Vademecum 2127 en

Economic Appraisal Vademecum
Economic Appraisal Vademecum 2021-

Economic Appraisal
2027
Vademecum 2021-2027
General Principles and Sector Applications
General Principles and Sector Applications
Regional and
Urban Policy 1
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Directorate-General for Regional and Urban Policy
Directorate F - Better implementation, Closure and Programme Implementation III
Unit F1 — Better Implementation and Closure
Contact: Sabine Vandermotten, deputy Head of Unit

E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
European Commission
B-1049 Brussels
FOREWORD
Elisa Ferreira
Commissioner for
Cohesion and Reforms
In the aftermath of Several analytical methods including cost-benefit

COVID-19 pandemic, the analysis, cost-effectiveness, least-cost and multi-
European Union mobilised criteria analysis, can be used to verify whether projects
unprecedented funding to achieve relevant objectives of our programmes in an
cope with the economic effective and efficient manner.
and social consequences
of the crisis and to This Vademecum presents all these methods, based on
prepare for a green, vast experience that has been gathered in 2014-2020
by the Commission and JASPERS. The Vademecum is
based on internationally recognised standards and
digital and resilient recovery. Cohesion Policy 2021-27 good practices. Member States can now tap into this
remains the main investment arm of the EU, ensuring experience when preparing their national selection and
that no region and no person is left behind. appraisal systems in 2021-27.
In our path to a more innovative, sustainable and I am thrilled to see how Cohesion Policy can positively
cohesive growth model, the role of economic appraisal change the lives of our citizens! Through the Cohesion
is more important than ever. Our projects need to policy trademarks of genuine partnership, multi-level
provide the best value for money and offer the best governance and bottom-up approaches, Member
return for the society by providing services and goods States and the Commission should be prioritising those
in an effective and efficient manner. In order to achieve projects that will turn our inclusive, green and digital
that we need evidence-based analysis, intellectual vision into reality in every region, ensuring the more
integrity and investment decisions based on objective resilient and competitive Europe that we want for our
and verifiable methods. At the same time, we aim children and for ourselves.
to make Cohesion Policy rules simpler and leaner,
to reduce administrative burden for beneficiaries,
especially for SMEs and promoters of small projects.
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CONTRIBUTORS
This Economic Appraisal Vademecum (EAV) was prepared by DG REGIO with the support of JASPERS experts involved in project
economic appraisal. The EAV team included:
Project management and supervision DG REGIO - Unit F1 Better Implementation and Closure:
Sabine Vandermotten (Deputy Head of Unit)
Camelia Mihaela Kovács (Administrator)
Witold Willak (Deputy Head of Unit, 02 Coordination of Programmes)
Lead author Davide Sartori (EIB/JASPERS)

Coordination, peer review and co-author Massimo Marra (JASPERS)
The following experts from JASPERS authored the document:

PART I – General principles
Introduction Davide Sartori
1. Role of economic appraisal Massimo Marra, Davide Sartori
2. Cost benefit analysis Davide Sartori
3. Other economic appraisal tools Davide Sartori
PART II – SECTOR APPLICATIONS
Research and Innovation infrastructure Robert Swerdlow

Renewable energy Francesco Angelini
Energy efficiency Francesco Angelini
Municipal waste management Sarunas Bruzge, Nickolay Danev
Patrizia Fagiani, Paul Riley, Fergal Trace, Andreea Raducu,
Transport
Marko Kristl
Broadband Joanna Knast-Braczkowska, Michael Schaller
Water and wastewater Michal Marcincak, Christine Mertens, Kenneth Valentine
Healthcare Adam Kozierkiewicz, Ana Maria Lupascu, Davide Sartori
Information and Communication Technologies Joanna Knast-Braczkowska, Michael Schaller
Optimising programmes for territorial and urban
Teresa Calvete, Gwendolyn Carpenter
development
The authors are grateful to colleagues who reviewed earlier drafts of the document, including: Julien Bollati from the European
Climate, Innovation and Networks Executive Agency (CINEA); Anna–Leena Asikainen, José Doramas Jorge Calderon, Christian
Milhan, Andre Oosterman, Christian Schempp and Isidoro Tapia from the European Investment Bank.
The authors benefited from the advice of Prof. Massimo Florio (University of Milan) who acted as external academic advisor for
the Part I – General Principles. No errors or omissions should be attributed to him.
4
ACRONYMS
B/C benefit/cost
CAPEX capital expenditures
CBA cost–benefit analysis
CEA cost-effectiveness analysis
CEF Connecting Europe Facility
CF conversion factor
CO2e carbon dioxide equivalent
CPR common provisions regulation
EA economic appraisal
EAV Economic Appraisal Vademecum
EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
EIB European Investment Bank
ENPV economic net present value
ENTSO-E European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity
ENTSOG European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas
ERR economic rate of return
FDR financial discount rate
GHG greenhouse gas
JASPERS Joint Assistance to Support Projects in European Regions
LCA least-cost analysis
MCA multi-criteria analysis
MFF multiannual financial framework
O&M operation and maintenance
OPEX operating expenses
PLMCA policy-led multi-criteria analysis
RI-PATHS Research Infrastructure Impact Assessment Pathways
SDR social discount rate
SE stakeholder engagement
SRTP social rate of time preference
WACC weighted average capital cost

5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part I - General Principles
INTRODUCTION 8
1. ROLE OF ECONOMIC APPRAISAL 10

1.1 Economic appraisal in the EU 2021–2027 policy framework 10
1.2 Economic appraisal and the project cycle 13
1.3 Choice of tool 16
1.4. Difference from financial appraisal 18
2. COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS 20
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Simplified cost–benefit analysis 20
2.3 Parameters 20
2.4 Topics not (fully) addressed in the 2014 CBA guide 21
2.5 Updates and developments 22
3. OTHER ECONOMIC APPRAISAL TOOLS 25

3.1 Least-cost and cost-effectiveness analyses 25
3.2 Multi-criteria analysis 26
APPENDIX I. Overview of existing cost–benefit analysis national guidance 28
BIBLIOGRAPHY 31
Part II - Sector Applications

ANNEX I. Research and innovation 35
ANNEX II. Renewable energy 41
ANNEX III. Energy efficiency 46
ANNEX IV. Municipal waste management 50
ANNEX V. Transport 54
ANNEX VI. Broadband 64
ANNEX VII. Water and wastewater 67
ANNEX VIII. Healthcare 72
ANNEX IX. Information and communication technologies: e-services 79
ANNEX X. Optimising programmes for territorial and urban development 83
BIBLIOGRAPHY 91
6
Economic Appraisal
Vademecum 2021-2027
Part I - General Principles
7
INTRODUCTION
Background
The common provisions regulation for the 2014–2020 programming period included an obligation for major projects to undertake
a cost–benefit analysis (CBA) in line with the methodology described in legislation (Commission Implementing Regulation (EU)
No 207/2015) (1), supported by the European Commission Guide to Cost–Benefit Analysis of Investment Projects published in
2014 (2) – hereinafter referred to as the 2014 CBA guide.
The methodology and the 2014 CBA guide strengthened several aspects of the concrete application of CBA in project preparation,
notably in relation to economic analysis. The Joint Assistance to Support Projects in European Regions (JASPERS) initiative, which
supported the European Commission in the development of the last two editions of the European Commission CBA guide, was
strategically positioned to ensure quality standards across projects with proven benefits in terms of both consistency of approach
and optimisation of public spending across sectors. The requirement for CBA has contributed significantly to ensuring good value
for money and has encouraged rigour in the project selection process.
Through the application of CBA to major projects in the 2014–2020 programming period, EU Member States gained a lot of
experience in using CBA as a tool to support decision-making on EU-funded investments. In many Member States, the use of
CBA in project appraisal extended beyond major projects, confirming the growing appreciation of the benefits of carrying out
economic appraisal (EA) to ensure an optimal allocation of available funding. On the other hand, the conduct of CBA in certain
sectors and certain projects appeared overly complex and time-consuming, implying that simpler methods that offer similar
explanatory value are required. Building on the experience gained, a more flexible, yet rigorous, analytical framework for project
EA is proposed for the 2021–2027 programming period, for voluntary use. This framework reflects the principle of delegation of
approval to the national authorities to better take into account specific and national project contexts.
In the context of the European Green Deal and Europe’s commitments to fighting climate change, it is more important than ever
to use a methodology that offers a wider perspective than looking only at financial cash flows between stakeholders of European
projects and policies, including quantifying and monetising the effects on those stakeholders that are indirectly affected by those
policies.
EU and national recovery plans that have been developed to mitigate the economic recession triggered by the COVID-19 crisis
provide Member States with funding and financing opportunities for investments in several sectors. Public grants and loans will
be used in combination with regulatory measures and public fiscal interventions to promote the recovery from the crisis in the
long term, including addressing the infrastructure backlogs observed in the EU. In this context, it will be important to secure the
sound selection and prioritisation of projects – based on, among other criteria, the results of EA.
In recognition of the above, and considering the exclusive responsibility of national authorities to assess and approve cohesion
policy projects in the 2021–2027 programming period, the Directorate-General for Regional and Urban Policy has launched, with
the support of JASPERS, the preparation of this Economic Appraisal Vademecum (EAV), for possible wider voluntary use across
EU funding sources in the 2021–2027 programming period. This EAV is based on established good practices at both EU and
national levels and it is consistent with the approach to EA followed by the European Investment Bank and other international
financing institutions.
The EAV aims to provide methodological insights and tools to use EA methods in support of the early screening of investments
and for the assessment of projects for which a more detailed CBA might not be necessary.
To complement the EAV, the Directorate-General for Regional and Urban Policy developed a spreadsheet template with the
objective of standardising how to structure the cash flows underpinning EA. The use of a standardised template is considered
useful, as it provides project promoters with some practical guidance on the format of the content of a CBA or other EA tool. At
the same time, this template helps evaluators to assess project proposals faster. This template is a tool that is complementary
to both the 2014 CBA guide and the EAV (3).
Objective and scope

The objective of this EAV is to further promote and simplify the voluntary use of EA for EU co-financed investments in the
2021–2027 programming period. Carrying out EA is good practice for any EU-supported project, as it helps to ensure the optimal
allocation of available funding and to verify that the projects supported are good value for money.
In this document, EA is defined as the process aimed at assessing if a project will contribute to overall social welfare and to
economic growth. It takes into account benefits and costs to society and gauges the value that the project generates for all
stakeholders, to determine if society will gain from the investment.
The EAV intends to ensure that appraisal is ‘fit for purpose’ and provides the necessary information for decision-makers at various
decision points throughout the project cycle, while reducing the administrative burden not only for beneficiaries but also for those
bodies involved in the management of EU funds.
1
See: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32015R0207&from=EN
2
See: https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/studies/pdf/cba_guide.pdf
3
The spreadsheet template was prepared by Dr. Linas Jasiukevičius under a consulting assignment led by the European Commission and also benefitted from advice of experts from JASPERS and from Julien Bollati
of CINEA.
8
For the 2021–2027 programming period and the cohesion policy funds, the use of CBA is not a legal requirement, and the 2014
CBA guide is not a legally binding document. It is recommended, however, to keep following its provisions to assess the economic
viability of large infrastructure investments. Starting from this basis, the EAV does not replace the 2014 CBA guide, but instead
complements it in the following ways:
- it introduces the principles of proportionality and flexibility to EA, in particular for projects on a small scale or simple
projects for which developing a fully fledged CBA might be unnecessarily burdensome or costly;
- it facilitates the practical application of the EA methodologies through the identification of established good practices;
- it covers additional sectors deemed to be relevant in the multiannual financial framework (MFF) for 2021–2027.
CBA remains the recommended appraisal tool, but other tools are suggested in specific circumstances based on sector, project
type and scale.
The EAV is not prescriptive and should not be understood as an enforcement tool of EU legislation. Member States can draw
on the information presented to set up a framework for both project appraisal and selection that is in line with international
good practices. In particular, they can use it to better define their methods and criteria to approve investments in a context of
transparency and accountability of public expenditure.
As EA tools can be used across different EU/national policy sectors and institutions, the EAV is not linked exclusively to the
cohesion policy and is a resource that can be used across different funds in the 2021–2027 financial perspective.
Finally, it is worth underlining that the EAV covers economic (and to some extent financial) appraisal only. Other important
aspects of project appraisal (e.g. demand; technical, environmental, legal and procurement aspects; and risk assessments) are
not discussed in this document. This is not to say that these aspects should not be assessed, but they would be better dealt
with within a project preparation guide than within a guide for EA. Where relevant, the EAV makes reference to existing guidance
documents and methodologies that help in dealing with these aspects in a sound manner.
Structure
The EAV is structured in two parts.
Part I – general principles
- Chapter 1 discusses why it is important to carry out an EA and how this should be proportional to the project’s type
and flexible enough to account for the specificities of the project’s context. A simplified approach for the screening
of investment options is presented in this chapter.
- Chapter 2 illustrates CBA as the recommended EA voluntary tool. It complements the guidance provided in Chapter 2
of the 2014 CBA guide with additional/updated information, clearly stating when this represents a development or
a further specification compared with that guide. The text promotes a more flexible approach to setting some of the
parameters relevant for CBA than the requirements of the 2014–2020 programming period.
- Chapter 3 presents the guiding principles, key features and scope of application of alternative EA tools such as
least-cost analysis (LCA), cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) and multi-criteria analysis (MCA). This chapter updates
and expands upon Annex IX of the 2014 CBA guide.
- Appendix I provides a non-exhaustive overview of existing CBA national guidance.
- Finally, a bibliography of relevant references is provided.
Overall, Part I provides the general analytical framework for using EA during the 2021–2027 MFF.
Part II – sector applications
- Annexes I to VII set out good practices in EA in the following sectors to complement the corresponding chapters of the
2014 CBA guide: research and innovation, renewable energy, energy efficiency, municipal waste management, transport,
broadband, and water and wastewater. The focus is on topics in which the state of the art (in terms of data sets or guidance)
has developed since the 2014 CBA guide or conclusions have been drawn from the lessons learned in 2014–2020.
- Annexes VIII to X present methodologies for EA in sectors that were not covered in the 2014 CBA guide but are considered
relevant in the 2021–2027 MFF, namely healthcare, ICT and urban development.
These annexes are structured as follows: an introduction presenting the policy context, a discussion of what EA tool to use and
what simplifications to apply at the different stages of the project cycle, and guidance on the key aspects featuring EA for the
relevant projects in the sector.
These annexes align with and further develop the general principles illustrated in Part I.
Even though they have some obvious connections and synergies, these annexes are intended as relatively independent sectoral
good practice guidance (‘living documents’) that can be updated over the course of the MFF once additional sources of information
or empirical data become available. Also, new sectors might be added at a later stage.
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1. ROLE OF ECONOMIC APPRAISAL

1.1 Economic appraisal in the EU 2021–2027 policy framework
The use of economic appraisal (EA) methodologies is relevant to several proposed sources of EU funding in the financial
perspective for 2021–2027. The key linkages between EA and the EU 2021–2027 policy framework are described in this section.
The policy framework for the cohesion policy outlines five main objectives in 2021–2027:
1. a more competitive and smarter Europe, by promoting innovative and smart economic transformation and regional ICT
connectivity;
2. a greener, low-carbon transition towards a net-zero carbon economy and resilient Europe, by promoting a clean and fair
energy transition, green and blue investment, the circular economy, climate change mitigation and adaptation, risk prevention
and management, and sustainable urban mobility;
3. a more connected Europe, by enhancing mobility;
4. a more social and inclusive Europe implementing the European Pillar of Social Rights;
5. a Europe closer to citizens, by fostering the sustainable and integrated development of all types of territories and local
initiatives.
The Just Transition Fund shall support the specific objective of enabling regions and people to address the social, employment,
economic, and environmental impacts of the transition towards the Union’s 2030 targets for energy and climate and a climate-
neutral economy of the Union by 2050, based on the Paris Agreement.
According to the common provisions regulation (CPR) (4) approved in June 2021, there are no legal requirements for ‘major
projects’ with EU ex ante approval, nor does the regulation explicitly mention the need to perform a CBA (5).
However, the CPR calls for managing authorities to ensure proper value for money for the selection of operations to be financed,
with a major shift of responsibilities from the EU to Member States. The rationale for such a shift is based on the acknowledgement
that, over the years, best practices in the field of project preparation and EA were systematically promoted and developed at the
national level in line with EU requirements. At the same time, the CPR aims to foster the promotion of national quality standards
and practices.
At the national level, establishing and enforcing a methodology and related criteria for the selection of operations falls within the
responsibilities of managing authorities and of monitoring committees (6). The results of EA can be used as, among other things,
selection criteria to verify that projects are good value for money (i.e. to verify the maximisation of the ratio between resources
used and expected achievements).
Table 1 at the end of this section provides an overview of the main simplifications introduced in the approach to EA for cohesion
policy-funded investments in the 2021–2027 programming period, compared with 2014–2020.
EA in general and CBA in particular are becoming increasingly relevant in other investment contexts beyond the cohesion policy.
CBA remains a requirement for most projects applying to the Connecting Europe Facility (CEF). According to the regulation
laying down the next CEF long-term budget (2021–2027) (7), CBA is among the criteria for the eligibility and awarding of grants
for cross-border projects in the field of renewable energy. For other sectors such as transport and energy transmission, CBA
requirements are specified in the work programmes and calls for proposals. Information included in CBAs will be assessed in the
framework of the selection process for Projects of Common Interest (PCIs). The European Climate, Infrastructure and Environment
Executive Agency has designed and made available to its beneficiaries a spreadsheet template to present the CBA results in the
submission of project proposals in the field of transport (CEF-T). In addition, a dedicated section of the spreadsheet template that
is complementary to this EAV and provides unit values of benefits and costs at the country level is being considered for smaller
projects applying to the CEF transport call for proposals for 2021–2027. In the field of energy (CEF-E), it is recommended that
the CBA methodology drawn up by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E) (8) and
forGas (ENTSO-G) (9) is followed.
4
Regulation (EU) 2021/1060 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 June 2021 laying down common provisions on the European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund Plus, the
Cohesion Fund, the Just Transition Fund and the European Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund and financial rules for those and for the Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund, the Internal Security Fund and
the Instrument for Financial Support for Border Management and Visa Policy.
5
According to Article 100 of Regulation (EU) No 1303/2013, a major project is an investment operation comprising “a series of works, activities or services intended in itself to accomplish an indivisible task of a
precise economic or technical nature which has clearly identified goals and for which the total eligible cost exceeds EUR 50 000 000 […]”.
6
In some Member States, methodologies are also centrally adopted at the coordinating body level, to be applied consistently by the various managing authorities.
7
Regulation (EU) 2021/1153 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2021 establishing the Connecting Europe Facility and repealing Regulations (EU) No 1316/2013 and (EU) No 283/2014. (http://
data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2021/1153/oj).
8
ENTSO-E (2020), 3rd ENTSO-E guideline for cost benefit analysis of grid development projects, draft version, 28 January 2020 (https://eepublicdownloads.blob.core.windows.net/public-cdn-container/tyndp-
documents/2020-01-28_3rd_CBA_Guidleine_Draft.pdf). Final draft pending European Commission approval.
9
ENTSOG (2019), 2nd ENTSOG methodology for cost-benefit analysis of gas infrastructure projects 2018 (https://www.entsog.eu/sites/default/files/2019-03/1.%20ADAPTED_2nd%20CBA%20Methodology_
Main%20document_EC%20APPROVED.pdf).
10
The InvestEU regulation (10) introduces climate, environmental and social sustainability of investments as crucial elements in
the decision-making process when approving the use of the EU guarantee. These sustainability aspects should be verified for
the financing of investment operations under all windows of the InvestEU Fund, in particular in the area of infrastructure, also
taking into consideration the principle of proportionality. Operations with a significant climate, environmental or social impact
must be subject to a sustainability proofing assessment following the methodology developed in the InvestEU sustainability
proofing guidance (11). The assessment, quantification and, where feasible, monetisation of environmental and climate change
impacts (costs and benefits) delivered by the project fit into the more comprehensive EA that is usually carried out by InvestEU
implementing partners as part of their due diligence process. The results of EA should be reported to the InvestEU Investment
Committee and taken into account, among other elements, when deciding on granting the EU guarantee. For those implementing
partners that do not (yet) have an established approach or procedure, this EAV (together with the 2014 CBA guide and the other
EU and national manuals mentioned in this section 1.1 and in Annex I) can provide a useful reference framework.
The Recovery and Resilience Facility will make EUR 672.5 billion in loans and grants available to support reforms and
investments undertaken by Member States by 2026. The aim is to mitigate the economic and social impact of the coronavirus
pandemic and make European economies and societies more sustainable, more resilient and better prepared for the challenges
and opportunities of the green and digital transitions. The Commission guidance to Member States on recovery and resilience
plans (12) specifies the following.
When preparing their plans, Member States should consider an investment as an expenditure on an activity, project, or
other action within the scope of the Proposal that is expected to bring beneficial results to society, the economy and/or
the environment. The Proposal aims at promoting measures that, if taken now, would bring about a structural change
and have a lasting impact on economic and social resilience, sustainability and long-term competitiveness (green and
digital transitions), and employment.
A simplified EA (as discussed later in this document) can be adopted in this context to assess the overall impacts of the
investments included in the recovery plans financed by the facility, while at the same respecting the need for timely decision-
making.
CBA will also remain a requirement in the framework of the preparatory phase of European Strategy Forum on Research
Infrastructures projects (the priority roadmap for research infrastructures in the EU). A Guidebook for socio-economic impact
assessment of research infrastructures was recently published by the Research Infrastructure Impact Assessment Pathways (RI-
PATHS) project funded by Horizon 2020 (13).
In terms of international financing institutions, the European Investment Bank (EIB) conducts an EA of projects considered
for financing. The EIB uses CBA as the default methodology to estimate a project’s economic rate of return (ERR) that accounts
for broader project benefits and costs to society, including environmental externalities. It also applies CEA and, more recently,
MCA, taking into account the evolving circumstances of each sector. The results of the EA are entered into the overall evaluation
framework of projects applying for a loan from the EIB (additionality and impact measurement framework). The economic
appraisal of investment projects at the EIB (EIB, 2013a) presents the methodologies that the EIB uses to assess the economic
viability of projects. The EIB is currently updating this manual (14).
The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) undertakes an economic assessment of projects with high
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (15). When applying the economic assessment, a CBA is conducted, unless a CEA is deemed more
appropriate in some specific circumstances, as described in the Methodology for the economic assessment of EBRD projects with
high greenhouse gas emissions (2019) (16).
The use of CBA has also gained much ground for the appraisal of investment projects at the national level, as reflected in
several manuals that were published for different sectors. Appendix I provides a non-exhaustive overview of existing CBA national
guidance. Some examples include the following: for France, Quinet et al. (2013); for Sweden, ASEK (2016) and Kriström and Bonta
Bergman (2014); for Poland, the experience of the Centre for EU Transport Projects (CUPT; Archutowska et al., 2014); and for the
United Kingdom, the Green Book (last update in 2018; UK Treasury, 2018).
CBA is also used to appraise relatively small investments in smaller economies. For example, in Lithuania, CBA is required for
investment projects larger than EUR 300 000. In Malta, the requirement for CBA becomes mandatory for any project proposal
with a total project cost of over EUR 5 million.
10
Regulation (EU) 2021/523 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 March 2021 establishing the InvestEU Programme and amending Regulation (EU) 2015/1017 (http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2021/523/
oj).
11
European Commission (2021), Technical guidance on sustainability proofing for the InvestEU Fund, C(2021) 2632 final, European Commission, Brussels (https://europa.eu/investeu/investeu-fund/about-investeu-
fund_en).
12
European Commission (2021), Commission staff working document guidance to Member States recovery and resilience plans, SWD(2021) 12 final, European Commission, Brussels (https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/
default/files/document_travail_service_part1_v2_en.pdf).
13
For more information, see the RI-PATHS website (www.ri-paths.eu).
14
EIB (2013a), Economic appraisal of investment projects at the EIB (https://www.eib.org/attachments/thematic/economic_appraisal_of_investment_projects_en.pdf).
15
That is, projects where the proceeds increase emissions by 25 000 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per year relative to a baseline or increase emissions by 100 000 tonnes of CO2e per year in absolute
terms.
16
EBRD (2019), Methodology for the economic assessment of EBRD projects with high greenhouse gas emissions (https://www.ebrd.com/news/publications/institutional-documents/methodology-for-the-economic-
assessment-of-ebrd-projects-with-high-greenhouse-gasemissions.html).
11
Since 2007, JASPERS (17) has been supporting the development of national CBA guidelines in several EU Member States, as
well as providing extensive capacity building on the subject, also at the EU level (18). Based on these activities over the last two
programming periods, the practice of using EA tools for decision-making on EU co-financed projects has become well established
across the Member States and is likely to continue in 2021–2027.
Table 1. Approaches to EA for cohesion policy-funded investments – differences between 2014–2020 and
2021–2027
Topic 2014–2020 2021–2027

Major projects Projects
The use of EA will be left to the discretion of the
According to Article 101(e) of Regulation managing authority and of the monitoring committee
No 1303/2013, a CBA – including an economic that will set up a framework for project appraisal
Legal basis
and a financial analysis, and a risk assessment – and selection that is compliant with the requirements
for EA
is mandatory in order to get approval for the of Article 73 of the CPR. EA tools can be used and
co-financing of major projects adapted to the size and complexity of EU-funded
projects
A more flexible and proportional framework will be
implemented; other tools such as CEA and MCA – in
CBA is mandatory for major projects in any
EA tool addition to CBA – are proposed for voluntary use,
sector
based on sector and/or project type and scale (see
Section 1.3)
As set out in Article 101 of Regulation

No 1303/2013, an economic analysis must be It is good practice to use the results of EA as one
included in the CBA to compute the project’s of the criteria in assessing and selecting project
Results of EA economic performance. The calculation of proposals in order to verify that the selected project is
economic net present value and ERR indicators good value for money (as requested by Article 73(c) of
is requested to verify that the project is worth the CPR)
co-financing
According to Annex III to Regulation No

A simplified EA (CBA, CEA or MCA) is an established
2015/207, for major projects, the option
good practice for screening and ranking options.
analysis should be carried out in two steps.
When the project is limited in size, this is normally
The first step looks at basic strategic options
sufficient to identify a preferred option and justify
Option and is based on MCA. Once the strategic
approval for its co-financing. When the project is large/
analysis option is identified, the second step consists
strategic, or when the results of the simplified EA are
of a comparison of the specific technological
inconclusive, a fully fledged EA should be carried out
solutions based on quantitative methods
at subsequent stages of development of the proposal
(simplified CBA or CEA). A fully fledged CBA is
(see Section 1.2)
then carried out on the selected technical option
As set out in Article 101 of Regulation

No 1303/2013, a financial analysis must be
included in the CBA to compute the project’s No provisions are made in the CPR to assess the
Analysis of financial profitability. The calculation of financial project’s financial performance. Member States are
financial rate of return of the investment and financial free to set up their methods and criteria to verify that
performance rate of return of national capital indicators is the project is in need of co-financing. For most cases,
requested (by Annex III to Regulation 2015/207) State aid rules will apply
to verify that the project is in need of co-
financing
17
JASPERS is a major joint technical assistance initiative of the European Commission and the European Investment Bank that provides advisory and capacity-building support to all EU Member States and pre-
accession countries for the preparation of projects to be co-financed by EU structural and cohesion funds, by the instrument for pre-accession assistance and by the Connecting Europe Facility. JASPERS helps
beneficiary countries to absorb EU funds intended to achieve greater cohesion in Europe through sound programmes and projects, which are planned, prepared, procured and run to the highest technical, social and
environmental standards possible. For further information, visit the JASPERS website (http://jaspers.eib.org/).
18
For more information about the EU level, see in particular the cycle of joint JASPERS / Directorate-General for Regional and Urban Policy CBA forum meetings implemented between 2015 and 2019
(www.jaspersnetwork.org)
12
Article 73(d) of the CPR gives a requirement to ‘verify

that the beneficiary has the necessary financial
Analysis of Annex III to Regulation No 2015/207 requires
resources and mechanisms to cover operation
financial an analysis of financial sustainability based on
and maintenance costs for operations comprising
sustainability undiscounted cash flow
investment in infrastructure or productive investment,
so as to ensure their financial sustainability’
If a financial analysis with a calculation of
According to Article 19 of Regulation
performance indicators is carried out, Member States
No 480/2014, a 4 % discount rate will be used
Financial are free to assess their own country- and/or sector-
as the single reference parameter for all sectors
discount rate specific financial discount rate(s). In the absence of
in all Member States, except for projects falling
national guidelines, adherence to State aid rules is
under State aid rules
recommended
In accordance with Article 61 of Regulation According to Article 73(c) of the CPR, the managing
No 1303/2013, Annex V to Regulation authority need to ‘ensure that selected operations
No 1303/2013 and Section III of Regulation present the best relationship between the amount of
EU support
No 480/2014, the outcomes of the financial support, the activities undertaken and the achievement
intensity
analysis in the CBA are used to calculate the of objectives’. This implies, amongst other, that
funding gap rate and, in turn, the intensity/level self-financing and/or the bankability potential of an
of EU support (unless State aid rules prevail) operation should be taken into account where relevant
There will be no mandatory fixed parameters. An

indication of typical reference periods per sector is
Reference Annex I to Regulation No 480/2014 provides a
provided as indicative guidance, but project promoters/
period of the list of mandatory reference periods to be used
managing authorities can adjust them in accordance
analysis per sector
with the project’s economically useful life (see
Section 2.3 and Part II of the EAV)
According to Annex III to Regulation No Member States are free to establish and use their own
Social 2015/207, a social discount rate of 5 % will be country-specific social discount rate (see Section 2.3);
discount rate used for major projects in cohesion countries 3 % can be used in the absence of a national
and 3 % for the other Member States approach
There will be no mandatory list of benefits.

