

Learning outcomes:

At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning outcome:

1. Solve application problems using the sine law and/or the cosine law.

An oblique triangle is any triangle that is not a right triangle. It could be an acute triangle
(all three angles of the triangle are less than right angles) or it could be an obtuse triangle
(one of the three angles is greater than a right angle). Actually, for the purposes of
trigonometry, the class of “oblique triangles” might just as well include right triangles, too.
Then the study of oblique triangles is really the study of all
triangles

Let’s agree to a convention for labelling the parts of oblique

triangles generalizing the convention for right triangles. Let
the angles be labelled A, B, and C, and let the sides opposite
them be a, b and c.

SOLUTIONS OF OBLIQUE TRIANGLE

In the practical applications of trigonometry, a lot of problems often require the use of
an oblique triangle - a triangle which has no right angle. An oblique triangle can be solved
by dividing it into right triangles; but the method is very laborious and time-consuming.

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 Hence, it is necessary to develop formulas which can be used directly to solve an oblique
triangle. To solve a triangle means to determine the values of all the unknown parts from
those that are given. Often times we are also required to find the areas of the triangle.

From the concept of elementary geometry that a triangle can be constructed (or
solved) if three of its parts are given and at least one of them is a side. The three parts may
be given in four different ways which are frequently called the four cases.

Case 1 Given one side and two angles

Case 2 Given two sides and the angle opposite one of them
Case 3 Given two sides and their included angle
Case 4 Given three sides

THE SINE LAW

sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
𝑎
= 𝑏
= 𝑐

By inversion, the proportion may be written in its more familiar form

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶

CASE I: A SIDE AND TWO ANGLES (SAA)

When one side and two angles of oblique triangle ABC are known, we can readily find the
third angle by the relation

A + B + C = 180°

The other two sides are found by the sine law.

Illustration 1:

Solve oblique triangle ABC, if A = 48o20’, C = 71o15’ and b = 32.

B

c a

48o20’ 71o15’
A C
b = 32

Oblique triangle ABC has unknown parts B, b and c.

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 Solving for angle B, using
A + B + C = 180o
B = 180o – (A + C)
B = 60o 25’
Using sine law, computing for a:
𝑎 𝑏
sin 𝐴
= sin 𝐵

𝑏 sin 𝐴
𝑎= sin 𝐵

32 sin 48𝑜 20′

𝑎=
sin 60𝑜 25′

𝑎 = 27.49
Finally, solving for c:
𝑏 sin 𝐶
𝑐= sin 𝐵

32 sin 71𝑜15′
𝑐=
sin 60 𝑜25′

𝑐 = 34.84

CASE 2 THE AMBIGUOUS CASE (SSA)

If two sides of a triangle and the angle opposite one of them are given, it is possible to
construct two triangles, one triangle or no triangle at all. In other words, it is possible that
the problem has two solutions, one solution, or no solution. For this reason, Case II is called
the ambiguous case.

A brief discussion of the various possibilities will be helpful. Let us assume that the given parts
of oblique triangle ABC are a, b, and A where a ≠ b.

First, we construct angle A. On the terminal side of A we lay off b, thus determining vertex
C. With C as the center and with a radius equal to a, we draw an arc.

The geometric construction illustrates the possibilities, when A is an acute angle.

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 Fig a:

C
NO SOLUTION
b a

X
A

In fig a, side a is too short and the arc does not intersect line AX, since no triangle is formed,
the problem has no solution.

Fig b:

b a

ONE SOLUTION

A X B

In fig b, side a is just long enough such that the arc is tangent to AX at B, and one triangle is
formed. What kind of triangle is ABC? Hence, the problem has one solution.

Fig c.

b a

TWO SOLUTION

A X B

B’

In fig c, the length of side a is such that the arc intersects AX at two points B and B’., forming
triangle ABC and AB’C. each of these triangles contains the given parts. Hence, the problem
has two solutions.

Fig d.

b a

ONE SOLUTION

A X B

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 In fig d, side a is longer than b and it intersects AX at only one point, B. hence, the problem
has only one solution.

Solution of CASE II.

If the given parts of oblique triangle ABC are a, b and A, angle B is found by sine law.
𝑎 𝑏
=
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
1. If sin B > 1 (or log sin B > 0). There is no solution
2. If sin B = 1 (or log sin B = 0), there is only one solution
3. If sin B < 1 (or log sin B < 0), there are two values of B, one less than 90°, the other
greater than 90°.
a. If the larger value of B plus angle A is less than 180°, there are two solutions
b. If the larger value of B plus angle A is more than 180°, there is only one solution.

Illustration 2:
Solve oblique triangle ABC, if a = 25.7, b = 18.3 and B = 29 o 23’
C
b = 18.3 a = 25.7

A c B = 29o 23’
Solution:
The missing/unknown parts of oblique triangle ABC are A, C and c.
Using sine law, solving A:
𝑎 𝑏
sin 𝐴
= sin 𝐵

𝑎 sin 𝐵
sin 𝐴 =
𝑏

Substituting the given using calculator:

A = 43o 33’ 19”
Solving C using,
A + B + C = 180o
C = 180o – (A + B)
C = 107o 3’41”
Solving c, using sine law again,

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 𝑏 𝑐
sin 𝐵
= sin 𝐶

𝑏 sin 𝐶
𝑐= sin 𝐵

𝑐 = 35.66

COSINE LAW

Another fundamental relationship that is useful in the solution of oblique triangles is the cosine
law.

(1). a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A

(2). b2 = c2 + a2 – 2ca cos B

(3). c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C

Equations (1), (2) and (3) are the formula of the cosine law. The law states that in an oblique
triangle the square of any side equals the sum of the other square of the other two sides
minus twice their product multiplied by the cosine of their included angle.

If the included angle C is 90°, equation c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C reduced to the Pythagorean
formula c2 = a2 + b2. Why? For this reason, the Pythagorean theorem is a special case of the
cosine law.

CASE III TWO SIDES AND THE INCLUDED ANGLE (SAS)

If two sides and the included angle of an oblique triangle are given, we use the
appropriate form of the cosine law to compute for the third side. We can find the
remaining parts by the sine law and the relation A + B + C = 180°.

Illustration 3.

Solve oblique triangle ABC, if a = 30.3, b = 21.5 and C = 75o 38’

A

b = 21.5 c

C = 75o 38’ a = 30.3 B

Solution:
The missing/unknown parts of oblique triangle ABC are A, B and c.
Using cosine law to determine the missing side c:
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C

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 𝑐 = √30.32 + 21.52 − 2(30.3)(21.5) cos 75°38′

𝑐 = 32.51

Applying law of sine in solving angle A:

𝑎 sin 𝐶
sin 𝐴 = 𝑐
30.3 sin 75°38′
sin 𝐴 = 32.51

𝐴 = 64°32′19"

Solving B using,
A + B + C = 180o
B = 180o – (A + C)
B = 39o 49’41”
From the equations of the cosine law we obtain the relations
𝑏 2+ 𝑐 2− 𝑎 2
cos 𝐴 = 2𝑏𝑐

𝑐 2 + 𝑎 2− 𝑏2
cos 𝐵 = 2𝑐𝑎

𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2
cos 𝐶 = 2𝑎𝑏

These equations are used to find the angles of oblique triangle ABC when all the sides are
given.

CASE IV THREE SIDES GIVEN (SSS)

If the three sides of an oblique triangle are given, we can find the angles by equations of the
cosine law.

Illustration 4.
Solve oblique triangle ABC, if a = 18.7, b = 33.4 and c = 26.9
B

c = 26.9 a = 18.7

A b = 33.4 C

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 Solution:
The missing/unknown parts of oblique triangle ABC are a, b and c.
Using the formulas/equations:
𝑏 2+ 𝑐 2− 𝑎 2
cos 𝐴 = 2𝑏𝑐

𝑐 2 + 𝑎 2− 𝑏2
cos 𝐵 =
2𝑐𝑎

𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2
cos 𝐶 = 2𝑎𝑏

Solving for a:
33.42 +26.92 −18.72
cos 𝐴 = 2(33.4)(26.9)

𝐴 = 34° 0′ 48"
Doing the same for angles B and C,
Hence,
𝐵 = 92° 24′ 27" and
𝐶 = 53° 34′ 45"

Exercises:
1. a = 41.8 c = 47.9 A = 72° 30’
2. a = 7.1 b = 15.2 c = 11.5
3. b = 21 a = 15 B = 52° 14’
4. a = 81 b = 62.3 c = 55
5. a = 7 b = 13 C = 39° 25’
6. C = 28° 33’ A = 108° 11’ b = 17.82
7. c = 12.7 b = 18.2 A = 39° 22’
8. A = 52° 18’ B = 38° 21’ c = 15
9. c = 9.32 a = 14.23 B = 102° 50’
10. a = 7 b = 10 c=4
11. c = 12 b = 19 B = 69° 16’
12. B = 93° 12’ C = 18° 45’ a = 14.7

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 HOMEWORK 11:
1. The bases of a trapezoid are 22 and 12 respectively. The angles at the extremities of
one base are 65° and 40° respectively. Find the two legs.

2. A line AB, 125 feet long, is measured along the straight bank of a river. A point C is on
the opposite bank. Angles ABC and BAC are found to be 65° 40' and 54° 30'
respectively. How wide is the river?

3. A side and a diagonal of a parallelogram are 12 inches and 19 inches respectively.

The angle between the diagonals, opposite the given side, is 124°. Find the length of
the other diagonal.

4. A tower 125 feet high stands on the side of a hill. At the point 240 feet from the foot of
the tower, measured straight down the hill, the tower subtends an angle of 25°. What
angle does the side of the hill make with the horizontal?

5. Points A and B are separated by an obstacle. In order to find the distance between
them, a third point C is selected which is 120 yards from A and 150 yards from B. The
angle BAC is measured to be 80° 10' l. Find the distance from A to B.

6. Two circles, whose radii are 12 inches and 16 inches respectively, intersect. The angle
between the tangents at either of the points of intersection is 20° 30'. Find the distance
between the centers of the circle.

MODULE 3: SOLID MENSURATION

UNIT 1: PLANE FIGURES

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcome:
1. Solve problems involving area of plane figures.

SOLID MENSURATION

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 The Great Pyramids near Cairo, Egypt is an example of a type of solids that we will discuss
in this module.

Figure 1http://world-placez.blogspot.com/2013/02/Great-Pyramid-Giza-Egypt.html

Other solid shapes are illustrated in architectural designs of buildings. Our world as three
dimensional is composed of solids and space figures which can be characterized by
contrasting measures of length, width, and depth.

Solid Mensuration (also known as Solid Geometry) is the study of three-dimensional shapes. It
is the study of the measure of volume, area, height, length, and other geometric parts. This
subject is widely used in the practice of engineering. The knowledge that is to be acquired
from this subject is necessary for any project construction such as road and bridge
construction, chemical and physical analyses, and in a large variety of commercial and
engineering projects.

In solving problems in Solid Mensuration, it is suggested that you draw an appropriate figure
showing all given dimensions. Next is to write the formulas that are necessary to be used in
solving for the unknown quantities. Identify the quantities and variables that can be
substituted in the formula.
Before we can proceed to the study of surface areas and volumes of solids, it is important
that we consider first Plane Geometry which is the study of geometric figures that can be
drawn on a plane, which is a two-dimensional surface.

Area of Plane Figures

A plane is an infinite two-dimensional figure. A closed or bounded portion of the plane is
called a region. When a region is measured, this is called the area of the plane region and
the unit used to measure area is called a square unit as it is a square with each side of length
one. The measure of the area of region is the number of non-overlapping square units that
can be placed adjacent to each other in the region.

