Biological Classification

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 Key Takeaways

Aristotle Classification 1

2 Two Kingdom Classification

Five Kingdom Classification 3

4 Six Kingdom Classification

Kingdom Monera 5
Characteristics
Classification of bacteria
6 Kingdom Protista

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 Kingdom Fungi 8
Reproduction
9 Kingdom Plantae
Classification

Kingdom Animalia 10

11 Viruses

Viral infections
Viroids 12

13 Prions

Lichen 14

Summary
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 Aristotle Classification
Aristotle
● Father of biology
● Earliest scientific classification, based on simple morphological characters
● Classified living things as, plants and animals
● Merit: First novel attempt of classification of living organisms
● Demerit: No evolutionary relationships consideration

Soft Stem (Herbs)

Plants One Woody Stem (Trees)

Several Woody Stems (Shrubs)

Enaima (with RBC)

Animals On basis of RBC
Anaima (without RBC)
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 Two Kingdom Classification
Carolus Linnaeus
● Father of systematic botany
● Gave two kingdom classification
● Wrote Species Plantarum and Systema Naturae
● Main basis of classification - Presence or absence of cell wall
● Demerits: Unable to differentiate between the following;
o Unicellular and Multicellular
o Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
o Photosynthesis and Non photosynthetic organisms

Two kingdom classification (1758)

Plantae Animalia

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 Five Kingdom Classification
Robert H. Whittaker
● Proposed five kingdom classification in 1969
● Established Kingdom Fungi
● Based on : Cell structure, Body organisation, Mode of nutrition, Reproduction
and Phylogenetic relationship
Limitations
● Some unicellular algae (Chlamydomonas) are kept in Kingdom Protista, away
from remaining algae placed in Kingdom Plantae.
● Chlorella and Chlamydomonas (autotrophic) placed with Paramecium and
Amoeba (heterotrophic) in Kingdom Protista
● No place for lichens

Five-Kingdom Classification

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

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 Five Kingdom Classification
Organisms

Cell type Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Body Unicellular Unicellular Multicellular

organisation
Monera Protista
● Maximum mode ● Second maximum
of nutrition mode of nutrition

With cell wall No cell wall

Cell wall

No photosynthesis Photosynthesis Animalia

Mode of ● No cell wall
nutrition ● Holozoic or
Fungi Plantae
parasitic mode of
● Chitinous cell wall ● Cellulosic cell wall nutrition
● Saprophytic or parasitic ● Autotrophic mode of
mode of nutrition nutrition
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 Six Kingdom Classification
Carl Woese
● Proposed six kingdom or three domain classification in 1990.
● The classification is based on the sequence of 16S rRNA which
is supposed to be conserved and present across all kingdoms.

Six Kingdom Classification

3 Domains Archaea Bacteria Eucarya

6 Kingdoms Archaebacteria Eubacteria Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia

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 Kingdom Monera

Virus
Animal cell
Characteristics
Bacterium
● Prokaryotes (includes all bacteria)
Nucleus
● Ubiquitous
● Double-stranded circular DNA
● Membrane-bound cell organelles absent
● Rigid cell wall Cell size comparison
● 70s ribosomes
● Maybe motile (flagella) or non-motile Cytoplasm Nucleoid Plasma
(DNA) membrane Capusle
● Nutrition - Heterotrophic
(saprophytic/parasitic) or autotrophic
Prokaryotic
cell

Flagellum

Ribosomes Cell wall Pilus

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 Kingdom Monera
Classification of bacteria

Based on their shape:

Cocci Bacilli Spirilla Vibrio

Spore Flagellum

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 Kingdom Monera
Reproduction in bacteria

Asexual Sexual

Binary fission Sporulation Conjugation

The process in which the The process in which the parent cell It refers to the process by which one
parent cell divides into two produces spore/spores, each of which bacterium transfers its genetic
independent daughter cells. can develop into an independent material to another bacterium
organism. through direct contact.