Annex III to Regulation No 2015/207 provides a
Type of Recommendations for typical benefits per sector are
list of the minimum main economic benefits per
benefits provided as indicative based on good practices (see
sector to be considered in the economic analysis
Part II of the EAV)
Compliance- CEA is deemed to be sufficient to assess the economic

driven In a major project, CBA is mandatory viability of the project, regardless of its scale (see
projects Section 1.3)
Member States are encouraged to follow or establish

their own national methodological frameworks for EA.
As a complementary instrument to the EAV (the use of
National
Member States are encouraged to establish which is voluntary), a spreadsheet template has been
methodol-
their own national methodological frameworks made available to the Member States. The template
ogies and
for EA provides project promoters with practical guidance on
tools
the format of the content of CBA (or other EA tools). At
the same time, it can be used by evaluators to assess
projects
1.2 Economic appraisal and the project cycle

EA is a key component in project development that aims to support the economic case for EU funding and project approval.
It can help both project promoters and evaluators by:
- providing useful information to decision-makers at key decision milestones throughout the project development cycle;
- prioritising or ranking projects to meet a set of intended objectives with constrained resources;
- scoping out and shortlisting both strategic and technical options in the early programming and project development phase;
- enhancing transparency and accountability in project selection by using a consistent method that allows assumptions to be
tested.
13
For EA to inform decision-making, it should be supported by robust and objectively verifiable evidence and should consider a
range of options to achieve a well-defined objective or range of objectives. This will lower the risk that the analysis is used as a
mere compliance tool that justifies a decision already taken.
The EA can be used in a variety of situations during the different stages of the project life cycle. During project preparation, it is
used to identify and develop, in an iterative manner, the best project option to pursue the intended objectives and, ultimately, to
decide whether to proceed or not with a specific investment. During implementation, it can be useful as a reference to check the
actual rolling out of the investment against the intended objectives and targets for monitoring purposes. Ex post, it can be used
to guide evaluations and extract lessons learned for future projects, in particular on the causes of possible deviations from the
ex ante estimations and on the main drivers underlying the project’s economic performance. In other words, EA should be seen
as an iterative process throughout the whole life of a project.
EA is particularly important at the early planning stage, when a range of alternatives are being considered, to inform decision-
makers on whether an investment is worthwhile (see Box 1 for good practices in option analysis).
Box 1. Option analysis: good practices
Based on an analysis of a sample of around 250 major projects in 2014–2020, JASPERS has identified the most frequent
shortcomings of option analyses and formulated good practice examples.
A well-conceived option analysis:

- is drafted early enough in the project preparation stage (strategic level), continuously verified and adjusted as
the preparation advances;
- is based on plausible criteria, set preferably by the relevant authorities for the entire sector to enable a level
playing field for all projects (e.g. least-cost or highest benefit approach); these criteria should be formulated in
a way that enables selection of the best option among relevant and feasible alternatives;
- applies these criteria in a transparent, verifiable and objective manner;
- is founded on a plausible demand analysis and based on reliable and verifiable historical demand and
reasonable forecast demand;
- focuses on proper scoping out and scaling of the project, ensuring the best value for money;
- avoids gold plating of investments (i.e. the inclusion of physical elements and related expenditure that is not
necessary to achieve the project objectives);
- includes a technological option analysis, particularly in sectors where technology is relevant for selection of
the final option (water, wastewater, waste treatment, research and development and productive investments)
or where technology has a major impact on cost (transport).
Figure 1 and the text below describe, concisely, the role of EA in the development of a project proposal.
14
Figure 1. Project proposal development
Needs assessment, • Definition of the service needs and problems

problem definition and • Definition of project objectives and strategic context
objectives • Identification of expected benefits and risks
Project proposal development
Preliminary screening/
• Definition of investment options
option analysis
• Simplified EA:
- Include all financial costs and benefits (economic costs only when relevant)
- Based on rough cost estimates and preliminary demand outputs
• Identification of preferred option (shortlist of options)
Large projects
Small projects
Detailed business • Fully fledged EA:
case - Further analysis (option selection)
Project (ranking) selection and approval
Source: Authors.
Step 1 – needs assessment, problem definition and project objectives

Project objectives are defined based on an assessment of the project context and an analysis of the service needs and problems.
The project objectives should be defined with an explicit link to the needs identified and, if possible, should be quantified through
indicators and targets. A clear definition of the objectives is necessary to identify the intended effects of the project, which will
be further evaluated in the EA, and to verify the relevance of the project vis-à-vis the needs identified.
This process is instrumental in further identifying potential investment options and their expected benefits and risks and in
providing the first high-level cost estimates.
Step 2 – preliminary screening / option analysis: simplified economic appraisal (all projects)
At the preliminary stage, the EA of an investment would typically assess a broad set of options with high-level or indicative costs
and effects/benefits. In this regard, the EA can be regarded as ‘simplified’.
A simplified EA implies focusing on first estimates from demand analysis of the outputs (goods/services) rendered by the project
(19) and rough estimates of the investment and operating costs.
Rough cost estimates are generally understood as being based on unit prices obtained from limited (regional) market surveys (i.e.
quotations from different suppliers) or from similar projects in the same (best if regional) context. It should be ensured, however,
that cost estimates are all-inclusive (i.e. that no important cost component is missing, e.g. asset replacement or decommissioning
costs). Overhead costs for planning and supervision, as well as contingencies, may be excluded, but then this should be applied to
all assessed options. If included, overheads should be calculated similarly for all options (e.g. as a percentage of net investment
cost).
Section 2.2 provides more information on what defines a simplified CBA.
The major outcome of the preliminary screening / option analysis is the identification of a technically feasible option (or a
shortlist of feasible options) that is in line with relevant strategies, policies and legislative requirements.
When the project is small – or when it is ‘simple’ because similar projects have already been carried out many times and
benchmarks of typical economic performance are available – a preliminary, simplified, EA is generally sufficient to be able to
select from the list of feasible alternatives a single preferred option that will be subject to evaluation for financing (20). Based
on the results of this analysis, project evaluators should have enough information to take the decision with a good degree of
confidence (see step 4).
It is the responsibility of Member States to define at the national level what the financial threshold is that qualifies a project as
small.
19
This may not apply to all sectors/cases. For example, large transport infrastructures usually require the use of complex demand models that are already available at the option selection stage.
20
Or, if only one investment option is considered, to assess its economic viability and propose it for EU co-financing.
15
Step 3 – detailed business case: fully fledged economic appraisal (large/strategic projects only)
When the project is large and/or strategic (or when the initial results of the EA are not conclusive), the EA must be updated and
detailed at subsequent stages of development of the proposal, as more information becomes available.
In other words, as the project proposal is developed further and its estimated impacts are refined, project promoters are normally
expected to develop a more detailed EA as part of their business case. This could include:
- more accurate cost estimates resulting from additional detailed engineering work, more definitive project specification and
design, better information about conditions of planning approval or more detailed project scoping;
- more refined effect/benefit estimates from detailed market or service demand studies and a clearer definition of target
beneficiaries and other stakeholders;
- if CBA is used, a conversion of financial costs into the economic costs based on shadow prices;
- the inclusion of externalities (if not already quantified during the simplified EA).
A detailed business case is often used to assess, in depth, the merit of one project option, selected using the methodology
described in step 2. However, in less frequent cases, more options can also be developed in parallel at this stage.
Appraisals are often iterated a number of times before the project proposal is accepted in its final format and moved to
implementation (or a decision not to proceed to implementation is taken, as may be the case). In particular, it will usually be
important to review the impact of risks, uncertainties and inherent biases as project preparation proceeds.
This information helps to provide a reasonable understanding of whether, in the light of possible changing circumstances, the
proposed project is likely to continue to achieve net social benefit.
Step 4 – project (ranking), selection and financing

The results of the EA should be used by the project promoters to demonstrate the economic viability of the selected project
option ultimately proposed for financing. A decision-making or financing body should use such results to assess the quality of the
proposal and to instruct its decision on financing.
In addition, the results of the EA can be also used by a decision-making body to rank and prioritise competing projects in the
context of budgetary constraints.
It is worth noting, however, that the results of the EA would not be the only factor taken into account when taking an investment
decision (or when ranking and prioritising projects). Other aspects such as strategic relevance (national, regional, territorial or
sustainable urban development perspectives), technical feasibility, affordability, environmental sustainability, climate resilience,
legal compatibility, managerial capacity, etc., are also equally important (21).
1.3 Choice of tool

As illustrated in Section 1.1, the European Commission finances projects in a broad range of sectors, mainly (but not exclusively)
covering activities in which public (and private) investment is needed to enhance the supply of services in the context of ‘market
failures’, stemming, for example, from public goods, natural monopolies or externalities.
Depending on the type and sector of the investment, a range of EA methodologies could be considered.
CBA is the preferred approach for assessing public investment projects, as it offers a robust, objective and evidence-based
analytical framework for project evaluation. In the EU, it has been and it continues to be widely used across different policy
sectors and institutions as the main EA tool to identify welfare-maximising projects, subject to the resource constraints.
Conducting a CBA could be, however, a resource-intensive process and should be proportionate to the size, importance and/or
risk profile of the investment. Depending on the project’s scale, nature and/or data availability, a comprehensive CBA may not
always be recommended or even possible. In such cases, Least-Cost Analysis (LCA) or Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) could be
adopted as an alternative. A Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) could also be used as an alternative, even though it is more often used
as a complement to the other tools.
In brief, LCA and CEA are recommended when:
- decision-makers have previously agreed on a specific objective and wish to compare only those options that aim to meet the
same objective (e.g. the compliance-driven (22) projects in the environment sectors);
- there is only one project outcome (or the outcomes and the possible associated externalities are considered equivalent)
across options. For example when the project focuses merely on the choice of technology or is not a self-standing unit of
analysis, but a component within a larger investment that has already been subjected to CBA (e.g. an upgrade of information
technology systems) and performing another CBA would not provide any explanatory value.
In these cases, the project appraisal focuses on whether the project constitutes the cheapest (LCA) or the most cost-efficient
(CEA) alternative to supply a given good or service and to achieve the intended objective.
These aspects should always be properly assessed from the perspective of their informative value and legitimacy in the given circumstances; in case of doubts, quantified methods should take precedence over
21
more qualitative approaches.

22
Compliance-driven projects are those that aim to fulfil only the (minimum) technical standards and requirements specified in the EU legislation for certain types of activities. In the case of compliance-driven
projects, the EA results do not identify if the project should be implemented, but how.
16
MCA is typically used as an appraisal tool for structuring the option analysis during project preparation. MCA can be used to
screen strategic options at the preliminary stage of the project cycle. Once the strategic option is identified, a comparison of the
specific technical solutions can be carried out by means of a CBA or CEA/LCA. As discussed later in this document (Section 3.2),
the MCA approach is also used in the context of investment programmes with multiple objectives, as a tool to show the relevance
of project investments to overall strategic aims and policy objectives.
To sum up, the suitability of the tools for certain projects depends on the extent to which:
- the project produces multiple outputs (the greater the number of outputs, the more appropriate the application of CBA);
- these outputs can be measured and monetised (the easier an output is to monetise, the more feasible the use of CBA);
- the appraisal concerns a programme or an investment plan that includes several projects (this type of appraisal requires a
clear relationship with existing polices, and MCA is suitable in this case).
Chapters 2 and 3 (as well as the annexes in Part II of the EAV) give more precise indications about the scope of application of
the CBA (while remaining a voluntary option) and other tools.
Table 2 provides a framework for the potential use of EA tools across sectors/areas. The table is for guidance only and is not
exhaustive, as other investment areas may be deemed to be relevant in future EU policies. The choice of EA method depends
ultimately on specific circumstances and the data availability of each project.
17
Table 2. Suggested EA methods by investment area
Project type
Area Investment area
Small projects Large/strategic projects
Water and wastewater infrastructure
LCA/CEA CBA
(efficiency driven) (23)
Water and
Water and wastewater infrastructure
wastewater LCA/CEA LCA/CEA
(exclusively compliance driven)
Flood prevention Simplified CBA CBA
Transport infrastructure (all modes) (Simplified) CBA CBA
Transport infrastructure: compliance-driven
Transport CEA/MCA CEA/MCA
project (all modes)
New technology in transport CEA/MCA CBA/CEA/MCA
Disease prevention / treatment programmes /

CEA CEA
Healthcare new technology
Healthcare infrastructure Simplified CBA CBA

Research infrastructure Simplified CBA CBA
Research,
development Innovative manufacturing Simplified CBA/CEA CBA
and innovation
Tertiary education Simplified CBA CBA
CEA with integration of

Electricity generation CBA
externalities
Renewable
energy

Heat generation CBA
externalities

Energy efficiency in buildings and plants CBA
Energy externalities
efficiency CEA with integration of
District heating CBA
externalities
Broadband infrastructure Simplified CBA CBA
Digital
economy Depending on the area of
ICT services (data centres, e-services, etc.) CEA
application
Municipal
Collection, transport, recovery, recycling,
waste CEA CBA
treatment and disposal of solid waste
management
Integrated territorial investment schemes or MCA (including simplified MCA (including detailed
Sustainable
community-led local development schemes, CBA/CEA for individual CBA/CEA for individual
urban
programmes in cluster development and large projects in given large projects in given
development
urban regeneration programmes sectors) sectors)
1.4 Difference from financial appraisal

Unlike EA, financial appraisal is carried out from the viewpoint of the project promoter and aims to assess the profitability of
the investment (i.e. the extent to which the project net revenues (24) are able to pay back the initial investment), as well as the
sustainability of the operations.
23
NB: Projects that have a mix of efficiency- and compliance-driven elements (in practice this is usual) should follow this line.
24
Revenues are determined by the forecasts of the quantity of goods/services provided and their price, in the form of fees, tariffs or charges to users. The underlying concept defining a revenue is that ‘it is a
payment against a service’. In turn, payments received from upper level institutions/authorities to cover operational deficits and to ensure operations’ sustainability are to be considered as subsidies and therefore
not included in the calculation of the return on investment.
18
The building blocks of financial appraisal have many elements in common with EA, in particular project costs. In
addition, when CBA is used as an EA tool, the assessment of the project’s financial profitability (return on investment) outlines
the cash flows that underpin the calculation of the socioeconomic costs and benefits.
However, economic and financial appraisals differ in the scope, the basis for valuation of the costs and benefits (e.g. financial
appraisal does not consider non-cash flow items such as externalities) and the discount rate used (see Box 2).
The financial net present value on investment and the financial rate of return on investment are two indicators used to measure
the project’s profitability. When the former is positive and the latter is larger than the discount rate, the project is financially
viable.
In general, a project that is not financially viable needs a redesign or additional sources of funding such as grants and subsidies.
By contrast, a financially profitable project should preferably be supported with other forms of financing (e.g. loans).
As regards sustainability of operations, a project is financially sustainable if the cumulated cash flow (i.e. cash in hand at the end
of the year) is positive (or nil) for all of the years considered for operations.
For the methodology on how to carry out the analysis of financial profitability within the CBA, see Section 2.7 of the 2014 CBA
guide.
Box 2. Financial discount rate

The financial discount rate (FDR) defines the cost of capital and is used as a reference to decide whether the project is financially worth
undertaking or not. Two main approaches exist in the practice of calculating the FDR.
A commonly used approach consists of estimating the actual cost of capital in a given industry/sector. Following this approach, the FDR
is intended as an indicator of (minimum) expected profitability of a business and it can be estimated based on the weighted average
capital cost (WACC) approach. The use of WACC as the FDR is considered appropriate because it integrates a risk premium into the
expected return for new investments in a given sector. That is, the WACC is taken as a reference for comparison with the return an investor
would have if it invested in that business. As general rule, the WACC values to be used should be those officially set at the national level by
the regulating authority for those (sub)sectors where this is available. In other cases (e.g. partial sector coverage and unregulated sectors),
alternative rates can be proposed by other planning authorities on the basis of a robust justification and a clear methodology. When the
nature of the investment is so specific that it can be considered a ‘self-standing sector’ with regard to the context in which it operates,
company-specific WACCs can be proposed directly by project promoters.
Another approach consists of estimating the opportunity cost of capital for an economy as a whole. In this case, the FDR can be
proxied by the latest long-term interest rates of national government bonds (or by the long-term returns of an international portfolio of
investments).
In the context of EU co-financed projects, both approaches are acceptable. The WACC is more frequently used in private investments, and
the opportunity cost of capital in the public ones. Member States can assess their own country-specific FDR(s), provided that adherence to
State aid rules is respected. It is Member States’ responsibility to provide clear indications of what FDR applies to their beneficiaries in order
to ensure a consistent application to all sectors and projects concerned.
19
1 2. 2. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
2.1 Introduction
CBA is an analytical tool used to assess the economic advantages or disadvantages of an investment decision by quantifying the
welfare changes attributable to its implementation. It aims to quantify all benefits and costs for society in monetary terms. These
include economic, social and environmental impacts. It was a compulsory tool in the 2014–2020 programming period for major
projects financed by the European Regional Development Fund or the Cohesion Fund and is a voluntary tool in the 2021–2027
programming period with the necessary contextual adjustments.
Chapter 2 of the 2014 CBA guide discusses in detail the CBA general analytical framework, its working rules and operational
steps. The EAV focuses, therefore, only on the new or specified provisions compared with what is stated in the 2014 CBA guide.
This concerns the following:
- what defines a simplified CBA;

- parameters: a more flexible approach to setting the reference period than the requirements of the 2014–2020
programming period and the proposal for a social discount rate (SDR);
- topics not specifically/fully addressed in the 2014 CBA guide: how to treat wider, induced and indirect effects,
sunk costs and in-kind contributions, as well as how to reduce the risk of overestimating operating costs and how
climate change vulnerability assessment fits into EA;
- new developments/updates compared with the 2014 CBA guide: residual value, shadow prices of selected
inputs, climate change mitigation, ranking of projects based on the performance indicators and stakeholder engagement.
2.2 Simplified cost–benefit analysis
As discussed in Section 1.2, at the preliminary stage the EA can be regarded as ‘simplified’, as it is based on rough, indicative
estimates of costs and benefits.
If CBA is adopted as the EA method, a typical simplification at this stage consists of the use of financial costs (based on market
prices) instead of economic costs (based on shadow prices). As the calculation of economic costs can be resource intensive, the
conversion of market prices is not always necessary in a simplified CBA (25).
In addition, when the project options are expected to have similar externalities, in terms of both typology and volume, their
inclusion in the analysis can be skipped and replaced by a descriptive, qualitative assessment (26).
2.3 Parameters
Reference period
The number of years for which cost and benefit forecasts are provided corresponds to the project’s reference period.
The CPR for 2021–2027 no longer includes binding reference periods per sector, as was the case in the past regulation (see
Annex I of Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No 480/2014)(27).
The reference period should correspond to the project’s economic life to allow its likely long-term impacts to unfold. In other
words, CBA projections must be long enough to capture all significant costs and benefits of the project. The project’s economic life
is defined as the expected time during which the project remains useful (i.e. capable of providing goods/services) to the promoter.
The economic life of an asset could be different from its actual physical life. For example, a technology product can be in optimal
physical condition but not anymore economically useful to the promoter as it became obsolete.
When a project includes assets with different economic lives, a good practice is to set the reference period as the value-weighted
average lifetime of these assets. This, however, should generally be restricted to a reasonable time limit of future forecastability
of the net future economic cash flows, usually no longer than 50 years.
The reference period should include the years of both investment and operations (and decommissioning, when relevant).
Since the choice of the reference period affects the EA results (usually, the longer the reference period, the higher the economic
performance), the project evaluators should check that the assumptions made on the project’s economically useful life are
realistic and justified. In this regard, it might be helpful to refer to standard benchmarks that are nationally or internationally
accepted, and differentiated by sector. The sector annexes in Part II of the EAV provide some useful indications in this regard.
25
However, when predefined conversion factors per cost item are made available in national guidelines, the conversion process is smooth and can already be adopted in a simplified CBA. Or, if VAT on construction
cost is already known at the preliminary stage, it can be easily simply dropped off in the simplified CBA.
26
However, when unit values are made available in the economic literature, as this is the case particularly for the transport sector, the valuation of externalities can be already integrated in a simplified CBA.
27
Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No 480/2014 of 3 March 2014 supplementing Regulation (EU) No 1303/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down common provisions on the
European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund, the Cohesion Fund, the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development and the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund and laying down
general provisions on the European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund, the Cohesion Fund and the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/
PDF/?uri=CELEX:02014R0480-20150511&from=EN).
20
Social discount rate

Costs and benefits occurring at different times should be discounted using the SDR.
The SDR reflects the long-term opportunity cost of resources for society as a whole. The SDR is used in EA to recognise that
consumers have an intertemporal preference to consume goods and services from the use of resources that are scarce and often
competing. In other words, the resources allocated to one project have other potential uses, which are forgone.
Different approaches have been proposed in the literature to estimate the SDR. The approach recommended here is the social
rate of time preference (SRTP) (28).
The Member States can assess their own country-specific SDRs following the formula presented in Annex II of the 2014 CBA
guide (29) and taking into account the following recommendations.
- Issues related to systemic risk and optimism bias should be reflected not in the SDR but in the risk
assessment. Systemic risks lead to a reduction in the value of the expected benefits if these benefits are positively
correlated with a macroeconomic scenario. Rather than adjusting the discount rate, systemic risks can be handled in the
EA by accounting them directly into the net benefits’ streams and testing the robustness of the project’s performance
against changes in the main assumptions. This can be done by using base case values to be further tested in sensitivity
analysis. Additional project risks including option bias should be addressed in a (qualitative and/or quantitative) risk
assessment in line with Section 2.8 of the 2014 CBA guide.
- The SDR can decline over the reference period in projects with very long-term impacts. In the economic
literature, there is some empirical support for the view that constant discounting is inconsistent with consumers’
preferences. That is, in facing the decision between a smaller reward soon and a larger reward later, individuals would
apply a lower discount rate in the long term. Time-inconsistent preferences would therefore justify using an SDR that
declines over time. While the rationale for such an assumption is clear, the approach suggested here is that the SDR
remains stable over the reference period. In most cases, the benefits and the costs arise during a limited number of
years. That is, the reference period is ‘short’ enough to justify the use of a single SDR and to calculate the economic net
present value (ENPV) with a negligible margin of error. Only projects with very long-term impacts (e.g. beyond 50 years),
involving intergenerational equity considerations, should adopt declining discount rates.
- The SDR should not vary across sectors based on policy considerations. Sector-specific rates would imply that
one project or sector has a higher opportunity cost than another, which is not consistent with the social rate of time
preference-based approach.
In this regard, a forthcoming publication (Catalano et al., 2021) presents estimations of the SDR at the national level for a sample
of countries and can be a useful reference. Based on their calculations with updated data (including forecasts of economic growth
rates), the SDR would currently range from a maximum of 8.13 % for Estonia to 0.80 % for Italy (calculated following the SRTP
method), with an EU average of 3.6 % and a median value of 2.8 %.
As a matter of simplification, in the absence of national values, 3 % SDR can be taken as a reference point for EU-funded projects
in 2021–2027.
Finally, it is worth noting that the EA is usually carried out in constant (real) prices (i.e. with prices fixed at a base year). When the
analysis is carried out at constant prices, the SDR should be expressed in real terms.
2.4 Topics not (fully) addressed in the 2014 CBA guide
Wider, induced and indirect effects

CBA is typically a microeconomic approach enabling the assessment of the project’s first-level impacts on users and other
stakeholders of a given catchment area. This implies that:
- wider impacts achieved through the multiplier effect (e.g. contributions to regional gross domestic product or unemployment
rates) should be excluded from the analysis because they are usually transformed, redistributed and/or capitalised forms of
the direct effects already captured in the CBA;
- induced impacts on local economies should also be excluded because of possible displacement effects; for example, an
increase of business activities in the project area can be matched by an equal decrease elsewhere (30);
- indirect impacts on complementary markets (e.g. cost savings achieved by the promoter’s suppliers, distributors, etc.) can be
included, when relevant and provided that they are not already captured in the shadow prices of the project’s inputs and/or
outputs.
Historical costs
The initial investment cost consists of capital expenditures (CAPEX) for all fixed and non-fixed assets occurring during the
implementation period. In the case of historical costs (i.e. expenditure already incurred before the start of the analysis), the
approach recommended in the EAV is to include them in the analysis (i.e. they should not be considered sunk costs). Historical
costs should be capitalised (using an average inflation rate based on the consumer price index) and included in the first year of
the reference period.
28
This is defined as the rate at which the consumers are willing to postpone a unit of current consumption in exchange for more future consumption.
29
SRTP = p + e × g, where p is the pure time preference, e is the elasticity of the marginal utility of consumption (i.e. the percentage change in individuals’ marginal utility corresponding to each percentage change
in consumption) and g is the expected growth rate of per capita consumption. As an example, evidence of the empirical estimation of the SDR for 20 European countries is presented in Florio (2014).
30
Unless boosting a given geographical area/region is itself an objective of the project. 21
The rationale is that, in the context of EU co-financed projects, the main question is not ‘should the project be continued?’, as
this would matter in, for example, the case of purely private investments. Instead, the question is ‘do the expected net benefits
justify an investment that is paid with EU taxpayers’ money?’. In this regard, to protect EU taxpayers’ interests, the analysis of a
project’s economic viability should focus on the whole investment cost (31).
In-kind contributions
In-kind contributions supplied during either implementation or operation periods should be included in the analysis at (at least)
their market value, even if they do not correspond to an actual financial cash flow.
Operating costs benchmarking

Whenever the investment is operated in house (i.e. there is no competition for selecting the operator), there is a major risk that
the operation and maintenance (O&M) costs are overdue. This, in turn, reduces the economic performance of the project. To
reduce this risk, the proposed O&M costs should always be checked against sectoral ‘best benchmarks’, which can be effectively
reached through revised concession contracts between the public entities and the in-house operators, built on performance-
based provisions.
Climate risk assessment and adaptation to climate change

The climate risk assessment provides a structured method of analysing relevant climate hazards and their related impacts to
provide information for decision-making in relation to the proposed investment. Any potential significant risks to the project due
to climate change should be managed and reduced to an acceptable level by relevant and commensurate adaptation measures.
Different adaptation measures should be assessed to find the right measure or mix of measures or even to consider deferred
implementation timings (flexible/adaptive measures) that can be implemented to reduce the risk to an acceptable level. The
selected measure(s) should then be integrated into the project design and/or its operation to enhance its climate resilience. Their
costs (either CAPEX or operating expenses (OPEX)) are entered as inputs (outflows) into the EA of the project.
The European Commission’s technical guidance on the climate proofing of infrastructure in 2021–2027 provides detailed
guidance on how to carry out a climate risk assessment (32).
2.5 Updates and developments
Shadow prices for selected projects’ inputs

According to the CBA guiding principles, cost items should be valued at their opportunity cost. The suggested approach is to
convert them into shadow prices. The method generally used is to apply a set of conversion factors (CFs) to the project financial
costs. In principle, CFs should be made available at the national level by a planning office and not calculated on a project-by-
project basis.
In practice, however, distortions in investment projects in Europe are not so substantial; therefore, for most elements, it can be
assumed that their shadow pricing corresponds to market prices.
Thus, when national parameters are not available, the default rule is that market prices equal shadow prices (i.e. CF = 1), with
the exception of the items illustrated in Table 3. Labour, land, utilities and commodities are those items most frequently affected
by market distortions, which an analysis of their opportunity cost is always recommended for.
Table 3. Shadow prices for selected projects’ inputs
Item Why? Shadow price method

In the presence of unemployment, without the project, unskilled
Labour workers could remain unemployed or employed in worse Shadow wage
economic conditions
Land can be expropriated by the public sector at a price different

Land Market value
from the market value or given for free to project promoters
To boost a given industry/sector or to attract investments,

businesses can profit from subsidised prices to purchase
Utilities Long-run marginal cost
electricity, gas and water. Energy prices are also frequently
distorted by taxes and externalities
Commodities imported Duties or quotas on imports can be introduced to protect
Border price
from outside the EU domestic markets
31
Some (marginal) exceptions may apply in the case of minor investment items that occurred in the very distant past, for instance feasibility studies that become outdated or the purchase of land that cannot be
recovered and therefore its opportunity cost is close to zero.
32
European Commission (2021), Technical guidance on the climate proofing of infrastructure in the period 2021-2027, C(2021) 5430 final, European Commission, Brussels (https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/default/
files/adaptation/what/docs/climate_proofing_guidance_en.pdf).
22
Residual value
When the reference period is set equal to the project’s economic life the residual value is normally zero. However, in cases in
which, at the end of the reference period, some assets/components are still economically useful or there is a market for their
resale, a residual value benefit may be included in the last year of analysis.
As regards the estimation of the residual value, unlike in 2014–2020, the method of using the remaining cash flow after the end
of the reference period is no longer suggested as the preferred option. This is because of the current recommendation to set the
reference period equal to the total economically useful life of the project (the two approaches are mutually exclusive, as they
generate the same result).
The recommended approach is therefore to calculate the remaining value of the assets/components based on a standard
accounting depreciation formula (book value).
In the case of projects with a very long economically useful life, however, it might not be convenient to show forecasts for their
entire economic life (e.g. if this exceeds 50 years). In this case, the reference period can be shortened for the convenience of
presentation and the residual value can be added and estimated as the (discounted) remaining cash flow of costs and benefits.
Climate change mitigation

The methodology for the quantification of a project’s impact on climate remains the one that was recommended in the 2014
CBA guide. The methodology consists in estimating, through appropriate emission factors, the net GHG emissions generated or
avoided by the project compared with a baseline scenario. The resulting amount of generated/avoided GHG emissions in tonnes
of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) should be valued in monetary terms with a shadow price of carbon (in Euro per tonne of
CO2e) (33).
In line with the EC technical guidance on the climate proofing of infrastructure in 2021–2027 (34), it is recommend to use as
shadow cost of carbon the values recently established by the EIB as the best available evidence on the cost of meeting
the temperature goal of the Paris agreement (i.e. the 1.5 ⁰C target) (35) (Table 4).
Table 4. Recommended shadow cost of carbon for 2020–2050 (*)
Year EUR / t CO2e Year EUR / t CO2e Year EUR / t CO2e Year EUR / t CO2e
2020 80 2030 250 2040 525 2050 800
2021 97 2031 278 2041 552
2022 114 2032 306 2042 579
2023 131 2033 334 2043 606
2024 148 2034 362 2044 633
2025 165 2035 390 2045 660
2026 182 2036 417 2046 688
2027 199 2037 444 2047 716
2028 216 2038 471 2048 744
2029 233 2039 498 2049 772

(*) Prices in Euro 2016
Source: DG CLIMA (2021)
Project ranking
The project’s overall socioeconomic performance is measured by the following indicators:
- ENPV – this is the difference between discounted total social benefit and social cost, valued at shadow prices, and is
expressed in monetary values;
- ERR – this is the SDR producing a zero value of the ENPV and is expressed in percentage points;
- benefit/cost (B/C) ratio – this is the ratio between discounted economic benefits and costs.
The project is economically viable when the ENPV is positive, the ERR is larger than the SDR and the B/C ratio is greater than 1.
33
In case of projects that offset emissions through the purchase of emission permits, including cap and trade (such as the European Emission Trading System), care should be paid to avoid any double counting.
For example, increase of emissions can be offset by purchasing emission permits, which result in net zero emissions. In other words, CBA has to discriminate between situations where there are offsets and where
there are not.
34
See footnote 30.
35
In 2020, the EIB was engaged in a review of the latest evidence on the cost of carbon, in particular drawing from modelling results that formed the basis of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special
Report on Global Warming of 1.5 ⁰C. In the light of the Paris Agreement, the review of the EIB’s carbon pricing approach focused on the full cost of the marginal measure required to drive the economy to meet the
1.5 ⁰C global temperature target (abatement cost approach; see https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-eib-group-climate-bank-roadmap).
23
As illustrated in Annex XI of the 2014 CBA guide, each indicator has its own particular merit, pros and cons. In this respect, the
choice of economic indicator to be used for selecting options (or when ranking alternative projects) depends on the circumstances.
When comparing options within a single investment proposal, usually the better performing option has both a larger ENPV and a
larger ERR than the option performing less well. There might be, however, some (infrequent) cases in which, owing to the different
scales of the options, one has a larger ENPV but a smaller ERR than the other. In such a case, it is suggested that the ERR is used
because it would (usually) allow the promoter to save resources that could be reused for additional investments (36).
In ranking alternative projects from a group, if there is a constraint on the number of projects that can be financed, then the ENPV
should be used as the default indicator. By contrast, in the more frequent case of projects competing under budget constraints,
the ENPV becomes less relevant (because it is biased towards more expensive projects) and the ERR is the preferred option,
provided that it can be calculated for all projects.
Owing to its limitations, it is not recommended to use the B/C ratio to rank options/projects (37).
Stakeholder engagement
Stakeholder engagement (SE) is the process of identifying and incorporating stakeholder concerns, needs and values in
the decision-making process. The overall goal is to achieve a transparent decision-making process with greater input from
stakeholders and their support on the decisions that will be taken. To secure successful project implementation and
operations, stakeholders should be involved during the process of project preparation following a participatory
approach. The advantages of SE include an increase in the reliability and legitimacy of the public administration, an increase
in the sense of social responsibility among local communities related to the project, an increase in social equity and a decrease
in barriers.
As discussed in Section 2.8.10 of the 2014 CBA guide, stakeholder identification and an analysis of the distributional effects of the
project are useful complements to the results of the CBA, helping to meet the objective of putting into practice a clear decision-
making process with a strong involvement of stakeholders to support the project decision. In operational terms, a matrix can be
developed, linking each project impact with the sectors and the stakeholders affected by such impacts.
While traditional CBA does not explicitly consider SE in its computation, there are some recent developments in this field
attempting to monetise the costs and benefits of SE (e.g. the cost of engaging stakeholders (events, negotiations, etc.) and the
benefits of their participation) (38).
36
The option with the larger ERR, usually, has a smaller investment cost than the option with the larger ENPV.
37
As discussed in Annex XI of the 2014 CBA guide, the B/C ratio is sensitive to the classification of the project effects as benefits rather than costs. It is relatively common to have project effects that can be treated
both as benefits and as cost reductions and the converse. As the B/C ratio rewards projects with low costs, considering a positive effect as a cost reduction rather than a benefit would result in only an artificial
improvement of the indicator.
38
One of the first attempts proposed in the international literature related to the introduction of SE within CBA was that of Pagliara and Di Ruocco (2018). In this paper, the authors recomputed all of the costs and
benefits of the Turin–Lyon high-speed rail project following an ex post approach. They demonstrated how the monetisation of the costs and benefits of SE could provide a way forward in project evaluation.
24
3. OTHER ECONOMIC APPRAISAL TOOLS

