GEN. ED.

ETHICS
INTRODUCTION TO THE KEY CONCEPTS Moral Standards
ETHICS ➢ Involve the rules people have about the
➢ is the branch of philosophy that studies kinds of actions they believe are morally
morality or the rightness or wrongness of right and wrong, as well as the values they
human conduct. place on the kinds of objects they believe
➢ The science of the morality of human act. are morally good and morally bad.
➢ Alternatively, ethics which is also called
“Moral Philosophy” is a branch of Non-Moral Standards
philosophy that studies the morality of ➢ Refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or
human conduct using moral frameworks, ethical considerations. These standards
theories, principles and standards. are not necessarily linked to morality or by
➢ The Commission on Higher Education nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples
(CHED) defines that “ethics deals with of non-moral standards include rules of
principles of ethical behavior in modern etiquette, fashion standards, rules in
society at the level of person, society, and games and various house rules.
in interaction with the environment and
other shared resources” (CMO 20 series of Characteristics of Moral Standards
2013). ➢ Moral standards involve serious wrongs or
significant benefits.
MORALITY ➢ Moral standards ought to be preferred to
➢ Speaks of code or system of behavior with other values.
regards to standards of right or wrong ➢ Moral standards are not established by
behavior. authority figures.
➢ The quality of human acts by which they are ➢ Moral standards have the trait of
constituted a good, bad or indifferent. That universalizability.
which is good is described as moral; that ➢ Moral standards are based on impartial
which is bad is immoral, and that which is considerations.
indifferent is amoral. ➢ Moral standards are associated with
➢ Morality is “a system of beliefs about what special emotions and vocabulary.
is right behavior and wrong behavior”
(Rubin, 2015). Morality refers to “the Dilemma
principles of right and wrong behavior or ➢ Refers to a situation in which a tough
rightness and wrongness (that is, goodness choice has to be made between two or
and badness) of human actions” more options, especially more or less
(philonotes.com, 2018). equally undesirable ones.
➢ In other words, "ethics is the science of
"morals", while morality is the practice of Moral Dilemma
ethics" (philonotes.com, 2018). ➢ Are situations in which a difficult choice
has to be made between two courses of
Importance of Ethics action, either of which entails
➢ Ethics is an indispensable knowledge. transgressing amoral principle. Involves
➢ Morality is the foundation of every human conflicts between moral requirements.
society.
➢ Moral integrity is the true measure of what Key Features of Moral Dilemmas
man ought to be. ➢ The agent is required to do each of two or
more actions;
The Importance of Rules to Social Beings ➢ The agent can do each of the actions, but
➢ Rules protect social beings by regulating the agent cannot do both or all the actions;
behavior. ➢ The agent thus seems condemned to
➢ Rules help to guarantee each person moral failure; no matter what he does, he
certain rights and freedom. will do something wrong, or fail to do
➢ Rules produce a sense of justice among something that he ought to do.
social beings.
➢ Rules are essential for a healthy economic
system.