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 The following is a list of formulas relating to plane figures.

Square
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒)2
𝐴 = 𝑎2
Rectangle
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑎
Right Triangle
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
1
𝐴 = 2 𝑏𝑎
Pythagorean Theorem
(𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒)2
= 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑙𝑒𝑔𝑠
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
Oblique Triangle
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
1
𝐴 = 2𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
Heron’s Formula:
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝐴 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) where 𝑠 =
2
Parallelogram
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
Cyclic Quadrilateral (Inscribed Quadrilateral)
Brahmagupta’s Formula:
𝐴 = √(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)(𝑠 − 𝑑) where
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑
𝑠=
2

Trapezoid
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 12 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
1
𝐴 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)ℎ2
Regular Polygon
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠;
𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒; 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 (𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚)(𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
1
𝐴 = 2 𝑎𝑃

Circle
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝜋(𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠) = 𝜋(𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑅 = 𝜋𝐷
𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋(𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)2 = (𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)2
4

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 𝜋 2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅2 = 𝐷
4

Sector of a Circle
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 × 𝑎𝑟𝑐
1 1
𝐴 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅2 𝜃 (𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠)
2 2
𝜃 2
𝐴 = 360 𝜋𝑅 (𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠)

Segment of Circle
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝐴 = 12𝑅𝑐 − 12𝑏𝑎

Ellipse
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏

Solved Problems
1. Given the figure below, find the area of ▱𝑀𝑁𝑃𝑄 by using base a) 𝑀𝑁, and b) 𝑃𝑁.

Solution:

a) Using 𝑀𝑁 as the base.

𝐴𝑀𝑁𝑃𝑄 = 𝑀𝑁ℎ1 = 8 ∙ 5 = 40 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠.

b) Using 𝑃𝑁 as the base.

𝐴𝑀𝑁𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃𝑁ℎ2 = 6 ∙ 623 = 40 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠.

2. Suppose you are asked to purchase a carpet that will cover the floor area below.
You are asked to determine the area of the floor to be covered.
Solution:

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 + 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝐴𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 52 + (4 ∙ 1)
= 25 + 4
𝐴𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 29 𝑦𝑑2

3. The exterior wall (the gabled end of the house shown) remains to be painted.
a) What is the area of the outside wall?
b) If each gallon of paint covers approximately 105 𝑓𝑡 2 , how many gallons of paint

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 must be purchased?
c) If each gallon of paint is on sale for ₱500, what is the total cost of the paint?

Solution:
a) 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐴 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝐴𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛
1
𝐴𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 = (24)(5) + 24(10) = 300 𝑓𝑡 2
2

b) If 1 gallon of paint covers approximately 105 𝑓𝑡 2 and the total area of the gabled
end to be painted is 300 𝑓𝑡 2 then
300 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 = ≈ 2.86 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠
105 𝑓𝑡 2 /𝑔𝑎𝑙

c) If each gallon costs ₱500, then

₱500
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 2.86 𝑔𝑎𝑙 × = ₱1,430
1 𝑔𝑎𝑙

4. A beach tent is designed so that one side is open. Find the number of square feet of
canvass needed to make the tent.

Solution:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓

In order to solve the area of the rectangular roof, the length of 𝑏 from the blue right
triangle must be solved first.

𝑏 = √62 + 22 = √40 = 2√10 𝑓𝑡.

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 1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 6(12) + 2(6 + 8)(6) + 12(2√10) = 114 + 24√10 = 189.89 𝑓𝑡 2

5. Find the exact area of the shaded region.

Solution: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

To solve the area of circle, one needs to have the radius 𝑟 of the circle.

Let 𝑟 be the hypotenuse of the right triangle formed.

8 2 6 2
𝑟 = √( ) + ( ) = √42 + 32 = 5 𝑓𝑡
2 2

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝐴𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜋(52 ) − 8(6) = 25𝜋 − 48 ≈ 30.54 𝑓𝑡 2

6. Find the area of the shaded region.

Solution:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 − 3𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Note that the triangle is equilateral. Using Heron’s
formula

10 + 10 + 10
𝑠= = 15
2

𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = √15(15 − 10)(15 − 10)(15 − 10 = 43.30 𝑐𝑚 2

1
The area of triangle can also be solve using 𝐴 = 2 𝑏ℎ where
ℎ = √102 − 52 = 8.66 𝑐𝑚
1
𝐴𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = (8.66)(10) ≈ 43.30 𝑐𝑚 2
2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 − 3𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
60
𝐴𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 43.30 − 3 (360 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 52 ) ≈ 4.03 𝑐𝑚 2

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 HOMEWORK 12:
1. Find the area of the largest circle which can be cut from a square of edge 5𝑖𝑛. What
is the area of the material wasted?

2. Solve for the area in two different ways.

3. Solve for the area of the shaded region.

4. Use the square configuration to complete the algebra rule: (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = _______________

5. In a two-pulley system, the centers of the pulleys are 20 𝑖𝑛 apart. If the radius of each
pulley measures 6 𝑖𝑛, how long is the belt used in the pulley system?

6. In the right triangle, find the length of the altitude drawn to the hypotenuse.

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 7. Three pipes, each of radius 4 𝑖𝑛, are stacked as shown. What is the height of the stack?

8. A windshield wiper rotates through a 120° angle as it cleans a windshield. From the
point of rotation, the wiper blade begins at a distance of 4 in and ends at a distance
of 18 𝑖𝑛. (The wiper blade is 14 𝑖𝑛. in length.) Find the area cleaned by the wiper blade.

UNIT 2: SOLIDS FOR WHICH VOLUME IS BASE X HEIGHT (𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉)

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcome:
3. Solve the volume of solids under 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉
4. Solve the lateral and total surface area of solids under 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉.

A solid is any limited portion of space, bounded by surfaces. A section of a solid is the plane
figure cut from the solid by passing a plane through it.

Plane M cuts from a solid the section ABCDE

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 A polyhedron is a solid bounded by planes. The edges of a polyhedron are intersections of
the bounding planes. The faces of the solid are polygons. The vertices are the intersections
of the edges.

CUBE
A cube is a polyhedron whose 6 faces are all squares. The three dimensions of a cube are
equal to each other. Since the six faces of a cube is a square of edge 𝑎, the area of one
face is 𝑎2 .

The total area (surface area) 𝑻 of a cube is equal to the sum of the areas of its faces.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 6 (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠)
𝑻 = 𝟔𝒂𝟐

The volume of a solid is the number of times it contains a given solid which is chosen arbitrarily
as the unit of volume. It is a number that measures the amount of enclosed space. The
volume of a cube is equal to the cube of its edges.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒)3
𝑽 = 𝒂𝟑

RECTANGULAR PARALLELIPIPED
A rectangular parallelepiped is a polyhedron whose six faces are all rectangles. The
parallel edges are equal and the opposite lateral faces are equal and parallel. Any two
opposite faces may be taken as the bases. It is also called rectangular cuboid or sometimes
simply a cuboid.

• The total area (surface area) 𝑻 and volume 𝑽 of a rectangular parallelepiped are

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

𝑻 = 𝟐(𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝒄 + 𝒄𝒂)

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

𝑽 = 𝒂𝒃𝒄
PRISMS

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 Suppose that two congruent polygons lie in parallel planes in such a way that their
corresponding sides are parallel. If the corresponding vertices of these polygons are joined
by line segments, then the solid that results is a prism. The congruent figures that lie in the
parallel planes are the bases of the prism.

In Figure (a), the congruent triangles ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∆𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′ are the bases,
̅̅̅̅, 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 , ̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ , ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴′𝐵′, ̅̅̅̅̅̅ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ are base edges, and, ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴′ 𝐶′ and ̅̅̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐴′, ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐵′, and ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐶′ are the lateral edges of
the prism. Because the lateral edges of this prism are perpendicular to its base edges, the
lateral faces are rectangles. Points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐴′ , 𝐵′ , and 𝐶′ are the vertices of the prism. In Figure
(b), the lateral edges of the prism are not perpendicular to its base edges; in this situation,
the lateral edges are often described as oblique (slanted). For the oblique prism, the lateral
faces are parallelograms. Both prisms have an altitude, also known as the height of the prism,
which is the perpendicular distance between the two planes that contain the two congruent
bases.
A prism is named according to its base. For example Figure (a) is a triangular prism,
specifically a right triangular prism and Figure (b) oblique square prism. The following are
other examples of prisms.

A regular prism is a prism whose bases are regular polygons, that is, the length of all the
sides of the bases are equal.

• The lateral area 𝑳 of a prism is the sum of the areas of all lateral faces. A right section
of a prism is a section perpendicular to the lateral edges.
➢ Let 𝒆 be the lateral edge and 𝑷𝒌 be the perimeter of the right section.

𝑳 = 𝒆𝑷𝑲
➢ Let 𝒉 be the height of the prism and 𝑷 be the perimeter of the base.
𝑳 = 𝒉𝑷

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 • The total area (surface area) 𝑻 of a prism is the sum of the lateral area of the prism
and the areas of the bases.
➢ Let 𝑳 be the lateral area of the prism and 𝑩 be the base area.
𝑻 = 𝑳 + 𝟐𝑩

• The volume V of a prism is the product of the area 𝑩 of the base and the height 𝒉 of
the prism.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒
𝑽 = 𝑲𝒆

Cylindrical Surface
A cylindrical surface is a surface generated by a moving straight line (generator)
which is always parallel to a fixed line, and will always intersects a fixed plane curve (directrix)
not in the plane with the fixed line. An element of a cylindrical surface is the generator in any
particular position. If the directrix of a cylindrical surface is a closed curve, the surface is
closed.

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Solutions-for-obtaining-a-cylindrical-surface

Cylinder
A cylinder is a solid bounded by a closed cylindrical surface and two parallel planes.
The bounding cylindrical surface of a cylinder is called the lateral surface, and the two
bounding parallel planes are called the bases. The bases of a cylinder are equal and the
perpendicular distance between the bases is the altitude of a cylinder. A right section of a
cylinder is a section perpendicular to all elements of the cylinder.

• The lateral area 𝑳 of a cylinder is equal to the product of the perimeter 𝑷 of a right
section and an element 𝒆.
𝑳 = 𝑷𝒆
• The volume V of a cylinder is either equal to the product of the area 𝑩 of a base and
the height 𝒉, or to the product of an element 𝒆 and area 𝑲 of a right section.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒
𝑽 = 𝑲𝒆

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 Circular Cylinder
A circular cylinder is a cylinder which has a circular right section.

The solid on the left is an oblique circular cylinder, and the solid on the right is a right
circular cylinder. The altitude ℎ is called the height of the cylinder.
Right Circular Cylinder
A right circular cylinder is a circular cylinder whose elements are perpendicular to its
base. The axis of a right circular cylinder is the line joining the centers of the base. A right
circular cylinder may be generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one side as an
axis, and is called a cylinder of revolution. Any element of a right circular cylinder is equal to
its altitude.

Solved Problems
1. Find the largest volume and total area of the largest cube of wood that can be cut
from a log of circular cross section whose radius is 12.7 in.

Solution:
Let 𝑎 denotes the side of the cube.

Consider the isosceles right triangle formed by the two radius.

𝑎 = √12.72 + 12.72 = 12.7√2 ≈ 17.96 𝑖𝑛

𝑇 = 6(17.962 ) = 1935.48 𝑖𝑛2
𝑉 = 17.963 = 5793.21 𝑖𝑛3

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 2. Two aquariums are connected by a small square prism. Find the volume of the
double aquarium.

