Building a Classroom Management Plan for

Inclusive Environments: From Fear to F.E.A.R.

William J. Niles

An Article Published in

TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus

Volume 2, Issue 1, September 2005

Copyright © 2005 by the author. This work is licensed to the public under the Creative Commons Attri-
bution License
 Building a Classroom Management Plan for Inclusive
Environments: From Fear to F.E.A.R.

William J. Niles

Abstract

Inclusive education is here to stay. However, teachers remain fearful of their ability to de-
liver and assess curriculum and related activities for a diverse population of students.
Current literature suggests that effective classroom planning includes four activities: a
focus on planning to prompt and sustain student on-task behavior; an engagement of stu-
dents in the learning process by building a sense of belonging and contribution to the
classroom experience; a calculated arrangement, physically and administratively, of the
classroom environment to facilitate participation and management of all students; and a
reflection on what was tried, how it worked, and what adjustments are necessary.

Keywords
inclusive education, behavior management

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 Idol (2002) speculates that teachers Instructional strategies
have "looming fears" related to educating and Differentiation
managing diverse student groups. For exam- The essence of instruction in today’s
ple, teachers believe that including students classroom is differentiation. Choate (2000)
with special needs will force them to drasti- defines differentiation as "systematically
cally change their teaching format; that stu- varying the learning, content, product, and…
dents with disabilities will require extensive the teaching and learning process to match the
diversion of their time and resources away unique learning profile of individual students"
from other students; and that students with (p. 36). A number of models for differentiat-
special needs will require behavior manage- ing instruction in classrooms are available
ment practices that are unique, complicated, (see Tomlinson, 1999; Wood, 2002). Impor-
and never ending. tantly, each emphasizes that variations in the
The emerging education literature in- lesson related to the amount of work required,
dicates that the F.E.A.R. model that highlights the time allocated to complete the exercise,
four pillars of proactive inclusive practices presentation format, type of response re-
can replace the fear associated with diverse quired, and assistance needed are critical.
classrooms: (See Box: Key Operational Principles of Dif-
Focus: prompt student attention to the learn- ferentiation)
ing task through teacher preplanning
Engage: increase student motivation and so-
cial development through building a sense of
belonging and contribution
Arrange: organize and administer the learn-
ing environment to accommodate all learners
Reflect: evaluate outcomes for planned les-
sons and activities, problem solve, and adjust

Focus
Keeping students focused on the
learning task is important for two reasons:
first, time on task is highly correlated to
achievement (Good & Brophy, 2003; Orn-
stein & Lasley, 2000); and, second, time on
task reduces classroom misbehavior (Good &
Brophy; Kounin, 1970). The keys to focusing
student time on task behavior are instructional
strategies (i.e., differentiation, cooperative
learning, jigsaw methodology, scaffolding,
and assessment) and within lesson communi-
cation.
 Key Operational Principles in Differentiation
The key operational principles in differentiation encompass the following:
Focus on your class: What are the academic, behavioral, and social strengths and weaknesses of your
class? There are several steps involved in answering this question. First, establish baselines that recognize the
developmental milestones and readiness levels of all students. Second, survey interests of the group. Third,
collect data on academic achievement and skill levels and analyze the profile. Fourth, observe, question, and
assess the classroom behavior and preferences of all students as the school year unfolds. Collecting data, ana-
lyzing performance levels, assessing, and adjusting for the various needs and skill levels of students are recog-
nized dimensions of effective differentiation (Choate, 2000; Idol, 2002; Tomlinson, 1999).
Focus on key ideas: Tomlinson (2003) states that to establish essential ideas, teachers focus on what
students should know (i.e., the facts, vocabulary, and basic information that is essential). Then teachers focus on
what should be understood (i.e., the concepts that are critical to mastery and transfer). Next, teachers clarify
what students should demonstrate or be able to do when a lesson is complete. Finally, teachers ask and answer
the essential questions that will guide instruction for all students (i.e., how will I organize instruction, motivate,
and assess all students?)
Focus on presentation: The key to differentiating instruction is variety. While there is a daunting num-
ber of learning preferences and styles (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 1997), a focus on utilizing oral, visual, and
tactile learning opportunities is key. In addition, Sternberg's (1997) analytical, practical/ hands-on, or creative
thinking options or Gardener's multiple intelligences are worthwhile options (see Armstrong, 2000). Regardless
of the options considered, the key is variety. An important consideration is to help students develop their own
strategies for promoting learning and to help students learn and utilize accepted strategies that promote under-
standing and retention. Content areas such as literacy, mathematics, and the arts have skill sets and strategies
that energize, solidify, and sustain learning and mastery. In addition, students often require temporary support
such as scaffolding in the early stages of learning in content areas. Include higher order thinking (see Anderson
& Krathwohl, 2001) in all lesson plans. Higher order thinking enhances learning through the exploration of
meaning (i.e., how to apply, analyze, and evaluate new knowledge). Finally, do not forget constant practice,
review, and feedback.
Focus on assessment of strategies: Differentiation that remains dynamic and meaningful requires con-
stant assessment. Whether standardized instruments, criterion-reference tests, or authentic assessment options
are used, testing for understanding and skill retention is a primary function of the teacher practicing differentia-
tion.