2 OTHER ECONOMIC APPRAISAL TOOLS
3.1 Least-cost and cost-effectiveness analyses
CEA is used to compare two or more project options in relation to their effectiveness and life-cycle costs in accomplishing a
single policy-specific objective. By combining information on effectiveness and costs, the project promoter can determine which
investment option provides the best effect at the lowest cost (or, conversely, which option provides the highest effect for a given
cost). In this respect, CEA can take the forms of cost minimisation or effect maximisation.
Like CBA, CEA is a method used for the evaluation of a project’s effects at the microeconomic level. CEA differs from CBA because
it does not evaluate the benefits in monetary terms. This is based on the assumption that all options considered are
technically and economically viable and deliver the same single typology output (or process the same single type
of input) even if in different intensities/volumes.
Table 5 reviews the differences between CBA and CEA in terms of the inclusion and treatment of the main project’s cash flow
items.
Table 5. Differences between CBA and CEA
Cash flow items CBA CEA

CAPEX Yes (shadow price) Yes (market price)
OPEX Yes (shadow price) Yes (market price)
Residual value Yes (shadow price) Yes (market price)
Revenues No (*) Yes (market price) (**)
Outputs / direct effects Yes (in monetary terms) Yes (in quantitative terms only)
Externalities Yes No (***)
(*) Unless not used as a proxy of willingness to pay for the services rendered by the project.
(**) However, when there is only one revenue and this reflects cost-based fees following regulatory considerations, its inclusion can be omitted as not affecting
the results of the comparison.
(***) In the energy sector, however, it is common practice to quantify in monetary terms air pollutants and GHG emissions and include them in the CEA ratio.
If the options achieve the same output with the same intensity/volume, they differ only in costs, and the CEA can be simplified to
an LCA, whereby options are compared based only on the present value of their life-cycle costs.
CEA usually aims to identify the possible alternatives for achieving a set goal and the related costs, and to choose the most
effective option. That is, it allows us to choose which one among several alternatives is most cost-effective, but it does not
tell us if an alternative is worthwhile in some absolute sense. In other words, unlike CBA, CEA cannot indicate if the preferred
option provides a net benefit to society. Therefore, it is always useful to compare the results of the analysis with established
benchmarks to verify that the chosen option meets the generally acceptable cost performance criteria.
When an option is both more effective and less costly than the alternative, it is said to ‘dominate’ the alternative. In this situation,
there is no need to calculate cost-effectiveness ratios, because the decision on the strategy to choose is obvious.
However, in most circumstances, the option under examination is simultaneously more (or less) costly and more (or less) effective
than the alternative(s). In this situation, cost-effectiveness ratios allow appraisers to rank the options, eliminate those
whose cost-effectiveness ratio is higher than others and then identify the optimal option.
The ‘levelised cost’ concept is often used to assess the project’s cost-effectiveness.
The levelised cost is a life-cycle cost indicator, commonly used to gauge long-run unit costs. It is calculated as the ratio of
the present value of the total (capital, operating, replacement and decommissioning, if relevant) costs over the entire project
reference period to the present value of the total amount of output produced over the same time horizon (39).
When the project does not generate revenue, and all options have the same economic lifetime, the levelised cost can be used
directly as a cost-effectiveness ratio. This is the most common application of the CEA for EA.
On the other hand, when the project options are revenue generating, and when the reference period is not equal to the economic
lifetime of the asset, revenues and residual value must be calculated and included in the analysis.
39
This is the simplest and most commonly used definition of levelised cost based on financial items (market prices). In some cases, in particular in the energy sector, it is possible to calculate levelised costs based
on economic items (shadow prices), which are also a factor in the margin cost of externalities.
25
The cost-effectiveness ratio can therefore be calculated by the following formula:
𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡= 𝑛𝑛
𝑡𝑡= 𝑖𝑖 ( 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡= 𝑛𝑛
𝑡𝑡= 1 ( 𝑄𝑄 𝑖𝑖)
where:
CFi is the discounted sum of CAPEX + O&M (40) – revenue – residual value

Qi is the discounted changes in outputs (quantity).
Finally, this indicator can also easily be adapted to incorporate key economic externalities (e.g. carbon dioxide and air pollutant
emissions), when these differ substantially between the options appraised. When this indicator is negative, externalities can be
included as costs in the numerator of the formula (41).
The CEA methodology is often used in the economic evaluation of healthcare programmes, but it can also be used to assess
some education and environmental projects. For these examples, simple CEA ratios are used, such as the cost per student,
cost per unit of emission reduction, cost per unit of water, wastewater or waste treated, and so on.
CEA is less helpful when a money value can also be given to the benefits, not just to the costs. In addition, CEA cannot be used
to compare projects or programmes with several different outcomes or objectives that are not directly comparable.
To sum up, CEA is a practical tool for project comparison when the following conditions apply:
- the project produces only one output that is homogeneous and easily measurable;
- the aim of the project is to achieve the output at minimal cost;
- costs can be completely assessed for each alternative (i.e. hidden costs are more or less irrelevant);
- there is a wide range of benchmarks to verify that the chosen technology meets the minimum cost performance requirements.
3.2 Multi-criteria analysis
The MCA methodology can be useful at both programme and project levels.
At the project level, it is recommended to consider the MCA as a tool to complement CBA, CEA and/or LCA, for example to compare
project strategic options (see Section 1.3). This practice was already recommended and used during the 2014–2020 MFF for
the appraisal of major projects. The use of simple MCA as a tool for the analysis of options in project appraisal is described in
Annex IX of the 2014 CBA guide, as well as in Chapter 9 of The economic appraisal of investment projects at the EIB (EIB, 2013a),
and is not repeated here.
This section provides additional practical indications on how to perform an MCA at the programme level, where it is advisable to
use a policy-led MCA (PLMCA) (42).
A PLMCA could be used to assess multisectoral territorial programmes (e.g. regional transition and urban development
programmes) or to prioritise and select projects within a given policy area or projects that have multiple sites/objectives (e.g.
smart specialisation or integrated programmes dealing with climate change). At such programme levels, PLMCA can provide a
clear record of the decision-making process, which is particularly useful when projects need to be prioritised from a larger pool of
alternatives. PLMCA assigns scores based on a process that starts with the highest level objectives informed by existing policies,
and it illustrates the steps taken to reach the final decision. Annex X of Part II of the EAV provides an example of a PLMCA used
to assess an urban regeneration programme.
PLMCA aims to provide a sound basis for programme/investment plan evaluation by referencing an explicit set of objectives that
decision-makers have identified on the basis of existing policies (at local, regional, national, EU and other international levels).
Decision-makers establish both measurable criteria and proxy indicators to assess the extent to which the objectives are likely
to be met.
There are many ways to design a PLMCA exercise. However, a ‘typical’ approach (e.g. the one shown in Annex X of Part II of the
EAV) usually comprises some standardised steps:
- Problem structuring. This step defines the context in which the programme takes place, the stakeholders’ standpoints that
are to be considered and the definition of the overarching policy framework and associated objectives to enable decision-
making. These objectives should not be redundant, but could be competing (the achievement of one objective could partly
preclude the achievement of another). The decision-makers should assign a weighting to each objective in order to reflect its
relative importance. It is highly desirable that the definition of the policy objectives is guided by reference to international,
national and local policy goals alongside secondary information sources. Within a given policy area (transport, environment,
urban development, etc.), typical objectives refer to institutional, social, territorial, environmental, technical, financial and
40
This includes replacement costs.
41
In this case, the CEA embraces some aspects typical of CBA (i.e. the monetary evaluation of externalities) and can be regarded as an ‘in between’ methodology or a simplified CBA. This approach applies in particular
to energy investments.
42
The PLMCA tool represents the output of a holistic and consistent approach to the appraisal of programmes by aligning programme objectives with policy and identifying qualitative and quantitative criteria/
indicators for measuring performance objectives.
26
economic dimensions.
- Model building. Once the policy framework and the set of objectives have been determined, a technique should be defined
to aggregate information and to make an informed choice. This step focuses on defining, for each objective, a number of
appraisal criteria or indicators. Appraisal criteria or indicators can be qualitative or quantitative and they can refer to the
priorities pursued by the different parties involved or to particular evaluation aspects. When relevant, minimum thresholds
can be set for some criteria for the programme to be accepted.
- Analysis of impact and programme performance. This step involves forecasting, for each of the objectives, the impact
produced by the programme. All of the decision-makers must decide by consensus the scores that determine the performance
in relation to each objective. It is important to note that application of the model is likely to include the consideration of both
quantitative and qualitative aspects of performance, including, where feasible, outputs from CBAs (43). This process requires
that the decision-makers review together how the programme delivers under each aspect represented by the columns in the
PLMCA model.
- Reporting results. Scores under each objective are then aggregated to give a total score for the proposal as a whole (all
dimensions considered). The results of the appraisal may either inform a decision directly or result in the need for further
iteration (e.g. to adjust problem definition or the nature and weights applied to the objectives) and/or sensitivity testing.
To sum up, MCA is particularly suitable at the programme level to evaluate different investment configurations/scenarios, which
may need to be supplemented with further economic analysis at the project level (CBA or CEA/LCA). Its key benefit is the appraisal
of territorial investment programmes including those with cross-cutting objectives, such as smart specialisation plans, to set the
framework for the individual investment projects. Such programmes pose a challenge if appraised using CBA/CEA methodologies
because they cut across sectors and involve many dimensions (economic, technological, territorial, etc.).
The main limitation of MCA arises when assigning weights and allocating scores because of the potential discretion/subjectivity.
Rules and good practices can be established to mitigate these shortcomings. For example, one good practice involves setting up
focus groups to bring together the project’s stakeholders in order to achieve a consensus on weightings and scores to be assigned
to the objectives (as well as the programme objectives themselves).
Annex X of Part II of the EAV lists risks and potential remedies in the context of MCA.
43
For example, the B/C ratio may be one criterion and a minimum value may be required. In this way, the CBA result is fully integrated into the MCA. Where CBA is not part of the MCA, capital and operating costs
are important criteria. Similarly, not only policy objectives but also technical feasibility and risk criteria are often set, which may also have minimum thresholds.
27
APPENDIX I. Overview of existing cost–benefit analysis national guidance
Country Sector Subsector Title of the guidance document Source

Requirements for Preparation of CBA in Transport
Bulgaria Transport http://www.rail-infra.bg/
Sector
Croatia Transport Road, rail Smjernice za CBA za projekte prometnica i željeznica
Manual for pre-selection and appraisal of public http://www.dgepcd.gov.
Cyprus General
investment projects cy/dgepcd/dgepcd.nsf/
Rezortní metodika pro hodnocení ekonomické
Road, rail, Inland efektivnosti projektu dopravních staveb – schváleno https://www.sfdi.cz/pravidla-
Czechia Transport
Waterways Ministerstvem dopravy dne 31.10.2017, aktualizace metodiky-a-ceniky/metodiky/
CBA tabulek schválena 24.9.2019
Practical Tools for Value Transfer in Denmark –
Denmark Topic specific https://www2.mst.dk/udgiv/
Guidelines and an example
https://norden.diva-portal.org/
Denmark Transport Cycling CBA of Cycling smash/get/diva2:702237/
FULLTEXT01.pdf
https://www.strategie.gouv.
fr/sites/strategie.gouv.fr/
Guide de l’évaluation socioéconomique des files/atoms/files/fs-guide-
France General
investissements publics evaluation-socioeconomique-
des-investissements-
publics-04122017_web.pdf
Fiches outils du référentiel d’évaluation des projets https://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/
France Transport All
de transport evaluation-des-projets-transport
https://it.scribd.com/
document/243815417/CERTU-
Recommandations pour l’évaluation socio-
France Transport Public transport Recommandations-pour-l-
économique des projets de TCSP
evaluation-socio-economique-
des-projets-TCSP-pdf
https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/
DE/Publikationen/Studien/
Kosten-/Nutzen-Analyse von Instrumenten zur kosten-nutzen-analyse-von-
Energy
Germany Realisierung von Endenergieeinsparungen in instrumenten-zur-realisierung-
efficiency
Deutschland von-endenergieeinsparungen-
deutschland.pdf?__
blob=publicationFile&v=7
Leitfaden zur Kosten-Nutzen-Abschätzung
Legislation impact https://www.ecologic.eu/
Germany Environment umweltrelevanter Effekte in der
assessment de/11154
Gesetzesfolgenabschätzung
Standardisierte Bewertung von
Germany Transport Regional/local PT Verkehrswegeinvestitionen im schienengebundenen https://www.intraplan.de/
ÖPNV – Version 2016 – Intraplan Consult GmbH
https://www.bmvi.de/
Major transport Methodology manual for the federal transport SharedDocs/EN/Documents/G/
Germany Transport
projects infrastructure plan 2030 methodology-manual-for-the-
ftip-2030.html
Módszertani útmutató TOP és VEKOP területi
Hungary General kiválasztási eljárásrendű projektek költség-haszon https://www.ozd.hu/content/
elemzéséhez
Módszertani útmutató egyes közlekedési projektek https://www.palyazat.gov.hu/
Hungary Transport Road, rail
költség-haszon elemzéséhez node/54834
https://www.gov.ie/en/
Public Spending Code – A guide to economic
Ireland General publication/public-spending-
appraisal: carrying out a cost benefit analysis
code/
Public Spending Code Supplementary Guidance – https://www.gov.ie/en/
Ireland Topic specific Measuring & valuing changes in greenhouse gas publication/public-spending-
emissions in economic appraisals code/
https://igees.gov.ie/wp-content/
Ireland Topic specific Central Technical Appraisal Parameters uploads/2019/07/Parameters-
Paper-Final-Version.pdf
Ireland Transport Roads Project Appraisal Guidelines for National Roads https://www.tiipublications.ie/
28
https://www.gov.ie/
en/organisation-
Ireland Transport All Common Appraisal Framework
information/800ea3-common-
appraisal-framework/
https://www.gov.ie/
2016 guidelines on a common appraisal framework en/organisation-
Ireland Transport All
for transport projects and programmes information/800ea3-common-
appraisal-framework/
https://www.invitalia.it/
chi-siamo/area-media/
Guida all’analisi costi-benefici dei progetti notizie-e-comunicati-stampa/
Italy General
d’investimento fondi-europei-online-la-guida-
all-analisi-costi-benefici-dei-
progetti-di-investimento
https://www.mit.gov.it/
Linee guida per la valutazione degli investimenti sites/default/files/media/
Italy Transport All in opera pubbliche nei settori di competenza del notizia/2017-07/Linee%20
Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti Guida%20Val%20OO%20
PP_01%2006%202017.pdf
https://www.mit.gov.it/
sites/default/files/media/
Tabelle di sintesi dell’analisi della mobilità urbana/
Italy Transport Urban documentazione/2018-10/
ACE/ACB
Appendice%20
all%27ADDENDUM.pdf
Metodikos ir modelio, skirto įvertinti investicijų, http://www.ppplietuva.lt/wp-

finansuojamų europos sąjungos struktūrinių fondų content/uploads/2015/06/SNA_
Lithuania General
ir lietuvos nacionalinio biudžeto lėšomis, socialinį- metodika_galutine_ataskaita.
ekonominį poveikį, sukūrimas galutinė ataskaita pdf
https://eufunds.gov.mt/en/
Operational%20Programmes/
Useful%20Links%20and%20
Guidance manual for cost benefit analysis (CBAs)
Malta General Downloads/Documents/
appraisal in Malta
Guidance%20Manual%20
for%20CBAs%20Appraisal_
May2013.pdf
https://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/
files/downloads/pbl-cpb-2015-
Netherlands General General Guidance for Cost-Benefit Analysis
general-guidance-for-cost-
benefit-analysis_01512.pdf
https://www.finance-ni.gov.uk/
Northern Northern Ireland guide to expenditure appraisal and topics/finance/northern-ireland-
General
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and-evaluation-nigeae
Norway General Cost-Benefit Analysis https://www.regjeringen.no/
https://www.transport.nsw.gov.
au/projects/project-delivery-
Norway Transport Transport for NSW Cost-Benefit Analysis Guide requirements/evaluation-and-
assurance/transport-for-nsw-
cost-benefit
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Niebieska Księga Infrastruktura drogowa (Blue Book niebieskie-ksiegi-dla-projektow-
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Road Infrastructure) w-sektorze-transportu-
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Poland Transport Railways
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Poland Transport Public transport
miastach, aglomeracjach, regionach w-sektorze-transportu-
drogowej-oraz-kolejowej/
29
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Guidelines on issues relating to the preparation of
funduszeeuropejskie.gov.pl/
investment projects, including revenue generating
Poland General media/5193/NOWE_Wytyczne_
projects and hybrid projects for the period 2014–
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2020
podpisane.pdf
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Metodologie de analiză cost-beneficiu pentru
Water and metodologie-de-analiza-cost-
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wastewater beneficiu-pentru-investitiile-
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in-infrastructura-de-apa-si-
canalizare
Guidelines for cost benefit analysis of solid waste

projects to be supported by the Cohesion Fund and
Romania Environment Solid waste
the European Regional Development Fund in 2007–
2013
Romania general transport master plan, national http://www.mt.gov.ro/web14/
guide for transport project evaluation, Vol. 2 – documente/master_plan/
Romania Transport All
Appendix A: guidance on economic and financial cost Volume%202_Appendix%20A_
benefit analysis and risk analysis CBA%20Guidance_En.pdf
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air, prevention of Príručka k analýze nákladov a prínosov https://www.minzp.sk/files/iep/
Slovakia Environment
risks, remediation environmentálnych projektov cba_metodika.pdf
of polluted areas
https://www.opii.gov.sk/
Metodická príručka k tvorbe analýz výdavkov a
Slovakia Transport Road, rail metodicke-dokumenty/prirucka-
príjmov (CBA)
cba
http://www.
evaluaciondeproyectos.es/
Spain Transport All Economic evaluation of transport projects
EnWeb/Results/Manual/PDF/
EnManual.pdf
Economic principles and calculation values for the
Sweden Transport All
transportation sector: ASEK 6
https://assets.publishing.service.
gov.uk/government/uploads/
United The Green Book – Central government guidance on
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31
Economic Appraisal
Vademecum 2021-2027
Part II - Sector Applications
33
ACRONYMS
CAPEX capital expenditures

CBA cost–benefit analysis
CEA cost-effectiveness analysis
CO2 carbon dioxide
DALY disability-adjusted life year
EA economic appraisal
EAV Economic Appraisal Vademecum
EIB European Investment Bank
EPBD energy performance of buildings directive
ERR economic rate of return
ERTMS European rail traffic management system
ETCS European train control system
GDP gross domestic product
GHG greenhouse gas
GJ gigajoule
GSM-R global system for mobile communications for railway
GWh gigawatt-hour
IPTV internet protocol television
JASPERS Joint Assistance to Support Projects in European Regions
LCOE levelised cost of electricity
LCOH levelised cost of heat
LRMC long-run marginal cost
LUC levelised unit cost
Mbps megabits per second
MCA multi-criteria analysis
Mtoe million tonnes of oil equivalent
MWh megawatt-hour
MWhel megawatt-hour of electrical energy
NOx nitrogen oxides
NPV net present value
O&M operating and maintenance
OPEX operating expenses
PLMCA policy-led multi-criteria analysis
PM particulate matter
RES renewable energy source
RI research and innovation
SOx sulphur oxides
VOT value of time
WFD water framework directive
WTP willingness to pay
34
ANNEX I. RESEARCH AND INNOVATION
I.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the use of CBA for investments in Research and Innovation (R&I), a sector that is at the core
of the EU’s development policies and funding programmes in 2021–2027. The methodology presented was developed in
the 2014–2020 programming period for the ex ante analysis of investments in infrastructure and applied to numerous types of
projects, from science parks and innovative manufacturing facilities to university campuses. The focus was on basic and applied
research facilities, which have a broad range of benefits that overlap with other types of infrastructure in the sector. This chapter
retains this focus and is, therefore, likely to be most applicable for strategic infrastructure projects in R&I, including those that
could be financed by the InvestEU fund. The methodology should also be relevant for research-funding programmes and other
non-infrastructural investments financed from Horizon Europe and other funding mechanisms.
The information provided is complementary to the methodology presented in the 2014 CBA guide, which was further developed
in the JASPERS staff working paper Economic analysis of research infrastructure projects in the programming period 2014–2020
(JASPERS, 2017).
The economic appraisal of infrastructures and programmes engaging in research will, to varying extents, be subject
to a common problem: the impact of the research can be difficult to predict, fully capture and monetise. While this
is particularly true of fundamental research, the unpredictability of the economic benefits of R&I is inherent to the field. It is a
factor that any quantitative method that attempts to predict the economic impact of research is likely to encounter.
For this reason, a promoter may judge CBA to be an inappropriate mode of assessment for certain investments in ‘blue sky’
research, namely where the research outputs and the eventual benefits realised by society are not immediately apparent. In
these instances, it may still be useful to quantify the outputs of the research where possible (e.g. the number of publications)
and describe their impact qualitatively instead of attempting to monetise the benefits.
I.2. Project development cycle and methods

The economic analysis of a project can be performed at various stages of the development cycle of R&I . The CBA
model described in this document may be used by project promoters as part of a comprehensive ex ante analysis of the economic
impact of a proposed investment or in a simplified form to compare the economic viability of alternative project configurations (1)
(usually as part of a multi-criteria analysis (MCA) exercise) during the option analysis.
Promoters will need to carry out additional analyses to facilitate the CBA. As a minimum, beneficiaries should analyse
the demand for the infrastructure and its outputs, consider the alternative options for reaching the objectives of the investment
and model the future financial performance and sustainability of the infrastructure and beneficiary. Each of these analyses
provides information and inputs that are required to perform a CBA. The 2014 CBA guide outlines these steps in detail.
Table 1 provides a summary of the questions and information that project promoters and decision-making bodies should consider
when preparing or appraising the demand and options analyses.
I.3. Economic appraisal

A variety of methods are used in the economic appraisal of R&I depending on the scope of the analysis, the type of
impacts that are assessed and the target users. The methods range from quantitative approaches, such as macroeconomic
modelling or cost–benefit analysis (CBA), to more qualitative approaches such as narratives and case studies. While there is
not a single methodological approach in its original formulation that can appropriately answer all of the questions that an EA
addresses, the CBA is one of the most scientifically robust analytical frameworks for evaluating welfare changes attributable to
R&I (see Giffoni and Vignetti, 2019).
Figure 1 illustrates at glance the common economic benefits associated with the different types of infrastructure
discussed in this chapter. Table 2 below provides a description of benefits, methods to calculate their value and potential sources
of data to perfrom a CBA. Additional benefits should be considered depending on the objectives of the specific project (2).
1
Configurations of R&I infrastructure projects include aspects such as location, choice of technologies, operating model and size.
2
A full explanation of the methodologies can be found in JASPERS (2017). Readers should also consult Florio (2019).
35
Figure 1. The economic benefits of R&I infrastructure
NB: CO2, carbon dioxide.
Source: Authors.
36
Table 1. Information to be considered in the demand and option analyses, by infrastructure type
Analysis Basic and applied research Investments in innovative Tertiary education

manufacturing
Demand - Has the need for investment - Are the sales forecasts justified - Do economic and demographic
analysis been demonstrated? Is there by market analysis? trends support the need for the
a gap analysis of equipment, investment?
infrastructure and staff? - Has the competition been
analysed? - Are tuition fees falling or rising
- Is the equipment requested justified nationally or being introduced?
and reasonable in view of the - How vulnerable is the project to
intended research results? regulatory changes? - What are the dropout and
repetition rates of the
- Is there demand/buy-in from - How will the innovation help institution?
researchers for the project? to retain or accelerate the
company’s market share? - What are the past and future
- Is there a market for research enrolment rates?
outputs? - Does the company have a track
record of introducing innovations - What is the ratio of graduates
- Is there demonstrated interest from into the market? to students enrolled?
industry for the infrastructure and
its outputs? - Is the whole value chain aligned - Is there evidence of demand for
(e.g. sufficient supply for skilled labour in the academic
- Is the project aligned with national production) with the offering of disciplines concerned?
and/or regional strategies? the new good/service?
Option - Is the scale of the infrastructure - Is the choice of technology, - Is the scale of the infrastructure
analysis and equipment justified? suppliers, site, etc. sensible? justified?
- What impact will the investment - Should a new plant be built - What are the alternatives
have on regional development? or the existing one enlarged/ to the investment? Could
modernised? the beneficiary rent or share
- What are the alternatives to the facilities or make use of existing
investment? Could the beneficiary - Is the scale of the infrastructure facilities owned by another
rent or share facilities or make justified? institution?
use of existing facilities owned by
another institution?
37
Table 2. A summary of economic benefits, quantification methods, valuation calculations and data sources,
by infrastructure type
Infra-
Quantifica- Value Potential data Considerations and
structure Description Benefit
tion method calculation sources lessons learned
type
RI, IM Establishment Incremental Number Number National accounts. The estimated

of spin-offs shadow profits of jobs of newly Data should be number of newly
and start-ups generated by established available on established entities
spin-offs and entities × gross operating should be based
start-ups average surplus of one on the track record
number of employee in the of the promoter
employees scientific research or comparable
per entity × and development institutions
shadow profit sector
per employee (Nomenclature
of Economic
Activities (NACE)
sector M.72)
RI, IM Develop- Benefit Market Market value of EIB (2013), The estimated
ment of new/ attributed to value as patent × num- European number of patents
improved patents granted proxy for ber of patents Commission and should be based
products and WTP granted World Intellectual on the track record
processes Property of the promoter
Organization or comparable
institutions. On
average, patents
represent a cost;
therefore, the
estimated market
value should be
conservative
IM Sales Increases sales Incremen- Net present Beneficiary’s data

as a result of the tal shadow value of
investment profit incremental
profit gross of
depreciation,
taxes and
interest
(assuming
shadow prices
equal market
prices)
RI ‘New knowl- Benefit to society Marginal (Average gross Beneficiary’s data The estimated
edge’ of new scientific production annual salary number of
publications by costs (re- of scientist ÷ publications should
researchers who muneration average per- be based on the
are users of the of authors) centage of track record of
facility time researcher the promoter
spends on one or comparable
publication) × institutions, or
overall number averages for the
of publications discipline
by project per
year
38
RI, TE Human capital Benefit to Market Economic Market values for For the benefit to
formation society of an value as benefit in year the salaries of occur, there should
educated labour proxy for t = number MA, MSc and PhD be a bottleneck
force WTP of graduates graduates can in the supply of
in year t × be taken from courses so that, in
(present value the Organisation the absence of the
in year t of for Economic Co- project, students
incremental operation and do not receive it or
gross salary Development have to go abroad
÷ average statistics for the bearing relocation
number of specific country costs
years of and compared
working career with statistics on
ahead of average salaries
graduates)
RI Social capital Benefit from Market (Average Beneficiary’s data
development the creation value as travel costs +
of networks proxy for average event
between WTP or conference
researchers fees paid by
and between participants)
researchers + (average
and private daily wage of
companies attendee ×
(through days at event)
conferences, × (average
networking number of
events, etc.) attendees)
× (number
of events or
conferences
organised
per year)
RI Reduction of Benefits to the See See Annex VIII
health risks general public Annex VIII
of research
that leads to
a reduction in
health risks
RI Cultural Benefits from Travel cost Approach
effects for outreach method according
visitors activities to the or benefit to JASPERS
general public transfer working paper
(e.g. visitors, approach on cultural
tourists) projects
(JASPERS,
2011)
RI, IM, Climate Change in Incremental GHG savings in Commission
TE change carbon footprint change in CO2e × shadow notice on
benefits (or (if reduction associated price of CO2e technical
costs) then benefit, if GHG guidance on the
increase then emissions climate proofing
cost) valued per of infrastructure
tonne of in 2021–2027
CO2e (EC 2021)
39
RI, IM Learning-by- Economic Incremental Volume of Beneficiary’s data The benefit should
doing benefit benefit to shadow high-tech apply only when
firms supplying profit procurement × the suppliers are
equipment sales multiplier local; otherwise,
for RDI × average the benefit is lost
infrastructure profit margin
RI Open access The value of The same Economic Beneficiary’s data

to RI research carried productivity benefits per
out by visiting is assumed unit of capacity
researchers with for open used by project
open access to access as promoter
the RDI facility for project × units of
promoters capacity to
be utilised
by visiting
researchers
under open
access policy
RI Fee-paying Value of Market Fees paid by Beneficiary’s data
access to RI research carried value as a private sector
out by paying proxy for for access to
users with benefit the facility;
access to the alternatively, a
facility WTP approach
RI Benefits Value of Market Average Beneficiary’s data The estimated
arising from research carried value as financial value and number
academic out for public or proxy for revenues from of contracts should
consultancy private sector WTP contracts be based on the
or contract on the basis × number track record of
research of contract of research the promoter
research or a contracts or comparable
consultancy institutions
contract
NB: CO2e, carbon dioxide equivalent; GHG, greenhouse gas; IM, innovative manufacturing; RI, research, development and innovation; RI, research infrastructure;
TE, tertiary education; WTP, willingness to pay.
40
ANNEX II. RENEWABLE ENERGY
II.1. Introduction
The EU has set itself an objective to reach carbon neutrality by the middle of the century. According to the pathways to reach
‘net zero’ greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050 developed by the European Commission, the power sector will need to have
almost fully decarbonised by 2040. Similarly, although at a somewhat slower pace, the decarbonisation of the heating sector is
also required to reach net zero emissions by 2050.
In the medium term, the EU climate and energy framework had initially set a target of a 40 % reduction in GHG emissions
(compared with 1990 levels) by 2030; this includes a binding target of renewable energy sources (RESs) making up 32 % in EU
final consumption by 2030.
Following a proposal from the European Commission, however, the European Council has recently endorsed a more ambitious
binding EU target of a net domestic reduction of at least 55 % in GHG emissions by 2030 (compared with 1990). Higher RES
penetration targets for 2030 will accordingly be required. The country-specific targets and the measures put in place to achieve
them are presented in the national energy and climate plans of the Member States. The legal framework for the promotion of
RESs in the EU is set out by the ‘recast’ of the renewable energy directive (Directive (EU) 2018/2001).
Several instruments in the EU budget (e.g. the ‘greener, carbon free Europe’ policy objective of the European Structural and
Investment Funds, the Just Transition Fund and the Modernisation Fund) can support investments in renewable energy. In
addition, in the context of its ‘climate bank roadmap’ (EIB, 2020), the European Investment Bank (EIB) is planning to strengthen
its financial and advisory support for the decarbonisation of energy supply on the basis of the criteria set out in its energy lending
policy (EIB, 2019).
The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of the EA of investments in renewable energy generation in the electricity
and heating sectors.
II.2. Project development cycle and methods

At the stage of prefeasibility/strategic option analysis, the assessment of the ‘levelised cost’ of electricity (LCOE) or of heat
(LCOH) is typically a good life-cycle, cost-effectiveness indicator to compare alternative technologies (see Box 1). This indicator
can also easily be adapted to include the key economic externalities (e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions), as discussed in the
next paragraphs.
41
Box 1. The levelised cost
The levelised cost is a commonly used concept in energy economics, particularly when comparing alternative technologies.
This is calculated as the ratio between (i) the present value of the project costs over its life cycle and (ii) the present value
of the supplied power/heat over the same reference period. Assuming that, in the long run, all production factors (including
capital) are variable, the indicator can be used as a proxy for the long-run marginal cost of a given technology or a project. By
adding to the project costs the shadow cost of ‘externalities’, the levelised cost can also be estimated in socioeconomic terms.
Here we will assume, for example, that we want to estimate the LCOH generation from the installation and operation of
a new 20 thermal megawatt (MWt) biomass hot-water boiler in a district heating system with an initial investment cost
of EUR 9 million. Over the expected economic life (15 years of operations), the following costs, externalities (3) and heat
generation are estimated:
Net pre-
sent value 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2030 2035
at 5%
LCOH – biomass boiler (million EUR)
Investment cost 8.4 4.5 4.5
Fuel costs 25.6 — — 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
Other operating and
2.5 — — 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
maintenance costs
Total costs (without
36.5 4.5 4.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
externalities)
Shadow cost of CO2
— — — — — — — —
emissions
Shadow cost of airborne
4.6 — — 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
pollutants
Total socioeconomic cost 41.2 4.5 4.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
Heat produced (GWh) 1 089 — — 115.6 115.6 115.6 115.6 115.6
LCOH – financial (EUR/