Spore
Endospore Exospore

Cell Present within Present outside

the cell the cell

Spore formation (unfavourable conditions)

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 Kingdom Monera

Archaebacteria Eubacteria

Halophiles Cyanobacteria

Thermoacidophiles Heterotrophic bacteria

Methanogens Actinomycetes

Mycoplasma

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 Kingdom Monera
Archaebacteria
● They are the most primitive group that occurs in extreme habitats.
● Their cell wall is made of pseudopeptidoglycan (pseudomurein).
● They are classified into three groups:

Halophiles Thermoacidophiles Methanogens

● They are found in ● They are found in ● They are found in the gut
extremely saline environments having of ruminants.
environments. high temperature and ● They are responsible for
low pH. the production of
● They have been
observed in The ● They have been observed methane from dung.
Great Salt Lake, U.S.A. in Yellowstone Acid pool, ● E.g.: Methanobacterium
U.S.
● E.g. : Halobacterium
● E.g. : Sulfolobus

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 Kingdom Monera
Eubacteria
● They are also known as ‘true bacteria’ and their cell wall is made of peptidoglycan.
● They can be of the following types depending on the mode of nutrition:

Chemosynthetic Heterotrophic Actinomycetes Mycoplasma

Cyanobacteria
autotrophs bacteria

● Also known as blue-green algae.

● Photosynthetic autotrophs that contain chlorophyll a, phycocyanin and phycoerythrin
● Show gliding and oscillatory movements and are covered by a gelatinous sheath
● Found in freshwater, marine or terrestrial regions
● E.g. : Anabaena, Nostoc ( both are heterocysts as well)
● Three types:

Spirulina Microcystis Nostoc

(Unicellular) (Colonial) (Filamentous)
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 Kingdom Monera
Eubacteria

Chemosynthetic autotrophs Heterotrophic bacteria

● These bacteria oxidise inorganic ● Most abundant in nature
substances such as nitrates, ● Most of them are saprophytes
nitrites, and ammonia.
● Useful in:
● Energy thus released is used for o Curd formation from milk
ATP production. o Nitrogen fixation in the roots of
leguminous plants
o Production of antibiotics
● Some are pathogenic
● Cause diseases in plants, animals,
and humans (cholera, typhoid, etc.)

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 Kingdom Monera
Eubacteria

Actinomycetes Mycoplasma
● Mycelial bacteria that help ● Smallest living cells
decompose organic materials ● Also called PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like
(chitin) Organisms)
● Produce antibiotics ● Lack cell wall and are non-motile
● Commonly found in soil and ● Exhibit pleomorphism and can survive
aquatic regions (both freshwater without oxygen
and marine)
● Pathogenic to plants and animals
● E.g. : Streptomyces

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 Kingdom Protista
● They are single-celled/colonial eukaryotes that evolved from
prokaryotes (endosymbiosis).
● They are primarily aquatic and use cilia and flagella for locomotion.
● Their reproduction is sexual and asexual.

Kingdom Protista

Plant like Fungi like Animal like

Chrysophyta Pyrrophyta Euglenophyta

Diatoms Desmids

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 Kingdom Protista

Chrysophyta Diatoms
● Chief producers of the ocean
● Live in freshwater and
marine environments ● Unicellular/colonial, and cell wall contains silica
● Most are ● Mostly non-motile or show gliding movement
photosynthetic ● Dead diatoms form diatomaceous earth (fossilised
● Float passively in water geological deposit of nearly pure diatoms frustules)
currents (plankton) ● Used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups,
● They can be toothpaste, metal polishes and facial scrubs
o diatoms
o desmids
Desmids

● Also known as golden algae

● Unicellular and microscopic
● Have a golden hue due to pigment
fucoxanthin and oil droplets
● Food reserve is oil droplets

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 Kingdom Protista

Pyrrophyta Euglenophyta
● It consists of category of organisms ● They consist of euglenoids among
called dinoflagellates. others.
● They are microscopic, unicellular and ● Euglenoids are unicellular, biflagellate
biflagellate organisms. and microscopic, freshwater organisms.
● Their cell walls have stiff cellulose ● They have pellicle instead of a cell wall.
plates. ● Mode of nutrition:
● They are mostly marine and ● In the presence of sunlight, it
photosynthetic. carries out photosynthesis.
● They are yellow, green, brown, blue or ● In the absence of sunlight, it has
red in appearance due to varying heterotrophic (holozoic) mode of
pigments. nutrition.
● Toxins released are harmful to fishes. ● Hence, it is a link between plants
and animals.
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 Kingdom Protista
Fungi-like protists/ Slime moulds

Cellular slime moulds Acellular slime moulds

● They are amoeba-like cells with ● It forms plasmodium under suitable
no cell wall. conditions.
● They move and capture by o Plasmodium is the type of body
pseudopodia. which is made up of wall less
multinucleated protoplasmic
● They remain grouped but as mass.
unfused cells.
● They do not have a cell wall and are
multinucleated.
● They grow and spread over several
feet and form spores during
unfavourable conditions.