Solution:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚𝑠 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = (4 ∙ 3)(3) = 36 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚 = 12 ∙ 2 = 2𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝐴𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 2(36) + 2 = 74 𝑓𝑡 3

3. Find the lateral area 𝐿 and the surface area 𝑇 of the regular hexagonal prism given
below.

Solution:
For the lateral area of the right hexagonal prism,
𝐿 = 10 × 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝐻𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛 = 10(6 ∙ 4) = 240 𝑖𝑛2 .

For the surface area of the right hexagonal prism, we need the area of the base. As
the base is a regular hexagon, then to find for the length of the apothem (a line
segment from the center of a regular polygon to the midpoint of a side) we consider
the equilateral triangle of the hexagon with corresponding parts shown below.

The area 𝐵 of the hexagonal base is

1
𝐵 = 6 [2 (2√3)(4)] = 24√3 𝑖𝑛2 ≈ 41.57 𝑖𝑛2 .

The surface area or the total area 𝑇 of the right hexagonal prism is
𝑇 = 𝐿 + 2𝐵 = (240 + 48√3) 𝑖𝑛2 ≈ 323.14 𝑖𝑛2

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 4. A storage shed is in the shape of a trapezoidal prism. Each trapezoid represents one
of its bases. With dimensions as shown, what is the storage capacity (volume) of its
interior?

1
Solution: 𝑉 = 𝐵ℎ = [ (6 + 8)(8)] (8) = 448 𝑓𝑡 3
2

5. A trough is formed by nailing together, edge to edge, two boards 11 ft in length, so

that the right section is a right triangle. If 15 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠 of water are poured into the
trough and if the trough is held level so that a right section of the water is an
isosceles right triangle, how deep is the water? (231 cu.in. = 1 gal.)

Solution:
Convert the given volume of water in gallons to its volume in cubic inches,
231𝑖𝑛3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 15𝑔𝑎𝑙 ( ) = 3465 𝑖𝑛3
1 𝑔𝑎𝑙

Using the isosceles right triangle base of the trough, let ℎ be the depth of the water.
The area 𝐵 of the base is
1
𝐵 = 2 (2ℎ )(ℎ ) = ℎ 2.

Since the volume

12 𝑖𝑛
𝑉 = 𝐵 (11𝑓𝑡 ∙ ) = 132ℎ 2 𝑖𝑛3 ,
1 𝑓𝑡
equating 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉, we obtain
3465 𝑖𝑛3 = 132 ℎ 2 𝑖𝑛3 .

3465 𝑖𝑛3
Then ℎ = √ = 5.12 𝑖𝑛
132 𝑖𝑛

6. Find the area of the shaded portion, which is the area of the triangle ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, if the
right prism’s base is a regular polygon with 𝐵𝐶 = 4𝑓𝑡. and 𝐴𝐷 = 8𝑓𝑡.
Solution:

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 As the base is a regular pentagon, then 𝐷𝐹 = 𝐹𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶 = 4 𝑓𝑡.
Then for ∆𝐶𝐹𝐷
𝐷𝐶 2 = 𝐶𝐹 2 + 𝐷𝐹 2 − 2(𝐶𝐹 )(𝐷𝐹 )𝑐𝑜𝑠1080 = 42 + 42 − 2(4)(4)𝑐𝑜𝑠1080 = 41.89
𝐷𝐶 = 6.47 𝑓𝑡
Using the right triangle ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷

𝐴𝐶 = √𝐴𝐷2 + 𝐷𝐶 2 = 10.29 𝑓𝑡
Now, consider triangle ∆𝐴𝐵𝐸, and since 𝐴𝐸 = 𝐷𝐶, 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐸𝐵,
𝐴𝐵 = √𝐴𝐸 2 + 𝐸𝐵2 = √6.472 + 82 = 10.29 𝑓𝑡 = 𝐴𝐶.
(Note that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 must be true without even solving.)

10.29+10.29+4
Finally, by Heron’s Formula, with 𝑠 = 2
= 12.29 𝑓𝑡
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 = √12.29(12.29 − 4)(12.29 − 10.29)(12.29 − 10.29)
≈ 20.19 𝑓𝑡 2

7. A smokestack of a ship is 25 ft long with a rake aft (angle of the stack’s inclination from
the vertical) so that its top rises 24 ft above the deck. The cross section of the flue is a
1
circle with diameter of 3 2 𝑓𝑡. Completely encircling the flue is a protective stack. The
distance between the two stacks is 6 in. Find the space enclosed between the two
stacks and also the outside painting surface of the protective stack. Neglect the
thickness of the metal.

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 Solution:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠
= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 )(25 𝑓𝑡)

𝜋
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = [(3.5 + 2(0.5))2 − 3.52 ](25) 𝑓𝑡 3 = 157.08 𝑓𝑡 3
4

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝐿 = 𝑃𝑒

= 𝜋(4.5𝑓𝑡)(25𝑓𝑡) = 353.43𝑓𝑡 2

HOMEWORK 13:
1. For the box shown below, determine the value of 𝑥 if the total area is 94 𝑐𝑚 3.

2. A storage shed is in the shape of a pentagonal prism. The front represents one of its
two pentagonal bases. What is the storage capacity (volume) of its interior?

3. A solid concrete porch consists of 3 steps and a landing. The steps have a tread of
11 𝑖𝑛, a rise of 7 𝑖𝑛, and a length of 7 𝑓𝑡; the landing is 6 𝑓𝑡 by 7 𝑓𝑡. How much material
was used in its construction?

4. The figure represents a rectangular parallelepiped; 𝐴𝐷 = 20 𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝐵 = 10 𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝐸 = 15 𝑖𝑛.

(a) Find the number of degrees in the angles ∠𝐴𝐹𝐵, ∠𝐵𝐹𝑂, ∠𝐴𝐹𝑂, ∠𝐵𝑂𝐹, 𝐴𝑂𝐹, and ∠𝑂𝐹𝐶.

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 (b) Find the area of each of the triangles ∆𝐴𝐵𝑂, ∆𝐵𝑂𝐹, and ∆𝐴𝑂𝐹.
(c) Find the perpendicular distance from 𝐵 to the plane 𝐴𝑂𝐹.

5. Find the volume of water in a swimming pool with vertical ends and sides. The length
measured at the water line is 50 𝑓𝑡 and the breadth is 20 𝑓𝑡. The bottom of the
swimming pool is a plane sloping gradually downward so that the depth of the water
at one end is 4𝑓𝑡 and at the other end is 8 𝑓𝑡.

6. The dimensions of a rectangular solid are in the ratio 1: 3: 12 and its volume is 562.5 𝑐𝑚 2.
Find the volume of a cube whose surface area is equal to the surface area of the
rectangular solid.

𝟏 𝟏
UNIT 3: SOLIDS FOR WHICH VOLUME IS 𝟑 x BASE X HEIGHT (𝑽 = 𝟑 𝑩𝒉)

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcome:
𝟏
1. Solve the volume of solids under 𝑽 = 𝟑
𝟏
2. Solve the lateral and total surface area of solids under 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉.
𝟑

𝟏
Solids for which 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒉
𝟑
1
This section is for solids whose volumes are found by means of the formula 𝑉 = 3 𝐵ℎ.

Pyramid
A pyramid is a polyhedron of which one face, called the base, is a polygon of any
number of sides and the other faces are triangles which have a common vertex. The
triangular faces are called the lateral faces. The altitude of a pyramid is the length of the
perpendicular dropped from the vertex to the plane of the base.

• The lateral area 𝑳 of a pyramid is equal to the sum of the areas of the lateral faces
(triangular faces) of the pyramid.
𝑳 = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔

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 • The volume V of a pyramid is equal to one-third the product of the area 𝑩 of the base
and the altitude 𝒉.
1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 )
3
𝟏
𝑽 = 𝟑 𝑩𝒉
Regular Pyramid
A regular pyramid is a pyramid whose base is a regular polygon whose center
coincides with the foot of the perpendicular dropped from the vertex to the base.

The lateral edges of a regular pyramid are equal. The lateral faces are congruent isosceles
triangles. The slant height of a regular pyramid is the altitude of a lateral face.

• The lateral area 𝑳 of a regular pyramid is equal to one-half the product of the
perimeter 𝑷 of the base and the slant height 𝓵.
1
𝐿 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2
𝟏
𝑳 = 𝑷𝓵
𝟐
• The volume V of a regular pyramid is equal to one-third the product of the area 𝑩 of
the base and the altitude 𝒉.
1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 )
3
𝟏
𝑽 = 𝟑 𝑩𝒉

Solved Problems
1. A pyramidal book end made of composition material has a base in the shape of an
irregular polygon whose measurement are shown in the sketch. The faces are triangles
whose vertices are coincident. The common vertex is in the plane of the face against
which the books rest. This latter face is at right angles to the base and has an altitude
1
of 7 𝑖𝑛 and a base of 4 2 𝑖𝑛. Find the amount of material in 1000 pairs of such book ends.

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 Solution:

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 2𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 + 2𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑

1
𝐵 = 2 [ (1.125)(1.6875)] 𝑖𝑛2
2
1
+ 2 [ (2.25 + 1.6875)(1.125)] 𝑖𝑛2
2
𝐵 ≈ 6.3281 𝑖𝑛2

1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
3
1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (6.3281)(7) ≈ 14.77 𝑖𝑛3
3

For 1000 pairs of book ends

𝑉𝑇 = (14.77 𝑖𝑛3 )(2000) = 29,531.25 𝑖𝑛3

2. A pyramid 𝑉 − 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is cut from a cube of edge 12 𝑖𝑛 as shown in the figure below.
The vertex 𝑉 is the midpoint of an upper edge of the cube. Compute the lateral
surface of the pyramid.
Solution:
𝐿 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎∆𝐴𝐵𝑉 + 2𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎∆𝐵𝐶𝑉 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎∆𝐶𝐷𝑉
1 1 1
𝐿 = (𝐴𝐵)(12) + 2 [ (𝐵𝐶 )(𝑉𝐵)] + (𝐶𝐷)(𝑉𝑀)
2 2 2
where 𝑀 is the midpoint of edge 𝐷𝐶.

𝑉𝐵 = √122 + 62 = 13.4164 𝑖𝑛.

𝑉𝑀 = √122 + 122 = 16.9706

1 1 1
𝐿 = (12)(12) + 2 [ (12)(13.4164)] + (12)(16.9706)
2 2 2
𝐿 ≈ 334.82 𝑖𝑛2

3. Find the volume of the regular square pyramid.

Solution:

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 1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐵ℎ
3
To solve for the volume, we find first the height ℎ using the blue triangle. The base of
the blue triangle can be solved from the square base below.

2
ℎ = √62 − (2√2) = √28 = 2√7 𝑓𝑡

Now we have
1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (42 )(2√7) = 28.22 𝑓𝑡 3
3

Practice Exercise
1. If a plane is passed through the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 of the cube shown in the figure
below, show that the volume of the pyramid cut off is one-sixth that of the cube.

2. The roof of a water tower is composed of 6 equal isosceles triangles whose vertices
meet in the center of the roof. If the inclined edges measure 17 𝑓𝑡 and the height of
the roof is 8 𝑓𝑡, find the number of square feet of tar paper necessary to cover the
roof.
3. A popcorn container at a movie theatre has a shape of a frustum of a pyramid. With
dimensions as indicated in the figure below, find the volume or capacity of the
container.

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 4. In the given square figure below, the sides 𝐴𝐷 and 𝐴𝐵 have points 𝐸 and 𝐹 as their
midpoints, respectively. The square is then folded such that the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐷
joined together become a new vertex of the pyramid with triangular base ∆𝐸𝐹𝐶. If the
square has a side length of 6 𝑐𝑚, what is the volume of the pyramid?

