CHAPTER 5 : METABOLISM AND ENZYMES

Metabolism 新陈代谢
1. Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions that occur in a living organism.
2. The processes in metabolism involve the conversion of food into energy in the form of ATP, and the
formation of carbohydrate, protein, lipid and nucleic acid.

Types of metabolism in a cell

1. There are two types of metabolism, which are catabolism and anabolism.
Catabolism Aspect Anabolism
Catabolism 分解代谢 is the process of Definition Anabolism 合成代谢 is the process of
breaking down complex substances into synthesising complex molecules from
simple substances. simple molecules.

This reaction releases energy. Energy involvement This reaction uses energy.
1. The breakdown of glucose during Examples 1. The formation of glucose during
cellular respiration photosynthesis.
2. Break down of glycogen to glucose 2. Condensation of glucose to form
3. Break down of triglyceride to fatty glycogen
acids and glycerol 3. Condensation of fatty acids and
4. Break down of protein or polypeptide glycerol to form triglyceride
to amino acids 4. Condensation of amino acids to form
protein or polypeptide.

Enzymes
1. Enzymes are proteins which act as biological / organic catalysts (biocatalysts 生物催化剂) which are
built from proteins and are produced by the cells of living organisms.
2. They speed up biochemical/metabolic reactions in the cell at the body temperature.
3. One way of increasing the speed of reaction is by raising the temperature, but a temperature that is too
high will kill an organism by denaturing its proteins.
4. The reactant in the enzymatic reaction is called a substrate 基质 while the substance formed at the end of
the reaction is called product.

Sucrase
Sucrose + water glucose + fructose

5. Thousands of simultaneous biochemical reactions occur in living cells. Without enzymes, these
biochemical reactions would be too slow to sustain 维持 life.

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Naming 命名 of Enzymes
1. Efforts to standardize the naming of enzymes was done by the International Union of Biochemistry (IUB)
in 1961.
2. The names of enzymes are formed by adding suffix 字尾 “ase” to the main part of the name of the substrate
on which they act.
3. For example:
Substrate Enzyme Substrate Enzyme
Maltose 麦芽糖 Maltase Protein Protease 蛋白酶
Sucrose 蔗糖 Sucrase Lipid Lipase 脂肪酶
Lactose 乳糖 Lactase Starch Amylase 淀粉酶
Cellulose 纤维素 Cellulase

4. There are some enzymes which cannot be named this way because the names of these enzymes have been
used for a long time (before 1961). For example: pepsin (catalyses hydrolysis of protein into polypeptides),
erepsin 肠肽酶(catalyses hydrolysis of dipeptide into amino acids), trypsin (catalyses hydrolysis of
polypeptide into smaller peptides), rennin 凝乳酶(catalyses curdling (coagulating of milk.) and ptyalin.
唾液酶

The General Characteristic of Enzymes

Characteristic Explanation
1. speed up the 1. One molecule of enzyme can turn thousands or millions of substrate molecules
reaction rate into products per minute.
2. For example, catalase can transform approximately 6 million hydrogen
peroxide 过氧化氢 into oxygen and waters molecules per minute.
2. Are required in In the reaction, an enzyme is not destroyed, not altered 改变, not used up 耗尽.
small amounts Therefore, it can be reused again and again, so only a small amount is needed.
3. Are highly 1. Each enzyme only acts on one substrate. For example: maltase only acts on
specific 独特 maltose while sucrase only act on sucrose.
2. The action of enzyme is based on the lock and key hypothesis 锁和钥匙的假
设
4. Catalyse 1. Enzymes can work in both directions. The reaction can proceed from left to
reversible 可逆 right or from right to left.
转的 reaction. amylase
Starch + water maltose

However, the enzymes usually catalyse the forward reaction, because the
product is removed as soon as it is formed.
5. Are denatured 1. All enzymes are proteins.
失去原性 by 2. At > 40oC until < 60oC, the rate of reaction is decreases. At 60 oC, enzymes are
extreme high denatured. The bonds are broken and the polypeptide chains open up.
temperature. Enzyme loses its normal shape and the activity is stopped.
(sensitive to 3. At low temperature, enzymes are less active because the enzyme and the
temperature) substrate molecules are less liable 容易 to react together.
4. The optimum 最佳 temperature for most enzymes is 37 oC – 40 oC.

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 6.Are sensitive 敏 1. Each enzyme works within a range of pH and has its own optimum pH.
感 to pH. 2. Small changes in the pH of the medium will change the shape of the enzyme
and denature the enzyme.
3. Most enzyme are active at pH 7. For example, enzymes for respiration.
4. Some enzymes require acidic or alkaline condition. For example, pepsin 胃蛋白
酶 is active at pH2 while trypsin 胰蛋白酶 is active at pH 8.5.

Some enzymes A cofactor is a non-protein chemical needed to assist the enzyme in its catalytic
require cofactors reaction so that the enzyme can function more effectively.
They bind to the enzymes help to weaken the bonds in the substrate molecules.
Examples of inorganic cofactors are metal ions (e.g. iron and zinc), and organic
cofactors (also called coenzymes) are often vitamins such as vitamin B.