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Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas equally important. Also called even
➢ Personal Dilemmas Organizational handedness or fair-mindedness.
➢ Dilemmas ➢ Is a principle of justice holding that
➢ Structural Dilemmas decisions ought to be based on objective
criteria, rather than on the basis of bias,
Personal Dilemmas prejudice or preferring the benefit to one
➢ Personal Dilemmas. Are those experienced person over another for improper reasons.
and resolved on the personal level.
➢ When an individual has to choose between THE MORAL AGENT
the life of a child who is about to be ➢ The moral agent is a person who has the
delivered and the child’s mother, he faces ability to discern right from wrong and to be
an ethical dilemma. held accountable for his or her own actions.
➢ Moral agents have a moral responsibility
Organizational Dilemmas not to cause unjustified harm.
➢ Refer to ethical cases encountered and ➢ Agents/persons expected to meet the
demand of Morality.
resolved by social organizations. This
category includes moral dilemmas in
MORAL AGENCY
business, medical field, and public sector. ➢ is assigned to those who can be held
➢ Mercy killing responsible for their actions.
➢ Whether or not to favor family, friends, or ➢ It is an individual’s ability to make moral
campaign contributors over other judgements based on some notion of right
constituents, etc. and wrong and to be held accountable for
these actions.
Structural Dilemmas
➢ Refer to cases involving network of LESSON 1: CULTURES IN MORAL
institutions and operative theorical BEHAVIOR
paradigms. As they usually encompass
multi-sectoral institutions and CULTURE
organizations, they may be larger in scope ➢ refers to the cumulative deposit of
and extent than organizational dilemmas. knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,
Only Human Beings Can Be Ethical attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion,
➢ Only human beings are rational, notion of times, roles, spatial relations,
autonomous, and self- conscious. concept of the universe, and material
➢ Only human beings are part of the moral objects and possessions acquired by a
community. group of people in the course of
➢ Only human beings can act morally or generations through individual and group
immorally. striving.
➢ sum total of the learned behavior of a group
Freedom as a Foundation of Morality of people that are generally considered to
➢ Basically, morality is a question of choice. be the tradition of that people and are
Morality, practically, is choosing ethical transmitted from generation to generation.
codes, values, or standards to guide us in In its broadest sense is cultivated behavior;
our daily lives. that is the totality of a person’s learned,
➢ Philosophically, choosing is impossible accumulated experience which is socially
without freedom. transmitted or more briefly, behavior
through social learning.
Minimum Requirements for Morality
➢ Reason as a requirement for morality CULTURES ROLE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
entails those human feelings maybe ➢ People learn moral and aspects of right
important in ethical decisions, but they or wrong from transmitter of culture
ought to be guided by reason. Sound through these following:
reasoning helps us to evaluate whether our ➢ respective parents;
feelings and intuitions about moral cases ➢ Teachers;
are correct and defensible. ➢ Novels;
➢ Impartiality involves the idea that each ➢ Films; and
individual’s interests and point of view are ➢ Television

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SOCIAL LEARNING RACHEL`S EVALUTION TO CULTURAL
➢ is the process by which individuals acquire RELATIVISM
knowledge from others in the groups to ➢ JAMES RACHELS (1941-2003) – made a
which they belong, as a normal part of compelling assessment of Cultural
childhood. The process by which infants Relativism. Because the theory attains
and children socially learn the culture, widespread prominence, it would help a lot
including morality, of those around them is to consider Rachels’ comprehensive
called enculturation or socialization. evaluation of this ethical system.

MORAL STANDARDS AS SOCIAL Cultural Differences Argument

CONVENTION and the SOCIAL We accept reasoning like these:
CONDITIONING THEORY ➢ The Greeks believes it was wrong to eat the
Theories Explained: dead, whereas the Callatians (an Indian
➢ The things we regards as moral laws (moral tribe) believed it was right to eat dead.
standards or rules), some purpose are Therefore, eating the dead is neither
nothing but social conventions. By objectively right nor wrong. It is merely a
convention, they mean those things agreed matter of opinion, which varies from culture
upon by people, like through their to culture.
authorities. ➢ The Eskimos see nothing wrong with
➢ Convention also refers to the usual or infanticide, whereas we believe infanticide
customary ways through which things are is immoral. Therefore, infanticide is neither
done within a group. objectively right nor wrong. It is merely a
NOTE: Some believe that moral standards are matter of opinion, which varies from culture
merely human invention, like those we learn to culture.
from school or home. NOTE: Different cultures have different moral
codes. Therefore, there is no objective “truth” in
SOCIAL CONDITIONING THEORY morality. Right and wrong are only matters of
➢ It is a sociological process of training opinion, and opinions vary from culture to
individuals in society to respond in a culture. This is the Cultural Differences
manner generally approved by the society Argument of James Rachels.
in general and peer groups within society.
➢ It can be observed that when one says that ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING
a particular action “ought” or “ought not” to
be done, he/she is not simply echoing
social approval or disapproval.
➢ Example given: Pre- marital Sex, Same
Sex Marriage and Abortion.
NOTE: It is the intellect which can be molded or
socially conditioned, not the sense of moral
obligation nor the so-called conscience per se.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
➢ Most famous and dominant form of moral FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTERISTICS:
relativism. STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES
➢ It defines moral as what is “socially ➢ “PAKIKISAMA OR GOOD PUBLIC
approved” by the majority in a particular RELATIONS” - This is usually being
culture. It maintains that an act is ethical in practiced to avoid clash with other people
a culture that approves it, but immoral in or a certain group.
one that disapproves of it. ➢ “HIYA” OR “FEAR OF LOSING FACE” -
described as feeling of lowliness, shame or
MORAL RELATIVISM embarrassment, or inhibition or shyness
➢ Fundamentally believes that no act is good which is experiences as somewhat
or bad objectively, and there is no single distressing. Integrally “Hiya” is related to
objective universal standard through which the concept of “face” and a concern with
we can evaluate the truth of moral how one appears in the eyes of others.
judgments.