Conical Surface
A conical surface is a surface generated by a moving straight line (generator) which
always intersects a fixed plane curve (directrix) and which always passes through a fixed
point (vertex) not in the plane of the curve.

Cone
A cone is the solid bounded by a conical surface (lateral surface) whose directrix is
a closed curve, and a plane (base) which cuts all the elements.

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 The altitude of a cone is the perpendicular distance from the vertex to the plane of the base.
Every section of a cone made by a plane passing through its vertex and containing two
points of the base is a triangle. The axis of a cone is the straight line joining the vertex with the
center of the base. A circular cone is a cone whose right section is a circle.

• The volume V of a cone is equal to one-third the product of the area 𝑩 of the base
and the altitude 𝒉.
1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 )
3
𝟏
𝑽 = 𝟑 𝑩𝒉

• The lateral area 𝑳 of a right circular cone is one-half the product of slant height 𝓵 and
circumference 𝑪 of the base
𝟏
𝑳 = 𝓵𝑪
𝟐
𝟏
𝑳 = 𝓵(𝟐𝝅𝒓) = 𝝅𝒓𝓵
𝟐
where 𝒓 is the length of the radius of the base.

Solved Problems
1. A solid is formed by cutting a conical section away from a right circular cylinder. If the
radius measures 6 𝑖𝑛. and the altitude measures 8 𝑖𝑛., what is the volume of the
resulting solid?

Solution:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 − 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑒
1
= (62 𝜋)(8) − (62 𝜋)(8)
3
1
= (1 − ) (62 𝜋)(8)
3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ≈ 603.19 𝑖𝑛3

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 2. The vertex of the cone shown in the figure is at the midpoint of an upper edge of the
cube; the base of the cone is a circle inscribed in the lower base of the cube. If the
edge of the cube is 12 𝑖𝑛., find the volume of the cone.

Solution:
1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
3
1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (62 𝜋)(12) ≈ 452. 39 𝑖𝑛3
3

3. How many square yards of canvas will be required to make a conical tent 15 𝑓𝑡 high
and 18 𝑓𝑡 in diameter, if 10 per cent of the material is wasted?

Solution:
1
𝐿 = 𝐶ℓ = 𝜋𝑟ℓ
2

ℓ = √ℎ 2 + 𝑟 2 = √152 + 92 = 3√34𝑓𝑡.
1
𝐿 = (2𝜋𝑟ℓ) = 𝜋(9)( 3√34)𝑓𝑡 2 ≈ 494.60 𝑓𝑡 2
2

Allowing for 10% waste, then

1 𝑦𝑑 2
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 1.10 (494.60 𝑓𝑡 2 ) = 544.06 𝑓𝑡 2 ∙ = 60.45 𝑦𝑑 2
9𝑓𝑡 2

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 4. When radii 𝑂𝐴
̅̅̅̅ and 𝑂𝐵
̅̅̅̅ are placed so that they coincide, a 2400 sector of a circle is
sealed to form a right circular cone. If the radius of the circle is 6.4 𝑐𝑚, what is the
approximate lateral area of the cone that is formed?

Solution:

Let 𝑐 be the length of 𝑎𝑟𝑐(𝐴𝐵), then

𝜋
𝑐 = (2400
) (6.4) 𝑐𝑚
1800
And 𝑐 = 𝐶 where 𝐶 is the circumference of circular base of the cone.
1
As the lateral area is 𝐿 = 𝐶ℓ,
2
1 𝜋
𝐿 = (2400 ) (6.4)(6.4) = 85.79 𝑐𝑚 2
2 1800

UNIT 4: THE SPHERE

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcome:
3. Solve for volume of the sphere.
4. Solve for the surface area of the sphere.

Sphere
A sphere is a solid bounded by a closed surface every point of which is equidistant
from a fixed point called the center. A sphere is the surface determined when a circle (or
semicircle) is rotated about any of its diameter. Every plane section of a sphere is a circle. If
the plane contains a diameter of the sphere, the section is a great circle; otherwise, the
section is a small circle. The axis of a circle of a sphere is the diameter of the sphere
perpendicular to the plane of the circle. The poles of a circle of a sphere are the ends of its
axis.

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 • The surface area 𝑺 of a sphere is equal to the area of the four of its great circles
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 4 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑺 = 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐

• The volume V of a sphere is equal to four-thirds the product of 𝜋 and the cube of its
radius 𝑹.
4
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 3 )
3
𝟒
𝑽 = 𝟑 𝝅𝑹𝟑

Solved Problems
1. A right circular cone is inscribed in a sphere. If the slant height of the cone has a
length equal to that of its diameter, find the length of the
a) Radius of the base of the cone.
b) Altitude of the cone.

Solution:
a) Let 𝑟 be the radius of the base of the cone. As the slant height has a length equal to
the diameter of the base of the cone then ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an equilateral triangle.

Now, for the smaller right triangle,

it follows that the radius of the base of the cone is 𝑟 = 6 cos 300 = 3√3 𝑖𝑛.

b) For the altitude ℎ of the cone, it follows that ℎ = 6 + 𝑥 where 𝑥 is the side of the
smaller right triangle.

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 𝑥 = 6 sin 30𝑜 = 3 𝑖𝑛.
Finally, the altitude of the cone is ℎ = 6 + 3 = 9 𝑖𝑛.

2. Find the percentage increase in its diameter when the surface area increases by
21%.
Solution:
Let 𝑟 be the radius of the original sphere so that its surface area is 𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 .
Suppose that the surface area increases by 21%.
(1.21)4𝜋𝑟 2 = 4𝜋(1.1𝑟)2
This means that the new diameter is 𝑑 = 2(1.1𝑟) = 2.2𝑟, and there has been an
increase of 20%.

HOMEWORK 14:
1. A sphere is inscribed in a right circular cone whose slant height has a length equal to
the diameter of its base. What is the volume of the sphere if the slant height and the
diameter of the cone both measure 12 𝑐𝑚?

2. An observatory has the shape of a right circular cylinder surmounted by a hemisphere.

If the radius of the cylinder is 14 𝑓𝑡 and its altitude measures 30 𝑓𝑡, what is the surface
area of the observatory? If 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙 of paint covers 300 𝑓𝑡 2 , how many gallons are
needed to paint the surface if it requires two coats?

3. A leather soccer ball has an inside diameter of 8.5 𝑖𝑛 and a thickness of 0.1 𝑖𝑛. Find
the volume of leather needed for its construction.
4. An igloo or Eskimo hut is built in the form of a hemispherical shell with an inside
diameter of 12 𝑓𝑡. If the igloo is constructed of snow blocks having a uniform thickness
of 2 𝑓𝑡 and weighing 40 𝑙𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡, find the weight of the igloo, neglecting the
entrance. Also, if fresh air contains 0.04 per cent carbon dioxide, find the amount of
this gas in the igloo when freshly ventilated.

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 Similar Figures

Similar polyhedrons are polyhedrons that have the same number of faces,
respectively similar and similarly placed, and have their corresponding polyhedral angles
equal. Corresponding lines of similar figures are proportional.

Similar figures have the same shape (but not necessarily of the same size).

• The areas of similar plane figures or similar surfaces (𝑙, 𝐿) have the same ratio as the
squares of the corresponding lines. (𝑥, 𝑋).
𝒍 𝒙𝟐
=
𝑳 𝑿𝟐
• The volumes of similar solids (𝑣, 𝑉) have the same ratio as the cubes of the
corresponding lines. (𝑥, 𝑋).
𝒗 𝒙𝟑
=
𝑽 𝑿𝟑
• In similar figures of any kind, pairs of corresponding line segments such as 𝑥, 𝑋, and 𝑦, 𝑌
have the same ratio.
𝒙 𝒚
=
𝑿 𝒀

Solved Problem
1. A cube of ice is 6 𝑓𝑡 by 6 𝑓𝑡 by 6 𝑓𝑡. The ice melts until it becomes a cube which is
one-third as heavy as the original. Find the dimension of the new cube.
Solution:
Using the relationship,
𝑣 𝑥3
=
𝑉 𝑋3
where 𝑣 denotes the volume of the melted ice, 𝑥 denotes the dimension of the new
cube and 𝑉 denotes the volume of the original cube of ice, it follows that
𝑣 1 𝑥3
= =
𝑉 3 63

3 63
Then 𝑥 = √
3
𝑓𝑡 = 2 √9 𝑓𝑡.
3

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 2. Find the volume of the shaded region.

Solution:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝐵𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑑 − 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑑
Since the ratio of the height of the smaller pyramid to the original (larger pyramid) is
1:2, the base 𝑏 of the larger pyramid can be obtain from
10 1
=
𝑏 2
which gives 𝑏 = 20 𝑐𝑚 and

1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 = [(202 )(30) − (102 )(15)] = 3500 𝑐𝑚 3
3

MODULE 4: ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

UNIT 1: STRAIGHT LINES

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcomes:
3. Determine the equation of a straight line using the point-slope form, the slope-
intercept form, intercept form, and the normal form.
4. Determine the equations of parallel and perpendicular lines.

The Straight Line

A polynomial whose highest power is one represents a straight line. In this section, we will limit
our discussion for the straight lines in the standard form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶.

Recall: Two points determine a line. This statement simply tells us that we just need two points
on the Cartesian plane to be able to draw the line.

A. Point-Slope Form: 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 )

If we are given a point on the line, say 𝑃𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) and the slope of the line m, we can
determine the equation of the line.

1
Example 1: Given the slope of the line is 𝑚 = and the line passes through the point
2
𝑃1 (2, −3). Determine the equation of the line.

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 Using the point-slope form of the line: 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 ), we substitute the slope and
the given point.
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 )
1
𝑦 − (−3) = 2 (𝑥 − 2)
2(𝑦 + 3) = (𝑥 − 2)
2𝑦 + 6 = 𝑥 − 2
𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 8

Example 2: Given the slope of the line is 𝑚 = −5 and the line passes through the point
3
𝑃1 (4 , 0). Determine the equation of the line.

Using the point-slope form of the line: 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 ), we substitute the slope and
the given point.
𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 )
3
𝑦 − 0 = −5(𝑥 − 4)
15
𝑦 = −5𝑥 + 4
15
5𝑥 + 𝑦 =
4
20𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 15

B. Slope Intercept Form: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏

If we are given the slope (m) of the line and the y-intercept b (the point where the
line crosses the y-axis) then the equation of the line can be represented as 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.

Example 1: Find the equation of the line that crosses the y-axis at (0,6) and has a slope
1
of .
3
Using the slope intercept form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, we obtain
1
𝑦= 𝑥+6
3
1
thus, 𝑚 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 6 .

Example 2: Given the equation of the line 𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 7 =0, reduce the equation in the
slope intercept form.
Since the slope intercept form of the line is 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 then it means we need to isolate
y on one side of the equation and make its coefficient equal to 1.
𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 7 =0
5𝑦 = 𝑥 − 7
1 7
𝑦= 𝑥−
5 5
1 7
thus, 𝑚 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = − 5 .

𝑥 𝑦
C. Intercept Form: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1

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 If we are given the x-intercept a (the point where the line crosses the x-axis) and the
y-intercept b (the point where the line crosses the y-axis) then the equation of the line
𝑥 𝑦
can be represented as 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1.

Example 1: Find the equation of the line whose x-intercept is -2 and whose y-intercept
4
is 7.
𝑥 𝑦
Using the intercept form of the line 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1, we just substitute the value of a and b.
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
−2 4
7
𝑥 7𝑦
+ =1
−2 4
2𝑥 − 7𝑦
=1
−4
2𝑥 − 7𝑦 = −4.