Cooperative learning Face-to-face interaction: group members have

Cooperative learning (see Choate, the opportunity to explain what they are
2000; Idol, 2002) can facilitate active learn- learning to a group
ing, promote social interaction, help develop Individual accountability: assessment of each
social skills, and promote academic skill de- member of the group individually
velopment (e.g., problem solving, communi- Interpersonal skill development: a combina-
cation, etc.). A review of the components of tion of skill assessment and training prior
various options and models suggest that most to the group experience and on-going as-
effective cooperative activities include the sessment and instruction while the group
following characteristics: is functioning
Heterogeneous grouping socially, academi- Group evaluation: group performance (i.e.,
cally, and behaviorally participation and outcome) is assessed
Group member interdependence: members regularly.
are responsible for their own learning and (See Box: Key Operational Principles of Co-
the learning of others in the group operative Learning)
 Key Operational Principles of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is effective when it:
Minimizes student movement: Desk arrangement, supply and materials storage, location of student’s
with disabilities, and an opportunity for the teacher(s) to move easily and quickly for assessment, monitoring
and problem solving purposes are critical elements of the cooperative learning classroom. Cooperative learning
teachers often consider establishing groups early in the semester and do not move groups within the classroom
very often throughout the school term.
Minimizes transition time: Teachers who use cooperative learning as a supplement for whole class
activities modify class procedures and rules to facilitate quiet and distraction-free transitioning to cooperative
learning. Prior to these activities, teachers state and reinforce movement procedures and rules.
Minimizes start-up problems: The key to cooperative learning is preplanning. Researchers (Evertson,
Emmer, & Worsham, 2000; Leighton, 2003; Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2003) suggest the following to promote
efficiency in cooperative learning:
• Make accurate and complete information available to the class at the start of the cooperative
lesson. If the cooperative lesson includes peer tutoring, the teacher has organized the
activity and expectations and presented this information to the students prior to move-
ment or at the start of the group lesson. Startup activities promote immediate engagement
and student interaction within prescribed procedures.
• Assign roles to group members and remind group members of their role and responsibilities
often. Group roles usually include a timekeeper, a "quiet" monitor, a secretary, and a
leader.
• Teach skills for working in groups and remind and cue students often. When skill develop-
ment is connected to lesson expectations and/or cooperative learning objectives and to
implementing group rules, the impact of skill development is increased. The following
skill development options are recommended for diverse classrooms:
• Social skills: listening, sharing, giving support
• Explaining skills: describing and seeking explanations
• Asking for help
• Giving help skills
• Leadership skills
• Teamwork skills: following group routines, significance of roles, task comple-
tion, etc.
• Set rules and post
Maximizes teacher movement, interaction and assessment: Students need feedback on rules, roles, on
task behavior, adherence to the objective of group activity, group performance, and so forth. A second gain from
"floating" and interacting is that the teacher models for students how to give and receive help (how to ask what
others think, how to praise, etc.). All are elements of effective cooperative learning activities that lead to student
development.
Maximizes heterogeneous group assignment: The group mix (i.e., the skill and achievement level of
the members), is critical. While group makeup is usually based on high, average and low levels and include a
variety of gender, race and cultural options, a few caveats are noteworthy: First, avoid extreme variations in
group mix. Promote difference in skill and achievement levels, but keep the group mix close in both levels.
Some argue (see Good & Brophy, 2003) that the mix not include an "average" or in-between level. In-between
students have been found to participate less in the group experience. In any case, establishing group composi-
tion requires a trial-and-error mentality. Second, avoid placing students who have problems with each other in
the same group. Third, keep group sizes within the range of four to six students.