34
MWh)
LCOH – economic (EUR/
38
MWh)
NB: GWh, gigawatt-hour; MWh, megawatt-hour.
By dividing the net present value (NPV) of LCOH – biomass boiler (EUR/MWh)
the single cost components by the NPV of
the energy generated, the levelised cost 8
subcomponents can also be estimated. Capital cost
Fuel cost 24
Other operating and
2
maintenance costs
LCOH – financial 34
Shadow cost of CO2 emissions -
Shadow cost of airborne pollutants 4
LCOH – economic 38
NB: MWh, megawatt-hour.
3
Direct CO2 emissions from the combustion of biomass are assumed to be zero if the fuel sourcing is done in compliance with the applicable sustainability criteria. Supply chain emissions (e.g. from biomass
preparation and transportation) are not considered in the example. In addition to the emissions of airborne pollutants (e.g. sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter), costs for externalities related to the
security of supply of the required biomass could be considered if relevant to reflect, for example, availability or price volatility risks.
42
At the stage of a full feasibility analysis, a fully fledged CBA is normally carried out for the selected option.
For certain RES technologies that are innovative but have not yet been developed on a commercial basis (e.g. floating wind farms
and concentrated solar power), however, a cost-effectiveness/qualitative approach is usually more appropriate. As a matter of
fact, for these technologies, the economic benefits estimated according to the methodology presented above would normally not
outweigh the related project costs, so the resulting economic rate of return (ERR) would fall short of the social discount rate. A
benefit related to the ‘learning curve’ of the specific technology would in this case need to be assessed. This would hinge on the
analysis of the expected ‘learning rate’ (typically estimated as the expected percentage reduction in the unit investment cost at
each doubling of the installed capacity) and the forecast pace of deployment of the technology in terms of cumulated installed
capacity (see, for example, European Commission, 2018). A monetary valuation of the incremental learning effect associated
with a specific project is challenging and might require rather subjective assumptions. A very rough estimate could be based on
a share of future capital expenditures (CAPEX) reductions (inferred from the learning rate) proportional to the project capacity
in the overall installed capacity over the reference period. However, given the high uncertainty related to such an estimation, it
is advisable that the EA of innovative RES projects mainly relies on the estimation of the LCOE, complemented by a qualitative
assessment of the market potential of the technology.
II.3. Economic appraisal

Power generation
The investment and operating costs to be considered in the economic analysis of RES projects are typically those used in
financial analysis or feasibility studies. Adjustments of certain cost components to better reflect their social opportunity cost
may be necessary, in particular for labour costs and land use. Further adjustments to the costs may be necessary for certain
technologies in relation to fuel costs (i.e. to consider the relevant ‘border price’ plus transportation – excluding taxation) and/or
possible negative externalities (e.g. airborne pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx) and particulate matter
(PM) – which are particularly relevant for biomass projects). In addition, it is important to verify that the grid connection costs are
taken into account – in some cases (e.g. offshore wind) these costs can be significant and are not necessarily already included
in the project investment cost.
On the benefits side, the CBA of a project to increase the supply of electricity from RES essentially hinges on the determination of
an appropriate estimate of the economic value of the power generated by the project. The change in ‘social welfare’ associated
with the project can in principle be gauged by the reduction in social marginal generation costs (including externalities) triggered
by the investment (4). The price formed in the wholesale power market cannot typically be deemed to adequately reflect the
social value of the avoided costs, because of certain distortions (e.g. subsidies to RES generators or incomplete internalisation
of environmental externalities). A ‘shadow price’ should then be estimated for the economic value of power. For this purpose, a
relevant LCOE can be taken as a starting point (5), to be adjusted to include the following elements, whenever relevant to the
specific technology and market situation assumed to define the economic value of electricity generation.
- A capital cost (CAPEX) component. Intuitively, the economic value of new generation capacity added to the system depends
on the level of scarcity on the market. The system adequacy – as gauged, for example, by the expected evolution of the
‘reserve margin’ (6) – can be taken into account to possibly adjust downwards the value of this component in case of
overcapacity (7).
- A fuel cost component (if relevant). This is calculated on the basis of the plant’s efficiency and the cost of the delivered fuel
(‘border price’ plus transmission/distribution costs – net of taxation) (8).
- Other (fixed and variable) operating and maintenance (O&M) costs component, not including fuel and CO2 / air pollutant
emissions, which are separately monetised. This typically includes, for example, personnel costs, insurance, maintenance, etc.
- The social cost of carbon. The shadow price to be used for the monetisation of the CO2 emissions component can be taken
from the values used by the EIB (see Section 2.5 of Part I of this Economic Appraisal Vademecum (EAV)). Attention should
be paid to excluding from other components of the LCOE the possible cost of European Union Emissions Trading System
allowances to avoid double counting.
- The socioeconomic value of emissions of airborne pollutants (e.g. NOx) as unit damage values (e.g. from the Needs project)
could be used (9). The values can be escalated over the reference period on the basis of the expected real gross domestic
4
This means focusing on the changes associated with the project in the area underneath the social (e.g. externalities-adjusted) supply curve. For large investments (relative to the power system), where the project
may also trigger an impact on power demand because of a price effect, the willingness to pay for the incremental demand would also have to be considered – which is possibly relevant for small, isolated systems.
5
In the absence of specific modelling allowing the identification of the mix of marginal generators displaced by the project and the related average time-weighted benefit, the following shortcut can be used: in a
hypothetical system where investment in power generation is optimised on the basis of the social (as opposite to market) generation costs, the (distortions-adjusted) levelised cost of a base-load generator that
operates at full technical availability would adequately reflect the socioeconomic long-run value of power (see, for example, Lamont, 2008).
6
The reserve margin is the ratio between the available generation capacity (with intermittent technologies such as wind and solar considered on a ‘de-rated’ basis) and the peak load to be covered, minus 1. The
availability of intermittent technologies such as wind and solar needs to be considered on a ‘de-rated’ basis, expressing an equivalent firm (‘dispatchable’) capacity. Transmission constraints are ignored here. An
estimation of reserve margin can be found in adequacy studies or from energy consultancy companies.
7
A rule-of-thumb approach could, for example, be (i) to include the full CAPEX component for cases in which the medium-term forecast of the reserve margin is lower than 30 %, (ii) to assume that a reserve margin
above 50 % signals the presence of overcapacity and hence no CAPEX component is included in the shadow price, and (iii) for a reserve margin between 30 % and 50 %, to use a partial CAPEX component, declining
linearly from the full value to zero as the value within the interval increases (e.g. for a reserve margin of 40 %, only half of the CAPEX value would be considered).
8
European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E) and for Gas (ENTSOG) scenarios prepared for the 10-year network development plan exercises include assumptions on fuel price
developments that can, for example, be used. As regards gas transmission costs, where relevant, data from Eurostat can be used.
9
See the Needs project website for more information (http://www.needs-project.org/); in particular, see RS3a D 1.1, Report on the procedure and data to generate averaged/aggregated data.
43
product (GDP) growth (10).
- A security-of-supply cost related to the use of (imported) fuels. The EIB uses, for example, a value equal to EUR 10/MWhel
(megawatt-hours of electrical energy) for power generated from a gas-fired combined-cycle gas turbine.
The sum of those components would provide a reasonable estimate of the base economic value of electricity produced by the
project.
However, if the technology assumed to define the economic value of electricity is firm (‘dispatchable’) generation, when evaluating
the value of power from a project installing variable (i.e. intermittent, non-dispatchable) RES, such as wind and solar, two
downward adjustments would need to be made to account for the following aspects (11).
- ‘Profiling’ costs. Power demand varies over the day (and seasons) and so does its value, given that a different mix
of generation sources, with different generation costs, is called on to produce power at different moments in time
(storage and demand-response are typically limited, and generation basically needs to meet demand in real time). So,
for example, generation at times of peak demand has a higher value than in the middle of the night, when demand is
low. Owing to the weather-dependent variability of generation of intermittent RES, RESs cannot extract value from the
entire profile of power demand, as a baseload generator would. For this reason, a ‘profiling’ (or utilisation) cost would
typically need to be deducted from the base value of the shadow price. This would depend on (i) the extent to which the
expected generation profile of the specific project under appraisal correlates with the relevant demand profile and (ii)
the current and expected overall penetration of variable RES in the system – the higher the share of intermittency, the
higher the profiling cost.
- ‘Balancing costs’. The uncertainty associated with the output variability may lead to mismatches between the scheduled
RES generation (e.g. at the time of closure of the day-ahead market) and the power actually fed to the grid. This would
lead to additional costs for the ‘balancing’ of demand and supply in the system.
In the estimation of the economic benefits, the different components of the shadow price can be singled out for presentation
purposes (e.g. CO2 reduction benefit or security-of-supply benefit).
As regards the reference period over which the CBA is performed, an operational phase of 15 to 20 years (the latter for mature
RESs, such as onshore wind and solar photovoltaic systems) is typically appropriate to adequately reflect the economic life of the
project assets without the need to consider major replacement cost or residual value.
Heat generation
The CBA of RESs in heating can be based on a similar conceptual framework to that presented above for the case of power
generation. The reference period can usually be taken to be 15 years, but a longer time horizon can be used for projects related
to a district heating system, provided asset replacement costs are adequately taken into account.
As regards the economic investment and operating costs, the same considerations presented above for electricity projects apply.
For generation investments in the context of district heating, it is important to also take into account the costs associated with
heat distribution and the related losses.
As regards the benefits, the economic (i.e. externalities-adjusted) LCOH (12) from the next best alternative to the RES heat
generated by the project can be used as a relevant shadow price.
The use of the LCOH can be particularly useful at the stage of option analysis, to compare different decarbonisation options,
for example for district heating systems. Similarly to electricity, two types of levelised cost can be estimated: financial and
socioeconomic. The financial levelised cost should be based on observed market prices and the related forecasts of future costs
and prices that are going to be borne by the owner(s) of the heat generation/distribution assets. The socioeconomic levelised cost
should be based on the financial levelised cost and complemented with the assessment of external costs that would be borne by
society at large (e.g. the damage value of airborne pollutants, GHG emissions and security-of-supply considerations for certain
fuels). For combined heat and power options, the value of power generation can be netted out from the heat generation cost,
where appropriate. Table 3 summarises the elements typically considered in the financial and economic LCOH.
10
In the Needs project, evidence was found that monetary values for health risks for future years increase with an intertemporal elasticity to GDP per capita growth of 0.7 to 1.0.
11
A description of the methodological approach can be found in Hirth (2013). There are several studies on the valuation of those ‘system costs’. An overview of the literature and value estimations is, for example,
available in OECD and Nuclear Energy Agency (2018) – see Section 3.3.
12
The LCOH can be considered a life-cycle average incremental cost or long-run marginal cost. This is calculated as the ratio of (i) the present value of all costs (CAPEX, operating expenses, fuel, etc.) associated
with a given technology over the appropriate reference period and (ii) the present value of the heat supplied by the related plant(s) over the same time horizon.
44
Table 3. Levelised unit cost elements
Financial LCOH Economic LCOH

+ CAPEX + CAPEX
+ O&M costs + O&M costs
+ Fuel costs (if relevant) + Fuel costs (if relevant)
+ CO2 Emission Trading System allowance costs (if + Social cost of CO2 emissions
relevant) + Social cost of SO2, NOx and PM
+ Security-of-supply cost (13)
– Revenue from power sales (if relevant) – Economic value of power sales (if relevant) (14)
= Net LCOH (financial) = Net LCOH (economic)
Options should primarily be ranked on the basis of the socioeconomic LCOH (the lower the better), particularly if public support
(e.g. EU financing) is foreseen. At the same time, it is important that the related financial cost can be deemed to be competitive
and affordable. The financial LCOH can be considered as a rough approximation of a heat tariff regulated on a cost-plus basis (15).
13
This would, for example, be the case of imported fuels such as natural gas or possibly biomass. The consideration of this cost would (slightly) favour the use of locally sourced fuels over imported fuels, whose
availability and price volatility may be more problematic.
14
To be estimated on the basis of the methodology presented in the ‘Power generation’ section above.
15
Differences could, for example, stem from (i) differences between the ex ante cost estimates and the actual costs incurred for the different alternatives, (ii) differences in average investment costs in the LCOH and
the related depreciation included over the same reference period in the heat tariffs by the regulator, (iii) differences between the return on capital embedded in the discount rate used in the LCOH and the allowed
profit included in the regulated tariffs, (iv) the fact that, if the investment is co-financed by public grants (e.g. EU funds), the capital component in the related heat tariffs is likely to be lower than in the financial
LCOH estimated ex ante, and (v) in the case of co-generation assets, differences between the cost allocation method to transfer common heat and power costs to the heat tariff and the residual net LCOH after
deduction of power sales revenue.
45
ANNEX III. ENERGY EFFICIENCY

III.1. Introduction
Energy efficiency is expected to play an important role in the context of the ambitious decarbonisation targets of the EU and
is one of the key elements of the European Green Deal. Buildings account for around 40 % of energy consumption in Europe.
According to the European Commission, the renovation rate of the building stock will need to at least double compared with
the current level to meet the relevant EU targets. The EU as a whole will have to reduce its energy consumption by at least
32.5 % by 2030 (16), according to the amended energy efficiency directive (Directive (EU) 2018/2002). With a more ambitious
decarbonisation target for 2030 agreed in December 2020 (i.e. an EU-wide 55 % reduction in GHG emissions instead of 40 % –
both compared with 1990 levels), energy efficiency efforts will also need to be further increased.
In the case of buildings, as of 2021, all new buildings in the EU have to be nearly zero-energy buildings (17) in line with the
requirements of the amended energy performance of buildings directive (EPBD – Directive (EU) 2018/844).
Each country’s specific targets and policy measures are set out in the national energy and climate plans, as well as the long-
term renovation strategies being prepared by Member States under the EPBD. EU funds can support the related (significant)
investment needs (18), for example through the ‘renovation wave’ initiative of the EU Green Deal and the ‘greener, carbon free
Europe’ policy objective of the European Structural and Investment Funds, the Just Transition Fund and the Modernisation Fund.
This chapter focuses on the EA methods for energy efficiency projects in buildings. A similar conceptual framework can also
be applied to investments in other typologies of assets, for example for the evaluation of energy savings stemming from the
refurbishment of district heating networks, industrial facilities or public lighting systems.
III.2. Project development cycle and methods

At the beginning of the project development cycle, national energy performance standards for buildings complying with the
EPBD – in line with the cost-optimal levels – define the (investment) measures to improve the energy performance of the
buildings. For large projects, an energy audit is required to assess the building’s existing situation and to screen and define the
investment measures. At this preliminary stage, the comparison of possible alternatives is typically done on the basis of a cost-
effectiveness analysis (CEA) and financial criteria, including the expected payback period of the measures. In the case of projects
seeking to obtain financial support from the EU, the analysis can be complemented by including monetised externalities (e.g. CO2,
airborne pollutants, security of supply). This can help define renovations measures going beyond the financial cost-optimal level,
with a view to maximising the decarbonisation effect.
For large energy efficiency projects (or schemes) where a full feasibility analysis is developed, the EA should be based on a CBA
that, in addition to the energy savings benefits and associated externalities, should also include other effects related, for example,
to the extended life of the building or the reduced maintenance costs. (19)
At the stage of the selection and approval of projects to be financed by EU funds, it is important that the national authorities
responsible for project evaluation base their decisions on an assessment of the expected economic benefits (e.g. the value of
energy savings and associated CO2 emissions) relative to the project costs, to ensure efficiency and effectiveness (20). In this
respect, a simplified CBA tool with a set of predefined unit benefit values could be developed by the national authorities to be
used in call-for-project proposals to rank and select energy efficiency investments.
III.3. Economic appraisal
While the financial analysis is mainly done from the point of view of the owner of the building, the economic CBA attempts to
evaluate the socioeconomic impact of the energy efficiency investments on society as a whole. The cost savings monetised
in the financial analysis do not necessarily reflect society’s willingness to pay (WTP) for the avoided energy generation, for
example because energy tariffs may be subsidised and may not (fully) include the value of externalities such as CO2 emissions
or the increased security of supply. For this reason, the economic analysis should be based on a shadow price reflecting the
socioeconomic value of the energy saved thanks to the project – typically heat, but also electricity. Annex II (‘Renewable energy’)
provides a detailed description of the different components of the shadow price of heat (and electricity) that can be used to
monetise the energy savings associated with the project.
16
The target is set relative to the 2007 modelling projections for 2030.
17
Nearly zero-energy buildings are buildings that have very high energy performance and whose (limited) energy consumption is mostly covered by energy from renewable sources.
18
There are several market failures that prevent a socially optimal level of investment in energy efficiency and justify public intervention. Access to capital is one of those, with other examples from the literature
being imperfect information, hidden costs, split incentives and bounded rationality. A recent EIB working paper found that the availability of favourable financing together with the provision of technical assistance
increased by one third the probability of investment in energy efficiency (EIB, 2020).
19
For example, in the case of projects funded by EIB loans, the bank’s economic assessment is based on a CBA that includes energy savings and reductions in GHG emissions (tier 1 benefits), but also other economic
benefits such as the extension of the economic life and a reduction in maintenance costs (tier 2 benefits), when they are measurable and quantifiable. In the case of bank-intermediated EIB operations, the economic
case is assumed ex ante to be met for the individual measures on the basis of the cost optimality of the national standard measures. However, in the latter case, economic assessment is also required at an aggregate
level, based on the expected energy savings of the overall operation and other quantifiable benefits.
20
According to the European Court of Auditors, the allocation of EU cohesion policy funds to energy efficiency projects in buildings was in most cases done on a first-come-first-served basis, without a proper
consideration of the relative costs and benefits of the projects. The court recommends that, for the 2021–2027 period, improved selection procedures are used to ‘(i) set minimum and/or maximum thresholds for
key parameters (e.g. the quantity of energy to be saved, the minimum energy rating the building should reach after project, the net present value, the simple payback time or the cost per unit of energy saved); (ii)
assess the relative costs and benefits of projects and select those delivering higher energy savings and other benefits at lower cost’ (European Court of Auditors, 2020).
46
Moreover, owing to the existence of split incentives in building renovations, some benefits are appropriated by different individuals.
For instance, tenants normally benefit from a reduction in energy bills, whereas property owners benefit from the extension of
the economic life of the building elements. However, regardless of the beneficiary, all of the benefits contribute to the overall
economic return of the project.
The reference period used in the CBA would depend on the project measures and the components and equipment replaced. In
general, it can range from 10 to 25 years for projects also investing in the building’s envelope. For new construction, Article 2(14)
of the EPBD defines the building life cycle as 30 years for residential buildings and 20 years for non-residential buildings.
On the costs side, only investment costs directly related to energy efficiency are usually included in the CBA. Changes in operating
costs associated with the project are normally presented as part of the (energy) cost savings that underpin the economic benefits.
Where relevant, costs taken from the financial analysis can be adjusted to better reflect social opportunity costs (e.g. using a
‘shadow wage’ for the labour cost component).
On the benefits side, the International Energy Agency has identified no less than 15 different sources of benefits (International
Energy Agency, 2014). Energy efficiency investments generate not only energy savings and reductions in GHG emissions, but also
other economic benefits, such as the extension of the economic life of the replaced building elements, a reduction of maintenance
costs and an increase in property values. In addition, energy efficiency investments in buildings improve the comfort and quality
of the working and living environment. When these benefits are quantifiable, they should be incorporated into the CBA. However,
the value of certain direct benefits (e.g. energy savings) may be partly embedded in some other indirect benefits (e.g. an increase
in property values), so particular attention should be paid to not double counting benefits.
In general, the economic analysis of building refurbishments should aim to include the following two groups of benefits.
1. Energy-related cost savings, including externalities (21) (Box 2). The following benefits should be included in
the CBA, as the methodology used to estimate these benefits is well documented (EIB, 2013) and the data needed to
produce robust estimates are generally available.
- Avoided energy (heat/electricity/cooling) generation/transportation costs, including capital (where

justified) (22), operating costs and fuel costs. Where data on local energy production are available, these should
be used in the analysis (fuel costs should ideally be expressed at border price plus transportation cost, net of
taxation).
- Avoided emissions of GHGs. The shadow price to be used for the monetisation of the estimated changes in
CO2 emissions can be taken, for example, from the values used by the EIB (see Section 2.5 of Part I of the EAV).
- Avoided emissions of air pollutants (e.g. SOx, NOx and PM). Unit damage values (e.g. from the Needs project)
can be used (23). The values can be escalated over the reference period using the expected real GDP growth (24).
- Enhanced security of supply, in cases where the primary energy saved comes from imported fossil fuels, such
as natural gas. For electricity from a gas-fired combined-cycle gas turbine, the EIB uses, for example, a value of
EUR 10/MWhel – assuming a plant efficiency of 58 %, the value of the unit economic benefit can be estimated at
approximately EUR 1.60/gigajoule (GJ) of natural gas saved by the project (25).
21
This group of benefits would typically also apply to projects for the refurbishment of district heating networks that result in a lower level of heat losses.
22
For example, in relation to the time deferral or capacity reduction of replacement investment
. See the Needs project website for more information (http://www.needs-project.org/); in particular, see RS3a D 1.1, Report on the procedure and data to generate averaged/aggregated data.
23
24
In the Needs project, evidence was found that monetary values for health risks for future years increase with an intertemporal elasticity to GDP per capita growth of 0.7 to 1.0.
25
In the case of projects in district heating networks, security-of-supply benefits can also be related to a reduction in heating disruptions. They can, for example, be valued at the avoided economic cost associated
with the use of individual electric heaters during periods of district heating disruptions.
47
Box 2. The economic value of energy savings
An investment programme for the thermal rehabilitation of residential dwellings is targeting an aggregate final energy (heat)
saving of 50 gigawatt-hours (GWh)/year (equivalent to some 55 GWh/year of avoided primary energy) compared with a
baseline scenario without the project. The following economic LCOH generation from a domestic condensing gas boiler is used
to estimate the economic value of the annual benefit associated with the energy savings:
LCOH – domestic gas boiler (EUR/MWh)
16
Capital cost
Fuel cost 55
Other operating and
2
maintenance costs
Shadow cost of CO2 emissions 40
Shadow cost of airborne pollutants 0
Security-of-supply external cost 6
LCOH – economic 120
NB: MWh, megawatt-hour.
The total economic value of heat savings can then be estimated to be equal to EUR 120/megawatt-hours (MWh). The
annual value of the corresponding benefit to be considered in the economic analysis is then forecast at 50 GWh × EUR 120/
MWh, which is equal to EUR 6 million a year. The LCOH breakdown can be used to calculate the annual value of the specific
subcomponents of the energy-saving benefit.
2. The impacts on the use and value of the building enabled by the project. Estimating these benefits can be
more challenging. Therefore, they should be included only on a case-by-case basis, subject to the availability of reliable
data and a robust estimate for the specific project. In addition, specific attention should be paid to not double counting
benefits. The following are examples of such benefits.
- Extension of the economic life of the building (elements). The related annual value could, for example, be
estimated as the constant annuity over the operational phase of the reference period whose NPV equals the NPV of the
project investment cost net of the residual value of the equipment replaced by the project (e.g. heating, ventilation and
air conditioning equipment, electrical equipment).
- Reduction in building maintenance costs. The benefit is more easily determined for commercial (and public) buildings,
but can also apply to residential buildings. The possible reduction in costs relates to both preventive (i.e. scheduled)
maintenance activities and estimated corrective maintenance (i.e. the repair of equipment when it breaks down) (26).
- Improved thermal comfort, for cases where a comfortable room temperature can be achieved only after the building
refurbishment. Where feasible, this benefit can be monetised on the basis of the value of hypothetical additional energy
savings associated with a hypothetical higher energy consumption in the without-project scenario that would have been
needed to reach the same new temperature in the with-project scenario (27). In certain cases, better comfort would be
triggered by the improved affordability of heating enabled by the project cost savings (28).
- Increase in property values associated with the improved aesthetics and comfort of buildings (in excess of what
was possibly already accounted for in the previous benefits). Assumptions need to be made about the current average
market price of buildings covered by the project and the expected increase in value following the thermal rehabilitation.
However, the increase in property values should in principle also embed the value of avoided energy costs, which are
already monetised separately. Therefore, to avoid double counting, the economic CBA should only include the difference
between the expected increase in property value and the NPV of the energy cost savings as quantified in the financial
analysis. The benefit can be distributed over the reference period by calculating the related equivalent constant annuity.
26
The reduction of maintenance and repair costs is also typically a benefit of investments in district heating networks.
27
See the numerical example provided in the European Commission’s Guide to cost benefit analysis of investment projects (European Commission, 2014) – see the box on p. 228 on the valuation of increased energy
efficiency in buildings.
28
According to the European Commission, around 50 million consumers in Europe struggle to keep their homes adequately warm. Investment in energy efficiency can contribute to tackling energy poverty.
48
III.4. Other relevant information

The approach presented in this chapter can also be applied to the EA of new buildings, as opposed to the refurbishment of
existing buildings. In this case, the appraiser would need to define an appropriate counterfactual scenario against which possible
energy efficiency benefits could be identified and monetised. The EIB approach, for example, is to identify the project savings in
relation to the minimum regulatory requirements applicable to the new construction based on the date of the building permits.
In the case of energy efficiency investments in public buildings that are used to provide services to the public (e.g. hospitals,
schools and libraries), the project can also enable the continuation or even a quality improvement of the public service provision.
In this case, the economic analysis may need to be complemented with the addition of indirect benefits for the relevant sectors
concerned (e.g. health, education and culture).
49
ANNEX IV. MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
IV.1. Introduction
In the framework of the cohesion policy for 2021–2027, municipal waste management projects will be developed as part of the
Member States’ efforts to move towards a circular economy. These projects should be consistent with the Member States’ waste
management plan(s) as stipulated in Annex IV of the common provisions regulation. However, the transition to a circular economy
does not require a modification to the EA methods for municipal waste management projects.
In July 2018, the circular economy package entered into force. The circular economy package sets new and ambitious targets
for recycling municipal waste: 55 % by 2025, 60 % by 2030 and 65 % by 2035 (29). Member States also have to ensure that, by
2035, less than 10 % of the total amount of municipal waste generated is sent to landfill. Achieving these targets will require
substantial legal, organisational and financial efforts in the Member States. Less advanced Member States, in particular, will
need to try to catch up and build the basic infrastructure that they are currently missing. Essential changes and investments
will be required in expanding separate waste collection, treatment and material recovery systems and in developing markets
for the secondary raw materials recovered. Some of these investment projects will include circular economy components, which
are consistent with the higher steps of the waste management hierarchy. Table 4 includes the circular economy categories in
the waste management sector and typical projects/investments indicated in the Categorisation System for the Circular Economy
(European Commission, 2020) published by the European Commission Expert Group on Circular Economy Financing.
Table 4. Circular economy categories of waste management activities and typical projects/investments
Circular economy categories Examples of typical projects/investments
- Movable equipment (bins, containers)
- Waste collection and transport vehicles

Separate collection and reverse logistics of waste, as well as
redundant products, parts and materials, enabling circular - Supporting infrastructure for waste collection,
value retention and recovery strategies transport and temporary storage (e.g. civic amenity
centres, transfer and reloading stations, vehicle
depots, facilities for refuelling/recharging, washing,
maintenance and repair)
- Material recovery facilities, process technology
and mobile equipment, involving manual, semi-
automated and/or fully automated mechanical
processes (dismantling, separation, sorting,
Recovery of materials from waste in preparation for circular
crushing, shredding, cutting, post-treatment
value retention and recovery strategies (excluding feedstock
technologies, etc.)
covered under the next line)
- Chemical recycling plants involving various types of
technologies and processes (e.g. depolymerisation,
solvolysis, gasification, pyrolysis, etc.)
- Biorefinery facilities and process technology for the
extraction of biobased products and feedstock from
biowastes and residual biomass, wastewater and
Recovery and valorisation of biomass waste and residues
sludge from organic origin
as food, feed, nutrients, fertilisers, biobased materials or
chemical feedstock
-
Anaerobic digestion and composting plants utilising
the resulting digestates/composts as fertilisers/soil
conditioners
Residual waste treatment projects/facilities (most importantly mechanical biological treatment, waste to energy / incineration
facilities and landfills) are not included in the circular economy classification.
The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of the now well-established EA methods for municipal waste management
projects. These methods are usually applied to entire (integrated) waste management projects, which may consist of different
components (some of them contributing to the circular economy and some of them not).
29
Specifically, according to Article 6(1), subparagraphs (f) to (i), of the packaging directive (Directive 94/62/EC): (f) no later than 31 December 2025 a minimum of 65 % by weight of all packaging waste will be
recycled;
(g) no later than 31 December 2025 the following minimum targets by weight for recycling will be met regarding the following specific materials contained in packaging waste: i. 50 % of plastic; ii. 25 % of wood; iii.
70 % of ferrous metals; iv. 50 % of aluminium; v. 70 % of glass; vi. 75 % of paper and cardboard;
(h) no later than 31 December 2030 a minimum of 70 % by weight of all packaging waste will be recycled;
(i) no later than 31 December 2030 the following minimum targets by weight for recycling will be met regarding the following specific materials contained in packaging waste: a. 55 % of plastic; b. 30 % of wood; c.
80 % of ferrous metals; d. 60 % of aluminium; e. 75 % of glass; f. 85 % of paper and cardboard.
50
IV.2. Project development cycle and methods

Waste management investments are often complex integrated systems of collection, transport, recovery, recycling, treatment
and disposal, which are interconnected with the rest of the economy and society through inputs and outputs. Identifying and
quantifying waste and resource flows requires a good understanding of the interaction between the different components of
the waste management system, the links with other economic sectors (e.g. energy production, manufacturing, construction and
agriculture) and the broader socioeconomic context.
When projects are compliance driven, it is suggested that the project options be assessed based on the cost-
effectiveness of investments. The levelised unit cost (LUC) (also called dynamic prime cost or dynamic generation cost) is the
cost-effectiveness indicator normally used to analyse and compare options at the early stage of the project development cycle,
when options have the same or similar objectives, expected outputs and benefits. It is usually expressed in EUR/tonne of waste
treated. It is derived by dividing the NPV of the total project life cost in monetary terms – comprising CAPEX, operating expenses
(OPEX) and replacement costs over the reference period – by the NPV of the treated waste in physical terms (weight).
Table 5. Example of calculation of the LUC (thousand EUR)
Years
1 2 3 4 5–12 13 14–21 22 23–29 30
Total investment cost 13 000 27 000 23 000
Operating cost 10 300 12 000 12 300 17 000 … 17 000 … 17 000 … 17 000
Replacement cost 0 0 0 0 … 5 000 … 6 000 … 0
Total costs 23 300 39 000 35 300 17 000 … 22 000 … 23 000 … 17 000
Revenues 800 900 1 000 5 000 … 5 000 … 5 000 … 5 000
Residual value 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 000