Example 2: Given the equation of the line 𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 7 =0, reduce the equation in the
intercept form.
𝑥 𝑦
Since the intercept form of the line is 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1 then it means we need to isolate the
constant on one side of the equation and make it equal to 1.
𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 7 =0
𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 7
𝑥 5𝑦
− =1
7 7

𝑥 𝑦
− =1
7 7
5
7
Thus, 𝑎 = 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = − 5

D. Parallel Lines and Perpendicular Lines

Lines are said to be parallel when they are coplanar and they will not cross each other
even when extended indefinitely to both directions. On the other hand,
perpendicular lines are lines that create a 90-degree angle in their point of
intersection.

It must also be noted that parallel lines have EQUAL slopes while for perpendicular
lines, the slope of one line is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the other line.

Example 1: Reduce each equation to the slope intercept form of the line and interpret
the result.
line 1: 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5
line 2: 4𝑥 = 6𝑦 − 1

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 Reducing line 1: 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5 to its slope intercept form
3𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 5
2 5 2 5
𝑦 = 𝑥 − , thus slope of line 1 is and 𝑏 = − .
3 3 3 3
Reducing line 2: 4𝑥 = 6𝑦 − 1 to its slope intercept form
6𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 1
2 1 2 1
𝑦 = 3 𝑥 + 6 , thus slope of line 2 is 3 and 𝑏 = 6.
Since the slopes of the two lines are equal then the two lines must be parallel with
each other.

Example 2: Reduce each equation to the slope intercept form of the line and interpret
the result.
line 1: 𝑥 − 7𝑦 = 3
line 2: 7𝑥 = −𝑦 − 2

Reducing line 1: 𝑥 − 7𝑦 = 3 to its slope intercept form

7𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3
1 3 1 3
𝑦 = 7 𝑥 − 7 , thus slope of line 1 is 7 and 𝑏 = − 7.
Reducing line 2: 7𝑥 = −𝑦 − 2 to its slope intercept form
𝑦 = −7𝑥 − 2, thus slope of line 2 is -7 and 𝑏 = −2.

Since the slope of line 1 is the negative reciprocal of the slope of line 2 then the two
lines must be perpendicular with each other.

E. Normal Form of the Straight Line

When we talk about the normal form of the straight line, we desire to write the
equation of the line in such a way that we determine the perpendicular distance of
the line from the origin and we denote that distance as p. In our discussion, p may
have a positive or negative value. The sign of p only indicates the location of the line
based from the origin. If the sign of p is positive, then the line must be located above
the origin. On the other hand, if it is negative then the line must be located below the
origin.

To reduce the equation of the line 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶 to its normal form, we simply multiply
1
both sides of the equation by ± 2 2 . This will result to the equation
√𝐴 +𝐵
𝐴𝑥 𝐵 𝐶 1
+ = For the multiplier ± , we follow the sign of 𝐵 from 𝐴𝑥 +
±√𝐴2 +𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 +𝐵2 ±√𝐴2 +𝐵2 . √𝐴2 +𝐵2
𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶.

𝐶
The constant is the value of p or the perpendicular distance of the line from
±√𝐴2 +𝐵2
the origin.

Example 1: Determine the distance of the line 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5.

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 From the equation, we have 𝐴 = 2, 𝐵 = −3, 𝐶 = 5
1 1 1
Thus, our multiplier must be ± √𝐴2 =− =− since 𝐵 is negative.
+𝐵2 √22+(−3)2 √13

1
(2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5)( − )
√13
2𝑥 −3𝑦 5
+ =
−√13 −√13 −√13
2𝑥 3𝑦 5
+ =
−√13 √13 −√13

5 5
Therefore p = −√13. This means that the line is at a perpendicular distance of below
√13
the origin. See illustration below:

Example 2: Find the equation of the line parallel to 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 1 such that it is:
a. Having a distance of 4 from the origin.
b. Having a distance of 5 from the given line.

First let us reduce the equation of the given to its normal form.

From 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 1, 𝐴 = 3, 𝐵 = 4, 𝐶 = 1

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 1 1 1
Thus our multiplier must be ± 2 2 = 2 2 = since 𝐵 is positive.
√𝐴 +𝐵 √3 +4 5
1
(3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 1)( )
5
3𝑥 4𝑦 1
+ =
5 5 5

1 1
Therefore p = 5. This means that the line is at a perpendicular distance of 5 above the
origin.

NOTE: If lines are parallel, aside from the fact that their slopes are equal, their
terms involving the variable x & y have exactly the same coefficients respectively. This
is true for their standard forms or from their normal forms.

If lines are perpendicular, the terms involving x and y will have their coefficients
interchanged and with the sign of y in one equation will be the opposite sign of y from
the other equation.

a. Since we are considering a line parallel to the given line whose distance
from the origin is 4, this means that we can use the normal of the given line
as the basis for the normal form of the required line.
The normal form of the required line will be
3𝑥 4𝑦
5
+ 5
= ±4 because the line may be located above or below the origin
and having distance 4 from the origin.

Thus the required line will have its standard form as:
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = ±20. See illustration below.

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 b. The required line is still parallel to the given line thus the normal form of the
required line will be
3𝑥 4𝑦 1
+ = ± 5.
5 5 5
1
Why is the constant in the right side equal to 5 ± 5?
1
Remember that 5 is the distance of the given line from the origin. Thus, if we
now take the required line to be 5 units farther from the given line, we add
5 and if we take the required line 5 units below the given line then we
subtract 5.

Simplifying the normal form of the required line to its standard form, we get
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 1 ± 25. This was obtained by simply clearing off the fractions of the
normal form. See illustration below.

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 UNIT 2: THE CONIC SECTION

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcomes:
7. Identify a conic from a given equation.
8. Reduce the general form of a conic to a standard form.
9. List down the essential parts of a circle and graph the circle.
10. List down the essential parts of a parabola and graph the parabola.
11. List down the essential parts of an ellipse and graph the ellipse.
12. List down the essential parts of a hyperbola and graph the hyperbola.

THE CONIC SECTION

In mathematics, a conic section (or simply conic) is a curve obtained as the

intersection of the surface of a cone with a plane. The three types of conic section are
the parabola, ellipse, and the hyperbola. The circle is a special case of the ellipse, though
historically it was sometimes called a fourth type. In our discussion, we shall include the
circle in the CONIC SECTION. The diagram below shows how the four types were
obtained from a cone.

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 The equation of each Conic shall be obtained from the equation:

𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

A. THE CIRCLE
The circle is defined as the path (or Locus) of a moving point that has a CONSTANT
distance called the RADIUS from a fixed point called the CENTER.
The circle has the equation 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 where
𝐴 = 𝐶 & 𝐵 = 0 or we can write it as 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
In words, the equation of a circle has two squared terms with equal coefficients and
the term xy is missing.

Examples:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −4
5𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 1 = −5𝑦 2

NOTE: 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 is called the GENERAL Form of the Circle and

(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 is called the STANDARD Form of the Circle.
In the Standard Form, (h, k) will be the coordinates of the CENTER while r is the length
of the Radius. Clearly, if we have the Standard Form of the circle, it will be very easy
to draw the circle on the Cartesian plane.

Our goal now is to rewrite or reduce the equation of the circle from its Standard form
to its General form. The following steps will help us achieve our goal:

Step 1: Isolate the constant on one side of the equation.

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 Step 2: Make the coefficient of 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 be equal to 1 by dividing both sides of the
equation by the coefficient of 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 .
Step 3: By the process of completing the squares, make the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 & 𝑦 2 , 𝑦
be perfect square trinomials. This is done by ADDING the square of the half of the
coefficient of 𝑥 &, 𝑦 respectively to the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 & 𝑦 2 , 𝑦. To retain equality,
make sure you also add whatever value added on one side of the equation to the
other side of the equation.
Step 4: Factor the perfect square trinomials obtained in step 3 and simplify also the
constants on the other side of the equation.
Step 5: Identify the location of the center and the length of the radius

Example 1: Graph the circle with the equation:

𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 4 = 0

Step 1: 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥+𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 = −4
Step 2: we can skip this since the coefficient of 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 are both equal to 1.
Step 3: 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥+42 +𝑦 2 + 4𝑦+22 = −4+42 +22
Step 4: (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 16
Or (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 42
Step 5: C(4, -2) and radius r=4.

Example 2: Graph the circle with the equation:

2𝑥 2 +2𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 36 = 0

Step 1: 2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥+2𝑦 2 + 12𝑦 = 36

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 Step 2: 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥+𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 = 18
Step 3: 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥+32 +𝑦 2 + 6𝑦+32 = 18+32 +32
Step 4: (𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 36
Or (𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 62
Step 5: C(-3, -3) and radius r=6.

EXERCISES:

Graph the following circles.

1. 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 10 = 0
(ANS. C(-4, 1), 𝑟 = 3√3 )
2. 3𝑥 2 +3𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 15𝑦 − 1 = 0
(ANS. C(-1, -5/2), 𝑟 2 = 91/12 )

B. THE PARABOLA
The parabola is defined by the path (or Locus) of a moving point that is EQUIDISTANT
from a FIXED POINT called the FOCUS and from a FIXED LINE called the DIRECTRIX. The
ratio of the distance of any point on the parabola from the focus and from the directrix
is called the ECCENTRICITY. For the parabola, the eccentricity is always equal to 1.

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 The parabola has the equation 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 where
𝐴 = 𝑘 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝐶 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 𝑘 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 = 0, 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝐵 =
0. Thus, we can write it as 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 or
𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
In words, the equation of a parabola has ONE squared term and the term xy is missing.

Examples:
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 3
5𝑦 2 + 7𝑥 + 1 = 0

NOTE:
GENERAL Forms of the Parabola:
a. 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
b. 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

STANDARD Forms of the Parabola:

a. (𝑥 − ℎ)2 = 4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘) with vertex at (h, k) and opening to the RIGHT

b. (𝑥 − ℎ)2 = −4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘) with vertex at (h, k) and opening to the LEFT
c. (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) with vertex at (h, k) and opening UPWARD
d. (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = −4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) with vertex at (h, k) and opening DOWNWARD

The following parts are needed in graphing a parabola:

1. The vertex (V) which can be obtained from the standard form.

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 2. The Focus (F) which has a distance a from the vertex. The line joining the vertex
and focus (called the AXIS OF SYMMETRY) is perpendicular to the Directrix. The
Directrix is always located opposite the opening of the parabola.
3. The Latus Rectum is a line segment of length 4a. It is a line segment perpendicular
to the axis of symmetry and passing thru the Focus.
4. The Directrix has a distance a from the vertex.

In the Standard Form, (h, k) will be the coordinates of the VERTEX while 4a is the length
of the Latus Rectus.
If the standard form involves 𝑥 2 then the parabola opens to the right (if 4a is preceded
by +1) or left (if 4a is preceded by -1).
If the standard form involves 𝑦 2 then the parabola opens upward (if 4a is preceded
by +1) or downward (if 4a is preceded by -1).

Our goal now is to rewrite or reduce the equation of the parabola from its Standard
form to its General form. The following steps will help us achieve our goal:

Step 1: Isolate the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 , 𝑦 on one side of the equation.

Step 2: Make the coefficient of 𝑥 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 be equal to 1 by dividing both sides of the
equation by the coefficient of 𝑥 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 .
Step 3: By the process of completing the squares, make the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟
𝑦 2 , 𝑦 be perfect square trinomials. This is done by ADDING the square of the half of the
coefficient of 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 to the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 , 𝑦. To retain equality, make sure
you also add whatever value added on one side of the equation to the other side of
the equation.
Step 4: Factor the perfect square trinomial obtained in step 3 and simplify the other
side of the equation such that the variable will have a coefficient equal to 1.
Step 5: Identify the direction of the opening of the parabola, the location of the
Vertex, Focus, ends of Latus Rectum, and equation of the Directrix.