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 Kingdom Protista
Animal like protozoans

● Unicellular and mostly heterotrophs. ● Mode of nutrition is holozoic or parasitic.

● They possess structures for movement. ● They are of 4 types:

Amoeboid Flagellated Ciliated Sporozoans

● Live in freshwater, ● Free-living or parasitic ● Aquatic ● Parasites of animals
seawater or moist soil ● Flagellated ● Have a cavity that ● Cause diseases
and show amoeboid ● Marine and freshwater open to outside of ● Have an infectious
movement organisms cell surface spore-like stage
(pseudopodia) ● May cause diseases ● Cilia help in feeding ● May have more than
● Marine forms have silica such as sleeping ● E.g. : Paramecium, one host
shells on their surface sickness Vorticella ● E.g. : Plasmodium
● Some may be parasites ● Example: (malarial parasite)
● E.g. : Amoeba, Trypanosoma brucei
Entamoeba histolytica

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 Kingdom Fungi
Characteristics Habitat
● Kingdom Fungi, also known as ● Fungi are widely distributed; they prefer
Mycota, was introduced to the Five warm and humid environments.
Kingdom Classification by R.H. ● Predominantly terrestrial, but are found in
Whittaker. water, air and on animals and plants.
● Fungi are eukaryotic decomposers.
● The study of fungi is known as
mycology. Dikaryophase
● Except for yeast, all fungi are ● Some fungi exist in a special condition
multicellular organisms. called dikaryon where each cell has 2
● Their cell wall is made up of chitin nuclei (n+n).
and polysaccharides.
● Food is stored in the cell in the form
of glycogen and oil bodies.

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 Kingdom Fungi
Structure of fungi

● Fungi have a filamentous body known as hyphae.

● The hyphae form a network known as the mycelium.
● The mycelium can be of two types:

Aseptate - Hyphae
Septate - Hyphae have
contain a multinucleate
cross-walls or septae
continuous cytoplasm

Septum
Hyphae Nucleus

Septate hyphae Coenocytic hyphae

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 Kingdom Fungi
Mode of nutrition
● Fungi are achlorophyllous - they lack chlorophyll; hence they are heterotrophic.

Saprophytic Parasitic Symbiotic

● Saprophytic fungi grow ● These fungi grow on a ● Fungi form a symbiotic
on dead plant and living host and absorb association with organisms
animal matter. nourishment from the to derive nourishment.
host.
● They break down and ● Example 1: Lichen -
recycle the soluble ● In this process, they Association of algae with
organic matter that may harm and fungi.
they absorb from the sometimes even kill
● Example 2: Mycorrhiza -
dead substrates. the host.
Association of fungi with
roots of higher plants.

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 Kingdom Fungi
Reproduction
3 modes of reproduction:

Vegetative Sexual Asexual

(Involves 4 types (Involves 3 types
of spores) of spores)

Fragmentation Oospores Sporangiospores

Zygospores
Fission Conidiospores
Ascospores

Budding Basidiospores Zoospores

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 Kingdom Fungi
Sexual reproduction

● During sexual Mycelium (n)

reproduction, three
types of gametic
fusion are observed:
o Isogamy: Fusion of Plasmogamy: Germination:
gametes of Cells from two Multicellular
similar size different mycelia mycelium is
o Anisogamy: Fusion fuse to form a formed
of one big and one dikaryotic cell Sexual
small gamete
reproduction
Heterokaryotic Spores
o Oogamy: Fusion of
stage
a large, non-motile
female gamete and
Karyogamy: Meiosis:
a small, motile Nuclei fuse to Haploid spores
male gamete. form a diploid are formed
Zygote
zygote

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 Kingdom Fungi
Classification of fungi

Fungi

Aseptate mycelium Septate mycelium

Deuteromycetes
Phycomycetes

Basidiomycetes

Ascomycetes

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 Classification of Fungi
Phycomycetes

● They have aseptate or coenocytic Aseptate mycelium

mycelium.
● They can survive:
o In aquatic
o In moist decaying wood Phycomycetes
as obligate parasites.
● Reproduction
o Asexual reproduction by
Oomycetes Zygomycetes
sporangiospores
o Sexual reproduction by
oospores/zygospores

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 Classification of Fungi
Phycomycetes