Total inflows 800 900 1 000 5 000 … 5 000 … 5 000 … 25 000
Net costs 22 500 38 100 34 300 12 000 … 17 000 … 18 000 … – 8 000
Waste collected 150 150 150 145 … 145 … 145 … 145
NPV (*) of net costs 271 361
NPV (*) of waste
collected (thousand 2 622
tons)
LUC (EUR/ton) 103.49
(*) A financial discount rate of 4 % has been applied in the calculation.
Where there are significant differences between the various options appraised (e.g. in terms of GHG emissions),
a simplified CBA (i.e. based on rough estimates of costs and outputs) should be seen as the preferred method for
option analysis. For the selection of the location for project facilities, qualitative considerations are typically used based on
MCA.
Only for non-compliance-driven projects, when there is a lack of benchmarks or there are significant changes in the expected
externalities, the selected option should also undergo a detailed CBA at the stage of the feasibility study.
The results of CBAs are highly dependent on the quality of data used and the assumptions made, and need careful and nuanced
interpretation to be used correctly. Historical data on waste flows and composition might not always be available at the required
level of detail or reliability, which introduces uncertainty in long-term forecasts for waste generation, collection and treatment.
The valuation of impacts is costly and time-consuming to carry out and, therefore, the results are often transferred from one
study to another, adding another layer of uncertainty (i.e. regarding their transferability from one country or region to another).
To address the uncertainties in the data and assumptions used, the CBA should be accompanied by a sensitivity analysis for
key input parameters and assumptions, as well as a report elucidating the methodology and assumptions applied and the data
sources used. Besides quantified economic costs and benefits, the report should also include a description of non-monetised
environmental impacts. The large amount of resources and time needed for carrying out CBA explains why it is typically adopted
mostly for large strategic investments.
The reference period for municipal waste management projects should take into account the economically useful life of the
project and is typically up to 20 years (or at least 15 years of operation). In cases, when, for example, a public–private partnership
contract is to be signed with an operator, the reference period should take into account the duration of the public–private
partnership contract.
IV.3. Economic appraisal

Key economic impacts of waste management projects are related to the reduction of GHG emissions, air and water pollution, land
use and soil pollution, as well as health risks and disamenity effects such as noise, odour, litter, dust and vermin.
51
The table in Section 4.2 of the 2014 CBA guide provides examples of quantifiable benefits and valuation methods in the economic
assessment of EU-funded waste management projects. This section presents updates, clarifications and additional information
for the calculation of economic benefits in the municipal waste management sector.
Material recovery and recycling
The economic benefits of material recovery and recycling could be estimated from the following elements.
- Savings in landfill costs. For the purpose of the economic analysis of waste management projects, every tonne of
waste that is diverted from landfill as a result of the project reduces the cost of landfilling and should therefore be
credited with the unit cost of landfill per tonne of waste. The valuation of the unit cost of landfill should be based
on the long-run marginal cost (LRMC), assuming that the benefits of diverting waste from landfill correspond to the
avoided cost of a future landfill. The LRMC is obtained by plotting the capital and operating costs (including land cost)
over the landfill’s lifetime and calculating its LUC, applying the discounted cash-flow method. The size of the landfill and
thus its LRMC will depend on the total annual amount of waste that is diverted from landfill as a result of the project.
- Market value of separately collected recyclable materials. The economic benefit of recovering secondary raw
materials (e.g. plastic, glass and metals) and/or composts and other natural fertilisers from waste is typically approximated
by the corresponding market value for each subproduct. The annual benefit can be calculated by multiplying the amount
of recycled material expected to be recovered because of the project by its price. An assumption is made that the value
captured via the market prices of such products reflects the full social value of avoided extraction, processing and
transport of virgin raw materials (30).
Energy recovery in the form of electricity and heat (or biofuel)
As illustrated in Section 4.2.7 of the 2014 CBA guide, this benefit arises when waste is used for the production of energy in the
form of electricity or heat. In this case, the energy recovered (using waste as the source) replaces the use of energy from an
alternative source/fuel (e.g. coal), which, in turn, leads to cost savings.
For projects involving energy recovery from waste, the opportunity cost of the substituted and substituting sources/fuels (oil,
natural gas, biomass, nuclear, solar, wind, hydro, etc.) should be considered as valuing the variation of energy costs. For example,
the avoided costs of alternative fuel can be computed by multiplying the amount of fuel required to produce the same amount
of energy (electricity or heat) by the prices of fuels used in the without-project scenario. For more details, please refer to the
economic value of electricity/heat described in Annex II (‘Renewable energy’).
The opportunity cost of energy recovered from waste should be based on the LRMC of alternative energy production, reflecting
the total social cost incurred to produce an extra unit of energy, plus the transport cost of the energy source from the place where
it is produced to the place where it is used, if applicable.
If the substituted source is fossil fuel, an additional benefit related to displaced GHG emissions is generated through energy
generation from the renewable waste fraction.
Health and environmental hazards
To estimate the external cost of pollutant emissions, the usual approach consisting of quantifying the emissions avoided thanks
to the project (measured in kg/tonne of waste) and valuing them with a unit economic cost (measured in EUR/kg of emissions)
applies. For changes in emissions of airborne pollutants (e.g. PM, NOx and SOx), unit damage values (e.g. from the Needs projects)
could be used (31). To estimate the expected annual benefit, the forecast reduction of pollution (calculated by comparing the
emissions of the pollutant in the scenarios with and without the project and expressed in tonnes/year) is multiplied by the
economic cost of the pollutant (expressed in EUR/tonne).
Leachate control
The economic benefits of the avoidance and proper collection and treatment of leachate can be estimated using the avoided
costs of not having to clean the affected areas and also using the marginal damage approach. These benefits would apply to
projects comprising the closure and remediation of dumpsites and non-compliant landfills. In the case of projects diverting
waste from landfills, such benefits would be internalised in the LRMC of landfill, assuming that such landfilling would meet the
requirements of the landfill directive.
Greenhouse gas emissions
Generally, the largest GHG emission reductions are obtained at the higher levels of the waste hierarchy. However, GHG emission
reductions can vary quite significantly for different materials and technological processes within the same level of the waste
hierarchy (Ballinger, 2015).
The highest reduction in GHG emissions is achieved when waste is (in order of importance):
- prevented in the first place (e.g. through refuse, reduce, repair and reuse strategies);
- recovered in the form of secondary raw materials and sent for recycling, replacing virgin materials, which have a
larger carbon footprint;
30
A possible source for the price of recyclable materials can be found at the Eurostat website (https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Recycling_%E2%80%93_secondary_material_price_
indicator#Price_and_trade_volumes).
31
See the Needs project website for more information (http://www.needs-project.org/); in particular, see RS3a D 1.1, Report on the procedure and data to generate averaged/aggregated data.
52
- recovered in the form of compost or other natural fertilisers for beneficial use (e.g. in agriculture) in the case of
biowaste;
- used for energy generation as a substitute for fossil fuels (in the case of non-recyclable waste);
- treated to reduce and stabilise the biodegradable components before being properly disposed of (in the case of
biowaste fractions in mixed residual wastes).
In the first and second cases, the decrease in GHG emissions results from the reduction of virgin raw material consumption (i.e.
avoided emissions from raw material extraction, transport and processing). In the third and fifth cases, the decrease in GHG
emissions, mainly methane, originates mainly from a reduction in untreated biodegradable waste deposited in landfills. In the
fourth case, energy recovery from waste enables a reduction in GHG emissions that would have been produced by alternative
energy sources using fossil fuels.
Normally, the calculations should also take into account the prevention and reuse of waste, which avoid energy-related emissions
generated for the production of goods from raw materials.
As good practice, the estimation of the project economic benefits resulting from the reduction of GHG emissions
requires two parameters: standard specific emission factors to quantify the reduction of emissions and standard
values to monetise them. By comparing the situation with and without the project (in tonnes/year) it is possible to estimate
the change in terms of emissions due to the project. The shadow price to be used for the monetisation of the CO2 emissions
component can be taken from the values used by the EIB (see Section 2.5 in Part I of the EAV).
53
ANNEX V. TRANSPORT
V.1. Introduction
This chapter focuses mainly on standard methods for appraising transport projects with an emphasis on updating, standardising
and simplifying (where possible) the transport appraisal approach and sources of the 2014 CBA guide, while ensuring that project
benefits and costs are well captured and presented in a proportionate but meaningful way.
Acceleration of the process of CBA preparation is promoted below, for example by reference to pre-prepared sets of updated
country unit values at the European level such as the Handbook on the External Costs of Transport (Directorate-General for
Mobility and Transport, 2019; the 2019 handbook).
The voluntary guidance applies to projects in all transport sectors eligible for funding from EU-funded sources (both passengers
and freight).
In the context of the 2021–2027 cohesion policy funding, the voluntary guidance could be applied to transport projects meeting
the specific objectives of policy objective 3, ‘A more connected Europe by enhancing mobility’, of the common provisions regulation
for 2021–2027. The specific objectives directly relevant to transport are objectives 3.2, ‘Developing a climate resilient, intelligent,
secure, sustainable and intermodal TEN-T’, and 3.3, ‘Developing and enhancing sustainable, climate resilient, intelligent and
intermodal national, regional and local mobility, including improved access to TEN-T and cross border mobility’.
The guidance also applies to actions meeting the specific transport objectives set out by the European Commission mainly to
contribute to the development of projects of common interest relating to efficient and interconnected networks and infrastructure
for smart, sustainable, inclusive, safe and secure mobility.
V.2. Project development cycle and methods

A transport project should ideally find its strategic justification in the framework of a comprehensive transport plan, set up at the
appropriate territorial level, which should in turn be in line with climate mitigation plans.
EA tools such as CBA (with a simplified level of detail of underlying analysis) and MCA can be used/combined in a strategic way at
the level of transport plans to consider alternative solutions, but always in the context of a prior thorough analysis demonstrating
basic strategic issues and a clear related statement of strategic objectives.
Similarly, at the level of assessing investment programmes of projects (usually derived from a transport plan), CBA and MCA are
commonly used as prioritisation tools to indicate the projects in the pipeline offering the most value for money (which is then
consolidated with considerations of maturity).
The impacts of transport on GHG reduction are most achievable at strategic level, where there is greater scope to influence unit
emissions of vehicles and shifts to lower emission modes. The scope for GHG reduction at the level of project option analysis is,
however, also important, allowing further optimisation of the strategic choices.
The appraisal of significant individual project investments in the transport sector traditionally uses CBA, which is the primary
public policy tool used to assess if a proposed project is socioeconomically viable or to compare the value for money of different
project options.
MCA is used in transport for project option analysis when a project has multiple key objectives/impacts for assessment, which
cannot be comprehensively or practically assessed using CBA (e.g. when key effects such as certain environmental impacts cannot
be monetised or when a large set of project options are being shortlisted). Outcomes or elements of CBA can be integrated into
an MCA assessment as part of the criteria set.
CEA is intended for use when a specific outcome or objective is already defined and decision-makers wish to compare how
efficiently different options meet such an objective. An example in transport might be achieving compliance with the tunnel
safety directive (Directive 2004/54/EC) or the mandatory implementation of European traffic management systems such as the
European rail traffic management system (ERTMS) / European train control system (ETCS).
V.3. Economic appraisal
Standardised and simplified treatment of the project impacts in economic appraisal
Table 6 summarises the impacts of investments that are typically assessed in the EA of transport projects and the primary
appraisal methodology for each impact.
54
Table 6. Transport projects: impacts
Primary evaluation New content provided in this document regarding transport CBA
Impacts
method simplification and standardisation
Perceived passenger New recommended methods/sources for unit values of value of time
Monetisation
time and detailed advice on door-to-door perceived time treatment
Freight time Monetisation Reference to a recent JASPERS rail freight guidance document
providing a standardised approach and EU country unit values of time
Vehicle operating and operating costs (see section ‘Costs and benefits of rail freight
Monetisation
costs enhancements’)
More detailed guidance and references to new EU country unit values for
Safety Monetisation
accident costs
Environmental
Specific updated reference to sources of EU country unit external cost
emissions / local Monetisation
values per mode
health
Updated references for evaluating the unit cost of carbon (see
Climate change Monetisation
Section 2.5 in Part I of the EAV)
Specific updated reference to sources of EU country unit external cost
Noise Monetisation
values
Other environmental Qualitative
Explanation of the need for qualitative assessment
impacts assessment
Wider economic Mainly qualitative
References to literature and recommendations on evaluation method
benefits assessment
Specific advice related to the set-up of the without-project scenario and
O&M costs Monetisation
related O&M costs
Perceived passenger time

Passenger time savings are often the dominant benefit calculated in transport CBA and thus care must be taken in their calculation
and monetisation.
For setting of basic unit in-vehicle values of time, a number of approaches/sources can be recommended.
- Ideally, new unit values of time should be set at the national level based on stated and/or revealed preference
surveys.
- An alternative approach would be to set values of business time in line with official (Eurostat) data on average
hourly labour costs (including a mark-up for overheads), with commuting estimated at approximately 25–40 % of
business time and other/leisure trips estimated at approximately 20–35 % of business time.
In line with the advice of the 2014 CBA guide, it is not generally recommended that values presented in the IER Germany
(2006) study be adopted for passenger value of time sets in national methodologies, primarily because that study contains an
increasingly out-of-date data set, and national-level surveys represent a superior method.
Countries may opt to select different values for different modes (e.g. because of differences in user income levels) or simply
select one set of values to be applied to all modes.
At least for urban and regional public transport projects, it is good practice to consider the value of door-to-door time savings:
differentiating at least between walk access/egress, in-vehicle time and wait time / headway penalties, with different weightings
or functions applied to each category. This is best assessed through national stated and revealed preference surveys; however,
there is a wide body of international evidence available on door-to-door elements of perceived travel time.
Table 7 displays an approximate range of typical weights applied to in-vehicle unit value of time based on the international
literature of stated preference survey outcomes (Wardman and Hine, 2000; Wardman et al., 2012) (32).
32
See also units A1.3 and M3.2 of Department for Transport (2021).
55
Table 7. Time elements
Weighting on in-
Common perceived time vehicle unit value
Comment
elements of time or fixed
penalty
Door-to-door trip elements

Walk time 1.5–2
Not to be combined with the PT service headway approach and
Wait time (actual time spent
1.5–2 to be used only for turn-up-and-go services with high frequency
waiting for a PT vehicle)
(more than four vehicles per hour)
PT service headway (average Lower weightings are applied to services with lower frequencies
time interval between 0.4–1 (usually longer distance) and can be expressed as a function of
services) service frequency
Intrinsic discomfort value after taking into account walking and
4–15 minutes fixed
PT transfer penalties waiting at interchanges. Lower in high-frequency well-integrated
penalty
local PT services and higher for longer distance trips
Reliability and congestion
PT late arrival 2.5–4 Weight applied to lateness / delayed part of travel time
Congested time (in car) 1.5 Applied to time spent in congestion
Travel time standard
0.4–1.2 Applied to the standard deviation of travel time
deviation (car)
NB: PT, public transport.
Regarding passenger travel time reliability, there is a body of evidence available evaluating the higher value of time related to
delay (lateness) and the additional significance of delay risk (usually expressed as the standard deviation of travel time).
Assessments of the perceived time value of comfort are best made using local stated preference surveys (e.g. the comfort of
different aspects of increasing comfort in a rolling stock project).
Benefits are most commonly calculated by applying unit values of time to estimated time savings derived from a transport traffic
model, where time savings can be calculated using (i) aggregate modelled estimates of time savings, (ii) a link-by-link approach
or (iii) demand model skims on an origin–destination basis.
When travel time savings are not derived from detailed integrated network transport models, care must be taken when calculating
for users transferring between modes, ensuring that the full impact on door-to-door perceived travel times is taken into account,
not just the time spent in vehicles.
Safety
Avoided accidents typically constitute a significant project benefit, especially in road projects, for public transport projects involving
a significant mode shift from road, for railway crossings and cycling infrastructure projects. Section 3.8.4 of the 2014 CBA guide
contains a detailed description of relevant concepts (e.g. direct/indirect costs and the value of a statistical life).
Road accidents
Projects involving, for example, a shift of traffic from single-carriageway roads (with uncontrolled accesses and no safety barriers
between opposing traffic flows) to motorways or dual carriageways (with restricted accesses and barriers between opposing
traffic flows) can substantially reduce accident risk (33). Public transport projects involving a mode shift (from cars to public
transport modes) may also generate large accident savings.
A good practice in project appraisal is for countries to produce data on national accident rates (in terms of number of accidents
per million vehicle-km), severity splits (the percentage of accidents involving fatalities, serious injuries, minor injuries or material
damage accidents only) and casualties (average number of fatalities, serious injuries and minor injuries per fatal, serious or
minor injury accident) for each carriageway type. These estimates are produced by combining information from national accident-
reporting sources (e.g. police accident report forms) with data from traffic volumes on each section of the road network. To
account for the phenomenon of accident underreporting and/or underrecording, correction factors may be applied to the number
33
See Chapter 4 of Transport Infrastructure Ireland (2020).
56
of fatal, serious and minor injury accidents (34).
Estimates of the monetary value of each accident/injury (differentiated by severity), from, for example., stated or revealed
preference studies, are also needed. When such surveys are not available, suitable estimates can be taken from adjacent
countries with similar levels of per capita GDP, or values may be taken from Table 7 of the 2019 handbook (Directorate-General
for Mobility and Transport, 2019).
In the event that the abovementioned data are not available at the country level, or if link type information was not available
from the demand model, accident savings can be incorporated into CBA in a relatively rudimentary manner by the application
of estimates of the per km cost of road accidents - from Table 8 of the 2019 handbook ꟷ to modelled changes in vehicle-km of
travel on the road network.
Rail, air and public transport accidents
Country-specific estimates of accident rates and costs per mode may be available from national appraisal guidelines. If these are
not available, default accident costs per passenger-km, for each mode of transport, are available from Tables 8–10 of the 2019
handbook. These may be applied to modelled changes in vehicle-km for relevant transport modes to calculate accident savings
that are the result of transport interventions.
Environmental emissions and local health impacts
The local health impacts of environmental emissions constitute a significant project benefit, especially in road projects and public
transport projects involving a significant mode shift from roads.
The recommended methodology to calculate the external costs caused by air pollution remains unchanged from the 2014 CBA
guide (see Section 3.8.6 of that guide).
To calculate the total air pollution costs, quantities of air pollutants additionally emitted or avoided are estimated using suitable
emission factors (tonnes of pollutant per vehicle-km) and available transport performance data (e.g. vehicle-km) derived from
the transport model. The estimated emission quantities are then multiplied by the unit costs per air pollutant.
Updated unit costs for air pollutants, per country, emitted in road, rail, inland waterway and maritime transport are available from
Tables 14 and 15 of the 2019 handbook.
Air pollutants – road transport
A good practice in the estimation of quantities of air pollutants for road projects would be for countries to produce specific
emission factors as a function of the vehicle type, road type, road condition and average speed. The vehicles are differentiated
by vehicle type, capacity or weight, fuel and emission standard in order to consider the country-specific fleet composition.
Calculations of the air pollutant quantities could be done on a link-by-link basis or by using aggregate modelled estimates of
vehicle-km, where possible broken down by vehicle type and by road type. Technical guidance to prepare national emission
inventories is provided in the European Environment Agency air pollutant emission inventory guidebook (European Environment
Agency, 2019). The same source can be used for default emission factors if country-specific data are not available.
If only aggregated modelled estimates of vehicle-km are available, where possible differentiated by vehicle category, average
country-specific air pollution costs per vehicle-km for road transport are provided in the annex entitled ‘Complete overview of
country data’ accompanying the 2019 handbook (35).
Air pollutants – rail, air and public transport
Country-specific estimates of emission factors per vehicle type and mode may be available from national appraisal guidelines. If
these are not available, marginal air pollution costs per passenger-km and tonne-km, for each mode of transport, are available
from Tables 20–23 of the 2019 handbook. These may be applied to modelled changes in passenger-km and tonne-km for
relevant transport modes to calculate air pollution impacts of transport interventions.
Climate change impact
The accuracy of the assessment of the increase/decrease in GHG emissions due to a project largely depends on the availability
of local data on road vehicles (cars and buses), speed and road conditions, as well as energy consumption for rail-based modes
(railways, tramways and metro). This allows the relevant emission factors to be properly selected. In the absence of project-
specific data, the European Environment Agency (2019) air pollutant emission inventory guidebook can provide default emission
factors for transport and energy production.
A unit cost of carbon in EUR/tonne of CO2 equivalent must be applied to monetise the impact for use in an economic assessment
in line with the values suggested in Section 2.5 of Part I of the EAV.
34
See Table 5 of Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport (2019).
35
The values are also included in a dedicated section of the spreadsheet template complementary to the EAV that is currently being considered by Innovation and Networks Executive Agency for smaller projects
applying to the Connecting Europe Facility transport call for proposals for 2021-2027.
57
In the framework of the efforts of the Member States to evolve towards carbon-neutral transport systems, an accurate assessment
of the quantity of generated/avoided GHG emissions using the principles stated above provides important information for
assessing the progress made towards the achievement of GHG reduction targets set at the national/regional level in sector-
specific strategies or in overall climate change mitigation strategies.
Noise impact
The recommended methodology to calculate the external costs caused by noise pollution remains unchanged from the 2014 CBA
guide (see Section 3.8.5 of that guide).
Tables 37 and 38 of the 2019 handbook and the accompanying annex entitled ‘Marginal costs air pollution, climate, WTT, noise’
provide unit values of marginal cost of noise for road and rail transport, differentiated by vehicle type, time of day, traffic situation
(dense or thin) and area type (metropolitan, urban, suburban or rural). The unit costs are EU-28-specific values and they are
provided in EUR/passenger-km, EUR/tonne-km or EUR/vehicle-km. To calculate noise pollution costs, they are applied to modelled
changes in passenger-km, tonne-km or vehicle-km for relevant transport modes. If only aggregated modelled estimates of
vehicle-km are available, where possible differentiated by vehicle category, average country-specific noise pollution costs per
vehicle-km for road and rail transport are provided in the annex entitled ‘Complete overview of country data’ accompanying the
2019 handbook.
Other environmental impacts
Other environmental impacts (e.g. the impact on Natura 2000, namely biodiversity) are assessed qualitatively; owing to the
difficulty of physically quantifying or attributing money values to such impacts, they are generally not monetised and thus are
excluded from the project CBA. Impacts can, however, often be scored subjectively on a scale and, as required, included in a wider
MCA process to compare options.
Operating and maintenance costs of infrastructure
The main comments here are related to the set-up of the without-project scenario and related O&M costs. As was discussed in
the 2014 CBA guide, there are a number of valid ways of setting up the without-project scenario depending on the context (e.g.
a business-as-usual scenario leading to further degradation of the infrastructure or a more do-minimum type of scenario with
more aggressive replacement interventions in order to maintain the current operating conditions).
Whatever the approach chosen, it is very important that the operational parameters of the infrastructure (e.g. track speed) and
the O&M elements in the without-project scenario are fully consistent with each other. In a number of cases seen in 2014–2020,
this relationship was not always apparent or well documented.
Costs and benefits of rail freight enhancements
For many rail infrastructure development projects with strong elements of improvement for freight transport, a significant part
of the economic benefits is attributable to improvements in freight travel time and travel time reliability, operating costs and
external cost reduction from mode shift.
The method and parameters of appraisal of railway corridor enhancements that provide for enhanced freight operations are
somewhat fragmented and often misunderstood in the wider appraisal community, often leading to double counting in CBA or
underestimation of certain impacts. JASPERS therefore developed guidance on appraising rail freight measures, with the support
of leading experts in the field (EIB and JASPERS, 2017) (36), to offer a state-of-the-art, logical and consistent framework for the
appraisal of impacts of rail infrastructure projects with rail freight enhancement elements. The guidance separates freight costs
into the time value of transport (the cost of crew, vehicle depreciation, overheads, etc.), the time value of goods (capital costs and
degradation of the value of the goods during transport) and purely distance-related operational costs of transport (e.g. traction
and track access costs). The guidance further includes reference unit values for time and operating costs per EU country with
advice on escalation if countries do not have their own unit sets.
Wider economic benefits
These are induced benefits that arise because of the impact of improved transport infrastructure being transmitted into the wider
economy. Research in the United Kingdom (UK Department for Transport, 2005; Venables, 2016) has highlighted a number of
potential wider economic benefits including output changes in imperfectly competitive markets, agglomeration effects and the
tax implications of a move to more productive jobs.
While there is robust literature supporting the existence of such benefits, the actual likelihood of these benefits occurring is very
context specific. In fact, as the data requirements to establish such impacts are beyond what is normally available for CBA, they
should generally only be addressed qualitatively, unless (exceptionally for very large projects) the potential impacts justify a
quantitative approach.
Real growth in the unit value of benefits
Growing economies and income levels can increase the real unit value of the economic benefits (in addition to inflation effects).
To capture real increases, unit values can be increased proportionally. The following provides an update on the methods for
determining the real escalation elasticities of unit values of time and externalities.
36
http://www.jaspersnetwork.org/plugins/servlet/documentRepository/searchDocument?category=Rail%20and%20Public%20Transport
58
Value of passenger time. The escalation elasticity of the unit value of time to real income (GDP/capita) depends on the nature
of the underlying data set. Values based on multi-country data should follow the elasticities inherent in the underlying meta-
equations (e.g. the Wardman et al. (2012) study data gave the real income elasticity between the value of time and GDP/capita
as approximately 0.8 for business trips and 0.7 for other trips). For data sets based on official (Eurostat) data on average hourly
labour costs, an elasticity of 1 may be used as a default for all trip motivations. In the case of countries developing their own sets
of values based on national/local surveys, escalation elasticities should be considered consistently with the method of setting
the unit values.
Value of freight time. This is covered in the EIB and JASPERS (2017) guidance and indicates that only the element of crew time
would be expected to have a significant real elasticity to GDP/capita.
Externalities (including accidents). The 2019 handbook suggests escalating the unit values of the externalities (excluding
CO2) proportionally to GDP/capita as well, with an elasticity of 0.8 determined based on an extensive meta-analysis by the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, which concludes that the real income (GDP/capita) elasticity for the
WTP of environmental and health-related goods falls between 0.7 and 0.9.
Reference period
The evaluation reference period for a transport project is ideally set to reflect the value-weighted average lifetime of the various
elements of the asset. This, however, should generally be restricted to a reasonable time limit of future forecastability of the net
future economic cash flows, usually no longer than 50–60 years, which is much shorter than the lifetime of tunnels and some
bridges, for example.
An equivalent (and often simpler) approach is to have a fixed maximum evaluation period, for example of 30 years, but allowing
projects with a shorter lifespan to have a shorter evaluation period. Added to this is any residual value of net economic cash
flows over the remaining project lifetime, usually with simplified forecast assumptions and again up to a reasonably forecastable
time limit.
V.4. Other economic appraisal tools to simplify analysis and improve decision-making
Use of cost-effectiveness analysis (or multi-criteria analysis) in the transport sector for compliance-driven
projects
CEA is used to demonstrate solution optimality by comparing the ratio of the quantified level of accomplishment of a particular
singular objective (output) with life-cycle costs between two or more project options.
In the transport sector, its main usage in the 2014–2020 funding period was for national elements of European-level projects,
which represent legal compliance objectives such as the implementation of the ERTMS in the railway sector, where the output
has been defined in terms of simple physical outputs such as length in kilometres. Where such simple physical outputs are
considered, CEA is generally advisable only when the outputs of the options have the same quality and functionality, otherwise
the CEA is not a fair comparison. Two examples follow.
1. CEA is generally appropriate as a decision-making tool when, for example, two technical options of the global
system for mobile communications for railway (GSM-R) (37) are proposed (with a different solution architecture or using different
technology) that, however, offer the same (required) quality and functionality. In this case, the discounted lifetime costs for each
option can be divided by the output in kilometres and the resulting CEA values can be compared.
2. CEA is not generally appropriate when, for example, two different GSM-R options are considered and one option
has a higher level of signal reliability (e.g. by using double coverage of radio base station transmitters) corresponding to higher
operational needs of ETCS (38) level 2 and the other option is cheaper and less reliable (with only single base station transmitter
coverage). CEA is not a suitable tool here, as it would automatically favour the cheaper option, which is of worse quality and may
not meet the operational needs of reliability.
In the latter case, option selection may be better guided by MCA, taking into account the quality, functionality and/or risks of
different solutions as the main impact criteria together with the lifetime cost as a balancing criterion. This might take place
after a prior assessment of minimum operational requirements in terms of quality and functionality as a threshold for option
acceptability.
The two examples above are not mutually exclusive, and a CEA (used to decide between two shortlisted options of comparable
quality) might follow an MCA (used to identify the optimal balance of quality and price) in the appropriate circumstances (39).
International unit price benchmarking (for the type of solution chosen) and tender outcomes (when there is more than one bidder)
are recommended in all cases as a complementary check on the absolute value for money.
37
GSM-R is a standard digital railway radio communication technology, which is an element of the ERTMS and underpins the ETCS.
38
The ETCS is part of the ERTMS.
39
Compliance-driven projects requesting the financial support of the Connecting Europe Facility are generally not subject to the requirement of submitting a CBA (detailed requirements depend on each particular
call for proposals). However, applicants are free to reinforce the economic case of their project with any type of EA approach or combination of approaches.
59
Use of multi-criteria considerations in decision-making

While CBA plays or could play a very important role in the appraisal of most transport projects, there are normally impacts
(such as those on Natura 2000 sites) where monetary values are less readily available but nonetheless relevant for decision-
making purposes. For this reason, a multi-criteria approach is useful in bringing together information on impacts in a variety of
different formats (i.e. monetised, non-monetised quantitative or qualitative assessment). This information can be compiled into a
predefined format with clear rules for non-monetised quantitative or qualitative assessment and presented to decision-makers
at key milestone stages to aid the decision-making process.
In some cases, a formal MCA is performed, with scoring and weighting of different criteria (taking care to avoid double counting)
leading to a single MCA score; in other cases, the outcomes are simply presented against various criteria without weighting to
inform a consensual political decision. Finally, the multi-criteria approach can be a hybrid of both approaches.
For major political decisions, a single-value MCA outcome is often considered too opaque and subjective an indicator and is at
risk of being marginalised in practice. Clear presentation of the main quantified and unquantified outcomes of various options is,
in such a case, not just a presentational exercise but a fundamental input for real-life decision-making.
Examples of actual processes used in Ireland and Germany for major scheme decision-making and plan prioritisation, respectively,
are described below.
Irish major project scheme appraisal approach
For major transport schemes in Ireland (similar to UK practice), an overall appraisal table is required as a key input for decision-
making. Table 8 is a simplified example of an appraisal summary table.
Table 8. Simplified version of appraisal summary table for transport projects
Assessment
Impacts Summary of key
impacts
Quantitative Qualitative Monetary (EUR, NPV)
Investment cost Project NPV, B/C Ratio

Overall estimate and ERR (note this
Summary of Qualitative assessment
economic Usage of project includes the present
economic impact of economic benefits
impacts (number of daily value of impacts noted
vehicles/passengers) beneath)
Present value of
Summary of Average time savings
Qualitative assessment time-saving benefits
Time savings any time-saving per user
of time-saving benefits (passengers and
benefits Hours saved per year
freight)
Economy
Average operating
Summary impact Qualitative assessment
Vehicle costs per vehicle Present value of vehicle
on vehicle of vehicle operating
operating costs (without and with operating cost savings
operating costs cost changes
project scenarios)
Generally excluded
Summary of any Number and quality of Qualitative assessment
Wider economic but, where applicable,
wider economic indirect jobs created of potential for wider
benefits present value of wider
benefits (if any) economic benefits
economic benefits
Additional
economic … … … …
objectives …
60
Summary of Annual average tonnes Qualitative assessment

Present value of GHG
GHG impact impact of project of GHG emitted from of impact of project on
emission reductions
on climate change project climate change
Environmental
Summary of Qualitative assessment

Environment- Annual average Present value of
impact of project of impact of project
related local tonnes of NOx, CO, etc., environment-related
on emissions / on environment / local
health impacts emitted local health impacts
local health health
Additional
environmental … … … …
objectives …
Summary of Average number of Qualitative assessment