Example 1: Graph the parabola with the equation:

𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 25 = 0

Step 1:𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 25
Step 2: Skip this since coefficient of 𝑥 2 is already equal to 1
Step 3: 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 42 = 3𝑦 − 25 + 42
Step 4: (𝑥 + 4)2 = 3𝑦 − 9
Or (𝑥 + 4)2 = 3(𝑦 − 3)
Step 5: Parabola is opening upward with V(-4, 3) and latus rectum 4a=3.

Therefore,
15
F(h, k+a) = F(-4, )=F(-4,3.75)
4

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 29 15
Ends of latus rectum Q(h+2a, k+a)= Q(− 8 , 4
)=Q(-3.625,3.75)
𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟓
Q’(h-2a, k+a)= Q’(− 𝟖
, 𝟒
)=Q’(-4.375,3.75)
Equation of Directrix (DD’): y = k-a,
𝟑
y = 3-𝟒
9
y = = 2.25
4

Example 2: Graph the parabola with the equation:

2𝑦 2 − 20𝑦 = 8𝑥 − 74

Step 1:2𝑦 2 − 20𝑦 = 8𝑥 − 74

Step 2: 𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 37
Step 3: 𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 + 52 = 4𝑥 − 37 + 52
Step 4: (𝑦 − 5)2 = 4𝑥 − 12
Or (𝑦 − 5)2 = 4(𝑥 − 3)
Step 5: Parabola is opening to the right with V(3, 5) and latus rectum 4a=4.

Therefore,
F(h+a, k) = F(4,5)
Ends of latus rectum Q(h+a, k+2a)= Q(4,7), Q’(h+a, k-2a)= Q’(4,3)
Equation of Directrix (DD’): x = h-a,
x = 3-1

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 x=2

C. THE ELLIPSE
The ELLIPSE is defined by the path (or Locus) of a moving point whose eccentricity is a
constant value less than 1.

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 The ellipse has the equation 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 where
𝐴 ≠ 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝐼𝐾𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 0. Thus, we can write it as 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 +
𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0.

In words, the equation of an ellipse has TWO squared with like signs whose coefficients
are not equal and the term xy is missing.

Examples:
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 2 + 7𝑦 = 3
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 = 0

NOTE:
GENERAL Form of the Ellipse: 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

STANDARD Forms of the Ellipse:

𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑎. 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2 = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 𝑏 with center at (0, 0) and MAJOR axis on the x-axis.

𝑦2 𝑥2
𝑏. 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2 = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 𝑏 with center at (0, 0) and MAJOR axis on the y-axis.

(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
c. 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2
= 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 𝑏
with center at (h, k) and MAJOR axis parallel to the x-axis.
(𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2
d. 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2
= 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 𝑏
with center at (h, k) and MAJOR axis parallel to the y-axis.

The following parts are needed in graphing an ellipse:

1. The center (C) which can be obtained from the standard form.
2. The Vertices A1, A2, B1, B2 where CA1= CA2 =a and CB1= CB2 =b. A1 A2 is the MAJOR
2𝑏 2
axis while B1B2 is the MINOR axis. The Latus Rectum is a line segment of length 𝑎
. It
is a line segment perpendicular to the major axis and passing thru the Focus.
3. The FOCI (plural for focus) F1, F2 where CF1= CF2 =ae and ae=√𝑎2 − 𝑏2 .
4. The ends of the Latera Recta (plural for Latus Rectum) Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 where
𝑏2
FQ1= FQ2 =FQ3= FQ4= 𝑎 .
5. The DIRECTRICES (plural for directrix) DD’ ,D1 D1’. The distance from center to a
𝑎
directrix is 𝑒 .

Our goal now is to rewrite or reduce the equation of the ellipse from its Standard form
to its General form. The following steps will help us achieve our goal:

Step 1: Isolate the constant on one side of the equation.

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 Step 2: Make the coefficient of 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 be equal to 1 by factoring out the coefficient
of 𝑥 2 from the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and doing the same thing with the coefficient of
𝑦 2 from the terms involving 𝑦 2 , 𝑦.
Step 3: By the process of completing the squares, make the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟
𝑦 2 , 𝑦 be perfect square trinomials. This is done by ADDING the square of the half of the
coefficient of 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 to the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 , 𝑦. To retain equality, make sure
you also add whatever value added on one side of the equation to the other side of
the equation.
Step 4: Factor the perfect square trinomials obtained in step 3 and simplify the other
side of the equation.
Step 5: Make the constant on one side of the equation be equal to 1.
Step 6: Identify the location of the center of the ellipse and the direction of the major
axis. From the standard form we can identify the value of 𝑎 2 & 𝑏2 . Complete now the
details needed for the ellipse and draw the final graph.
The list should contain the following:
Center, Ends of major axis, ends of minor axis, foci, ends of latera recta,
equation of directrices.

Example 1: Graph the ellipse with the equation:

𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 4 = 0

Step 1: 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 4
𝑥2 𝑦2
Step 2: + =1
4 2
Step 3: We skip step 3 since the equation in step 2 is already in standard form.
Step 4: Skip this step as well.
Step 5: Skip this step as well.
Step 6: The ellipse has center at (0,0) and major axis on Ox. 𝑎2 = 4 & 𝑏2 = 2.

Therefore,
A1(a, 0) = A1(2, 0)
A2(-a, 0)= A2(-2, 0)
B1(0, b)= B1(0, √2)
B2(0, -b)= B2(0, -√2)
F1(ae, 0)= F1(√2, 0) since 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = √2
F2(-ae, 0 )= F2(-√2, 0)
𝑏2 𝑏2 2
Q1(ae, 𝑎
)= Q1(√2, 1) since 𝑎
=2=1
𝑏2
Q2(ae, - 𝑎 )= Q2(√2, -1)
𝑏2
Q3(-ae, )= Q3(−√2, 1)
𝑎
𝑏2
Q4(-ae, - )= Q1(−√2, -1)
𝑎
𝑎
DD’: 𝑥 = = 2√2
𝑒
𝑎
D1D1’’: 𝑥 = − 𝑒 = −2√2

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 √2
Since 𝑎𝑒 = √2 & 𝑎 = 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 =
2
𝑎 2
𝑒
= √2
= 2√2
2

Example 2: Graph the ellipse with the equation:

4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 16𝑥 − 18𝑦 + 31 = 0

Step 1: 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 16𝑥 − 18𝑦 = −31

Step 2: 4(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) + 3(𝑦 2 − 6𝑦) = −31
Step 3: 4(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥+22 ) + 3(𝑦 2 − 6𝑦+32 ) = −31+4(22 ) + 3(32 )
Step 4: 4(𝑥 − 2)2 + 3(𝑦 − 3)2 = 12
(𝑥−2)2 (𝑦−3)2
Step 5: + =1
3 4
(𝑦−3)2 (𝑥−2)2
Or + =1
4 3
Step 6: The ellipse has center at (2,3) and major axis parallel to the y-axis.
𝑎2 = 4 & 𝑏2 = 3.

Therefore,

A1(h, k+a) = A1(2, 5)

A2(h, k-a)= A2(2, 1)
B1(h+b, k)= B1(2+√3, 3)
B2(h-b, k)= B2(2-√3, 3)
F1(h, k+ae)= F1(2, 4) since 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1
F2(h, k-ae) = F2(2, 2)
𝑏2 7 𝑏2 3
Q1(h+ 𝑎 , k+ae)= Q1(2, 4) since 𝑎
=2
𝑏2 1
Q2(h- 𝑎 , k+ae)= Q2(2, 4)
𝑏2 7
Q3(h+ , k-ae)= Q3( , 2)
𝑎 2

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 𝑏2 1
Q4(h- 𝑎 , k-ae)= Q1(2 , 2)
𝑎
DD’: 𝑦 = 𝑘 + 𝑒 = 7
𝑎
D1’D1’’: 𝑦 = 𝑘 − 𝑒 = −1
1
Since 𝑎𝑒 = 1 & 𝑎 = 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 = 2
𝑎 2
𝑒
= 1 =4
2

D. THE HYPERBOLA
The HYPERBOLA is defined as the path (or Locus) of a moving point whose eccentricity
is a constant value greater than 1.

The hyperbola has the equation 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 where

𝐴 & 𝐶 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑁𝐿𝐼𝐾𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 0. Thus, we can write it as 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 =
0 or −𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

In words, the equation of a hyperbola has TWO squared terms with unlike signs and
the term xy is missing.

Examples:
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 2 + 7𝑦 = 3
−2𝑥 2 + 5𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 = 0

NOTE:
GENERAL Form of the Hyperbola: 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 or −𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 +
𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

STANDARD Forms of the Hyperbola:

𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑎. 𝑎2
− 𝑏2 = 1 with center at (0, 0) and TRANSVERSE axis on the x-axis.

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 𝑦2 𝑥2
𝑏. 𝑎2
− 𝑏2 = 1 with center at (0, 0) and TRANSVERSE axis on the y-axis.

(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
e. 𝑎2
− 𝑏2
=1
with center at (h, k) and TRANSVERSE axis parallel to the x-axis.
(𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2
f. − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
with center at (h, k) and TRANSVERSE axis parallel to the y-axis.

The following parts are needed in graphing a hyperbola:

1. The center (C) which can be obtained from the standard form.
2. The Vertices A1, A2, B1, B2 where CA1= CA2 =a and CB1= CB2 =b. A1 A2 is the
TRANSVERSE axis while B1B2 is the CONJUGATE axis. The Latus Rectum is a line
2𝑏 2
segment of length . It is a line segment perpendicular to the transverse axis and
𝑎
passing thru the Focus.
3. The FOCI (plural for focus) F1, F2 where CF1= CF2 =ae and ae=√𝑎2 + 𝑏2 .
4. The ends of the Latera Recta (plural for Latus Rectum) Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 where
𝑏2
FQ1= FQ2 =FQ3= FQ4= .
𝑎
5. The DIRECTRICES (plural for directrix) DD’ ,D1 D1’. The distance from center to a
𝑎
directrix is 𝑒 .

Our goal now is to rewrite or reduce the equation of the hyperbola from its Standard
form to its General form. The following steps will help us achieve our goal:

Step 1: Isolate the constant on one side of the equation.

Step 2: Make the coefficient of 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 be equal to 1 by factoring out the coefficient
of 𝑥 2 from the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and doing the same thing with the coefficient of
𝑦 2 from the terms involving 𝑦 2 , 𝑦.
Step 3: By the process of completing the squares, make the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟
𝑦 2 , 𝑦 be perfect square trinomials. This is done by ADDING the square of the half of the
coefficient of 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 to the terms involving 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 , 𝑦. To retain equality, make sure
you also add whatever value added on one side of the equation to the other side of
the equation.
Step 4: Factor the perfect square trinomials obtained in step 3 and simplify the other
side of the equation.
Step 5: Make the constant on one side of the equation be equal to 1.
Step 6: Identify the location of the center of the hyperbola and the direction of the
major axis. From the standard form we can identify the value of 𝑎2 & 𝑏2 . Complete now
the details needed for the hyperbola and draw the final graph.
The list should contain the following:
Center, Ends of transverse axis, ends of conjugate axis, foci, ends of latera
recta, equation of directrices.

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 Example 1: Graph the hyperbola with the equation:
4𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 − 4 = 0

Step 1: 4𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 = 4
𝑦2 𝑥2
Step 2: 1 − 4
=1
Step 3: We skip step 3 since the equation in step 2 is already in a standard form.
Step 4: Skip this step as well.
Step 5: Skip this step as well.
Step 6: The hyperbola has center at (0,0) and transverse axis on Oy. 𝑎2 = 1 & 𝑏2 = 4.