Jigsaw Method jigsaw methodology requires each member of

The Jigsaw Method is a particularly the learning group to play a pivotal role in the
efficient and effective group learning vehicle completion of the learning task.
to aid students’ master curriculum material by The key steps of the Jigsaw Method
encouraging teaching, listening, engagement, are (see Leighton, 2003):
and empathy within work groups (Leighton, 1. Form heterogeneous learning teams
2003). These goals are achieved because the
2. Form expert teams with representation time allocations, scheduling, or location (e.g.,
from each learning team private, etc.) are adjusted; (d) provision for
3. Develop the expertise of the expert team specialized equipment is provided based on
members the IEP; and (e) a proctor (i.e., someone to
4. Expect team members to share expertise read directions and/or questions) is provided
in the original learning team as needed.
5. Assess individual achievement
Communication
Scaffolding Question-and-answer activities play a
The essential focus of scaffolding is role in promoting effective classroom man-
that the teacher directs a learning exercise that agement (Good & Brophy, 2003; Sadker &
is difficult for the learner until the student can Sadker, 2003). Well prepared question-and-
learn and apply elements of the learning expe- answer activities in class lessons increase stu-
rience on their own (Bruning, Schraw, & dent engagement and sense of belonging in
Ronning, 1995). A distillation of scaffolding the instructional experience and help teachers
conceptualizations results in the following to react constructively when students fail to
common steps (see Good & Brophy, 2003; respond appropriately or opt to respond not at
Larkin, 2001; Schunk, 2000): all. The critical strategies are wait time for
1. Teacher models/teaches skill required responses and teacher feedback.
2. Teacher supports/assists as the learner in- Wait time for responses: The recom-
creases skill competency; teacher ex- mended wait time for responses to questions
pands student's skill area is three or more seconds. During the wait time
3. Teacher gradually removes supports as the teachers should maintain eye contact with the
learner's skill competency increases responder. Good and Brophy (2003) argue
4. Teacher gives feedback on performance to that the discipline involved in waiting for a
learner throughout the learning expe- response and probing if the answer is deemed
rience; reinforces main ideas inappropriate increases active participation
5. Learner achieves independence and the quality of participation and responses
of all students including the child with special
Assessing Outcomes learning needs.
Novice teachers often believe that Wait time for feedback: First, teacher
assessing children with diverse needs requires feedback can clarify, verify, support, and per-
specialized training and years of experience. sonalize student answers to questions. In ad-
In reality, most teachers automatically con- dition, teacher responses to answers involve
sider instructional and assessment strategies the whole class in the learning experience.
that will "fit" students they have in a given Good and Brophy (2003) suggest that teach-
grade or class. In addition, the following as- ers should follow student responses by asking
sessment considerations fit for a wide variety one or more of the following question types:
of disabilities (see Friend & Bursuck, 2002; (a) What do you mean by that? (b) How do
Smith, Polloway, Patton, & Dowdy, 2001): you know that? Example? and (c) How did
(a) Test questions and/or directions are pre- you determine that?
sented in an alternate way; (b) test questions Teacher feedback can include praise
include alternate ways to respond; (c) test for responses given. Good and Brophy (2003)
conclude that praise in these circumstances 3. Help students "adjust" their personal the-
can be contingent on the answer given (i.e., ory of intelligence; students who see
praise what is correct) and the effort and their intelligence as fixed are less
strategy used to arrive at the answer. In addi- likely to approach and persist in new
tion, teachers should give feedback on what learning experiences; students who
needs to be corrected to achieve the right see their intelligence as changeable or
answer next time. Effective feedback can correctable persevere;
motivate students to participate fully, espe- 4. Increase question and answer proficiency
cially the less able students, and can teach and to include all students (see Sadker &
reinforce learning for all through a focus on Sadker, 2003);
effort and strategy. 5. Elevate teacher expectations for all stu-
dents; a success/failure ratio of +1
Engage success equates to increased self-
Recently, belonging has been identi- efficacy or a sense that one can con-
fied as a critical element in how children trol and succeed in their learning;
approach and sustain effort in the classroom 6. Focus on learning goals over performance
(Aronson, 2002; Schunk, 2000). Stipek goals; and
(1998) reminds us: "Students will not be mo- 7. Use cooperative learning experiences,
tivated to engage in the most intrinsically (e.g., Jigsaw Method, etc.)
interesting tasks…if they fear humiliation or
rejection from their teachers and peers" Arrange
(p.186). Albert (1996) concluded that in-class Organizing and administering a class-