Present value of safety
Safety impact on annual fatalities and of impact of the project
impacts
transport safety serious injuries saved on safety
Social
Additional social …
… … …
objectives …
German approach
The German methodology (40) used to prepare the long-term national transport infrastructure investment plan (but which could
equally be used to provide a higher level of detail for a project appraisal summary assessment) is based on four modules:
1. CBA, covering all of the common elements also addressed by the 2014 CBA Guide – this is the only module based
on monetisation of impacts;
2. environmental protection, addressing all topics relevant for the environmental dimension not covered by the CBA,
for example land consumption, protection of sensitive areas and habitat fragmentation;
3. spatial planning, addressing the connectivity and accessibility of agglomerations in terms of distributive equity;
accordingly, this differs from the allocative benefits of accessibility included in the CBA in terms of time savings;
4. urban planning, addressing the local impacts of transport infrastructure projects that affect the quality of urban
areas – this applies, for example, to projects able to relieve urban areas of through traffic or decongest them (note
that the national plan does not address investment in urban transport infrastructure).
Modules 2, 3 and 4 do not rely on monetisation but, for each of them, a strictly standardised and largely quantitative evaluation
scheme is given, ensuring a high degree of objectivity and comparability of results. In a subsequent phase, the investment
options are assessed against a detailed, multi-level set of given strategic goals. To this end, the scores resulting from each
module are not aggregated to a single indicator. The particular way in which each project, as defined by its four individual scores,
contributes to the strategic goals is assessed. This eventually allows a broadly based, informed investment decision to be made.
V.5. Standardising and streamlining demand modelling as an input to economic appraisal for road, rail and
urban transport
Demand models generally form the key source of input and assumptions for a transport CBA, so their quality and objectivity are
an essential prerequisite of a sound transport economic analysis.
Demand models provide forecasts (without and with project investment) of traffic levels that are a key basis for the assessment
of time savings, cost savings and externalities. The creation of a transport model is, however, a costly and time-consuming
exercise. It is therefore appropriate at an early stage of the project to consider what form the model should take.
In the 2014–2020 programming period, best practice in terms of demand modelling was outlined in Section 3.5 of the 2014
CBA guide, and this remains valid. However, based on a review of transport projects submitted to the European Commission for
40
Bundesministerium für Verkehr und digitale Infrastruktur, Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2030 (BWP 2030), and in particular: PTV at al., Methodenhandbuch zum Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2030, Karlsruhe, 2016
61
approval in the 2014–2020 programming period, a number of common weaknesses have been identified relating to demand
modelling practices, including:
- the need for a new transport model and the use of existing models;
- an inappropriate geographical scope of the model;
- an insufficient level of model network and zoning detail;
- insufficient attention paid to model calibration and validation, and a lack of underlying data;
- inappropriate or poorly documented forecasts;
- incomplete travel time, cost estimation and data exports from public transport models.
Need for a new transport model and the use of existing models
Transport models are both expensive and time-consuming to create and therefore the decision to create one should not be taken
lightly. In the 2014–2020 programming period, in a limited number of cases, decisions were taken to create new demand models
when the modification of existing models might have sufficed. There were also a limited number of cases of major projects using
demand forecasts from clearly unreliable, outdated models. At an early project stage, existing models (where available) should
be reviewed and pragmatic decisions should be taken on whether the demand model needs to be updated/replaced. Even when
a new demand model is required, existing sources of information (in the form of traffic counts, origin–destination surveys and
coded supply networks) should be used to the maximum extent possible. The proliferation of national transport models provides
a useful source of information; it is possible to extract basic information from these (on supply network and demand matrices),
which may aid in the creation of local models.
Incorrect geographical scope of the model
Sometimes models do not have the correct geographical scope, with the modelled area being either too small or too large. The
minimum required modelled scope should be the area within which the main expected transport impacts of the types of plans
and/or projects are expected to occur. Particular issues are found with major cross-border projects and investments in rail freight
facilities, where European travel data are essential. European data such as from the European Transport Policy Information
System (ETIS+) and Eurostat, the Trans-European Transport Network Policy (TEN-T) information system (TENtec), the latest
European models (a new model called TRIMODE is being developed) and European forecasts (e.g. the EU reference scenario 2016
(European Commission, undated), which is being updated to a 2020 scenario) should be considered when possible in such cases.
The development and use of national models and the data of neighbouring states should also be considered.
Insufficient level of model network and zoning detail
This is often observed when national models are applied to regional transport projects or regional models are applied to local/
urban transport projects. Existing higher level models may need to be cut (taking only the relevant part of the network) and
further detailing made in terms of network and zoning in order to become applicable for project assessment at a lower level,
especially in the area of direct influence of the project.
Insufficient attention paid to model calibration and validation, and a lack of underlying data
Transport models require proper calibration and validation (often understood just as calibration). Calibration essentially entails
estimating the multitude of constants and parameters in a given transport model based on transport data; validation establishes
the credibility of the model by demonstrating its ability to replicate observed traffic behaviour.
Data used for validation should be independent (i.e. they should not have already been used in the first steps of model calibration).
For four-stage models used for public transport / rail projects, production / attraction, distribution and mode share model step
parameters should be calibrated based on the outcome of census data (if recording trips) and specific mobility surveys.
To confirm the suitability of a model, statistical tests such as the GEH test may be used as part of a rigorous model acceptability
test in the validation process. In the 2014–2020 programming period, there were no fixed requirements for model calibration and
validation. The majority of transport projects followed best practice in this regard.
Inappropriate or poorly documented forecasts
Demand forecast models normally contain mathematical relationships relating travel demand (per trip purpose) to external
driving factors such as GDP, school places or population. Ideally, demand forecasts will use official forecasts of these external
factors to assess probable future demand (again at the trip purpose level). In the 2014–2020 programming period, some
forecasts were based not on this methodology but rather either on simple unjustified assumptions or on the application of
simple growth factors. Forecasts should be transparently documented linking, underlying variables with the justification of the
quantitative link between demand and these variables.
Incomplete travel time, cost estimation and exports from public transport models
When a project has a substantial impact on different elements of a door-to-door trip, such as a new railway stop, it is advisable
that the model and its output into the CBA should take into account the perceived cost of each element of the trip, such as access
to a public transport stop, waiting time and in-vehicle time. Without this, the full benefits of the project will not be measured,
which may lead to a low ERR or a distorted option analysis.
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For more detailed descriptions of best international practice relating to demand modelling, please refer to the UK Department for
Transport highway assignment modelling (UK Department for Transport, 2020) and the JASPERS publication The use of transport
models in transport planning and project appraisal (JASPERS, 2014) or, for multi-modal freight modelling, see EIB and JASPERS
(2017).
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ANNEX VI. BROADBAND

VI.1. Introduction
The digitalisation of society is a key component in the EU’s multiannual financial framework for 2021–2027. Two
of the five cohesion policy objectives for the multiannual financial framework directly address digitalisation and digital networks.
Indirectly, the other policy objectives will also rely on successful measures to implement projects in these areas. The driver for
continuous digitalisation in the EU is an efficient and reliable infrastructure, with high-speed fixed and mobile broadband. The
previous EU programming periods employed policy initiatives and financing of ICT investments to extend the availability and
take-up of high-speed broadband access in the whole of the EU and to increase the uptake and use of ICT services. The recent
COVID‑19 pandemic reinforced the need to further deploy digital infrastructure and build on ICT services to support all business,
commercial and everyday activities in our society.
Specifically, in relation to digital infrastructure, the European Commission introduced, in 2016, its strategy on connectivity
for a European gigabit society. The document recognises that the full economic and social benefits of the digital transformation
will only be achieved if Europe can ensure widespread deployment and take-up of very high-capacity networks, in rural as
well as urban areas and across all of society. The gigabit society strategy sets out a number of targets to increase the
coverage and quality of broadband infrastructure in Europe. The vision for 2025 includes gigabit access to major social
economic drivers, ultrafast internet access (above 100 megabits per second (Mbps), upgradable to gigabit speed) to all European
households, and uninterrupted 5G wireless broadband coverage in urban areas and along major rail and road infrastructures.
Over recent years, there has been a shift in the type of projects that have received public support. While many of
the digital infrastructure projects in the earlier multiannual financial frameworks focused on the presence of a high-capacity
telecommunication backhaul infrastructure, predominantly through investment in the deployment of fibre, the 2014–2020 one
concentrated more on projects related to high-speed access to end users, ensuring that they can better benefit from capacity-
demanding applications, such as internet protocol television (IPTV) and various streaming services. More importantly, however,
these projects have paved the way for tighter integration of ICT services in everyday life, empowering more teleworking options
through more reliable, higher quality and more responsive video conferencing, as well as facilitating the deployment of several
e-services in the areas of e-health, e-commerce and e-government. By unlocking investments in digital infrastructure in rural
areas, the European Commission’s investments have worked towards reducing the digital gap, benefiting citizens across the
continent and creating new growth opportunities.
In the light of the above changes in the broadband landscape and policy objectives, this chapter also provides
an update to the approach presented in the 2014 CBA guide. Whereas the focus of analysis was previously on projects
deploying backhaul infrastructure, this version also takes into account the rollout of next-generation access networks all the way
to the end users.
For broadband projects, it is industry practice, in both publicly and privately financed projects, to develop a project feasibility study,
including a financial analysis to demonstrate the rationale for the project and its sustainability during operations. In addition, the
analysis needs to demonstrate if the project is bankable or in need of EU grant support. For many projects, in particular when
required by the authority providing grants or loans, the analysis extends to the economic level, aiming to demonstrate the value
of the investment at large for the target population and society as a whole. This chapter focuses on the economic analysis
of broadband projects.
VI.2. Project development cycle and methods

The economic analysis of the project builds on several steps of the project development cycle, which form a feasibility study. The
2014 CBA guide outlines these steps in more detail. The project idea needs to be developed within the framework of the overall
drivers of the intervention, in particular the existing policies, regulations and sector strategies as described above for broadband
investments. Publicly driven broadband projects equally need to carefully consider the EU State aid legislation.
Apart from compliance with policy, broadband interventions are duly justified only when their scope reflects the current
and expected future demand for the project infrastructure. The current demand can be based on the national broadband
map, EU and national regulator reports or information provided by telecommunication operators. Estimations of the future
demand would typically be based on market research and evidence of market interest (i.e. public consultations and operator
investment plans) focused on the intervention area, as well as analysis of the future services that can trigger demand and their
bandwidth requirements. Demand analysis, both current and expected, should equally consider aspects of affordability, ICT
literacy and patterns of increase in penetration rate in comparable markets. The results of the demand analysis, such as the
number and groups of users, will form the basis of economic assessment of the project.
The broadband demand analysis is followed by option analysis, in which the most cost-effective technical and business solutions
are selected, within the desired policy goals and the results of the demand analysis. For broadband projects, there are
usually also a number of strategic choices when it can be more effective to consider these qualitatively. An MCA can
allow the relative merits of possible strategic options to be compared, including different business models or considerations of
different locations or size of investments. Strategic options can be assessed, for example, from a legal perspective within State
64
aid and procurement law, the need for public oversight of investment or risk transfer between public and private partners. The
results of the first-level analysis would lead to the identification of the possible business/institutional options. An
evaluation and shortlisting of suitable technological alternatives should be done next, such as variants of FTTx, including fibre-
to-the-home or fixed or mobile wireless access.
In the next level of option analysis, it is recommended that the feasible options be compared using a simplified CBA,
as this method can help in considering the efficiency of limited public resources at the early stage of project identification and in
choosing the option with the highest value for money and impact on the local society and economy. This step involves preparing
the financial and economic models based on approximate values, which will be made more accurate for the chosen option. The
next section gives more recommendations on the economic analysis.
Once the project option has been selected, it will be used as the basis of the technical design. For telecommunication,
a number of tools and methods are used for network design and the calculation of related equipment needs. An important
element of this is to take into account the presence of existing infrastructure that can be reused in the project.
Next, the financial model can be refined with more accurate project cash flows: capital and operating costs,
reinvestments, financial revenues and residual value. There are different considerations related to the benefit of carrying
out profitability analyses at the level of the owner or operator. For example, the selection of the private partner through fair,
transparent and competitive procedures should allow the best value for money to be assured. For public owners, the calculation
of financial ‘profitability’ may not be meaningful when the institutions are subject to budgetary balance. Moreover, there are
also often specific provisions set out by State aid decisions (i.e. a clawback mechanism). However, if there are public and
private partners involved in the project, it is important to carry out financial sustainability analysis at the level of each of the
stakeholders. Economic analysis of the selected option can be also performed at this stage, especially if there are major changes
to the assumptions on the costs or scope of the project.
The project should finally be subject to a risk and sensitivity assessment, whereby potential shortcomings are tested and mitigated
to ensure the viability of the undertaking for implementation and operation.
VI.3. Economic appraisal

To verify if the project has the potential to affect society and the economy positively, it is necessary to value the
project’s benefits. The 2014 CBA guide discusses three broad categories of economic benefits: increased take-up of digital
services by households and businesses, improved quality of digital services for households and businesses, and improved provision
of digital services for public administration. Another possible categorisation of benefits is that focused on users (consumers and
businesses), sectors (education, healthcare and government) and cross-cutting impacts on environmental or social inclusion
effects.
The research literature on the socioeconomic benefits of broadband has been evolving in the past decades alongside the continued
growth in the reach of networks, their speeds and the range of applications and services available. While the positive impact of
high-speed networks is generally recognised, it is equally noted that the exact impact remains difficult to measure.
Moreover, the challenge in proposing a generic model is that infrastructure projects aimed at improving access
to broadband networks in a given area or region may differ significantly because of the specific needs of the
intervention area. For example, they may differ to the extent to which they aim to connect public administration, healthcare or
schools, in addition to improving general broadband access. Projects focused on improving the connectivity of a particular public
service or group of users would need to consider additional economic costs and benefits that are sector and project specific.
Despite these challenges, there are studies that demonstrate that there are ways to quantify a set of economic
benefits. Consequently, decision-makers can evaluate the economic viability of publicly funded investments in broadband
projects. The template CBA, developed for the beneficiaries of EU funds and available on the JASPERS website, can be adapted
to be used independently of the sources of financing (JASPERS, 2020). The model assumes that the impact of the project will
depend on the difference in speeds between the existing broadband provision and those resulting from the investment in the
project area. This differentiation in capacity is partially also linked with the various types of services and technologies on the end
user side that are enabled through the different speed ranges (from email and web surfing in the case of lower speed broadband
to IPTV, streaming, video conferencing, etc. as the available speed increases; Table 9).
65
Table 9. Broadband speed categories used in the model
Broadband speed category Description

This category represents premises with no broadband, basic
From nothing/basic/fast broadband to broadband (> 2 Mbps) or fast broadband (> 10 Mbps) currently but
superfast broadband (41) that will get superfast broadband (> 30 Mbps) as a result of this
project
This category represents premises with no broadband, basic
From nothing/basic/fast broadband to broadband (> 2 Mbps) or fast broadband (> 10 Mbps) currently but
ultrafast broadband that will get ultrafast broadband (> 100 Mbps) as a result of this
project
This category represents premises currently getting superfast
From superfast to ultrafast broadband broadband, but that will get ultrafast broadband as a result of this
project
Source: JASPERS (2020) broadband model.
Following a literature review of available studies, two parameters are proposed to be used in the model: (i) consumer
benefits per household and (ii) business benefits derived from productivity rises estimated per employee in the
project area. The model has a built-in flexibility, which allows it to be modified according to the particular circumstances of a
given project or beneficiary. Project promoters can use other types of benefits in their assessment or can modify parameters of the
benefits considered in the model (Table 10 gives a checklist of a number of possible benefits, including additional considerations
to make). In such a case, however, the methodology or assumptions used should be properly explained. As a ‘living document’,
the model is can be updated, when new data emerging so require.
The European Commission’s 2014 CBA guide has promoted a microeconomic approach in the estimation of benefits and the
above follows this approach. However, project promoters and evaluators often follow an alternative macroeconomic assessment
of broadband investments based on GDP growth. While there are advantages and disadvantages to both methods, it is important
to note that the two methods cannot be combined, as this can lead to double counting of benefits.
Table 10. Checklist of possible benefits
Monetary Qualitative
Topic/issue Comment on treatment
evaluation assessment
Consumer benefit √ There is sufficient evidence, although the estimates
vary across studies. The values of the benefit would
Business benefit √ depend on the net increase in the available speed
Social inclusion √ Intangible benefit
e-Education – benefit of
√ √
connectivity to home
e-Government – cost savings √ √

The quantification of these benefits may be
e-Health – savings from possible in the case of individual projects. Careful
√ √ consideration is needed to avoid double counting
e-health initiatives
with consumer or business benefits
e-Farming – increase in
farm production through the √ √
adoption of new methods
Environment – limitation of
Impacts are likely to be mixed; a variety of small
negative impact thanks to √
effects are likely, which are difficult to estimate
reduced travel
41
Basic broadband is defined as being between 2 Mbps and 10 Mbps, fast broadband is defined as 10 Mbps to 30 Mbps, superfast broadband is defined as 30 Mbps to 100 Mbps and ultrafast broadband is defined
as greater than 100 Mbps.
66
ANNEX VII. WATER AND WASTEWATER

VII.1. Introduction
The main part of water/wastewater projects are implemented within the business of integrated water utility operators and can
be subdivided into those that are:
- compliance related, where the focus is on ensuring safe and reliable drinking water together with adequate
collection and treatment of wastewater;
- efficiency related, where the aim is to improve resource usage, save costs and reduce carbon footprint, while also
allowing for lower end user prices and reduced affordability constraints.
In practice, many projects combine elements of both, with the first group tending to result in increased operating costs, while the
second has the potential to decrease such costs, reducing the impact.
Policy for compliance-driven projects is oriented towards meeting the requirements of the directives for the provision of water
and wastewater services, such as the water framework directive (WFD; Directive 2000/60/EC), the directive on the quality of
water intended for human consumption (Directive 98/83/EC) and the urban waste water treatment directive (UWWTD; Directive
91/271/EEC), and is measured in terms of the relevant population connected to services, but also in terms of the quality and
security of supply.
The directives also make reference to the polluter pays principle, the need for full cost recovery and the importance of the end
user affordability of services. This, combined with the scarcity of water, which is exacerbated by climate change impacts, sets the
agenda for efficiency-related projects.
Countries find themselves confronted with the need for investments that promote climate change adaptation, risk prevention
and disaster resilience in the water sector. Thus, while the larger part of existing funding has been oriented towards directive
compliance, new types of projects will increasingly be considered, such as those focusing on leakage/infiltration reduction,
drought resilience and water reuse schemes.
In considering the method of appraisal, some common features of water operators need to be considered.
- Typically, integrated water and wastewater service providers operate in a defined geographical area with existing
operations, which comprises a ‘natural’ monopoly, where it is not cost-effective to have multiple networks (i.e. they
will usually have a mandate to operate exclusively in that area and without competition).
- Often, such entities are owned by national or regional/local governments, but can also have private sector
involvement.
- Water operators typically have a relatively simple tariff structure (water vs wastewater collection and treatment)
and relatively few customer types dominated by domestic consumers.
- Such entities also have a relatively simple operating cost structure with a high level of fixed costs (e.g. capital
(depreciation/debt service) and salary (semi-variable)).
- Stable and predictable cash flows make operators suitable for debt finance with long tenors.
The following represents a codification of existing good practices, which have evolved over the last few funding phases.
VII.2. Project development cycle and methods

When the nature of investments is, overall, compliance driven, the key question is how to achieve an outcome considering
all of the constraints, rather than identifying whether or not the investments are needed. As the cost of achieving and maintaining
compliance with the directives is substantial, it is important that, in an option analysis including all reasonable technical
options, the technical design considers and selects the most cost-effective outcome based on the present value of
the life-cycle costs for each standalone investment component. This is predicated on the assumption that each option has the
same economic benefits, which is usually considered the case for solving a specific compliance-related problem (i.e. least cost
analysis). If this is not the case, it will be necessary to rank options based on a cost per unit of output achieved (i.e. CEA).
While assessing the measures, project promoters should carefully assess the cost per connection, connections made per
metre of pipe needed or similar indicators, based on national (or other reasonable) benchmarks, and in the case of wastewater
consider the provisions of Article 3 of the UWWTD:
Where the establishment of a collecting system is not justified either because it would produce no environmental benefit or
because it would involve excessive cost, individual systems or other appropriate systems which achieve the same level of
environmental protection shall be used.
67
In the case of more complex projects not dealing exclusively with compliance with the directives but also involving investments
dealing with, for example, climate change adaptation, risk prevention and disaster resilience in the water sector,
ultimate investment decisions should or could be based on a thorough assessment of the economic costs and benefits, through
a fully fledged CBA.
A fully fledged CBA, in terms of the development of a cash-flow/economic cost and benefit forecast model is usually done at the
feasibility stage. Its development should both be driven by and inform the technical development of the project in an iterative
process to ensure consistency of assumptions, and to test scenarios for prioritisation and phasing to ensure that the outcome can
reach a balance between affordability and sustainability. A financial cash-flow analysis is recommended to test such scenarios
(see the following section).
VII.3. Financial and economic appraisal

Owing to the overall objective of achieving full cost recovery, as defined by the WFD, together with the need for ensuring
sustainability and affordability, the basic analysis follows a financial analysis approach (i.e. cash-flow projection) as the foundation.
As most of the cash flows on the expenditure side also represent economic flows, the economic analysis usually builds on the
financial analysis. When the project is undertaken by an existing operator (e.g. water utility), which is usually the case, then
the analysis needs to be conducted at the operator level, as it is for whole operations that measures of tariff, affordability and
sustainability are of greatest value.
The main considerations to be taken into account in the EA include cost recovery tariffs ensuring sustainable operations (as
required by the WFD), affordability considerations and the need for cash-flow projections and economic analysis, as discussed
below.
Cost recovery tariffs

The legislative requirement for sustainability comes from the WFD (Article 9), which states that tariffs need to cover:
- operating cost,
- asset maintenance cost (a minimum level may need to be set),
- capital costs through depreciation provisions (42) (historical asset values may need to be re-evaluated),
- ‘environmental and resource cost’ reflecting the scarcity value of water.
Depreciation under the third item is not a cash-flow cost, but reflects past capital outlays to be recovered over time. On the other
hand, incorporating depreciation in the tariff allows a cash fund to be built up for asset replacement and/or to repay investment
loans. Thus, it may be possible to charge less than 100 % depreciation in the tariff in the short/medium term, in order to keep
within affordability constraints (see next point).
The regionalisation of services helps to spread costs over a larger area with a single unified tariff structure. This is also known
as the solidarity principle, even if it represents an implicit cross-subsidy between more densely populated areas (i.e. cities) and
less densely populated (i.e. rural) areas.
Affordability considerations
The WFD also mentions that ‘water pricing policies’ should ‘have regard to social’ effects. This is interpreted as meaning that
tariffs should not result in amounts billed that exceed reasonable affordability thresholds. In current practice, these thresholds
are often taken to be in the range of 2–3 % of average disposable household income (although higher levels are used, even up
to 5 % in low-income areas where low incomes make such levels unavoidable and the benefits of the project are high).
In this respect, a key challenge is matching the operator’s need for financial sustainability (i.e. the cost recovery tariff) and the
end users’ affordability constraint. It is worth noting that it is hard to be explicit about how fast a project needs to achieve cost
recovery or with respect to absolute levels of affordability, as it depends on the level of needs and levels of income at the country
(or even regional) level. It is normally in the interest of the project promoter that the path to full cost recovery is as short as
possible, subject to the affordability constraints. Often, 3–3.5 % of average disposable household income is seen as an upper
limit with respect to average household income in the EU context, but sometimes this may need to be exceeded.
As good practice in such cases, subsidy schemes for low-income users can be considered. Such schemes could, for example,
give discounts to user groups that are identified as having difficulty in paying bills, and should be structured (as far as possible)
as a social support measure and not imposed as a cost to the water operator. If designed to carefully target low-income users
or otherwise vulnerable or displaced communities, this approach could ensure that affordability issues are addressed in a cost-
efficient manner.
Table 11 reviews some good practices on how to cope with issues related to tariffing and affordability.
42
If capital costs are financed by debt, then there may need to be an extra provision in the tariff to the extent that debt service (principal and interest) exceeds depreciation charge. This can happen if the repayment
period is shorter than the expected useful lifetime of the relevant assets used for the depreciation charge.
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Table 11. Tariffing and affordability: good practices
Issue Good practice
It is accepted that this may be achieved over time (say 10–

End user charge respects full cost recovery 20 years of operations) to ensure WTP, but is conditional on cash-
(and, ultimately, the polluter pays principle) flow sustainability. In principle, non-domestic users should pay the
full cost recovery tariff immediately
Such a level (or range) should be defined at the country level or
End user charge (as a percentage of estimated
should otherwise be assessed for reasonableness, although it is
average disposable household income) does not
accepted that some flexibility is needed to exceed thresholds to
exceed a reasonable threshold
undertake investments needed
Cash flow at the operator level needs to remain Apart from operating cash flow, this should include the replacement
cumulatively positive throughout the projection of assets and debt service on historical and new (i.e. project-
period related) debt
Operating costs need to be adequate to ensure

proper operation – this applies especially to These two areas overlap both with each other and with the role of
maintenance the relevant regulatory authority. It may be possible to undertake
country-level benchmarking of costs for different operators to
Operating costs should not be excessive owing determine how to ensure cost levels are both adequate and not
to inefficiency – this especially applies to excessive
staffing costs
No user group should pay a tariff greater than the full cost of the
service provision. If industrial treatment tariffs are higher than
Cross-subsidy should be avoided between (i)
domestic tariffs, this needs to be reconciled with requirements to
non-domestic and domestic user groups for the
pre-treat industrial wastewater. If an operator is active on other
same services and (ii) regulated and any other
markets (other than water supply and wastewater collection and
services performed by the same entity
treatment), a proper cost allocation and separate accounts need to
be secured
Need for cash flow projections (43)

Cash-flow projections are needed to assess if water operators could cover the cost of providing the service while managing the
trade-off between affordable tariffs and tariffs that cover the full cost of the service, in other words to show that the operator
can meet day-to-day costs (including existing operations), as well as capital replacement and debt service, as and when needed.
These projections:
- are built based on historical revenues and costs adjusted for the incremental impact of the project applied to foreseen
changes in demand (also needed for project investment specification), foreseen operating cost developments (split
between fixed and variable, expected real term growth in salaries, etc.) and adequate maintenance levels (on both
existing and project assets);
- need to quantify a tariff commitment (say 5 years) for project approval, but with some flexibility with respect to
future demand if actual demand varies significantly from that forecast.
The worked example in Table 12 is a very simplified cash-flow projection done at the project level simply to demonstrate
the balancing of affordability with cash flow through the phased approach to charging depreciation. A tariff inclusive of full
depreciation recovery is achieved in year 15, but sufficient cash is accumulated to fund replacements due in year 15 and ongoing
debt service. Note that, in the example, the aim is to have affordability at 2.5 % of household income, but it is accepted that it
may rise to 3 % provided that there is a long-term prospect to reduce it back to 2.5 % (which can be driven by forecast growth
in household income in real terms).
43
It is assumed that the methodology for the EU grant calculation in the next phase of the cohesion policy will specify fixed rates. If calculated rates are still allowed, then this will become an additional requirement
for cash-flow projections.
69
Table 12. Affordability: example (million EUR)
Year 5 Year 10 Year 15 Year 20
Revenue 55 70 85 85
Operating cost 50 50 50 50
Replacement 20
Debt service 5 5 5
Annual cash flow 5 15 10 30
Cumulative cash flow 5 40 100 150
Cover of depreciation (new assets), % 0 50 100 100
Affordability, % 2.5 2.75 3.0 2.75
Economic analysis
As mentioned before, quantitative economic analysis should not be the main focus for compliance-driven standalone investment
components. Rather, the justification should be based on showing that the least-cost solution (capital and operating costs
combined over the economic life of the investment, that is, use of the life-cycle cost analysis) has been chosen after evaluating
all viable alternatives.
For efficiency-related investments (especially loss reduction) and those of a multipurpose nature (e.g. combining compliance-
driven measures and resource efficiency, climate change adaptation and risk prevention measures), an analysis of economic
costs and benefits should be undertaken for different levels of output to show the optimal level of investment. In this respect,
it can also be considered the ‘resource cost’ associated with the scarcity value of water as referred to in Article 9.1 of the WFD.
Different types of projects will gain precedence as Member States move closer to compliance (e.g. water resource and security
(possibly induced by climate change), storm water, wastewater reuse and other). In those cases, the principles of analysis remain
valid (as already discussed in Sections 4.1 and 4.3 of the 2014 CBA guide), but it needs to be shown that the economic benefits
exceed the economic costs. Similarly, all kinds of interventions aiming at improving flood prevention, climate change adaptation,
risk prevention and disaster resilience should be subject to economic evaluation.
The following are the main types of economic benefits applicable to water and wastewater projects:
- improved access to water and wastewater services (costs avoided in building/operating private wells and/or septic
tanks);
- improved quality of drinking water (costs avoided to purchase drinking water from the market);
- improved reliability of water sources and security of water supply service, including avoided costs caused by water
supply disruptions;
- variations in GHG emissions due to changes in electricity consumption and the efficiency of wastewater collection
and treatment facilities, including sludge management;
- health impacts (care should be taken not to double count benefits with improved quality of drinking water);
- reduction in uncontrolled raw wastewater discharge/exfiltration;
- avoided costs of local flooding due to inefficient sewers and/or storm water systems;
- improved environmental quality of the water bodies and preservations of ecosystem services;
- benefits from recreational use of the water bodies;

- avoided opportunity cost of water (e.g. abstraction charge).
For the methodologies on how to evaluate, in monetary terms, the abovementioned benefits, please refer to the relevant sections
in Chapter 4 of the 2014 CBA guide.
70
VII.4. Other relevant information

Projects should look for a balanced approach to the development of water and wastewater assets, with priority given to more
densely populated areas based on benchmark density indicators, such as metres of new network needed for each new connection
(or similar indicators). Trying to address all compliance issues at once can result in very large projects with implementation and
affordability issues.
Efficiency-related measures (e.g. loss reduction through rehabilitation) should be balanced with compliance-related measures
(e.g. a new treatment facility), as the operating cost savings from the former can help to balance the incremental operating costs
of the latter.
71
ANNEX VIII. HEALTHCARE

VIII.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses specific issues concerning the appraisal of health projects, with emphasis on economic assessment. The
guidance applies, primarily, to health infrastructure projects (e.g. the construction of hospitals and outpatient and diagnostic
facilities), but also to comprehensive subsystems, such as emergency care networks. To a certain extent, it also applies to health
programmes, focusing on a specific health threat, such as disease prevention programmes, health professionals’ education
programmes or e-health projects.
VIII.2. Project development cycle and methods