Therefore,
A1(0, a) = A1(0, 1)
A2(0, -a)= A2(0, -1)
B1(b, 0)= B1(2, 0)
B2(-b, 0)= B2(-2, 0)
F1(0, ae)= F1(0, √5) since 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = √5
F2(0, -ae) )= F2(0, -√5)
𝑏2 𝑏2 4
Q1( 𝑎 ,ae)= Q1(4, √5)since 𝑎
=1=4
𝑏2
Q2(− 𝑎 ,ae)= Q2(-4, √5)
𝑏2
Q3( ,-ae)= Q3(4, -√5)
𝑎
𝑏2
Q4(− 𝑎 ,-ae)= Q1(−4, −√5)
𝑎 2√5
DD’: 𝑦 = 𝑒 = 5
𝑎 2√5
D1D1’’: 𝑦 = − = −
𝑒 5
√5
Since 𝑎𝑒 = √5 & 𝑎 = 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 = 1
= √5
𝑎 2 2√5
𝑒
= = 5
√5

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 Example 2: Graph the hyperbola with the equation:
9𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 36𝑦 − 4 = 0

Step 1: 9𝑦 2 − 36𝑦 − 4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 = 4
Step 2: 9(𝑦 2 − 4𝑥) − 4(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) = 4
Step 3: 9(𝑦 2 − 4𝑥+22 ) − 4(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥+12 ) = 4 + 9(22 ) − 4(12 )
Step 4: 9(𝑦 − 2)2 − 4(𝑥 + 1)2 = 36
(𝑦−2)2 (𝑥+1)2
Step 5: 4
− 9
=1
Step 6: The hyperbola has center at (-1,2) and transverse axis parallel to the y-axis.
𝑎2 = 4 & 𝑏2 = 9.

Therefore,

A1(h, k+a) = A1(-1, 4)

A2(h, k-a)= A2(-1, 0)
B1(h+b, k)= B1(2, 2)
B2(h-b, k)= B2(-4, 2)
F1(h, k+ae)= F1(-1, 2+√13 ) since 𝑎𝑒 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = √13
F2(h, k-ae) = F2(-1, 2-√13 )
𝑏2 7 𝑏2 9
Q1(h+ , k+ae)= Q1( , 2+√13 ) since =
𝑎 2 𝑎 2

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 𝑏2 11
Q2(h- 𝑎 , k+ae)= Q2(− 2 , 2+√13 )
𝑏2 7
Q3(h+ 𝑎 , k-ae)= Q3(2, 2-√13 )
𝑏2 11
Q4(h- 𝑎 , k-ae)= Q1(− 2 , 2-√13 )
𝑎 4√13
DD’: 𝑦 = 𝑘 + 𝑒 = 2 + 13
= 3.11
𝑎 4√13
D1D1’: 𝑦 = 𝑘 − = 2 − =0.89
𝑒 13
√13
Since 𝑎𝑒 = √13 & 𝑎 = 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 = 2
𝑎 2 4 4√13
𝑒
= √13
= = 13
√13
2

HOMEWORK 15:

Instructions:

A. Reduce each equation to a standard form and describe the curve completely.
If the curve is a:
CIRCLE- supply the center and radius
PARABOLA- supply the direction of the opening, vertex, focus, ends of latus rectum
ELLIPSE- supply the center and direction of major axis, vertices, foci, ends of latera
recta, directrices
HYPERBOLA- supply the center and direction of transverse axis, vertices, foci, ends
of latera recta, directrices

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 B. Graph each equation.

1. 2𝑦 2 + 𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 4 = 0
2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 = −9
3. 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 + 12𝑦 = 12
4. 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 8𝑦 = −5

UNIT 3: CURVE TRACING

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the module, you should have achieved the following topic learning
outcomes:
7. Trace the curve given y = f(x).
8. Trace the curve given y2 = f(x).
9. Trace the curve given y=f(x)/g(x).
10. Trace the curve given y2=f(x)/g(x).

Curve tracing is the process of drawing a polynomial curve in a more systematic manner.
Usually, the basic of curve tracing is just by plotting as many points on the Cartesian plane
to be able to draw the graph. However, that process is tedious and if that will be the only
solution we may ask ourselves if how many points are sufficient to be able to draw the graph
accurately.

In this section, we introduce some steps which will still be applied in your Calculus to make
our curve tracing more systematic.

STEPS IN CURVE TRACING:

Type 1: Given 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒐𝒓 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒇(𝒙)

Step 1: Behavior of the Curve

Determining the behavior of the curve for large values of x. In this step, we verify what
happens to the curve as the values of x becomes positive and negatively large.
NOTE: For 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒐𝒓 𝒚𝒏 = 𝒇(𝒙) to facilitate a faster means in determining the
behavior, we just consider the term in x having the HIGHEST exponent.

Example 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1.

We now let x become positively large. If x is very large positive, 𝑥 4 becomes

positively larger. Thus, we now say that as x becomes positively large y also becomes
positively large since 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1. This will now be interpreted as, generally the
curve will be seen rising on the first quadrant.

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 We now let x become “Negatively” large. If x is very large negative, 𝑥 4
becomes positively larger since a negative value raise to 4 will be positive. Thus, we
now say that as x becomes negatively large y also becomes positively large since 𝑦 =
𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1. This will now be interpreted as, generally the curve will be seen rising on
the second quadrant.

Example 2: Given 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1.

We now let x become positively large. If x is very large positive, 2𝑥 3 becomes

positively larger. Thus, we now say that as x becomes positively large y also becomes
positively large since 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1. This will now be interpreted as, generally
the curve will be seen rising on the first quadrant.

We now let x become “Negatively” large. If x is very large negative, 2𝑥 3

becomes negatively larger since a negative value raise to 3 will be negative. Thus, we
now say that as x becomes negatively large y also becomes negatively large since
𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1. This will now be interpreted as, generally the curve will be seen
dropping on the third quadrant.

NOTE: For 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒇(𝒙), do not forget to extract the square root to obtain the value of y.
This means that as if 𝒚𝟐 becomes positively large as x becomes large then y will also
become positively large. However, if 𝒚𝟐 becomes negatively large as x become
negatively large then y will be imaginary since the square root of a negative value is
imaginary.

Step 2: Test for SYMMETRY

Symmetry is simply defined as the reflection of a curve about an axis. There are three
types that we will consider here.
a. Symmetry with the x-axis.
This happens when the curve above the x-axis is reflected below the x-axis. To test
the curve for symmetry with x-axis, we replace the y term in the polynomial given
by –y. We then simplify the polynomial, if it can be simplified as the original
polynomial then we say that the curve is symmetrical with the x-axis.

Example 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1.
Replacing y by –y we get -𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1. Since there is no way to bring back
the equation to its original form, then we say that the curve is NOT symmetric with
the x-axis.

Example 2: Given 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 2 + 3.
Replacing y by –y we get (−𝑦)2 = 2𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 2 + 3. This can be simplified as 𝑦 2 =
2𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 2 + 3. Since we have the equation to its original form, then we say that the
curve is symmetric with the x-axis.

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 b. Symmetry with the y-axis.
This happens when the curve to the right of the y-axis is reflected to the left of the
y-axis. To test the curve for symmetry with y-axis, we replace the x term in the
polynomial given by –x. We then simplify the polynomial, if it can be simplified as
the original polynomial then we say that the curve is symmetrical with the y-axis.

Example 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1.
Replacing x by –x we get 𝑦 = (−𝑥)4 + 2(−𝑥)2 − 1. This brings us back to the original
equation thus the curve is symmetric with the y-axis.

Example 2: Given 𝑦 = 2𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 2 + 3.
Replacing x by –x we get 𝑦 = 2(−𝑥)5 − 7(−𝑥)2 + 3. This can be simplified as 𝑦 =
−2𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 2 + 3 which is not the same as the original thus, the curve is NOT
symmetric with the y-axis.

c. Symmetry with the origin.

This happens when the curve in the first quadrant is reflected in the third quadrant
and the curve in the second quadrant is reflected in the fourth quadrant. To test
the curve for symmetry with the origin, we replace the x term in the polynomial
given by –x and the y term in the polynomial given by –y. We then simplify the
polynomial, if it can be simplified as the original polynomial then we say that the
curve is symmetrical with the origin.

Example 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1.
Replacing x by –x and y by –y, we get -𝑦 = (−𝑥)4 + 2(−𝑥)2 − 1. The equation can
now be simplified as −𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 1 which is not the same as the original thus
the curve is NOT symmetric with the origin.

Example 2: Given 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 6 − 7𝑥 2 + 3.
Replacing x by –x we get (−𝑦)2 = 2(−𝑥)6 − 7(−𝑥)2 + 3. This can be simplified as
𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 6 − 7𝑥 2 + 3 which is the same as the original thus, the curve is symmetric
with the origin.

Step 3: Intercepts of the Curve

Intercepts are points where the curve crosses the x-axis or the y-axis. To determine the
x-intercept (the point or points where curve crosses the x-axis), set y=0 in the original equation
and then solve for the values of x. Each value of x obtained will be paired to 0 to give the
coordinates of the x-intercepts. On the other hand, to determine the y-intercept (the point
or points where curve crosses the y-axis), set x=0 in the original equation and then solve for
the values of y. each value of y obtained will be paired to 0 to give the coordinates of the
y-intercepts.

Example 1: Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2.

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 For x-intercept: Set y=0.

0 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 Solving for x, we can factor the right side giving us,

0 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
0= 𝑥−1&𝑥+2= 0

Thus, 𝑥 = 1 & 𝑥 = −2

Or (1, 0) & (-2,0) are the x-intercepts.

For y-intercept: Set x=0.

𝑦 = 02 + 0 − 2
𝑦 = −2

Thus, (0, -2) is the y-intercept.

Step 4: Supply Additional Points

If the details obtained from Steps 1 to 3 are not sufficient, plot additional points to
complete the graph. There is no standard number of additional points needed to complete
the graph. You may choose the number of additional points you would like to use.

Let us now combine the four steps using some examples.

Example 1: Trace or draw the graph 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2).

Step 1: Behavior of the Curve for Large Values of x.

First, we can expand the equation and it will give us

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 . We now use 𝑥 3 as our reference.

As x becomes positively large, 𝑥 3 becomes positively large also. Thus, y

becomes positively large (curve is in first quadrant).
As x becomes negatively large, 𝑥 3 becomes negatively large. Thus, y becomes
negatively large (curve is in third quadrant).
Step 2: Test for symmetry.

We can use the expanded form of the equation, 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2

a. Symmetry with x-axis: Change y by –y.

−𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2. (NOT the original equation)
Thus, NO symmetry with x-axis.
b. Symmetry with y-axis: Change x by –x.
𝑦 = (−𝑥)3 + 2(−𝑥)2 − (−𝑥) − 2.

𝑦 = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 (NOT the original equation)

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 Thus, NO symmetry with y-axis.
c. Symmetry with origin: Change x by –x and y by –y.
−𝑦 = (−𝑥)3 + 2(−𝑥)2 − (−𝑥) − 2.

−𝑦 = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 (NOT the original equation)

Thus, NO symmetry with origin.

Step 3: Solving for the intercepts

a. y-intercept: set x=0

𝑦 = 03 + 2(0)2 − 0 − 2
𝑦 = −2
Thus, (0, -2) is the y-intercept.

b. x-intercept: set y=0

0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2) Using the original equation since it is already
factored.
0 = (𝑥 + 1) & 0 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
0 = 𝑥 + 1 & 0 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
0= 𝑥+1 & 0= 𝑥−1 & 0= 𝑥+2
𝑥 = −1 & 𝑥=1 & 𝑥 = −2

Thus, (-1, 0), (1,0), (-2,0) are the x-intercepts.