Enzyme inhibitors Enzyme inhibitors are substances which slow down or totally stop enzyme
activity. They change the active sites which are found on the surface of enzymes.
For example, heavy metals such as mercury and lead. Mercury is an enzyme
inhibitor of amylase, lipase and lactase.

Intracellular and Extracellular Enzymes

1. All enzymes are synthesized inside cells.
2. Enzymes can be divided into two groups:
Intracellular enzyme 胞内酶 Extracellular enzyme 胞外酶
• Catalyses reactions inside the cell and carry out • Are produced in the cell but secreted outside the
functions within the cell itself. cell and catalyses reactions outside the cell
• Can be found in cytoplasm, plasma membrane, • Secreted 分泌 from the cell
organelles (mitochondria, chloroplast), nucleus
• Examples: enzymes involved in respiration • For examples: most digestive enzymes such as
within mitochondria such as oxidoreductase. salivary amylase 唾 液 淀 粉 酶 , trypsin and
RNA polymerase, DNA polymerase, ATPase. lipase secreted by pancreas 胰岛.

Site of Enzyme Synthesis

1. Since enzymes are made of proteins, they are synthesized by ribosomes.
2. Intracellular enzymes are synthesized on “free” ribosomes.
3. Extracellular enzymes are synthesized on ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
4. The information for synthesis of enzymes is carried by the DNA. The different sequences of bases in the
DNA are codes to make different proteins. During the process, the messenger RNA (mRNA) is formed
to translate the codes 密码 into a sequence 序列 of amino acids. These amino acids are bonded together
to form specific enzymes according to the DNA’s code.
5. Formation and secretion of extracellular enzymes:
a) Protein is produced in the ribosome.
b) The protein enters the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and is transported to the vesicles
囊泡 at the end of the endoplasmic reticulum
c) The transport vesicles carry the protein to the Golgi apparatus
d) Golgi apparatus modifies 改变 the protein into specific protein such as enzyme.
e) The enzyme is packed 包装 into the secretory vesicles of the Golgi apparatus and transported to the
plasma membrane
f) The secretory vesicle fuses 结合 with the plasma membrane in order to secrete the enzyme out of the
cell.

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Mechanism of Enzyme Action 酶的作用机制
1. Each enzyme has a region with very precise shape called the active site that complements with its substrate.
The reaction takes place 发生 at active site.
2. Hence, the shape of the substrate must fit the enzyme precisely 恰恰 if a reaction is to take place.
3. This explain why enzymes are highly specific 具有高度特异性

4. The explanation of enzyme action is known as “lock and key hypothesis”. The substrate is the key while
the enzyme is the lock.
5. The substrate molecule binds to the active site to form an enzyme-substrate complex 复合物( a temporary
structure), like a key fits into a lock.
6. The enzyme then changes the substance either by splitting 分裂 it apart through hydrolysis 水解 or binding
them together through condensation 缩合.
7. Reaction takes place at the active site and form the products.
8. The products have different shape from the substrate and are therefore released from the active site of
enzyme.
9. The active site is now free to bind with other substrate.
10. The enzyme can be reused over and over again.

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Activation Energy 活化能
1. An activation energy is the minimum energy
required to cause a chemical reaction to occur.
2. Substrate molecule requires kinetic energy to
collide with other molecule to start a reaction.
3. If the substrate molecules do not collide,
chemical reaction will not occur.
4. The lower the activation energy, the higher the
rate of reaction.
5. Enzyme which acts as catalyst lowers the
activation energy to increase the rate of
chemical reaction.
6. For example, while glucose or lipid can be
burnt (thus providing the needed activation
energy) to decompose it into carbon dioxide
and water, the body uses enzymes to catalyse
the decomposition of glucose or lipid into
carbon dioxide and water at a temperature of
only 37°C.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity (STEP- Substrate concentration, Temperature, Enzyme

concentration, pH)

Temperature 1. At low temperature, the rate of reaction is low because the movement of substrate
molecules is slow.
2. As the temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases. This is because the
enzyme and the substrate move faster increasing their chances of colliding with
one another and with the active sites.
3. For every 10oC rise in temperature (below 40oC), the rate of reaction is double.
4. The optimum temperature is the temperature at which the reaction rate is at
maximum. Most human enzymes have an optimum temperature of around 37oC,
while for most plants is around 25 oC.
5. After the optimum temperature, the reaction rate is decreases / falls quickly
because the bond maintaining the structure of enzyme start to break. The shape of
enzyme and the active site change. The substrate cannot attach itself to the active
site of the enzyme.
6. The enzymes lose their activities and are said to be denatured 失去原性.

7. Denaturation is irreversible 不可逆转的. Most organisms cannot survive 存活 at

temperature above 40 oC.
8. At 60 oC, all the enzymes are denatured and the reaction stops.
9. Bacteria living in hot springs 热水温泉 have optimum temperatures of 80 oC –
100oC.