Type of
gametic Isogamous Or Anisogamous Isogamous or Anisogamous
fusion

Process of Oospore Haploid New

New
Organism Oospore Haploid
Sexual Spores
Spores Organism
reproduction
Fertilisation Meiosis Germination Fertilisation Meiosis Germination

Phytophthora infestans Rhizopus (bread mould)

Examples
Albugo candida Mucor

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 Classification of Fungi
Ascomycetes
● Commonly called ‘sac fungi’
● Saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic,
or coprophilous (growing on dung)
01 Characteristics ● Rarely unicellular (yeast) mostly
multicellular (Penicillium)
● Septate, branched mycelia

● Vegetative by budding
● Asexual by conidiophores
02 Reproduction
● Sexual by ascospores produced
in sac like asci

Ascocarp
03 Sexual Reproduction (fruiting Ascus 8 Ascospores
body)

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 Classification of Fungi
Ascomycetes

Economically important ascomycetes

Penicillium Saccharomyces
Morels Aspergillus
notatum cerevisiae

Claviceps
Truffle Neurospora
purpurea

● Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora are used extensively in

biochemical and genetic work.
● Morels and truffles are edible and used in delicacies.
● Penicillium and Saccharomyces can be saprophytic, decomposers,
parasitic, or coprophilous.

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 Classification of Fungi
Basidiomycetes

● Commonly called ‘club fungi’

01 Characteristics ● Grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps
● Parasitic (rusts and smuts)

● Vegetative by fragmentation
02 Reproduction
● Asexual spores are generally not found

● Sex organs absent

● Sexual reproduction is by somatogamy
● Fusion of somatic or vegetative cells
03 Sexual Reproduction result in formation of basidium
Basidiocarp
(fruiting Basidia Basidiospores
body)

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 Classification of Fungi
Ascomycetes

Basidiomycetes

Mushroom Bracket fungi Puffballs

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 Classification of Fungi
Some important members of Basidiomycetes

● Cause smuts. ● Cause rust disease

● Ears of cereals turn into black powder. ● Parasitic
● Seen in wheat, corn and Sorghum ● Completes life cycle in two hosts - wheat
and barberry
● Forms four types of spores:
o Infecting wheat: Urediniospores,
Teliospores, Basidiospores
o Infecting barberry: Aeciospore

Corn smut

Puccinia
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 Classification of Fungi
Deuteromycetes

● Also called as ‘fungi imperfecti’.

● Mycelia are septate and branched.
01 Characteristics ● Saprophytic or parasitic mode of
nutrition.
● Help in mineral cycling.

● Vegetative reproduction.
02 Reproduction ● Asexual reproduction by conidia.
● Sexual reproduction not reported.

Examples
● Alternaria ● Trichoderma ● Colletotrichum

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 Kingdom Plantae

Characteristics of Kingdom Plantae:

● Autotrophic
● Eukaryotic
● Cell wall made up of cellulose
● Starch as reserve food material Cuscuta
● Some show partial heterotrophic nutrition:
o Insectivorous (Venus Fly trap).
o Parasitic (Cuscuta).

Venus fly trap

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 Kingdom Plantae

● Life cycle shows alternation of generation

o Diploid sporophytic phase Algae
o Haploid gametophytic phase
Bryophytes

Plants Pteridophytes

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

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 Kingdom Animalia

General characteristics Mode of nutrition

● Kingdom Animalia consists of ● Heterotrophic
several phyla of eukaryotic o Holozoic (by ingestion)
organisms. ● The food consumed is stored in the form
● The cells lack a cell wall. of glycogen or fat.
● They show tissue/organ/organ
system level of organisation.
● A definite growth pattern can
Reproduction
be seen.
● Complex sensory and
neuromotor mechanisms can
be seen in higher organisms. Both sexual
Sexual Asexual
● Most members of the kingdom and asexual
show locomotion.

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 Viruses
Discovery
● Coined the term ‘virus’ (venom)
● Worked on Tobacco Mosaic Virus
Dmitri Ivanovsky ● Found that virus was smaller than
bacteria as they passed through
bacteria proof filters

● Demonstrated that extract from

infected tobacco plants caused
M.W. Beijerinck disease in healthy plants
● Called the extract ‘Contagium vivum
fluidum’ (infectious living fluid)

● Crystallised Tobacco Mosaic Virus

(TMV)
W.M. Stanley ● Crystals mostly consisted of proteins

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 Viruses

Structure

● They contain infectious genetic

Nucleic acid
material (either DNA or RNA,
never both)
● The infectious material is covered
by a protein coat called capsid.
● Capsid is made of subunits called Capsid
capsomeres.
o Capsomeres are arranged in
helical or polyhedral
geometric forms.
Capsomere

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 Viruses
Characteristics
● They are obligate intracellular parasites and cause diseases in the host.
● Viruses are neither living nor non-living.