It is implicitly assumed that health investment projects should address important challenges and obstacles in fulfilling some of
the key functions of the health system. Therefore, an identification of problems and challenges ought to be the first step
of the project preparation cycle. An indicative list of typical health-related challenges is presented in Table 13.
Table 13. Typical health challenges
Problem Character
Death is the natural end of life, which, in some circumstances, can be postponed through effective
Excessive mortality
disease (or health problem) prevention or treatment
The length of life increases with civilisation’s development. The life expectancy of individuals in
Reduced longevity
every age category may be shortened if diseases are not prevented or treated effectively
Disease prevention measures may lead to a reduction in disease onset (incidence) and the
Excessive disease
consequences of disease (burden), such as reduced quality of life, loss of productivity and costs
incidence
for the social (including health) protection system
The duration of a disease, which could otherwise be cured or of which symptoms could be
Persistence of
diminished, has an impact on the degree of consequences (burden), such as reduced quality of
diseases
life, loss of productivity and costs for the social (including health) protection system
Long waiting times for health intervention may lead to the deterioration of health status
Delay in access to
(including death) and could prolong the period of deteriorated quality of life (suffering, anxiety,
care
etc.)
Medical activity is mostly based on evidence, and the optimal patterns of care are often
presented in the form of clinical guidelines, usually published by medical associations. Departure
Inappropriate care
from the guidelines is regarded as inappropriate, leads to worse outcomes and the use of
unnecessary resources, and may cause harms to patients’ health
Diminished quality Imperfect health may reduce quality of life owing to physical and mental suffering, imperfect
of life functioning and limited capabilities
Diminished Health threats (e.g. pandemics and substance abuse) that affect younger groups of the population
productivity of the may have a significant impact on goods’ and services’ production processes, diminishing the
workforce overall well-being of the whole population
The development of health technologies allows for the treatment of an increasing number of
Affordability
cases; however, financial accessibility is limited owing to the costs of such treatment
The proper identification of challenges enables the definition of the goals, objectives and aims of the intervention.
Goals and objectives should represent statements that describe what the project is expected to accomplish and should be
embedded in wider strategies set at the national, regional and EU levels, if applicable. Health strategy setting and the mapping of
needs, as enabling processes for the implementation of cohesion policy operational programmes, are natural points of reference
when setting goals and objectives. Goals are usually high-level statements that present the overall context of what the project
wants to achieve. Objectives are lower level statements that describe the specific outcomes that the project is expected to deliver
(Pepper, 2007). In defining the objectives, it is useful to follow the rule of SMART (Doran, 1981). Project goals and objectives
should be embedded in wider strategies that are set at the national, regional and EU levels, if applicable. The objectives should
allow projects outcomes to be defined, among which should be economic gains (effects and benefits), which should be used later
72
for economic analysis.
After defining goals and objectives, the next step is to define alternatives/options (i.e. different ways to address the problems
identified) and prepare a shortlist of the most relevant ones. At the preliminary stage, the strategic options assessment
should include the development of a simplified list of costs and outputs/benefits for each alternative, and data
should be gathered to quantify them for the alternatives/options identified. For large/strategic investments, the EA should
be further updated at subsequent stages of development of the proposal as more information comes to hand.
The following methods of EA are usually applied to health projects (Drummond et al., 2005).
- Least-cost analysis (LCA) is used when a well-defined / single result is going to be achieved and the only
dilemma is related to the associated costs. Least-cost analysis is typically used as an element of technical option
analysis, when one decides on which technical component of a complex infrastructure to adopt by comparing the
costs of different options.
- Cost effectiveness analysis (CEA) is used when one needs to compare different options that have the same
effect but with different intensities (e.g. number of lives saved). CEA particularly useful when assessing disease
prevention programmes with specific health gains (e.g. breast cancer screening for reducing fatalities among cancer
patients). CEA is more convenient when only one effect is achieved, and is usually carried out by calculating the cost
of the intervention per unit of effect.
- Cost–utility analysis (CUA) – is appropriate for interventions that result in both an increase in life years and an
improvement in quality of life. It compares costs with expected number of acquired disability-adjusted life years
(DALYs) and quality-adjusted life years. Cost–utility analysis is appropriate for all projects that generate gains in the
form of reduced mortality and improved quality of life or reduced disability.
- Cost benefits analysis (CBA) combines different types of gains converted into monetary values and compares
them with invested resources (costs). CBA is generally the recommended tool for sizeable health infrastructure
projects resulting in a series of heterogeneous outcomes. As for the quantification of benefits, this is not always an
easy exercise, but some good practices exist, as described further in the document (44).
It is worth noting that the EA tools described above can be used in a strategic way to consider alternative solutions, but should
always be used in combination with a qualitative analysis demonstrating basic strategic issues and a clear connection between
the project and the overall strategic goals and objectives.
VIII.3. Economic appraisal

The purpose of EA is to provide arguments for the socioeconomic gains of a project. It is assumed that, in exchange for the public
funding of the CAPEX (and possibly the incremental change of OPEX), a given project provides economic gains for society, even
if it does not generate financial profit for the beneficiary.
Identifying the health-related gains of different interventions is mainly associated with presenting a cause–effect relationship
between the interventions and the benefits. The project promoter should provide evidence and data that are logically connected
with the expected results of the intervention, as well as its targets and size. Health interventions may have various characteristics.
They may be health infrastructure development projects, possibly accompanied by organisational change (restructuring), the
modification of operations or health programmes. Alternatively, they may be disease prevention programmes or projects
implementing new e-health functionalities. The underlying logic is that the intervention modifies the ongoing routines of health
system operations, generating incremental economic benefits several years after the project is completed (Figure 2).
44
There are, however, cases when benefits quantification is difficult, namely in the absence of statistical data or research studies to provide values for the benefits to be quantified, or the size of the project does not
justify it; in these cases, cost effectiveness or cost–utility analysis is the methodology of choice.
73
Figure 2. Incremental change following health interventions
Costs w/o Project costs Benefits

project
Health sector
Intengible costs
Health outcomes
saved
Patients/Families
Health Direct costs saved

Resources saved
intervention
Other sectors
Other values Indirect costs saved

Production losses
Source: Adapted from Drummond et al. (2005).
Figure 2 illustrates the elements of the EA of health interventions and their associated costs; these include CAPEX and the
incremental value of OPEX over the reference period, as well as effects on health gains and savings of resources. It is also
commonly expected that an effect of the health intervention will be the improvement of the health status of individuals and/or
the entire population.
The typical benefits of interventions in the health sector can be grouped as follows:
- patients’ health status improvement, including mainly reduced mortality, disability, morbidity, burden of disease
or adverse effects of medical procedures – the valuation of these benefits usually consists of estimating the savings
in both direct costs of treatment and indirect costs such as productivity losses to society, as well as perceived value
of health;
- improved efficiency/productivity of the healthcare system, usually resulting from cutting costs (e.g. reduced
number of hospitalisations and reduced length of stay), but also from improving organisation of service delivery –
this benefit usually consists of financial gains for the health system in general or time savings for patients;
- patients’ satisfaction improvement due to the perceived increase of quality of service or health status,
measured in patients’ WTP;
- reduced externalities such as energy consumption and vehicle operating costs.
Achieving any of the above benefits is typically a result of a series of measures, of which infrastructure improvement is one
component.
Table 14 at the end of this chapter provides a detailed illustration of the typical benefits of health interventions, together with
a description of the benefit, the unit of measurement and the suggested monetary evaluation method. In what follows, some
examples of benefit quantification (for reduced mortality, avoided hospitalisation costs and improved accessibility to services)
are presented for illustrative purposes.
Reduced mortality owing to improved emergency care services

Box 3 contains an example of calculating the benefits of developing an emergency department, the aim of which is to reduce
insufficient capacity that results in delays in health services provision and increases in fatalities among emergency patients
(Mohan et al., 2015; Morley et al., 2018). There is an assumption that the proposed capital investment in emergency care,
associated with certain operational improvements, will help to address future overcrowding and so reduce the number of deaths.
An adjustment factor (the average reduction in the fatality rate) is applied to estimate the potential number of life years saved
(or avoided deaths), and a monetary value is attributed to the additional number of years of life gained (or the avoided deaths).
74
Box 3. Example: reduced mortality
where:
A = projected admissions to the emergency department
ΔFR = average reduction in the fatality rate among emergency department patients due to decreased overcrowding
YLG = assumed number of years of life gained (or avoided deaths)
vYLG = value of 1 year of life gained (or value of statistical life: vOSL)
Avoided hospitalisations owing to increased capacity of ambulatory services

Outpatient services and hospital services can be either complementary or alternative services. Medical staff take decisions on
hospital admissions based on a number of factors, including the health status of a patient, the type of health interventions/
treatments that can be supplied and the possibility of providing the same services in an outpatient capacity. Sometimes, financial
constraints can have an impact on decisions on admissions. Many health systems are undertaking efforts to replace hospital
admissions with outpatient services whenever possible.
When considering a project that aims to replace inpatient care with outpatient care, one can consider both capital and operational
cost savings of hospital care as benefits (Box 4). The avoided operating costs are estimated based on the difference between
the average cost per acute hospitalisation and the average cost per non-admitted service event. The avoided capital costs are
estimated based on the avoided hospital bed days.
Box 4. Example: avoided hospitalisation
where:
ΔOPEX = average reduction in operating costs of hospital care per non-admitted patient
ΔCAPEX = reduction in capital costs of hospital care resulting from reduced hospital admissions:
Δ DC = reduction of direct costs, composed of the reduction in OPEX and CAPEX

Δ IC = reduction in indirect costs to patients, calculated as hours saved per non-admitted service event multiplied by the value
of time
Increased accessibility from e-health interventions

When considering e-health interventions – defined by the World Health Organization as ‘the use of information and communications
technology in support of health and health-related fields’ – it is important to use the same analytical framework as for any
other health intervention. This approach helps to ensure that a similar level of certainty regarding the extent of benefits and
the evidence to support them is required for conventional as for e-health interventions. This is important, as e-health initiatives
should not crowd out spending on other equally good but more traditional healthcare investments.
In principle, e-health interventions can help to achieve better health outcomes and save costs, for both providers and patients.
The area in which the e-health intervention is applied determines the benefits. One of the most frequent applications of e-health
is e-prescriptions, which bring benefits to all actors involved in the process of drug dispensing in terms of increased accessibility
(Box 5). For patients, the benefits are the time saved for visiting a doctor (remote prescribing), convenience (one never loses the
prescription) and certainty (the content is readable and errorless). For doctors, after some practice and if the use of e-prescriptions
is economic, it is estimated that time savings can reach between 30 and 60 minutes per day. Furthermore, the whole of the
health system benefits (including pharmacies, insurance companies, etc.) as a result of a reduction in errors, better control of
prescription patters among doctors, and fraud detection and prevention (Cooke et al., 2010; Parv et al., 2016).
75
Box 5. Example: increased accessibility
where:
ΔP = cost and time savings of patients
ΔD = time saving of prescribing doctors
ΔPh = time saving of pharmacies’ personnel
ΔS = administrative cost savings of reimbursement entities/insurers
Table 14. Typical economic benefits, units of measurement and methods of monetary evaluation
Units of Method of monetary

No Economic benefits Description
measurement evaluation
This is considered a reduction in mortality in Avoided deaths Indirect costs of deaths
the target population due to the intervention due to:
Years of life lost/
(project). It is necessary to present a logical
gained - income/production
connection between the intervention (project)
losses (HCM)
and the avoided deaths / saved years of life.
- death-related
Usually, a reduction in deaths can be achieved
compensation benefits
through (i) an increase in volume of life-saving
1 Reduced mortality health services (more patients treated),(ii) Alternatively calculated
an increase in quality (the same number of with WTP:
patients are treated but with more effective
- value of statistical life
treatments) or both. In either case, the process
leading to the forecast reduction in deaths - years of life gained
should be explained and reasoned
People with a disability or ill health and Number of Direct (operating and
their informal carers are often not fully health services capital) costs of health
professionally active, which results in avoided system and long-term
productivity losses in the economy. Disabled care
Time of
people also often remain under either
temporary Indirect costs of ill
institutionalised or informal care.
inability to work health due to:
A reduction in disability implies an increase in
Reduced disability Time of - income/production
2 productivity and a reduction in cost for formal
and ill health permanent losses
and informal care over the years of the lasting
inability to work
disability - short-term and long-
term absenteeism (self
and next of kin) (HCM)
- quality of life (WTP)
76

No Economic benefits Description measurement evaluation
This is considered a reduction in the Number of Direct (operating and

prevalence (occurrence and/or duration) of health services capital) costs of health
a given disease due to improved diagnostic, avoided system and long-term
prevention, treatment and convalesce care
Time of
measures
temporary Indirect costs of ill-
inability to work health due to:
3 Reduced morbidity Time of - income/production

permanent losses
inability to work
- short-term and long-
This is a synthetic measure of health status DALY Calculated with WTP:

and its consequences. The DALY is the sum of
- value of statistical life
the years of life lost (YLL) due to premature
((VSL) value of life in
mortality in the population and the years lost
perfect health)
Reduced burden of due to disability (YLD) for incident cases of
4 the disordered health condition (DALY = YLL + - year of life gained
disease
YLD). (value of life in perfect
health) (YLG).
In medical practice, unfavourable Number of The method depends on

developments and adverse events are health services the category of effects
common. They can include hospital infections, avoided of deaths or ill health
falls, bleeding and unnecessary pain. Adverse (see above)
Time of
events have an impact on patients’ treatment
temporary
processes, making them longer than necessary
inability to work
Reduced adverse and more costly and, in extreme situations,
5
effects cause patient death Time of
permanent
inability to work
Avoided deaths
Years of life lost/
gained
Society benefits from a (long-term) reduction Number Direct (operating and
in preventable/avoidable hospitalisations of hospital capital) costs of health
because of the control of morbidity or the admissions system due to hospital
replacement of hospitalisations with non- avoided admissions
hospital care in primary or community settings
Indirect costs related to
hospitalisation due to:
Reduced
6
hospitalisations - income/production
losses
- short-term and long-
77

No Economic benefits Description measurement evaluation
Shortening the length of stay (LOS), if Avoided number Methods such as

the quality of care and patients’ safety is of hospital days reduced hospital
maintained, brings about gains such as of stay admissions (see above)
hospital cost savings, better access to care
Reduced hospital (more patients can be served), improvements
7
length of stay to patient safety (reduced risk of secondary
infections) and increased satisfaction
(assuming that a hospital stay is not the most
desired way of spending time)
Improved access is connected with the Number of Alternative cost saved
elimination of access hurdles in the public health services in private sector prices,
health system, which is usually connected gained as a proxy for perceived
Improved with (i) a limited production capacity of health value of the services
8 facilities, (ii) geographical hurdles caused by
accessibility
an uneven distribution of health infrastructure
and competences, and (iii) financial and
technical restrictions
This is a measure of improvements in Percentage of Alternative cost saved
perception, which are dependent on physical patients with in private sector as a
conditions of the stay, organisation of care, higher level of proxy for perceived
attitudes of medical personnel, trust and satisfaction value of the services
Improved patients’
9 confidence
satisfaction
The mechanism of improving the perceived
quality needs to be explained
Digital solutions may reduce external costs, EUR per tonne Economic cost of carbon
notably in relation to the energy consumption of CO2 (see Section 2.5 of
of data centres and networks. These can be Part I of the EAV)
EUR per vehicle-
estimated well enough using emission factors
Reduced external km Avoided vehicle
10 and the social cost of carbon. Other external
costs operating costs (see
impacts can also be considered in relation to,
Annex V)
for example, savings in transportation costs
(unless these are trivially small)
NB: HCM, human capital method.
78
ANNEX IX. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES: E-SERVICES
IX.1. Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to outline the key aspects of EA that decision-makers and project promoters should/could
consider when designing projects with large ICT components. The European Commission has highlighted digitalisation
as one of its key goals to ensure Europe’s international competitiveness, to support regional cohesiveness, to improve living
conditions across Europe and for Europe to deliver better services to citizens and businesses. Digitalisation enables increases in
productivity, efficiency and effectiveness. The widespread use of ICT raises, however, many systemic challenges. These include, on
the one hand, concerns in relation to data protection, privacy rights and cybersecurity and, on the other, the possibility of making
ICT benefits available to all by deploying digital infrastructures and developing the required digital skills.
A number of EU policy initiatives and funding sources could finance investments in different digital sectors. Given
that ICT cuts across all sectors, it is not possible to address the development of the sector under one policy objective. Recognising
the potential of digitalisation, the European Commission presented in February 2020 three broad pillars of its strategy for
Europe’s digital future (European Commission, 2020). The strategy aims to provide the right legal and ethical environment for
the users and the market. Possible sources of public support for projects with large ICT components include the Horizon Europe
research programme, the Digital Europe (European Commission, 2018) programme, the Connecting Europe Facility, and the EU
regional policy. Regarding the EU regional policy, Smarter Europe is one of the two priorities (together with the Green Europe
policy objective) that are expected to receive the majority of EU regional policy funds in the next phase. It will encompass
measures related to, among other areas, e-service development.
This section focuses on the EA of the introduction of ICT into the provision of public services. Public services delivered
with the support of ICT do not differ in scope from services delivered in the traditional way. In this sense, objectives, expected
benefits and evaluation methods are those typical of their relevant sectors, such as broadband, energy, transport or health, and are
not discussed here. However, when shifting to the digital provision of services, some cross-cutting, not sector-specific,
issues have been observed and should be taken into account, including efficiency gains for the service provider, improved
quality of the services and the interdependency with other infrastructures. This chapter contains examples of approaches for
project preparation and of the project benefits of e-services applied in e-education and e-government projects. The principles
outlined below may also apply to further projects such as digital identification cards and different types of publicly run service
portals, etc.
IX.2. Project development cycle and methods

e-Service development is preparation heavy. For the public sector, the success of these services is largely dependent on a clearly
defined set of policies, supporting change management approaches and a defined legal framework, in particular when it concerns
security and data integrity. Developing a new e-service also requires the overall processes already existing in the public sector to
be taken into consideration, as well as any institutional and organisational changes that might need to be made.
For example, e-government projects often form part of wider public sector reform that aims to streamline public institution
processes through ICT. In this process, it is important to consider all of the relevant stakeholders, their requirements and their
existing ICT infrastructure, which may need to be updated or modified. The lack of interoperability between different actors’
systems would significantly reduce the benefits achieved by the project.
Field experiments can be used to determine the effects of ICT projects. Through pilot projects, effectiveness studies can be
undertaken before a national roll-out or phased introduction. The advantage of a pilot project is that the measure is tested in the
‘real world’, all the time bearing in mind the extent to which the results of the pilot project can be generalised (CPB Netherlands
Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis, 2017).
Likewise, the integration of ICT into learning, teaching and school administration processes is a response to the need for schools
to adapt to the complex and changing contexts in which they operate, including the digital era and the increasing diversity among
pupils. These issues require not only the adaptation of school curricula, but also more diverse teaching and learning methods to
address the needs of all students.
Regarding early screening and the selection of technology, the following aspects need to be considered for e-services
projects: interoperability and compliance with standards, the availability of technology, and the overall cost of
investment and the operating phase. Regarding the first element, it is critical to consider interoperability and compliance with
relevant standards and other services put in place or planned at the national, European or international level. Diverting from such
standards, or not taking into account other services or platforms, would render the development of the solution costly and time-
consuming and would increase implementation risks. As a next step, it is suggested to consider if there are technologies readily
available. Even in cases in which standard solutions are followed, existing solutions may need to be modified to meet the specific
requirements of a project, and the cost of such adaptation should be taken into account. Finally, if there are a number of possible
solutions, the overall cost of the project should be determined – the choice of technology may affect the design, implementation
or operation phase, including possible costs of upgrades.
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IX.3. Economic appraisal

Given the broad range of different types of e-service projects, it is possible to provide only a few general
observations of benefits that are common to these services and quantifiable, and which should be considered in an
economic analysis. Other than these general considerations, the EA of ICT projects should first be considered against the ‘main’
sector to which the projects belong. For example, e-health projects should follow the guidance for healthcare infrastructures,
research projects with an ICT component should be aligned with the research, development and innovation approach and the
urban development projects would need to consider the urban framework first.
This chapter assumes generally that the socioeconomic impact of the project is verified by means of a CBA approach. Moreover,
each different type of e-service also entails qualitative benefits, which are more typical of specific areas, for instance e-pharmacy
or e-school. Applying an MCA methodology could also be considered for such projects to capture the impacts beyond quantitative
economic impacts, for instance quality of life or contribution to climate change.
The first general observation for projects that replace an existing service with the possibility of a digital or remote
service, such as e-government, e-health or e-school projects, is their efficiency gains. They can be valued in an
economic analysis by assigning monetary values to cost savings and time savings.
- Regarding the cost savings, these can occur first for the owner of the infrastructure / provider of a service, for
example a governmental department or agency, hospital or school, but also for the service users. As a rule, all cost savings
that occur for the owner of the infrastructure / provider of a service are already considered in the financial analysis
(and consequently in the economic analysis). Cost savings enjoyed by users, who are – in the case of e-government
projects – other government departments or agencies, citizens or businesses, are not captured by the financial analysis.
They should be regarded as economic benefits and included in the economic analysis. User benefits through cost savings
can be quantified in the CBA by estimating direct travel cost savings (e.g. fuel) and the reduced cost of transmitting
information (e.g. phone, post or paperless interactions).
- Time savings can represent a significant benefit of e-service projects. For the EA of travel time savings, the
length of the avoided travel time and the economic value of time need to be estimated. For example, an e-government
project that enables the implementation of user interfaces that allow personal documents to be requested online will
eliminate the travel time from local residents to local government agencies. In addition to the travel time saved, the
implementation of an e-government project can lead to time savings due to faster service provision (e.g. because of
avoided queuing at public agencies or reduced processing time of requests). The length of the time saved should be
estimated based on documented assumptions.
Improvements to the services delivered, which translate into increased convenience for users, are the second most
common group of impacts of e-services projects. For example, in the case of e-education through integrating ICT within
schools, students can benefit from improved educational services (e.g. personalised learning curricula and innovative teaching
practices). In addition, the resulting increase in digital skills can in turn also lead to better employability in the future. The
benefits can be estimated by adopting the WTP approach, according to which the economic value of the service rendered by a
(public) education project is usually larger than the fees applied to students, if any. In the case of e-government services, users
might consider that better service delivery, reduced error rates, increased reliability and easier communication are important
benefits, and it could be possible to quantify this category of benefits by means of traditional sample surveys or qualitative focus
groups (45).
The third group of benefits of e-services projects lies in the common aim of these projects to increase the security
level of electronic services, improve reputation and raise user trust and confidence. The valuation of information
security solutions requires sufficient data about incidents and their consequences. While some studies have attempted to
measure the benefit of improved security, and while quantification of these benefits may be possible in individual projects, as a
general recommendation, it is suggested that these benefits be considered qualitatively.
Another observation common to e-services projects is the difficulty in quantifying the net environmental impact.
In the case of projects that affect a large number of users, such as e-government or e-education projects, research on the
impacts of GHG emissions today is not mature enough to measure the net effect of digital services on energy consumption and,
more generally, on the environment. It is therefore recommended, until relevant studies become available, that this benefit be
considered in qualitative terms rather than by valuing its impact in the CBA model (46).
It is equally important to note that ICT projects are interdependent with other infrastructure put in place, such as
broadband connectivity, computers and end user applications, as well as on users having the right skills to take up new and
innovative services. When the relevant infrastructure is not in place and additional substantial investment needs to be made by
a third party or by users for the given type of benefits to emerge, the estimated project benefits should be distributed pro rata.
The relevant net benefit ratio (calculated as the proportion of project costs in the total costs needed for the benefit to emerge)
should be applied to the benefits quantification.
45
The project analyst should, however, make sure not to double count this category of benefits with users’ cost and time savings, as these can be assumed to automatically translate into an increase in users’
satisfaction.
46
If the project entails a quantifiable reduction in transportation costs (e.g. avoided car trips), the reduction in GHG emissions can be valued following the methodology illustrated in Annex V (‘Transport’).
80
Finally, the full impact of ICT projects is not straightforward to quantify in monetary terms. In the case of several
economic benefits, it is very difficult or maybe impossible to find a way to monetise their value. ICT projects are also an enabler
of a multitude of different services, for which ICT, infrastructure and hardware provide the backbone.
As mentioned, it is not possible to easily provide recommendations for all possible sector investments and related benefits. This
section exemplifies and outlines a possible summary approach to a CBA analysis in two different sectors: e-services in public
administration and in education. In general, the principles in these sectors, including the common benefits and the sector-specific
benefits, can be used as a guide for other projects in the area.
Public e-service projects

The importance of the deployment of new e-government services and, where possible, the replacement of traditional governmental
services with their electronic equivalent is widely recognised.
For the purpose of this document, an e-government project is designed and implemented with the aim of generating wider
benefits to society. Consequently, the financial revenues and cost savings that occur to the project owner do not capture the
full impact of the project. Besides a number of quantifiable benefits to the users, such as cost or time savings, there are many
qualitative benefits that can significantly affect the lives of citizens, but which no firm methodology can quantify. An example of
a benefit evaluation is given in Table 15.
Table 15. Example of benefit evaluation of public e-service projects
Monetary Qualitative
Economic benefit Comment on treatment
evaluation assessment
Cost saving approach, including direct travel cost saving
User benefits in terms of
√ and reduced cost of transmitting information (e.g. phone,
cost savings
post or paperless interactions)
User benefits in terms of Time savings owing to shorter travel time, reduced
√
time savings processing time, task elimination, etc.
User benefits in terms of Better and increased revenue collection (e.g. online tax
√ √
increased revenues filing and processing systems to enhance transparency)
Convenience benefits √ √ Faster/better service delivery and reduced error rates
Avoiding loss of productivity due to work stoppages

Improved data security √ √
resulting from security incidents
Quantification of direct cost savings and qualitative

Environmental benefits √ √
assessment of project’s broader impact on environment
Other non-quantifiable economic benefits of e-government projects may include:
- enhanced policy alignment and outcomes and support to decision-making;
- better and timely information to facilitate policymaking (allows more, greater and new data to be collected, and
greater information-sharing capacity);
- better planning/pricing as a result of data generated by the system;
- an improved image of the public service provider and of administrative work;
- improved service delivery and enhanced customer service (more understandable services and personalisation);
- improved service consistency and quality (interoperability and improved multi-agency cooperation);
- greater take-up of entitlements;
- improved communication (e.g. immediate confirmation of the processing of the request).
It should be noted that, in many circumstances, e-service projects have a wide impact on the national economy and on society
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as a whole. For instance, investors’ location decisions can be influenced by an improved level of public services in a particular
country. These wider benefits may include:
- impacts on location decisions (the increased efficiency and better quality of the services enhance the attractiveness
of the country as a business location and improve competitiveness and productivity);
- enhancements to democracy (increased user participation and contribution);
- enhanced transparency and reduced corruption (through making information public);
- improved ICT skills and leadership in the digital economy.
Information and communication technology in learning

For projects that aim to introduce ICT tools (training, materials and equipment) into the learning experience, it is recommended
that emphasis be put on setting up the appropriate education framework and institutional structure with the objective of
maximising the educational outcomes expected from the project.
The role of ICT in learning has been discussed by several studies, and its positive, as well as negative, effects are reported in the
literature. Nevertheless, partially owing to the complexity of the various educational systems, and the wide differences in digital
maturity between different countries, no widely accepted and tested methodologies to quantify and value benefits in monetary
terms exist. It is therefore difficult to propose a uniform methodology, as only guidance can be given, depending on the scope of
each ICT learning project.
Table 16 provides some initial approaches for the possible quantification of benefits. It is suggested that a CBA be carried out only
on direct benefits accrued by the ‘users’ of the project, including students, teachers and school administrative staff.
It needs to be underlined, however, that there is limited experience of the use of CBA in the appraisal of this type of project, given
the difficulties in the estimation of monetary values of benefits in education investments. Consequently, other techniques, such
as MCA, may also be suitable to appraise projects that aim to introduce ICT tools into learning.
Table 16. Benefit evaluation of school digitalisation
Economic benefit Comment on treatment
Savings in management,
Cost savings approach – if not already included in the financial analysis
administration and work planning
WTP – the economic value of the improved education service rendered by a public
Improved education services to
project can be proxied by the tariff/charges applied to students of private schools
students
offering similar services
Human capital approach – an individual is ‘worth’ to society what he or she will

School dropout reduction produce during his or her lifetime. The benefit can be calculated as the wage
differential between workers with and without secondary education
WTP – the wage differential between private and public sectors in the education
system can be used as proxy, or the avoided cost of attending training courses
Professional development
supplied in the private market that allow the development of the same level of
digital competence can also be used
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ANNEX X. OPTIMISING PROGRAMMES FOR TERRITORIAL AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT
X.1. Introduction
Territorial development with a particular view to unlocking local economic potential, encouraging smart
development, promoting climate change action and improving living conditions is a key policy focus of the EU.
The European Commission has published guidance on the process of designing sustainable urban strategies for urban projects
and programmes (JRC, 2020). It also supports innovation in Member States through programmes aimed at digitalisation and
smart specialisation (47) and has launched the new European Green Deal (European Commission, 2019). These policies require
multisectoral investment programmes that are anchored in integrated plans combined with spatial planning.
In the 2021–2027 programming period, in addition to the strategic emphasis on the climate change agenda (e.g. the Paris
Agreement), the focus will be on economic recovery after COVID-19. It is expected that the emphasis on regional smart
development (including smart city investments, the circular economy and ‘just transition’ projects) will continue.
The investment programmes of the regions or cities (public promoters) must reflect the development strategies embedded in
their spatial development plans and the policies at local, regional, national and international levels. The authorities, through such
investment programmes, attempt to stimulate local growth and development conditions and improve the quality of life (welfare)
of their inhabitants, primarily through public works and the provision of public services. The funding sources for such territorial
programmes may include European funds (48). The tool that is often used in this context is integrated territorial investment
(URBACT, 2019). Integrated territorial investments allow EU Member States to bundle funding from several priority axes of one or
more operational programmes (EU programmes) to ensure the implementation of an integrated strategy for a specific territory.
In this chapter, we will focus on the MCA methodology, in particular policy-led multi-criteria analysis (PLMCA),
which is specifically suited to territorial and urban programmes with multisector investments.
The PLMCA methodology allows the expected benefits to be assessed against an explicit set of policies and objectives – in other
words, the framework in place – that the decision-making body has identified. It also helps identify synergies between projects
(e.g. transport, broadband, water and energy efficiency) and where social funds can be employed. The MCA tool can be used
to consider urban–rural linkages and ‘rural’ municipalities in integrated territorial strategies and delivery models. It assists in
bundling the projects of different local authorities and municipalities to facilitate their access to different sources of financing.
The design of a successful MCA toolkit in the urban/territorial context requires:
- the principles of sustainable urban development to be embedded locally and a rigorous integrated planning
regime;
- clearly identified policies and their objectives;
- clearly articulated and meaningful indicators / appraisal criteria / benefits that are user friendly and can be
applied on a comprehensive basis;
- consensus on the scoring of the qualitative and quantitative benefits;
- clear consensus on the relative importance (i.e. the weights) of the objectives and their indicators;
- consensus on the means to identify, record/register and describe key risks and opportunities.
The example used in this chapter is the application of the PLMCA tool to a sustainable urban development programme.
X.2. When to use multi-criteria analysis

Sustainable urban programmes normally span a wide range of sectors that require integrated planning, and most projects in an
area are interrelated; a framework approach is therefore the most suitable approach for the challenge of assessing a programme
spanning different sectors. Although, for single urban mobility projects (e.g. a bypass or a tram extension) a CBA, for example,
would be appropriate, if more sectors are involved, the assessment becomes more complex because there are joint economic
benefits. This is the case even in rather simple urban regeneration schemes (e.g. linking road improvements and/or surface water
drainage). To be able to undertake an EA in the context of urban development, different EA methodologies need to be considered
as relevant to the different types, phases and aspects of urban development investments.
The MCA methodology can be applied in the following stages of the development of a territorial investment
programme (Figure 3), including sustainable urban development.
47
See, for instance, the Smart Specialisation Platform, which supports Member States (https://s3platform.jrc.ec.europa.eu/)
48
Sustainable urban development programmes and projects can be financed by a number of European funds and/or a combination of other funds.
83
Figure 3. Appraisal stages of territorial investment programmes
MCA
Local/regional/ Local/regional/ MCA
CBA, CEA
national national MCA MCA
or MCA for
authorities decide authorities decide
option analysis
how to prepare how to prepare
Selection/ Tool rerun to