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➢ “AMOR PROPIO or PRIDE” - derived from ➢ Virtues – a state of character or habit of a
the concept of “face”. Although commonly person and/or the moral character.
translated as “self-respect” or “self- ➢ Character – derived from the Greek word
esteem, “amor-propio” has been “character”, which was initially used as a
“characterized as the high degree of mark impressed upon a coin. The word
sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to “character” later came to mean a distinct
criticism and causes him to have an easily mark by which one thing was distinguished
wounded pride.” from others, and then chiefly to mean the
➢ “UTANG NA LOOB OR DEBT OF assemblage of qualities that distinguish
GRATITUDE”- is the fundamental aspect of one person from another (learned
upholding group harmony and relationship behavior).
that demand the balancing of obligations
and debts. This involves the concept of MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITION
“reciprocity” . The inability to repay the ➢ DISPOSITIONS - are particular kinds of
“utang na loob” usually makes a person properties or characteristics that objects
“walang utang na loob” or “walang hiya”. can possess.
➢ “FILIPINO HOSPITALITY”- refers to the 2 KINDS OF MORAL CHARACTER AS
innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be DISPOSITION
courteous and entertaining to their guests. ➢ VIRTUE - moral character trait for which a
Indeed, generally speaking, Filipinos are person is deserving of a positive reactive
hospitable as they are intentionally known attitude, such as praise or gratitude
to be warm, welcoming, and ➢ VICES - moral character trait for which the
accommodating. This trait, makes Filipinos agent is deserving a negative reactive
prone to being abused or maltreated. attitude, such as resentment or blame.
➢ “RESPECT TO ELDERS”- Filipinos are
not only respectful to others but also have SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
unique ways of expressing this respect to BY LAWRENCE KHOLBERG
elders. These include the use of “po” and ➢ LAWRENCE KOHLBERG (1927-1987) –
“opo” when talking to elders and An American Psychologist best known for
“pagmamano” or putting the elder’s hand to his theory of stages of moral development.
one’s forehead. In principle, he agreed with the Swiss
clinical psychologist Jean Piaget’s (1869-
UNIVERSAL VALUES 1980) theory of moral development but
➢ UNIVERSAL VALUES are those values wanted to develop his ideas further.
generally shared by cultures
➢ James Rachels mentions of the two
values:
➢ Truth-telling- indispensable in the
existence of a society, for without it
there would be no reason to pay
attention to what anyone
communicates with anyone.
➢ Valuing and respecting life- it
necessitates the prohibition on murder.

LESSON 2: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS A

HABIT

MORAL CHARACTERS AND VALUES

➢ Moral Character – refers to the existence
or lack of virtues as integrity, courage,
fortitude, honesty and loyalty. To say that a
person has a good moral character means
that he/she is a good person and a good
citizen with a sound moral compass.

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