Living properties Non-living properties

Contains genetic material

Acellular
(DNA or RNA)

Surrounded by protein coat Obligate parasites

Undergoes mutation Inert crystalline structure

Reproduces in living host Lacks enzyme system

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 Viral Infections
Viral infections in humans
Tobacco mosaic disease in
plants
● Caused by the Tobacco
AIDS
Mosaic Virus.
Influenza
● Symptoms in plants include:
o Leaf curling
Hepatitis
o Leaf rolling
Herpes
o Mosaic formation
o Yellowing and vein
clearing Polio
o Dwarfing

Small pox

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 Viroids

Viroids Virus

● Discovered by T.O Lacks protein coat Has protein coat

Diener in 1971
● Consists of free Genetic material can be DNA or
Genetic material is RNA
RNA of low RNA
molecular weight
● Cause disease like Smaller Larger
the potato spindle
tuber disease
Viroids Structure Virus structure
Spike

Nucleic
acid

Envelope
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 Prions

● Prions are abnormally folded proteins

● Similar in size to virus
● Cause neurodegenerative diseases
● Highly infectious (untreatable and fatal)

Scrapie Creutzfeldt Jacob Disease Bovine Spongiform

infected sheep (CJD) in humans: Encephalopathy (BSE)
Degenerative brain disorder or Mad Cow Disease
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 Lichen

● Lichen is the symbiotic association between algae (phycobiont) or

Cyanobacteria (cyanobiont) and fungi (mycobiont).

CYANOBIONT
MYCOBIONT (Cyanobacteria)
(fungus) LICHEN
or PHYCOBIONT
HETEROTROPHIC (symbiosis)
(green algae)
AUTOTROPHIC
Provides nutrition Absorbs water, minerals
and provides shelter

● Lichen are early colonizers of barren land

● It is also used in making Litmus indicators.
● They are also bioindicators of air pollution (sensitive to SO2).

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 Summary
History of classification

Two
Aristotle Five Kingdom Six Kingdom
Kingdom
Classification Classification Classification
Classification

Plants Plantae Monera Archaebacteria

Eubacteria
Protista
Animals Animalia
Protista
Fungi

Plantae
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia
Animalia

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 Summary
Kingdom Monera

Characteristics of Kingdom Monera Classification of bacteria (based on shape)

● Double-stranded circular
DNA
● Membrane-bound cell Cocci Bacilli Spirilla Vibrio
organelles absent
● Rigid cell wall
● 70S ribosomes
● Chromatophores
(containing pigment)
● Maybe motile (flagella) or
non-motile Spore Flagellum
● Nutrition - Heterotrophic
(saprophytic/parasitic) or
Autotrophic

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 Summary
Kingdom Protista

● They are single-celled/colonial eukaryotes that evolved from prokaryotes (endosymbiosis).

● They are primarily aquatic and use cilia and flagella for locomotion.
● Their reproduction is sexual and asexual.

Kingdom Protista

Plant like Fungi like Animal like

Chrysophyta Pyrrophyta Euglenophyta

Diatoms Desmids

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 Summary
Kingdom Fungi

Modes of nutrition
● Fungi are achlorophyllous - they lack chlorophyll; hence they are heterotrophic.

Saprophytic Parasitic Symbiotic

Modes of reproduction

3 modes of reproduction:

Sexual Asexual
Vegetative (Involves 4 types (Involves 3 types
of spores) of spores)

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 Summary
Kingdom Fungi

Classification of fungi

Fungi

Aseptate mycelium Septate mycelium

Deuteromycetes
Phycomycetes
Ascomycetes

Basidiomycetes

Mushroom Bracket fungi Puffballs

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 Summary
Viruses

Scientists with major contribution in discovery of viruses.

Dmitri M.W. W.M. Stanley

Ivanovsky Beijerinck

Structure

● Viruses contain either DNA or RNA, never both.

● The infectious material is covered by a protein coat called capsid.​

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