Investment prioritisation Appraisal of check that
plans and other of projects on urban projects the projects
Strategy
city/regional the basis of (transport, energy, constitute an
programmes the investment regeneration, etc.) investment
programme programme
- The definition of an urban strategy or a territorial investment programme requires an integrated, multisectoral
planning approach, including the participation of the representatives / key stakeholders of all of the expected areas of
investments (subsectors). A sustainable urban strategy is founded on relevant applicable policies and on local needs and
can apply to different levels of urban policy. The JRC (2020) provides more information about the European Commission
guidelines on how to define a sustainable urban strategy. If PLMCA is expected to be used at the selection/prioritisation
stage of projects, it is helpful to set up the criteria and relevant framework at the strategy-making phase to obtain a
more coherent exercise (e.g. start building the PLMCA matrix as presented in Section X.3 at this early stage of strategy
making).
- The setting up and management of an investment plan or programme require the participation of all the
stakeholders, to ensure that the programme or plan includes all of the policy objectives of the strategy that it seeks to
implement. PLMCA can also be recommended for the definition of investment plans or programmes, because it clearly
portrays the path and indicators of the actions and their potential benefits, helping to trace them back to the policy
objectives. It also provides an assessment of the adequacy of the policy objectives themselves (i.e. it is a way to check
the consistency between the policy and benefits and vice versa). As above, if work on the PLMCA has already started or if
it starts at this stage, the application of the PLMCA method in the next stage (i.e. the selection/prioritisation of projects)
becomes a more coherent exercise.
- MCA can be a useful tool for the provision of a sound basis for the prioritisation of projects by reference
to a specific set of strategic documents. MCA facilitates the comparison of different projects or sets of projects,
considering all of the criteria/indicators (even those that are not monetised) and relates them back to the policies that
the strategic and planning documents pursue in a direct visual way. The final scores can be used to establish a list of
priorities (e.g. by starting with the projects that have received the highest scores).
- The appraisal or analysis of individual projects traditionally uses CBA or CEA. MCA may be useful in the context
of an EA to compare the strategic options for a single project (see Sections 1.3 and 3.2 of Part I of the EAV).
- Ongoing monitoring/evaluation and continuous adjustment of the programme is necessary. The MCA (like
all EA tools) can be rerun at different stages of the project cycle to check that the final set of projects constitutes a
programme.
The participation of the most relevant stakeholders from the beginning of the appraisal process improves the quality of the
whole analysis. This multi-stakeholder team participates in the whole process as the analysis moves on. In this way, the city/
territory develops a holistic view of investments, reducing the risk of silos and improving governance. It is important to note
that the governance structure of cities is different in different constituencies and in different countries, which would need to be
reflected in the stakeholder set-up. What is needed is a balanced top-down / bottom-up approach to drive integrated sustainable
urban development, in other words an approach that includes the policy-driven considerations of the administrations and the
needs-driven considerations of representatives of the concerned population according to the sector (mobility, education, health,
energy efficiency, services, digitalisation, etc.).
X.3. Example of an urban regeneration programme supported by policy-led multi-criteria analysis
The example presented in this section illustrates the application of MCA to the appraisal of an urban regeneration
programme. The method described is replicable in other stages of the process of urban/territorial development, as
explained above. The key request by the local authorities pertained to the facilitation of the process of prioritising and selecting
projects in order to develop the strategy’s investment programme and optimise its delivery and subsequent impact. To this end,
JASPERS suggested the deployment of a specific tool, a PLMCA methodology, as an Excel-based tool that assists decision-
makers with the selection of packages of measures and the timing of the delivery of such measures. In this particular case,
the regeneration packages – housing, skills, culture, transport and business – were included as columns referred to as ‘priority
84
dimensions’ in the matrix.
In the example, the aim was to assess a regeneration programme developed for a run-down district in a city. The programme
had identified five areas of action (‘regeneration packages’) mentioned above: housing, skills, culture, transport and business.
Under each area, a number of potential investments had been listed (e.g. for culture, proposals included several restorations of
buildings with historical and cultural value; for transport, proposals included upgrades of roads and the introduction of electric
bicycles).
The PLMCA framework starts with the step of structuring the problem by defining the context of the decision, in particular the
policy and institutional guidance that applies. Columns 1–5 in Table 17 illustrate this process.
Table 17. PLMCA columns 1–5
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Dimension Sub-dimension Policy Objective Sub-objectives Justification
(Generic Good Practice (specific to the case) for inclusion of
for Sustainable Urban objectives/sub
Development objective in Matrix
Social Choice and Improve provision and access To invest in health and -PA Thematic Objective
Provision of to facilities, amenities & social infrastructure 9: Promoting social
accessible facilities services including hospitals, which contributes to inclusion, combating
schools, community centres, national, regional and poverty and any
leisure facilities, housing, local development, discrimination
transport infrastructure, reducing inequalities -OP1 Axis 6 Investment
retail, water, energy and in terms of health Priority 9b - support for
e-governance status, promoting physical, economic and
social inclusion through social regeneration of
improved access to deprived communities
social, cultural and
recreational services
and the transition
from institutional to
community-based
services (PA Thematic
Objective 9 Expected
Results
Improve provision and access Regeneration of public -OP1 Investment Priority

to housing & public open spa open spaces and 9
public social housing
within deprived
neighbourhoods to
lift people out of risk
of poverty. (MT OP1
Investment Priority 9b
Specific objective SO
Employment Generate and provide access Promoting sustainable -PA Funding Priority 3
generation to employment (especially and quality employment -PA Thematic -Objective
through education and and supporting labour 8
training) and reduce youth mobility (PA thematic -OP1 Axis 6 Investment
unemployment objective 8) Priority 9b
-OP1 Axis 9 Investment
Priority 9
85
Affordability Encourage provision of Integration of deprived -PA Funding Priorities

options/ opportunities that families through the Malta OP1 Axis 6
are affordable to the greatest upgrading of public -Investment Priority
number of people, especially social housing. (OP1 9b support for physical,
those in significant need Investment Priority 9b economic and social
specific objective so3) regeneration of deprived
communities
Social cohesion and Promote equity & provide Promoting social -PA funding priorities
inclusion opportunities that are inclusion and combating
accessible to all groups of discrimination (PA
society, including women, Thematic Objective 9
ethnic minorities, and people
with disabilities
NB: OP, operational programme; PA, partnership agreement.
The dimensions (column 1), should be drawn from global best practice on sustainable urban and regional development and core
national policy documents. The following seven dimensions constitute a standard set and they are the ones used in the example:
institutional, territorial, social, environmental, economic, financial and technical.
The subdimensions (column 2) are also identified from global best practice and national documents. In the example provided, the
subdimensions of the social dimension are choice and the provision of accessible facilities, employment generation, affordability,
and social cohesion and inclusion.
The dimensions and subdimensions establish the area in which the programme’s impact is going to be assessed. For example,
how does housing (one of the priority actions of the regeneration programme) affect the social subdimensions (one of the areas
in which there will be an impact)?
The following columns (3 and 4) define the objectives and subobjectives for each subdimension obtained from local, national and
international policy, including the partnership agreement, the operational programmes and other recommendations (e.g. JASPERS
Guidance Notes).
Column 5, namely the justification for inclusion of the objectives/subobjectives, is a record of the sources of the objectives and
subobjectives (e.g. partnership agreement thematic objective 9 – ‘promoting social inclusion and combating poverty and any
discrimination’).
The next phase is to select appraisal criteria/indicators to use for each policy area and objective and decide on their relative
importance through the use of weights and/or ranking. Column 6 depicts the first part of this phase (i.e. deciding which criteria or
indicators to use for the first subdimension, that is, the choice and provision of accessible facilities; Box 6).
86
Box 6. PLMCA column 6
(6)
Criteria
Qualitative
· Extent of provision and/or upgrading of social infrastructure/public facilities/cultural facilities to match demographic
needs and meet or exceed national standards including extent to which the proposal includes the building of
thealth and wellness infrastructure to support population
· Extent to which the proposal improves access to affordable, sustainable and high quality services, including health
care and social services of general interest (PA Thematic Objective 9 Expected Results)
· Provision of support for physical, economic and social regeneration of deprived communities in urban and rural
areas (PA Thematic Objective 9 Expected Results).
· Improvement to social / health service quality through measures aimed at addressing the specific needs of the
social and health sectors (PA Thematic Objective 9 Expected Results).
· Extent of Investment in health and social infrastructure which contributes to national, regional and local
development, reducing inequalities in terms of health status, promoting social inclusion though improved access
to social, cultural and recreational services and the transition from institutional to community based services (OP1
Investment priority 9a).
· Extent of promotion of sustainable transport practice (PA Thematic Objective 7 – expected results)
Quantitative
· Population living in areas with integrated urban development strategies (OP 9b)
· Persons benefitting from new/upgraded infrastructure (including equipment/service as). (Investment Priority 9a
· Population covered by improved social services (Investment Priority 9a)
The model use phase involves determining the performance of the project/programme relative to each criterion/indicator,
usually using a numerical scoring system. Columns 7–17 illustrate the results of this process (Tables 18 and 19). Columns 7–11
are exclusive to this example, as they present the five priority action areas in the regeneration programme already mentioned. A
colour code has been used in Tables 18 and 20 to show the scores for each area of action. Column 12 summarises the extent to
which the areas of action of the regeneration programme meet the criteria (column 6).
(7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

Priority Priority Priority Priority Priority Priority actions 1-5
Action 1 Action 2 Action 3 Action 4 Action 5 Aggregated project evidence
‘skills’
All packages strongly aligned to social
cohesion and opportunity. Clear intent
to retain population and provide more
community services and assets. A walkable
electric transport community will aid health
and well being.
green = maximum score; orange = medium; red = lowest
The next columns, namely columns 13–17, represent the steps in the calculation of and the final weighted score (Table 19). As
the weighted scores align with the colour coding of the priorities in this example, the majority of green boxes correspond to a
maximum weighted score of 10. In this example, the weights are always 2, because all of the subdimensions and objectives were
considered to be equally important. In such cases, the weight column can be removed, as applying the same weight throughout
does not change the relative scoring.
The risks, mitigations and opportunities (i.e. columns 13 and 14) apply to all of the subdimensions in each dimension. They inform
the final decision on the scores.
87
(13) (14) (15) (16) (17)

Risk & Mitigation Opportunities Weight Score Weighted
Score
· Once buildings are complete · Programme’s ability to
and upgraded they will need encourage self-help for
maintenance and ongoing life skills development and wider
cycle expenditure which national intervention. As a small
budgets will need to consider district adjoining the core
City the movement of people
is more easily addressed
· Policies such as the right to buy than a regeneration requiring
may help develop individual greater transport focus. This
aspiration but can release stock is a walkable city and can be
to open market so will need walkable for all with some
careful consideration provision and coordination
with positive existing
· Risk is older residents still transport such as electric
move out as there is poor public buses, consider new stops,
realm, fear of crime, etc. this number of stops
intervention needs to show early
wins to have positive impact in · Other tenure models such as
programme period. shared ownership can create
capital for individuals, but
· Heritage assets not conducive still retain stock for public
to accessibility as expensive sector
lifts, etc. required
· The existing housing stock
· May create more targets if has very high quality views
more footfall; enhanced policing and aspect and is “inclusive”
needed to support especially at in the opportunity that it
the outset brings for well being
· Horizontal property division

will create more opportunity
if publicly owned properties
are divided differently legally
· Will create a greater night

time economy for local
businesses to enjoy and
indeed in darkest winter
months when tourist trade is
slower
· Health and well being

promoted through walkable
city, community sports areas
Table 20 uses the same scoring and colour coding system for the subdimension ‘employment generation’ as that used in
Table 18 for the social dimension. In Table 20, the score is very low, as only one of the programme’s priority actions addresses
employment generation in the example.
88
Table 20. PLMCA low-score illustration
(7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (15) (16) (17)

Priority Priority Priority Priority Priority actions Weight Score Weighted
Action 1 Action Action 4 Action 5 1-5 score
3 Aggregated
project evidence
One package fully 2 1 2*1=2
focused on skills,
others are very
indirectly so
green = maximum score; orange = medium; red = lowest
The final scores for each dimension and the whole programme under analysis are reached by adding up the individual weighted
scores of each subdimension and comparing them with the maximum possible score for the whole dimension; the outcome is
usually presented in percentage terms. In the example, the whole programme had a score of 71.4 % and none of the dimensions
had a score below 60 %. In this case, it was decided that the scores obtained render the programme positive for the objectives
and policy context under which it was proposed.
The weighted scores for each dimension provided guidance for the prioritisation of the priority actions and their corresponding
investment proposals. In addition, by including the priority actions and colour coding them, it was clear to see how each
subdimension performed against the objectives and therefore which aspects to emphasise. For example, in the subdimension
‘culture and heritage’ (within the environmental dimension), the objective ‘to seek to conserve, protect, promote and develop
the natural and cultural heritage’ was not achieved by the transport or skills priority actions (colour coded red). This objective
was, however, well achieved by the culture and business priority actions (colour coded green), while the housing priority action
moderately achieved the objective (colour coded orange). Therefore, the proposals of the red-coded actions might need a greater
focus on the preservation and promotion of the natural and cultural environments. Alternatively, the decision-makers might
choose to focus on the dimensions and corresponding objectives that have the highest number of ‘green boxes’ (high scores for
the priority actions).
X.4. Other relevant information

The MCA methodology described can also be used as a system to monitor progress during later stages of the
project cycle (e.g. implementation and/or operation), providing an audit trail. It can be used as a risk register to highlight trade-
offs that may be required as the implementation evolves and to incorporate feedback loops from the stakeholders. Down the line,
the methodology can also be used in the evaluation of urban programmes. The use of MCA involves a number of challenges,
which are listed in Table 21 together with suggestions for their mitigation.
89
Table 21. Challenges and mitigation measures
Challenges Mitigation
Urban projects (especially housing) Policy leadership of the appraisal is essential (to provide legitimised guidance).
require clear criteria/indicators. There must be national, regional and/or local ‘urban policies’ with clear
In urban programmes, criteria/ guidance on objectives and appraisal eligibility indicators.
indicators need to be multisectoral.
It is not always a straightforward Key to urban development is place-based, integrated planning to carry out
matter or practical to apply the policy. The criteria/indicators need to be clearly derived from a sensible
indicators that have been generated combination of existing sectoral and spatial plans. These then need to inform
for other sectors the action measures or the investments
It is highly desirable that the formation of objectives be guided by reference

to international, national and local policy statements alongside secondary
It is important to establish some information sources, including best practice.
quality standards for the MCAs, as
they are frequently superficial and of Use an existing model, such as the one in the example, which exists as a toolkit
poor quality containing prepared Excel sheets and a guide. The subdimensions, objectives,
criteria/indicators, scoring and weighting are to be decided by consensus on a
case-by-case basis
Assistance and capacity-building actions for MAs and beneficiaries to learn how
to use any type of MCA tool is available (including from JASPERS).
Managing Authorities (MAs)/
beneficiaries may be unfamiliar with The first time a PLMCA is used, expert support may be needed. After a
how to perform a proper MCA municipality or other decision-making body has benefited from expert advice
in the use of the tool once, the experience gained should be sufficient to use it
again without external support
The preparation of an MCA must include the main stakeholders. Whether

it is used for the selection/prioritisation of projects, for the appraisal of a
programme or even for a stand-alone project, a multi-stakeholder team should
identify all of the steps in the process, in particular the objectives, the criteria/
indicators and the weights, and decide the scores.
As they are easy to manipulate (e.g. While the seven standard dimensions can be used in most cases, the decision-
based on preferences), a beneficiary makers may choose to replace some or all of them. Whether the seven
might set the criteria unilaterally standard dimensions are chosen or not, the content of each of the following
and use the tool to justify a steps of the process (or columns in terms of the PLMCA matrix) must be
predetermined decision consensually agreed upon by a team of people (the decision-makers) who
together combine the necessary technical expertise and provide legitimate
representation for all of the stakeholders. This is the best way to avoid using
the PLMCA tool as a means of rubber stamping a decision that has been taken
previously without the full analysis that the PLMCA requires
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Annex I – research and innovation

Angelis, J., Griniece, E., Vignetti, S. and Reid, A. (2019), ‘Charting impact pathways of investments in research infrastructures’, in Maegaard, B.
and Pozzo, R. (eds), Stay Tuned to the Future – Impact of the research infrastructures for social sciences and humanities, Zenodo, Bologna.
EIB (2013), The economic appraisal of investment projects at the EIB (https://www.eib.org/attachments/thematic/economic_appraisal_of_
EIB (2017), Economic analysis of research infrastructure projects in the programming period 2014–2020, JASPERS staff working paper.
European Commission (2014), Guide to Cost-Benefit Analysis of Investment Projects – Economic appraisal tool for cohesion policy 2014–2020,
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/studies/pdf/cba_guide.pdf).
Florio, M., Forte, S., Pancotti, C., Sirtori, E. and Vignetti, S. (2016), Exploring cost–benefit analysis of research, development and innovation
infrastructures – An evaluation framework, working paper No 01/2016.
Florio, M. (2019), Investing in Science: Social cost-benefit analysis of research infrastructures, MIT Press.
Giffoni, F. and Vignetti, S. (2019), Assessing the Socioeconomic Impact of Research Infrastructures: A systematic review of existing approaches and
the role of cost-benefit analysis, L’industria, Società editrice il Mulino, pp. 75–102 (http://www.csilmilano.com/docs/WP2016_01.pdf).
JASPERS (2011), Best practice in the preparation of projects in the culture sector (http://www.jaspersnetwork.org/plugins/servlet/
documentRepository/displayDocumentDetails?docu mentId=203).
JASPERS (2017), Economic analysis of research infrastructure projects in the programming period 2014–2020, JASPERS staff working paper
(http://www.jaspersnetwork.org/plugins/servlet/documentRepository/displayDocumentDetails?documentId=342).
Reid, A. (2020), ‘Designing a socio-economic impact framework for research infrastructures: preliminary lessons from the RI-PATHS project’, in
Beck, H. and Charitos, P. (eds), Economics of Big Science. Science Policy Reports.
Rousseau, S., Catalano, G. and Daraio, C. (2021), ‘Can we estimate a monetary value of scientific publications?’, Research Policy, Vol. 50, No 1,
104116.
Annex II – renewable energy

EIB (2019), EIB Energy Lending Policy (https://www.eib.org/en/publications/eib-energy-lending-policy.htm).
EIB (2020), ‘EU member states approve EIB Group Climate Bank Roadmap 2021–2025’ (https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2020-307-eu-
member-states-approve-eib-group-climate-bank-roadmap-2021-2025).
ENTSOG (2019), 2nd ENTSOG methodology for cost–benefit analysis of gas infrastructure projects 2018 (https://www.entsog.eu/sites/default/
files/2019-03/1.%20ADAPTED_2nd%20CBA%20Methodology_Main%20document_EC%20APPROVED.pdf).
ENTSO-E (2020), 3rd ENTSO-E guideline for cost benefit analysis of grid development projects, draft version, 28 January 2020 (https://
eepublicdownloads.blob.core.windows.net/public-cdn-container/tyndp-documents/2020-01-28_3rd_CBA_Guidleine_Draft.pdf). Final draft
pending European Commission approval.
European Commission (2018), Cost Development of Low Carbon Energy Technologies, JRC technical reports, Publications Office of the European
Union, Luxembourg (https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC109894/cost_development_of_low_carbon_energy_
technologies_v2.2_final_online.pdf).
European Commission (2019), The Costs of Not Implementing EU Environmental Law, Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg (https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/2c05c9e6-59aa-11e9-a8ed-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/
source-115844964).
Hirth, L. (2013), ‘The market value of variable renewables’, Energy Economics, Vol. 38, pp. 218–236.
International Energy Agency (2014), Capturing the Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency.
Lamont, A. (2008), ‘Assessing the long-term system value of intermittent electric generation technologies’, Energy Economics, Vol. 30,
pp. 1208–1231.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) and Nuclear Energy Agency (2018), The Full Cost of Electricity Provision
(https://www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2018/7298-full-costs-2018.pdf).
Steffen, B. (2020), ‘Estimating the cost of capital for renewable energy projects’, Energy Economics, Vol 88, 104783.
World Health Organization (2018), Circular Economy and Health: Opportunities and risks (https://www.euro.who.int/en/publications/abstracts/
circular-economy-and-health-opportunities-and-risks-2018).
91
Annex III – energy efficiency

EIB (2013), The economic appraisal of investment projects at the EIB (https://www.eib.org/attachments/thematic/economic_appraisal_of_
EIB (2020), How Can Favourable Financing Improve Energy Efficiency Investments? Evidence from new experimental data, economics working
papers 2020/01.
European Commission (2014), Guide to Cost-Benefit Analysis of Investment Projects – Economic appraisal tool for Cohesion Policy 2014–2020,
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/studies/pdf/cba_guide.pdf).
European Court of Auditors (2020), Energy Efficiency in Buildings: Greater focus on cost-effectiveness still needed, special report 11/2020
(https://eca.europa.eu/en/Pages/DocItem.aspx?did=53483).
International Energy Agency (2014), Capturing the Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency.
Annex IV – municipal waste management

Ballinger, A. (2015), ‘The potential contribution of waste management to a low carbon economy’, Eunomia (https://www.eunomia.co.uk/reports-
tools/the-potential-contribution-of-waste-management-to-a-low-carbon-economy/).
European Commission (2020), Categorisation System for the Circular Economy, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (https://
op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/ca9846a8-6289-11ea-b735-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-120460723).
Annex V – transport

CEDEX (2010), Economic Evaluation of Transport Projects – Guidelines.
De Jong, G., Vignetti, S. and Pancotti, C. (2018), ‘Ex post evaluation of major transport infrastructure projects’, at European Transport Conference
2018 (https://significance.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/2018-GDJ-Ex-post-evaluation-of-major-transport-infrastructure-projects.pdf).
Department for Transport (2021), ‘Transport analysis guidance’ (https://www.gov.uk/guidance/transport-analysis-guidance-webtag).

De Rus, G. and Johansson, P.-O. (2019), Measuring the Economic Effects of Transport Improvements, Working Papers 2019-01, FEDEA.
Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport (2019), Handbook on the External Costs of Transport, Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg.
EIB and JASPERS (2017), Guidance on appraising the economic impacts of rail freight measures (http://www.jaspersnetwork.org).
European Commission (undated), ‘EU reference scenario 2016’ (https://ec.europa.eu/energy/data-analysis/energy-modelling/eu-reference-

scenario-2016_en).
European Environment Agency (2019), EMEP/EEA Air Pollutant Emission Inventory Guidebook 2019: Technical guidance to prepare
national emission inventories, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/emep-eea-
guidebook-2019).
Flyvbjerg, B., Holm, M. K. S. and Buhl, S. L. (2004), ‘What causes cost overrun in transport infrastructure projects?’, Transport Reviews, Vol. 24,
No 1, pp. 3–18.
Flyvbjerg, B., Holm, M. K. S. and Buhl, S. L. (2005), ‘How (in)accurate are demand forecasts in public works projects? The case of transportation’,
Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol 71, No 2, pp. 131–146.
IER Germany (2006), Developing harmonised European approaches to transport costing and project assessment – Deliverable 5 (Proposal for
Harmonised Guidelines) (https://trimis.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/project/documents/20130122_113653_88902_HEATCO_D5_summary.
pdf).
JASPERS (2014), The use of transport models in transport planning and project appraisal (http://www.jaspersnetwork.org/plugins/servlet/
documentRepository/displayDocumentDetails?documentId=222).
Laird, J. J. and Venables, A. J. (2017), ‘Transport investment and economic performance: a framework for project appraisal’, Transport Policy,
Vol. 56, pp. 1–11.
Mackie, P. and Preston, J. (1998), ‘Twenty-one sources of error and bias in transport project appraisal’, Transport Policy, Vol. 5, No 1, pp. 1–7.
Mackie, P., and Worsley, T. (2013), International Comparisons of Transport Appraisal Practice, Institute for Transport Studies for the UK
Department for Transport.
Transport Infrastructure Ireland (2020), Project Appraisal Guidelines for National Roads Unit 6.11 – National parameters values sheet, PE-
PAG-02030 (https://www.tiipublications.ie/library/PE-PAG-02030-03.pdf).
Turro Calvet, M. (2004), RAILPAG: Railway Project Appraisal Guidelines, European Commission.
UK Department for Transport (2005), Transport, Wider Economic Benefits and Impacts on GDP, DfT, London.
92
UK Department for Transport (2020), WEBTAG Unit M3.1 Highway Assignment Modelling, DfT, London (https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/
government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/427124/webtag-tag-unit-m3-1-highway-assignment-modelling.pdf).
Venables, A. (2016), ‘Incorporating wider economic impacts within cost–benefit appraisal’, discussion paper 2016-05, International Transport
Forum.
Venables, A., Laird, J. J. and Overman, H. G. (2014), Transport Investment and Economic Performance: Implications for project appraisal.
Wardman, M. and Hine, J. (2000), Costs of Interchange: A review of the literature, working paper, Institute of Transport Studies, University of
Leeds, Leeds, UK.
Wardman, M., et al. (2012), European Wide Meta-analysis of Values of Travel Time, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.
Annex VI – broadband

The Commission’s strategy on Connectivity for a European Gigabit Society: https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/broadband-europe
European Commission (2013), EU guidelines for the application of State aid rules in relation to the rapid deployment of broadband networks,
2013/C 25/01 (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/GA/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52013XC0126(01)).
European Commission (2013), The Broadband State Aid Rules Explained – An eguide for decision makers, Publications Office of the European
Union, Luxembourg (https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/conferences/state-aid/broadband_rulesexplained.pdf).
JASPERS (2020), Broadband Intervention CBA Model, JASPERS (http://www.jaspersnetwork.org/plugins/servlet/documentRepository/

displayDocumentDetails?documentId=521).
Annex VII – water and wastewater

Dickens, R., Gill, J., Rubin, A. and Butterick, M. (2013), Valuing Impacts on Air Quality: Supplementary green book guidance, HM Treasury and
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.
ECOTEC (2001), The benefits of compliance with the environmental acquis for the candidate countries, ECOTEC, Birmingham, UK (https://ec.europa.
eu/environment/archives/enlarg/pdf/benefit_long.pdf).
European Commission (2018), ‘Blue2 study: assistance for better policy-making on freshwater and marine environment’ (https://ec.europa.eu/
environment/blue2_en.htm).
Markandya, A. (2016), Cost Benefit Analysis and the Environment: How to best cover impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services, OECD
environment working papers No. 101, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2018), Cost–Benefit Analysis and the Environment: Further developments
and policy use, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Annex VIII – healthcare

Cooke, C. E., Isetts, B. J., Sullivan, T. E., Fustgaard, M. and Belletti, D. A. (2010), ‘Potential value of electronic prescribing in health economic and
outcomes research’, Patient Related Outcome Measures, Vol. 1, pp. 163–78.
Doran, G. T. (1981), ‘There’s a S.M.A.R.T. way to write management’s goals and objectives’, Management Review, Vol. 70, No 11, pp. 35–36.
Drummond, M. et al. (2005), Methods for the economic evaluation of health care programmes, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Hietbrink, F., Houwer, R. M., van Wessem, K. J. P., Simmermacher, R. K. J., Govaert, G. A. M., de Jong, M. B., deBruin, I. G. J., de Graaf, J. and Leenen,
L. P. H. (2020), ‘The evolution of trauma care in the Netherlands over 20 years’, European Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery, Vol. 46,
No 2, pp. 329–335.
Mohan, H. M., Mullan, D., McDermott, F., Whelan, R. J., O’Donnell, C. and Winter, D. C. (2015), ‘Saving lives, limbs and livelihoods: Considerations
in restructuring a national trauma service’, Irish Journal of Medical Science, Vol. 184, No 3, pp. 659–666.
Morley, C., Unwin, M., Peterson, G. M., Stankovich, J. and Kinsman, L. (2018), ‘Emergency department crowding: a systematic review of causes,
consequences and solutions’, PLoS One, Vol. 13, No 8, e0203316.
NSW Health (2018), Guide to cost–benefit analysis of health capital projects, NSW Health (https://www1.health.nsw.gov.au/pds/
ActivePDSDocuments/GL2018_021.pdf).
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2012), Mortality risk valuation in environment, health and transport policies,
OECD, Paris (https://www.oecd.org/environment/tools-evaluation/valuingmortalityimpacts.htm).
Parv, L., Kruus, P., Mõtte, K. and Ross, P. (2016), ‘An evaluation of e-prescribing at a national level’, Informatics for Health and Social Care,
Vol. 41, pp. 78–95.
Pepper, J. (2007), What Really Matters: Service, leadership, people and values, Yale University Press, pp. 147–148.
93
Annex IX – information and communication technologies: e-services

CPB Netherlands Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis (2017), Study of Cost–Benefit Analysis for e-Government, CPB, The Hague (https://www.
cpb.nl/sites/default/files/omnidownload/CPB-Communication-Study-of-cost-benefit%20analysis-for-e-government.pdf).
European Commission (2018), ‘EU budget: Commission proposes €9.2 billion investment in first ever digital programme’, press release (https://
ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_18_4043).
European Commission (2020), ‘Shaping Europe’s digital future’, factsheet (https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/fs_20_278).
Annex X – optimising programmes for territorial and urban development

Beria, P., Maltese, I. and Mariotti, I. (2012), ‘Multicriteria versus cost benefit analysis: a comparative perspective in the assessment of sustainable
mobility’, European Transport Research Review, Vol. 4, pp. 137–152.
EIB and European Committee of the Regions (2016), Financing a city’s or region’s long-term capital investment programme: EIB framework loans,
European Committee of the Regions, Brussels (https://www.eib.org/attachments/documents/mooc_factsheet_eib_framework_loans_en.pdf).
European Commission (undated a), ‘The urban agenda for the EU’ (https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/policy/themes/urban-development/
agenda/).
European Commission (undated b), ‘A European Green Deal’ (https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en).
European Commission (2013), Urban Development in the EU: 50 projects supported by the European Regional Development Fund 2007–2013,
AEIDL, Brussels (https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/information/publications/studies/2013/urban-development-in-the-eu-50-projects-
supported-by-the-european-regional-development-fund-during-the-2007-13-period).
European Commission (2017), A social multi-criteria framework for ex-ante impact assessment operational issues, JRC technical reports,
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC107899/jrc107899_
smce-ia-operational.pdf).
JRC (2020), Handbook of Sustainable Urban Development Strategies, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (https://ec.europa.
eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/handbook-sustainable-urban-development-strategies).
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2019), ‘OECD principles on urban policy’ (https://www.oecd.org/cfe/urban-
principles.htm).
UN Habitat (2009), Global Report on Human Settlements 2009 – Planning sustainable cities, Earthscan, London (https://unhabitat.org/sites/
default/files/download-manager-files/Global%20Report%20on%20Human%20Settlements%202009%20Planning%20Sustainable%20Cities.
pdf).
URBACT (2019), ‘What are integrated territorial investments?’ (https://urbact.eu/what-are-integrated-territorial-investments)
94
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Economic Appraisal Vademecum

Economic Appraisal Vademecum 2021-

General Principles and Sector Applications

Contact: Sabine Vandermotten, deputy Head of Unit

In the aftermath of Several analytical methods including cost-benefit

Lead author Davide Sartori (EIB/JASPERS)

The following experts from JASPERS authored the document:

PART II – SECTOR APPLICATIONS

Research and Innovation infrastructure Robert Swerdlow

CAPEX capital expenditures

CBA cost–benefit analysis

CEA cost-effectiveness analysis

CEF Connecting Europe Facility

CO2e carbon dioxide equivalent

CPR common provisions regulation

EAV Economic Appraisal Vademecum

EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

EIB European Investment Bank

ENPV economic net present value

ENTSO-E European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity

ENTSOG European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas

ERR economic rate of return

FDR financial discount rate

GHG greenhouse gas

JASPERS Joint Assistance to Support Projects in European Regions

LCA least-cost analysis

MCA multi-criteria analysis

MFF multiannual financial framework

O&M operation and maintenance

OPEX operating expenses

PLMCA policy-led multi-criteria analysis

RI-PATHS Research Infrastructure Impact Assessment Pathways

SDR social discount rate

SRTP social rate of time preference

WACC weighted average capital cost

1. ROLE OF ECONOMIC APPRAISAL 10

3. OTHER ECONOMIC APPRAISAL TOOLS 25

APPENDIX I. Overview of existing cost–benefit analysis national guidance 28

Part II - Sector Applications

ANNEX II. Renewable energy 41

ANNEX III. Energy efficiency 46

ANNEX IV. Municipal waste management 50

ANNEX VI. Broadband 64

ANNEX VII. Water and wastewater 67

ANNEX VIII. Healthcare 72

ANNEX IX. Information and communication technologies: e-services 79

ANNEX X. Optimising programmes for territorial and urban development 83

Objective and scope

Part I – general principles

Part II – sector applications

1. ROLE OF ECONOMIC APPRAISAL

3. a more connected Europe, by enhancing mobility;

Topic 2014–2020 2021–2027

As set out in Article 101 of Regulation

According to Annex III to Regulation No

As set out in Article 101 of Regulation

Article 73(d) of the CPR gives a requirement to ‘verify

There will be no mandatory fixed parameters. An