cooperation is more likely when students room requires an analysis of the interplay
have a sense they belong to a class and are between teaching options and the physical
making a contribution to that class. In addi- environment that contains the educational
tion, a student's sense of belonging (i.e., the experience. In addition, the rules and proce-
degree to which they perceive acceptance and dures developed to manage the overall class-
rejection) plays a role in the amount of en- room experience, especially transition activi-
ergy, focus, and commitment they devote to ties and seating arrangements, are critical.
achievement (Harrist & Bradley, 2002).
To increase student connectedness Physical Arrangements
and achievement motivation in inclusive Effective teachers preplan the organi-
classrooms, the following are recommended zation of their learning environment (i.e.,
(see Aronson, 2002; Dweck, 2002; Schunk, desk placements [teacher and students], stor-
2000; Weiner, 1994): age, displays, resource centers, and use of
1. Focus on effort over success/failure out- wall space). Important questions to consider
comes; utilize authentic assessment; include the following (adapted in part from
2. Change student attributions for success Evertson et al., 2000, p. 2):
and/or failure (i.e., promote the mes- 1. What will be the main types of instruc-
sage that success is a function of stu- tional activities (e.g., small groups,
dent effort and failure is a function of whole class discussions, teacher pres-
the student's lack of an effective strat- entations, student presentations, indi-
egy); vidual assignments, group projects,
 etc.)? What physical arrangement will pressed in language that is age appro-
best support these activities? priate)
2. Will students use equipment or materials 3. Include a rationale and examples of be-
extensively? Will these be shared havior and expectations
among individuals or groups? 4. Presented, modeled, and practiced with
3. How much movement within the class is feedback
anticipated? What areas of the room 5. Posted
will be involved? 6. Describe consequences that are applied
4. How will students who use wheelchairs, immediately and consistently when
braces, crutches, or other forms of violations occur
getting around be managed? Will the 7. Reviewed regularly, especially when ac-
environment be hazard-free for the tivities that are new and/or novel oc-
visually impaired? cur and during transition periods
5. How flexible or permanent will the ar- where the normal routine of the class
rangement be? How often will the ar- is disrupted
rangement need to be changed? Daily, 8. Changes in rules should include a start
weekly, monthly? date and a justification that is told to
6. What types of references or centrally lo- the class prior to the implementation
cated learning materials will the stu- of change; all changes should be mod-
dents need to access? How accessible eled and practiced
are these materials to all students?
7. Students with behavior problems, suscep- Educators often overlook procedures.
tibility to distractions, and sensory Children with special educational needs who
impairments will be located where? have difficulty attending to, retaining, or gen-
8. Will students who require special equip- eralizing procedures can be a source of con-
ment or assistive technology have siderable frustration to a teacher if procedures
easy access to the equipment? are not carefully attuned to the class early in
the school year and posted and regularly re-
Rules and Procedures hearsed thereafter. Guidelines for procedure
Levin and Nolan (2000) argue that development include (adapted from Smith et
procedures help the students act and react in al., 2001):
orderly or disciplined ways throughout the 1. Identify all situations in your classroom
school day; rules on the other hand focus on for which a procedure is needed
behavior in general. The development of rules 2. Explain, model, and practice procedures
is a complicated and personal experience; until mastery is achieved by all
however, effective classroom rules should 3. Review procedures regularly, especially
pinpoint expectations and standards for be- prior to transition periods in the class-
havior and consequences for misbehavior. All room
rules should include the following character- 4. Changes in procedures should include a
istics (see Levin & Nolan; Larrivee, 1999): teaching and practice session prior to
1. Reasonable implementation
2. Few in number (no more than 5-6);
clearly articulated (i.e., brief and ex-
 Transitions and seating arrangements (the if you prefer to let students sit where they
"zone") wish. The engaged, performance-oriented,
Transitions are specific times when and highly motivated students gravitate to the
students are more likely to disconnect and T. Why? That is the location in the class
behave poorly (i.e., before and during the where they will participate more often with
early part of lessons; during changes from the teacher and where the teacher is more
lesson to lesson or activity to activity; at the likely to engage them. Effective teachers plan
end of lessons; and at the end of class or class seating to include a variety of students in the
day especially if there is a wait time) (Good zone mix. This includes the distractible, po-