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pH 1. Most enzymes are effective in only a narrow pH range.
2. The optimum pH is the particular pH at which the rate of reaction is the highest.
3. In a cell, most enzymes function optimally at a pH that ranges from 6 to 8 (pH7).
For example, the salivary amylase function optimally at pH 7.
4. However, there are a few exceptions, such as the pepsin can only function optimally
in acidic condition (pH2) within the stomach, while trypsin function optimally at
pH 8.5 (alkaline condition).

5. A change in the pH can alter the charges on the active sites of an enzyme and the
surface of the substrate. This reduces the ability of both molecules to bind 绑
together.

6. Unlike the effects of heat on enzymes, the effects of pH on the active sites are
normally reversible. When the pH returns to optimum levels for the enzyme, the
charge on the active site is restored. The enzyme functions normally again.
7. Extreme pH changes break the chemical bonds. The enzyme structure breaks down
and the active site of the enzyme molecule is destroyed. The enzyme is denatured.

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Substrate 1. If the pH value, temperature and enzyme concentration are kept constant, the rate of
Concentration enzyme reaction increases when the amount of substrate present increases until a
limiting value.
2. This is because more substrate are available to bind the active sites and more
chances of collisions 碰撞 to make the reaction occur.
3. After the limiting value, the rate of reaction does not increase even though the
substrate concentration increases.
4. After maximum rate, all active sites are filled and engaged in catalysis. The enzyme
is said to be saturated 饱和. There are no empty active sites available.

5. The concentration of enzyme becomes a limiting factor. The only way to increase
the reaction rate is to increase the enzyme concentration.

Enzyme 1. If the pH value and temperature are kept constant and if an excess of substrate is
Concentration present, the rate of reaction increases when the enzyme concentration is increases
until it reaches a limiting value.
2. This is because more active sites are made available for reaction.
3. When the enzyme concentration is doubled, the reaction rate will be doubled.

4. After the maximum rate, any increase in the enzyme concentration does not increase
the reaction rate. Maximum rate is reached due to the limited amount of substrate.
The substrate concentration has become the limiting factor.
5. If the concentration of substrate is increased, the reaction rate will increase and a
higher limiting value will be reached.

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Application of Enzymes in Daily Life
1. Enzymes can be extracted 可以提取 from natural resources such as plants, animals and microorganisms
(bacteria and fungi) or produced synthetically in factories.
2. Large quantities of enzymes are obtained from microorganisms, mainly from bacteria and fungi, which are
grown in industrial fermenters.
3. Immobilised 固定化 enzymes are enzymes that are physically attached to inert and insoluble material,
where the resistance of the enzymes to changes in factors such as pH value and temperature increases,
enabling the enzymes to function at maximum rate.
4. The enzymes are physically confined 限制 or localised 局限 in a certain defined region of space throughout
the catalysed reaction, and they can be used repeatedly and continuously while maintaining their
activities.
5. The technology where immobilized enzymes are used is known as enzyme immobilisation technology.
6. Enzyme immobilisation technology is used for the manufacture of many industrial products in the
pharmaceutical 制药业, chemical and food industry.
7. The advantages of using immobilized enzymes are:
(a) the enzymes could be reused continuously
(b) the enzymes are usually more stable than mobile enzymes
(c) the enzymes are easily separated from the product
(d) the chances of contamination of products are lesser
8. The uses of immobilised enzymes in various industries are as shown in the table below.
No Application Enzymes used Uses
1. Dairy industry Rennin 凝乳酶 Coagulate milk proteins in cheese manufacturing.
乳品加工业 Lactase 乳糖酶 Hydrolysis of lactose to give lactose-free milk products
Lipase 脂酶 Preparation of cheese by dissolving and removing the fat
content in the milk.
2. Food Protease 蛋白酶 , Tenderises meat 使肉嫩化, separates the skin of fish.
processing Papain 木瓜蛋白酶
industry (from papaya)
Amylase 淀粉酶 Convert starch to sugar in the making of syrup, convert
starch flour into sugar in the baking of bread.
Production of chocolates and fruit juices to remove the
starch in these substances.
Glucose isomerase Glucose is converted into fructose that is much sweeter
than glucose.
Zymase 酿酶 Converts sugars into ethanol in beer/wine making industry.
Cellulase Breaks down the cellulose and removes the seed coat from
cereal grains such as wheat, extracts agar from seaweed by
dissolving the cell wall
Pectinase Breaks down pectin in fruits into simple sugars.
果胶酶 Pectin makes the juice cloudy.
3. Leather Trypsin Removes hair from animal skin and make leather 皮革制
tanning 制 革 品 softer.
industry
4. Biological Protease, Lipase, Protease act on stains containing proteins such as blood.
detergents Amylase Amylase removes stains containing starch such as sauces,
洗涤剂 ice creams and gravy 肉汁
Lipase removes oil and grease 润滑脂
5. Medical Trypsin Dissolves blood clots 血块
products
6. Textile 纺 织 Amylase Removal of starch that is applied to threads of fabrics to
industry prevent damage
7. Paper industry Ligninase Remove lignin 木质 from pulp 纸浆.