Step 4: Additional points

You can choose areas in your graph where you can add some more points to
make the graph more accurate.

x -3 -1.5 2
y -8 0.625 12

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 Example 2: Trace or draw the graph 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6.

Step 1: Behavior of the Curve for Large Values of x.

Using 𝑥 3 as reference from 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6

As x becomes positively large, 𝑥 3 becomes positively large also. Thus, 𝑦 2

becomes positively large which means 𝑦 becomes positively large also. (curve is in
first quadrant).

As x becomes negatively large, 𝑥 3 becomes negatively large. Thus, 𝑦 2

becomes negatively large which means 𝑦 becomes IMAGINARY.

Step 2: Test for symmetry.

We can use the expanded form of the equation, 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6

a. Symmetry with x-axis: Change y by –y.

(−𝑦)2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6
𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6
Thus, there is symmetry with x-axis.

b. Symmetry with y-axis: Change x by –x.

𝑦 2 = (−𝑥)3 + 2(−𝑥)2 − 5(−𝑥) − 6.

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 𝑦 2 = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 (NOT the original equation)

Thus, NO symmetry with y-axis.

c. Symmetry with origin: Change x by –x and y by –y.

(−𝑦)2 = (−𝑥)3 + 2(−𝑥)2 − 5(−𝑥) − 6

𝑦 2 = −𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6(NOT the original equation)

Thus, NO symmetry with origin.

Step 3: Solving for the intercepts

a. y-intercept: set x=0

𝑦 2 = (0)3 + 2(0)2 − 5(0) − 6
𝑦 2 = −6
𝑦 is imaginary.
Thus, NO y-intercept.

b. x-intercept: set y=0

0 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6 Using the SYNTHETIC division we can obtain
0 = (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 3)
𝑥 = −1 & 𝑥=2 & 𝑥 = −3

Thus, (-1, 0), (2,0), (-3,0) are the x-intercepts.

Step 4: Additional points

You can choose areas in your graph where you can add some more points to
make the graph more accurate.

𝑥 -4 -2 0 1 3
𝑦2 -18 4 -6 -8 24
𝑦 i ±2 i i ±4.89

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 𝒇(𝒙)
Type 2: Given 𝒚 = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒈(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎
𝒈(𝒙)

The steps here will be very similar to Type 1, the only difference will be seen in the testing
the behavior of the curve. For type 2, we will have the existence of the ASYMPTOTES. An
asymptote is a line that serves as a boundary line and there are two types of asymptotes
that will be considered here namely, the vertical and the horizontal asymptotes. The
curve gets closer to the line but will not cross the line. However, if we consider the
horizontal asymptotes, there are cases that the curve will cross the asymptote. Below is
the discussion on how we will determine the asymptotes.

Step 1: Behavior of the Curve (Solving for the asymptotes)

a) Vertical Asymptotes
𝑓(𝑥)
Given 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0 means that the function will exist for any value of x as
long as 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0. Thus, to determine the vertical asymptote or asymptotes, we just
set 𝑔(𝑥) = 0.

𝑥
Example: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2+5𝑥+4
Set 𝑔(𝑥) = 0. 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4 = 0

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 (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥+4 = 0 & 𝑥+1= 0
Thus, the vertical asymptotes are 𝒙 = −𝟒 & 𝒙 = −𝟏
b) Horizontal Asymptotes
In determining the horizontal asymptote, we can base by comparing the
highest power in numerator with the highest power in the denominator. We have
three possible cases here:

Case 1: If the highest power in the numerator is lower in value compared to the
highest power of the denominator, y=0 or the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
Let us see an example how this general rule was obtained.
𝑥
Example: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+4.

The first thing that we will do is to divide both the numerator and the denominator
by the term in the numerator having the highest exponent (the numerical coefficient
of that term will not be included anymore in the process).
𝑥
𝑦= 2 𝑥
𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 4
𝑥
1
𝑦=
4
𝑥+5+
𝑥
Now we let x become positively and negatively large. Note that a number
divided by a very large number becomes very small which is almost equal to zero.

4
Going back to the example, 𝑥 will assume a value equal to zero as x becomes
large thus we are left with
1
𝑦 = 𝑥+5+0 and again as x is assumed to be very large this expression
will now turn out to be 1 over a very large number which will again assume a value
equal to zero. Therefore, as x becomes very large y approaches 0. And this now
becomes the horizontal asymptote y=0.

Case 2: If the highest power in the numerator is higher in value compared to

the highest power of the denominator, there is NO HORIZONTAL asymptote in this
case.

Let us see an example how this general rule was obtained.

3𝑥 4 −𝑥
Example: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+4.

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 3𝑥 4 − 𝑥
4
𝑦= 2 𝑥
𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 4
𝑥4
1
3−
𝑦= 𝑥3
1 5 4
+ +
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
As x becomes large (positive or negative), again a number divided by a very
large number will approach zero. Thus, we are left with
3
𝑦 = 0 (Note also that a non-zero number divided by zero is undefined)

Therefore, there is NO HORIZONTAL asymptote.

Case 3: If the highest power in the numerator is EQUAL in value compared to

𝑎
the highest power of the denominator, 𝑦 = 𝑏0 is a HORIZONTAL asymptote. 𝑎0 , 𝑏0
0
are the coefficients of the term with highest exponent in the numerator and
denominator respectively.

Let us see an example how this general rule was obtained.

3𝑥 3 −2𝑥
Example: 𝑦 = 6𝑥 3 +5𝑥+4.

3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥
3
𝑦= 3 𝑥
6𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 4
𝑥3
2
3−
𝑦= 𝑥2
5 4
6+ +
𝑥2 𝑥3
As x becomes large (positive or negative), again a number divided by a very
large number will approach zero. Thus, we are left with
3 1
𝑦= = is a horizontal asymptote.
6 2

EXAMPLE: Trace/draw the following curves.

2𝑥
1. 𝑦 = (𝑥+2)(𝑥−3)
2𝑥
𝑦=
𝑥2
−𝑥−6
Step 1: Behavior of the curve (ASYMPTOTES)
a. Vertical asymptotes. Set denominator to zero.

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 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
𝑥+2 =0 & 𝑥−3= 0
𝑥 = −2 & 𝑥 = 3 are the vertical asymptotes
b. Horizontal asymptotes.
Since the highest exponent in the numerator is less than the highest
exponent in the denominator then y=0 is a horizontal asymptote.

Step 2:Test for symmetry

a. With x-axis: change y by –y.

2𝑥
−𝑦 = 2
𝑥 −𝑥−6
Thus, NO SYMMETRY with the x-axis.

b. With y-axis: change x by –x.

2(−𝑥)
𝑦= 2
(−𝑥) − (−𝑥) − 6

−2𝑥
𝑦=
𝑥2
+𝑥−6
Thus, NO SYMMETRY with the y-axis.

c. With origin: change x by –x and y by –y.

−2𝑥
−𝑦 = 2
𝑥 +𝑥−6
2𝑥
𝑦= 2
𝑥 +𝑥−6
Thus, NO SYMMETRY with the origin.

Step 3: Solve for the intercepts.

a. y-intercept: set x=0.

−2(0)
𝑦=
(0)2 + 0 − 6
𝑦=0
Thus (0, 0) is a y-intercept

b. x-intercept: set y=0.

2𝑥
0= 2
𝑥 −𝑥−6
0 = 2𝑥
0=𝑥
Thus (0, 0) is an x-intercept

Step 4: Additional points

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 You can create regions based from the Vertical asymptotes. Since we have
two vertical asymptotes, we have created three regions in our Cartesian plane.
We can now take additional points per region.

Region 1 ( 𝑥 < −2)

𝑥 -4 -3
𝑦 4 −1
-7
Or you can just set 𝑥 < −2 in the original equation and you will observe there
that 𝑦 < 0 for any 𝑥 and 𝑦 becomes smaller and smaller. (this is true because
𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote).

Region 2 (−2 < 𝑥 < 3)

-1
𝑥 1
𝑦1 1
−
2 3
Or you can just set −1 < 𝑥 < 0 in the original equation and you will observe
there that 𝑦 < 0 for any 𝑥 and if you set 0 < 𝑥 < 3 you will observe there that 𝑦 >
0 for any 𝑥.

Region 3 ( 𝑥 > 3)

𝑥 4 5 6
𝑦 4 5 1
3 7 2
Or you can just set 𝑥 > 3 in the original equation and you will observe there
that 𝑦 > 0 for any 𝑥 and 𝑦 becomes smaller and smaller. (this is true because
𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote).

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 POLAR CURVES

If we consider the polar coordinates of the points on the curve then the graph obtained is a
polar curve.

A point on the Cartesian plane is said to be in its polar coordinate form when it follows the
format P(r,ꝋ) where r is called the radius vector and ꝋ is called the polar angle.

The radius vector is the distance of the point from the origin while the polar angle is the angle
measured from Ox to the radius vector.

Example: Plot the points on a Cartesian plane

P1(4, 30°), P2(-6, 135°), P3(2, -90°), P4(-5, -135°)

To plot a point in its polar coordinates on a Cartesian plane, first is to generate the polar
angle. If the polar angle is positive, we follow the counterclockwise rotation from Ox. If the
polar angle is negative, follow a clockwise direction from Ox.

After generating the polar angle, we obtain the terminal side of the polar angle. The radius
vector now is measured. If the radius vector is POSITIVE, measure its length from the terminal
side itself. If the radius vector is NEGATIVE, extend the terminal to the opposite quadrant and
from that extension, measure now the length of the radius vector.

The next question now is, how do we graph polar curves? The simplest way to graph a polar
curve is by point plotting. From the polar equation, we assign different values for the polar
angle then solve for the corresponding radius vector of each angle. Plot those points on the
Cartesian plane and simply join the points together. Just make sure that when you join the
points together, you join adjacent points together obtained from consecutive angles.

Example 1: r = 4 + 3cos ꝋ

ꝋ 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°

r 7 6.90 6.60 6.12 5.5 4.78 4

ꝋ 105° 120° 135° 150° 165° 180°

r 3.22 2.5 1.88 1.4 1.1 1

ꝋ 195° 210° 225° 240° 255° 270°

r 1.1 1.4 1.88 2.5 3.22 4

ꝋ 285° 300° 315° 330° 345° 360°

r 4.78 5.5 6.12 6.60 6.90 7

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 Example 2: r2 = 5sin ꝋ - 2cos ꝋ

ꝋ 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°

r2 -2 -0.64 .77 2.12 3.33 4.31 5
r i i ±.88 ±1.46 ±1.82 ±2.08 ±2.24

ꝋ 105° 120° 135° 150° 165° 180°

r2 5.35 5.33 4.95 4.32 3.22 2
r ±2.31 ±2.3 ±2.22 ±2.07 ±1.79 ±1.41

ꝋ 195° 210° 225° 240° 255° 270°

r2 .64 -.77 -2.12 -3.33 -4.31 -5
r ±.8 i I i i i

ꝋ 285° 300° 315° 330° 345° 360°

r2 -5.34 -5.33 -4.95 -4.23 -3.22 -2
r i i i i i i

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 HOMEWORK 16: Graph the following equations.

1. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)
2. 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7
𝑥3
3. 𝑦=
(𝑥−5)(𝑥+1)
𝑥 2 +4𝑥+3
4. 𝑦=
2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+1
𝑥+3
5. 2
𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2
6. r = sin ꝋ + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ꝋ
7. r2 = sin 2ꝋ - 3cos ꝋ

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