& Brophy, 2003; Grossman, 1995). Effective tential behavior problems, and students who
teachers recognize and plan for transitions by are disabled or considered at-risk.
establishing rules and procedures and reiter-
ating those that apply in a given circum- Reflection
stance. ! Today's students interact with their
For those who use direct instruction teacher, each other, and the curriculum in
or whole class instruction, Ornstein and La- ways that require teachers to routinely ana-
sley (2000) remind us that there is an "action lyze and upgrade their methodology. This
zone" in each classroom where teachers tend process is called reflection. Rodgers (2002)
to focus their instruction, question-and- defines reflection, generally, as an ongoing
answer activities, and other forms of student process of inquiry. Reflection involves three
involvement. Think of the zone as an upside- separate but interactive dimensions: problem
down "T" that spreads out from the teacher's solving, review of content and professional
desk. The T includes the row in front of the literature, and conversations with colleagues.
teacher's desk and the one or two columns of The end game of the reflective process is to
desks located in the middle of the class. transform classroom experiences into a
Teachers who are not aware of the zone in- deeper and richer understanding of teacher
crease the possibility that students "outside" behavior that results in more effective prac-
the zone will be overlooked or dismissed tices. (See Box: Overview of Rodgers’ (2002)
during the important exchanges that occur Four Phases of the Reflective Process.)
throughout the school day. Keep this in mind
Overview of Rodgers’ (2002) Four Phases of the Reflective Process
1. Presence to an experience: A willingness to see classroom events as events requiring analysis. These
happenings might include a tried-and-true lesson activity that does not engage the class; the emergence
of a new behavior dimension; a new student's difficulty adjusting to the rhythms and activities of the
class; and/or a student who is ostracized from his/her cooperative learning group.
2. Describe the experience: Name the problems and/or questions that arise out of accepting and thinking
about the experience. This includes avoiding spontaneous or uninformed interpretations and responses.
Rodgers (2002) labels this activity the "discipline of description" or a dedicated attempt to collect and
analyze the facts and/or evidence that surround the experience. When considering behaviors, effective
teachers explore the behavior and what happened before and after the behavior (Larrivee, 1999).
3. Analysis of the experience: Generate possible explanations that grow organically from the data and
evidence. Rodgers (2002) argues that teachers need to spend "enough time with the data of an experi-
ence…so that it can emerge in all its complexity" (p. 854).
4. Action/experimentation: Rodgers (2002) explains that the reflective teacher now articulates a response
"based on knowledge and awareness of the learner, oneself, the subject matter, the context within which
we all operate, and the dynamic interaction among all of these" (p. 855).
Conclusion dria, VA: Association for Supervision
Today's classrooms are demanding & Curriculum Development.
environments. Teachers are expected to man-
age the academic and behavioral needs and Aronson, J. (Ed.). (2002). Improving aca-
development of a diverse population of stu- demic achievement: Impact of psy-
dents. Fortunately, an emerging literature that chological factors on education. New
bridges theory and practice provides guidance York: Academic Press.
to the teacher. First, the vast majority of stu-
dents in today’s classrooms do not require Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Ronning, R.
special attention in class. This is especially R. (1995). Cognitive psychology and
true if teachers think and plan proactively to instruction (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle
focus all students on the learning task. Sec- River, NJ: Merrill.
ond, instructional strategies that increase the
engagement of all students in the learning and Choate, J. S. (2000). Successful inclusive
social experience of the classroom are con- teaching: Proven ways to detect and
sidered. Third, educators pay particular atten- correct special needs. Boston: Allyn
tion to how their classrooms are physically and Bacon.
and functionally arranged. Fourth, teachers
regularly reflect on their approaches, that is, Dweck, C. S. (2002). Messages that motivate:
assess their practices and outcomes, problem How praise molds students' beliefs,
solve, check the literature, and upgrade their motivation, and performance (in sur-
strategies to meet the changing needs of their prising ways). In J. Aronson (Ed.),
diverse classes. In summary, the literature Improving academic achievement:
indicates that fear of inclusion can be re- Impact of psychological factors on
placed by the F.E.A.R. practices outlined in education (pp. 38-61). New York:
this paper and that these strategies are keys to Academic Press.
effective classroom management.
Evertson, C., Emmer, E.T., & Worsham, M.
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About the author: William J. Niles is an Assistant Professor in the Special

Education Program at Adelphi University, New York.
!